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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/76507-0.txt b/76507-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..0891b5f --- /dev/null +++ b/76507-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,7669 @@ + +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 76507 *** + + + + + + THE EXPOSITION + OF + 1851. + + --------------- + + LONDON: + R. CLAY, PRINTER, BREAD STREET HILL. + + --------------- + + + + + THE EXPOSITION + OF + 1851; + + OR, + + VIEWS OF THE INDUSTRY, + THE SCIENCE, AND THE GOVERNMENT, + OF ENGLAND. + + BY + CHARLES BABBAGE, ESQ. + CORRESPONDING MEMBER OF THE ACADEMY OF MORAL SCIENCES OF THE INSTITUTE + OF FRANCE. + + + + + SECOND EDITION, WITH ADDITIONS. + + LONDON: + JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET. + 1851. + + + + + PREFACE + + TO THE FIRST EDITION. + + --------------- + + +England has invited the civilized world to meet in its great commercial +centre; asking it, in friendly rivalry, to display for the common +advantage of all, those objects which each country derives from the +gifts of nature, and on which it confers additional utility by processes +of industrial art. + +This invitation, universally accepted, will bring from every quarter a +multitude of people greater than has yet assembled in any western city: +these welcome visitors will enjoy more time and opportunity for +observation than has ever been afforded on any previous occasion. The +statesman and the philosopher, the manufacturer and the merchant, and +all enlightened observers of human nature, may avail themselves of the +opportunity afforded by their visit to this Diorama of the Peaceful +Arts, for taking a more correct view of the industry, the science, the +institutions, and the government of this country. One object of these +pages is, to suggest to such inquirers the agency of those deeper-seated +and less obvious causes which can be detected only by lengthened +observation, and to supply them with a key to explain many of the +otherwise incomprehensible characteristics of England. + +Who, for instance, could have conceived that England, after making +unexampled efforts for the adoption of “_Free Trade_,” should be the +first nation to prohibit[1] its very basis, “_competition_,” at the +world’s great bazaar? + +This country is fortunate in having on the Western Continent, a great +nation derived from the same common stock, speaking the same language, +sharing the same feelings, but fortunately not partaking the same +_prejudices_. Proud of the only ancestry which is not contemptible, it +glories in the genius and the virtues of our common forefathers, and in +its young ambition now strives in science and in literature, to prove +itself _their_ worthy descendants—_our own_ generous rivals. + +Separated from us by an intervening ocean, the judgment of America is +not obscured by the repulsion or the fascination of personal manners,—by +the tales of jealous rivals or enthusiastic friends. It can thus, as it +were, anticipate for us the decision of posterity upon the reputation of +those English writers who have never visited her shores. Many foreigners +speaking other tongues, whose researches in industrial, economical, and +physical science, have conferred honour on their own country, now visit +ours. These and their congenial spirits throughout the world, sit in +judgment on the _prejudices_ of England, and will, if I mistake not, +find ample reason to agree with the Danish statesman in the +opinion,—that great nations are often governed by very small people. + +England has invited the judgment of the world upon its _Arts_ and its +_Industry_;—science appeals to the same tribunal against its +_ingratitude_ and its _injustice_. + +Several friends whose esteem I prize, have urged me to avoid everything +personal,—some even to suppress this volume. I value their friendship, +whilst I reject their counsel. In illustrating the position of science +in this country, it would have been affectation not to have mentioned +the Calculating Engines. Who else _could_ have fully known,—who else +_would_ have fully told their history? + +It has been suggested to me that, to select _individual_ examples for +illustration, is personality. To have made general charges without them, +would have been termed _vague_, and would certainly have been _useless_. +It still however appears to me that a _single_ illustration in each +case, would cause the least pain, and might yet be sufficient for the +purpose. If it is thought otherwise the remedy is easy. + +The facts stated in the following pages are not drawn from any violation +of the confidences of private society: those whose names are mentioned, +are paid by the nation, and therefore responsible to their employers. +Against them I have no personal feeling; their official acts are +necessarily mentioned as parts of the system to which they belong. + +The remark most frequently made has been, “that the publication of this +volume will do me injury.” This opinion is indeed a severer censure on +the conduct of the government than any I have myself pronounced. I do +not agree in it, for I know of no injury within the power of those who +have never given me a single occasion for gratitude. + +Bad men always hate those they have injured;—Good or great men, when +they have discovered that they have been unjust, always more than repair +the injury they have committed. + +Those who, from an acquaintance with the case, can truly interpret this +volume, will _know_ that I have abstained; they will _see_ that I +possess the power, though not the disposition, to avenge injury. But the +same spirit which has carried me through difficulties few have +encountered, at the expense of sacrifices which I hope fewer may ever be +called upon to make, forbids me tamely to submit to injustice. + +The reader of these pages will observe that I have exposed with an +unsparing pen the dishonesty of party. The modes employed by it to +“discredit” and intimidate an honest man are various. + +If he agree with them in a principle, but differ in its application, he +is called “_crotchety_.” If he cannot be induced by sophistry to vote +with them against his sense of right, he is called “_impracticable_.” +If, when passed over in the appointment to some office for which he is +qualified by knowledge and entitled by position, he complain of the +neglect; notwithstanding he continues to vote with his party, he is +called a “_disappointed man_.” If, however, he has energy, and is backed +by great political or professional interest, he may then secure a +_present_ peerage for himself, his wife, or his relative, with a promise +of better treatment when anything desirable becomes vacant. + +At last, having discovered that his party are sincere and united only in +their desire to retain office; if his arguments admit of no +refutation,—if his perception of right can be obscured by no +sophistry,—if he can himself be cajoled by no flattery, seduced by no +advantage, deterred by no intimidation, from expressing his real opinion +upon the merits of his party: then, although he may support them +whenever they are true to their principles, yet he is pronounced a +“_cantankerous fellow_.” Thus bad names are coined by worse[2] men to +destroy honest people; as the madness of innocent dogs arises from the +cry of insanity raised by their villanous pursuers. + +The merit of the original conception of the present Exposition is +insignificant in comparison with that of the efforts by which it was +carried out, and with the importance of its practical results. + +To have seen from afar its effects on the improvement, the wealth, and +the happiness of the people—to have seized the fit moment, when, by the +right use of the influence of an exalted station, it was _possible_ to +overcome the deeply-rooted prejudices of the upper classes—to remove the +still more formidable, because latent, impediments of party—generously +to have undertaken great responsibility, and with indefatigable labour +to have endeavoured to make the best out of the only materials at +hand,—these are endowments of no ordinary kind. + +To move in any rank of society an exception to its general rules, is a +very difficult, and if accompanied by the consciousness of the +situation, a very painful position to a reflecting mind. + +Whatever may be the cause, whether exalted rank, unbounded wealth, +surpassing beauty, or unrivalled wit,—the renown of daring deeds, the +magic of a world-wide fame; to all within those narrow limits the +dangers and the penalties are great. Each exists an isolated spirit; +each, unconsciously imprisoned within its crystal globe, perceives the +colours of all external objects modified by those tints imparted to them +by its own surrounding sphere. No change of view can teach it to rectify +this partial judgment; throughout its earthward course the same undying +rainbow attends to the last its parent drop. + +Rarely indeed can some deep-searching mind, after long comparison, +perceive the real colours of those translucent shells which encompass +kindred spirits; and thus at length enable him to achromatise the medium +which surrounds his own. To one who has thus rectified the +“colour-blindness” of his intellectual vision, how deep the sympathy he +feels for those still involved in that hopeless obscurity from which he +has himself escaped. None can so justly appreciate that sense of +loneliness, that solitude of mind, which surrounds unquestioned eminence +on its lofty throne;—none, therefore, can make so large an allowance for +its errors;—none so skilfully assist in guiding its hazardous career. + +The triumph of the industrial arts will advance the cause of +civilization more rapidly than its warmest advocates could have hoped, +and contribute to the permanent prosperity and strength of the country, +far more than the most splendid victories of successful war. The +influences thus engendered, the arts thus developed, will long continue +to shed their beneficent effects over countries more extensive than +those which the sceptre of England rules. + + --------------- + +P.S.—The greater part of this Work was in type some time previous to the +opening of the Exposition:—it would be of no interest to the public to +explain the cause of this delay. + + --------------- + + NOTE ADDED TO THE SECOND EDITION. + +It has been suggested to me that, without some explanation, the Author +of this Volume might appear to have reserved his opinions on the subject +of the Exposition, until it was too late for the Commission to make use +of them. This was not the case. + +Being fully aware of the importance of such exhibitions, and having +myself, many years before, endeavoured to connect them with the British +Association, I hailed the announcement of the plan as one calculated to +produce the most extensive good. At that period I was in Paris, and both +abroad and at home I have uniformly spoken of the Exposition with the +highest approbation. + +On one or two points I differed entirely from the opinion of those to +whom its management was confided. The questions of the _site of the +building_, and of _affixing prices to articles exhibited_, were the most +important of them. I took the earliest opportunity of expressing +strongly my views on those subjects to several personal friends who were +members of that Commission, nor did I ever fail to communicate through +the fittest channel any circumstance I became acquainted with which +might advance its interests. + + [1] See Chapter on Prices. + + [2] “A bad old woman making a worse will.”—BYRON. + + + + + CONTENTS. + + --------------- + + PAGE + CHAPTER I. + INTRODUCTION 1 + CHAPTER II. + ERROR RESPECTING THE INTERCHANGE OF COMMODITIES 7 + CHAPTER III. + OF SOCIETIES 12 + CHAPTER IV. + ORIGIN OF THE EXPOSITION OF 1851 26 + CHAPTER V. + OBJECT AND USE OF THE EXPOSITION 42 + CHAPTER VI. + LIMITS 48 + CHAPTER VII. + SITE AND CONSTRUCTION OF BUILDING 55 + CHAPTER VIII. + PRICES 64 + CHAPTER IX. + PRIZES 99 + CHAPTER X. + JURIES, ETC. 112 + CHAPTER XI. + ULTERIOR OBJECTS 125 + CHAPTER XII. + INTRIGUES OF SCIENCE 149 + CHAPTER XIII. + CALCULATING ENGINES 173 + CHAPTER XIV. + POSITION OF SCIENCE 189 + CHAPTER XV. + THE PRESS 202 + CHAPTER XVI. + PARTY 209 + CHAPTER XVII. + REWARDS OF MERIT 220 + APPENDIX. + THE ELEVENTH CHAPTER OF MR. WELD’S HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY 251 + + + + + CHAPTER I. + + INTRODUCTION. + + +One of the most frequent sources of mistaken views in economical +science, arises from confounding the nature of _universal_ with that of +_general principles_. + +§ _Universal principles_, such as the fact that every number ending with +the figure five is itself divisible by five, rarely occur except in the +exact sciences. Universal principles are those which do not admit of a +single exception. + +_General principles_ are those which are much more frequently obeyed +than violated. Thus it is generally true that _men will be governed by +what they believe to be their interest_. Yet it is certainly true that +many individuals will at times be governed by their passions, others by +their caprice, others by entirely benevolent motives: but all these +classes together, form so small a portion of mankind, that it would be +unsafe in any inquiry to neglect the great principle of self-interest. +Notwithstanding, however, all the exceptions we may meet with, it is +impossible to take any just views of society without the admission of +general principles, and on such grounds they will be used in these +pages. + +Self-interest, combined in various degrees with knowledge, assumes the +most diversified forms. It excites our contempt or raises our +admiration, according to the littleness or the greatness of the object +it pursues—according to the temporary or the more distant advantages it +seeks. On the one hand, it governs the minister of a party on his +doubtful eminence, whilst on the other it guides the enlightened +statesman to the object of his distant ambition. + +§ Again, it is admitted as a general principle that _each man is the +best judge of his own wants and of his own interest_. Now although many +individuals, and even whole classes of society, have at times been +thought by more enlightened men to have formed erroneous opinions as to +their true interest, yet, when it is remembered, that every man must see +many views of his own case, and must know many facts connected with it, +which he has not communicated even to his most confidential adviser, +those who have had most experience are most inclined to believe that the +exceptions are much less frequent than at first sight would appear. + +Another source of erroneous opinions arises from neglecting causes +apparently insignificant. + +In taking a comprehensive view of any subject, it is very desirable to +throw into the shade all its minor points; but in estimating the +consequences of any set of facts, there is another condition which must +be fulfilled, before we can arrive at accurate conclusions. If we are +about to neglect a cause on account of its apparent insignificance, it +is _essential_ that it should not be one of _frequent_ recurrence. Thus, +if a labourer inconsiderately lift his shovel but an inch or two more +than is necessary to throw its load into his barrow, although the +exertion of force is trivial in each instance, its repeated occurrence +during the whole day, will produce at its conclusion a very sensible +difference either in fatigue or in the amount of the work done. Napoleon +is said to have remarked of Laplace, when he was Minister of the +Interior, that he was too much occupied with considering _les infiniment +petites_. To dwell upon small affairs which are isolated, is not the +province of a statesman; but to integrate the effect of their constant +recurrence is worthy of the greatest. + +One of the most important processes in all inquiry, is to divide the +subject to be considered into as many different questions as it will +admit of, and then to examine each separately, or in other words to +suppose that each single cause successively varies whilst all the others +remain constant. + +But this most obvious doctrine of common sense has frequently been +contested in questions of economical science, and has been often +characterized as theoretical, and as entirely inapplicable to the +affairs of life. It is certain that very little progress can be made in +any subject without this aid, and it is hopeless for those whose minds +are incapable of mastering the simpler questions, ever to institute +successfully an investigation into their united action. + +A familiar illustration will explain this better. Two men are making an +excavation, removing the earth in the usual way with spades and +wheelbarrows. + +One of these men, Q., does more work than his companion P., and if an +inquiry is made, Why is this so? the usual reply would be that Q. is +either stronger, more active, or more skilful than P. + +Now it is the third of these qualifications which is the most important, +because if Q. were inferior even both in strength and in activity, he +might yet by means of his skill perform a greater quantity of work +without fatigue. + +He might have ascertained that a _given_ weight of earth raised at each +shovelfull, together with a certain number of shovelfulls per hour, +would be more advantageous for his strength than any other such +combination. + +That a shovel of a certain weight, size, and form would fatigue him less +than those of a different construction. + +That if its handle were two or three inches longer than he required, its +additional weight would at the end of the day have been uselessly lifted +many hundred times. + +That if each spadefull of earth were lifted but an inch or two above the +barrow beyond what was necessary, a still greater waste of force would +arise. + +That if the barrow itself had its wheel at a distance beyond the centre +of its load, it would be more fatiguing to draw. + +That if the barrow had upright sides, it would require more exertion to +turn out its load than if its sides were much inclined. + +Thus although Q. might have less strength and less activity than P., he +might yet by skill and practice, have arrived at some combination of +these tools which should enable him with less fatigue to do more daily +work than P. + +But in order to have arrived at this degree of skill, Q. must when a boy +have been taught to examine _separately_ the consequences of any defect +or inconvenience in the parts of the tools he was to use in after life, +or in the modes of using them. If not so taught, he must have arrived at +the same knowledge by the slower and more painful effort of his own +reflections. + +In either case he would be able to communicate his knowledge to his +friends or his children; and if circumstances induced or obliged him to +enter upon a new trade, he would naturally apply those principles to his +new tools. Indeed, whatever subject might be presented to a mind thus +trained, such habits of inquiry would most probably be applied to its +examination. Thus, by the early education of his reasoning faculties on +the trade by which he is to subsist, he would not only render his own +labour more productive, but would have his mind better prepared for the +reception of other truths. + + + + + CHAPTER II. + + ERROR RESPECTING THE INTERCHANGE OF COMMODITIES. + + +There exists in society a widely-spread error relating to the very +principle of that interchange of property between individuals which is +usually called a bargain. It is almost always supposed that one party is +a gainer whilst the other is a loser. Indeed, by those whose reasoning +on the subject has been limited to this single view of the question, it +is with some plausibility maintained, that since the quantity of the +commodities interchanged is in no case augmented by the bargain, the +gain of one party can be accomplished only by an equal loss on the part +of the other. + +The insufficiency of this reasoning depends upon the truth of the +principle that each party, being the best judge of the pleasure or +advantage he can derive from the possession of a thing, _himself_ +decides that in his own case it will be increased by the exchange. + +It may, however, be asked, How does it happen that the sum of two +commodities so exchanged has a greater value after the exchange than +before? or in other words, Whence has the profit arisen?—is there any +third party at whose expense it has been acquired? The answer is—that +there is another source which almost always either directly or +indirectly contributes towards this profit. The advantage is most +frequently won by industry and knowledge from nature herself. + +§ The following illustration, which happens also to be a tolerable +approach to truth, will explain this principle more clearly:— + +It is found by experience that the upper-leather of Boots made in +France, is better and more durable than the upper-leather manufactured +in England. On the other hand, it is found that the leather prepared in +England for the soles of boots is less permeable by water, and more +durable than that made in France. + +Let us suppose that in each country a pair of boots will endure twelve +months’ continual wear; after which time they are thrown aside. + +In England the destruction of the boots will arise from that of the +upper-leather, whilst in France it will be caused by that of the sole. +Let us also suppose that the upper-leather of France will wear three +months longer than the French soles, and reciprocally that the soles of +England will wear three months longer than the English upper-leather. + +Under these circumstances, it is clear that if the inhabitants of each +country insist on making their boots _entirely_ with the produce of +_their own_ tanneries, the average duration of a pair of boots both in +France and in England will be twelve months. + +Let us assume, for the sake of simplicity, that in each country the +upper-leather and the soles have the same value. Then it is equally +clear, if England were to give to France a million pair of soles in +exchange for a million pair of French upper-leathers, that one million +of the inhabitants of each nation would find their boots last during +fifteen instead of twelve months. + +This prolonged duration of their boots would not have been acquired by +any sacrifice on either side: the exchange is here for the common and +great advantage of both. + +This probably arises from the joint action of many causes. The animals +which in each country supply the hides, may either from breed, from +food, or from climate be best adapted to produce that kind of leather in +which each country excels. The water, the bark, or the climate peculiar +to each country, may then contribute its share to the same effect. +Again, the industry, the skill, and the knowledge of the people +employed, as well as the character of the population and the +distribution of its capital, may also have its influence on these +results. + +If we pursue this illustration one stage further, it will appear that it +is our interest not only that we should make these exchanges with +France, but that she should also make exchanges with other countries +than our own. + +Let us suppose that France, having a larger population than England, +required for its annual consumption two million pair of boots, and also +that she possessed no other commodities which we required. Under these +circumstances there could be no further direct interchange of leather, +and France would possess a million pair of upper-leathers beyond our +demand. But it is clear that if France could exchange these +upper-leathers for the wools or any other produce of Germany which we +might require, she would not only gain the additional duration of three +months for her own extra million pair of boots, but would also enrich us +by the advantage which we should derive from the exchange of the strong +hides of England for the produce transmitted to us from Germany. + +§ The general result of all those inquiries of which only the slightest +sketch has now been attempted, is that—_the free and unlimited exchange +of commodities between nations, contributes to the advantage and the +wealth of all_;—that this benefit arises from no sacrifice on the part +of one nation for the profit of another; but that the sum of the +productive powers of man is by these means, without any increased +labour, largely augmented throughout the world;—that this increment is +won partly by the suppression of ignorance and fraud, and partly by the +united effects of industry, of skill, and of science, in compelling +nature to minister to the wants of man. + +All who admit the truth of these principles, must feel an earnest desire +to support every effort which may assist in their dissemination amongst +the masses of mankind. Education is the earliest, and the most effective +aid; but it must be secular education. It must be the education of the +faculties of each child, with reference to the wants of his future +course of life. The religion of the uneducated and unenlightened man, +even when true, partakes of the nature of superstition, and instruction +in religious truth _alone_ will not be enough: his mind must be opened +and informed on other subjects also. He who by observation and inquiry +has arrived at the conviction that any line of conduct which is +dishonest towards his neighbour, will most probably prove unprofitable +to himself in this world, will surely have a strong additional motive to +guard him in the hour of temptation from those courses which his +religion teaches him will incur punishment in a future state. + + + + + CHAPTER III. + + OF SOCIETIES. + + +Associations for occasional discussion, of men pursuing the same or +similar studies, have long been found advantageous for the +inter-communication of the difficulties, the doubts, and the discoveries +of students. In more recent times, when each art has gradually connected +itself with the sciences on which its success depends, the importance of +these meetings has become obvious to the manufacturer, although in this +country it may not yet have become apparent to the statesman. + +The Academia del Cimento, the Royal Society of London and the Academy of +Sciences at Paris, have had a long series of imitators in the principal +cities of the civilized world. The increasing extension of science and +the wants of its cultivators, have led them to subdivide their pursuits +and to form Societies specially devoted to each separate subject. + +§ These learned bodies, however, are of a stationary character, located +for convenience in some capital or large city. With the advance of +civilization new wants arose, and Professor Oken of Munich, feeling the +great advantage of periodical meetings of the cultivators of the natural +sciences, organized an annual assemblage of German naturalists to be +held successively in each of the great cities of Germany, thus rendering +the field of friendly intercourse and of scientific observation much +more easily accessible to all who felt an interest in their common +object. + +Although the earliest meetings were small,[3] their value was soon +perceived, and the cultivators of other sciences more or less connected +with natural history, were gradually admitted, to the manifest advantage +of all parties, until at the great meeting in 1828 at Berlin, the +physical sciences themselves possessed their fair share of eminent +representatives. But another important improvement had already +commenced: foreigners were admitted to this German union, and amongst +upwards of four hundred members, although nearly thirty were aliens in +language and in country, they were welcomed with the warmest kindness by +their enlightened friends. + +Baron Alexander Humboldt, the President of the Association, in his +inaugural address proclaimed its principle in the following words:— + +“May those excellent persons, who, deterred neither by the perils of the +sea nor of the land, have hastened to our meeting from Sweden, from +Norway, from Denmark, from Holland, from England, and from Poland, point +out the way to other strangers in succeeding years, so that by turns +every part of Germany may enjoy the effects of scientific communication +with the different nations of Europe.” + +At that meeting a map of Europe was published on which were +conspicuously indicated those towns and countries only, which had sent +representatives to this congress of intellect. On that map Austria +figured an intellectual desert, not because her philosophers were less +industrious in the researches of science, less acute in combining into +laws the facts they had ascertained, nor in any way unworthy of sitting +amongst the congregated talent of their own or of other races: but +because the government of the country, more ignorant of its interest +than the philosophers were of theirs, refused them passports. + +§ A few years afterwards, the light of truth having penetrated official +heads, the learned of Europe, to the credit of the Austrian government, +were invited and hospitably entertained at Vienna. The stability of the +great empire which welcomed them, was not shaken by their patient and +acute discussions: and it was at last perceived that unless when +depressed by neglect or persecution, philosophers possess in their own +departments subjects of far more animating and delightful interest than +the unstable and inconclusive discussions of politics. + +Sweden sent thirteen representatives to the meeting at Berlin in 1828, +Denmark seven, Poland three, Holland two. Russia, France, England and +Naples each sent one. + +§ An account of this scientific congress at Berlin was published in 1829 +in the _Edinburgh Journal of Science_. It was communicated by the author +of these pages to Sir David Brewster. In the number of the same Journal +for April, 1831, is an account by J. F. W. Johnstone, Esq., of the +meeting of this scientific Congress, at Hamburgh, in September, 1830. +Sir David Brewster, in conjunction with the late secretary of the Royal +Society of Edinburgh, Sir J. Robison, and the Rev. William Vernon +Harcourt, and several other cultivators of science, resolved on +attempting to organize a similar institution in Great Britain. The +difficulties as well as the advantages of this undertaking were then +discussed. In Prussia the social position of men of science is quite +different from that which they occupy in England. In Prussia the +sovereign was aware of the value of science to his country, and was +therefore induced to support it by an enlightened patriotism as well as +by a generous ambition. In England science is pursued by no powerful +profession which can aid or thwart the measures of the minister of the +day. He is, therefore, indifferent to its progress, and is usually +incapable of distinguishing the charlatan from the philosopher. + +§ In 1831 the first meeting of the British Association for the +Advancement of Science was held at York. It was proposed by those who +undertook its management, that each succeeding meeting should be held in +some large city or town at a considerable distance from that which +received it in the previous year, and that after its objects had become +well understood by the public, it should complete its cycle by holding a +meeting in the metropolis. But it was soon felt that in order to +influence public opinion, it was necessary that it should combine larger +interests than were yet enlisted in its cause. + +Such at that time was the state of education in England, that amongst +the influential classes, country gentlemen, lawyers, members of +parliament, peers, &c., few were found qualified for, or even capable of +taking any interest in the then _existing_ Sections of the British +Association. + +Accident fortunately supplied an occasion for remedying, at least +partially, this defect. The opportunity occurred at the meeting at +Cambridge in 1833, and was instantly seized upon, although in a somewhat +irregular manner. Professor Quetelet had been deputed by the Belgian +government to attend the third meeting of the British Association. The +varied knowledge and enthusiastic love of science possessed by M. +Quetelet, might have qualified him to take part in any of its sections, +but it so happened that he had brought over with him some highly +interesting statistical documents which unfortunately could find a +reception in none. Under these circumstances, a gentleman[4] who fully +understood their value invited a few of his private friends most +interested in that subject to meet M. Quetelet in his own rooms in +college, for the purpose of talking over this valuable budget. The +author of these pages was one of those thus honoured. He perceived the +advantage that might be taken of the accident, and immediately suggested +to his friend that the invitation should be extended to all those known +to be interested in statistical inquiries, and that those present should +at once form themselves into a Statistical Section, and then apply to +the council for a bill of indemnity for the irregularity. The plan being +unanimously approved of, it was immediately acted upon, and before the +termination of the meeting a Statistical Section was not only recognised +by the Association, but was as fully attended as even the most popular +of the other sections. + +At the concluding meeting of the Statistical Section at Cambridge it was +resolved, that a more permanent body was necessary to carry out the +views and wishes of the section, and it was agreed to establish a +Statistical Society in London. The author of these pages was deputed to +carry out those arrangements which terminated in its establishment. + +The more pressing difficulty being thus removed, the principle of +extending the basis of the Association so as to unite the interests of +various classes, was steadily and unremittingly pursued. The Physical +and Mathematical Section was divided, and a new section, that of the +practical application of mechanical science, or Civil Engineering, was +formed. The next step was very important, but more difficult to +accomplish. It was proposed by an exhibition of the raw produce, the +processes, and the instruments for the production of manufactured goods, +to unite in the same common interest, not only all the consumers, but +all those who contributed to the production, or even to the distribution +of wealth. + +The numerous foreigners who flocked to these annual meetings of the +British Association, might, it was naturally thought, be induced to +bring over with them new instruments of science, or objects of art and +industry, the produce of their respective countries. Whilst thus giving, +and receiving in return new ideas and valuable information, the +commercial interchanges between different nations would necessarily be +augmented by the steadily increasing knowledge of the wants of each, and +by the peaceful rivalry of all. + +The first exhibition of this kind took place at Newcastle in 1838. The +number of exhibitors was not large, but it was hoped that with time and +encouragement this commencement might lead to much more extensive +expositions of more general utility. It was followed by another on an +enlarged scale, held at Birmingham in the succeeding year, after which +it was discontinued. + +The following extracts from a letter addressed by the Author to the +Members of the British Association, were printed in 1839:— + +“My reasons for not resigning the trusteeship of the British Association +at Newcastle were, that by retaining it until the following meeting, I +should give the Society more time to select my successor; and that by +remaining on the council until the meeting at Birmingham, I might be +enabled to assist more effectually in the arrangement of the collections +relating to the mechanical arts, which it was anticipated would be +amongst the largest yet called forth by the British Association.” + +“The real merits of the British Association have been misunderstood by +the superficial; but it possesses in its bearings upon the pecuniary +interests of large masses of the community a power and an influence +which nothing but great misconduct can destroy. Look at the +manufacturers of produce and of machinery, flocking to our annual +meeting to interchange their ideas, enlightening their practical +experience by the reasonings of science, and returning laden with the +seeds of permanent ameliorations in their establishments. Look at the +exhibitions of the productions of our factories, and say whether the +humblest shopkeeper has not an interest in the existence of that body +which gives publicity to the objects in which he deals, and which +spreads them so largely before the eyes of those who can appreciate +their merit, as well as of those who are likely to become consumers.” + +“These are material interests permanently engaged in our cause by the +strongest ties—those of mutual advantage, cemented by reciprocity of +kindly feelings.” + +§ This is not the place to discuss the causes which have led to the +present state of things. It is sufficient here to observe, that if the +views of those who originally organized the British Association, had +been supported both from within and from without, in the manner which so +important a project in the history of science deserved, the Exhibition +of 1851 would have found itself led by the science of the country, +prepared by long experience on a smaller scale, yet under very various +circumstances, to guide with some reasonable prospect of success that +gigantic undertaking, and to elicit from it the many invaluable services +it might be expected to render to civilization. + +Its legislative department would not have been committed to the guidance +of a body of men, all of them respectable, and some, indeed, eminent in +their several lines, but entirely inexperienced in the conduct and +arrangement of any such undertaking—persons, all of them amiable and +excellent in their private capacity, yet who have exhibited in their +corporate union an entire ignorance of the great principle on which +alone such expositions rest,—and who, contrary to the advice and the +remonstrance of the best informed, have forbidden the most important +quality by which men judge of commodities, their _Price_, from being +attached to the objects on which their judgment is to be pronounced. + +§ Long, however, before the origin of these itinerant societies, the +voice of the statesmen of other countries, and the popular voice in +England, had called into existence societies for the promotion of the +arts connected with commerce and manufactures. In France, the +“Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers” was established. In England the +Society of Arts has endured above a century. Its novelty and utility +caused it to flourish for a time: its seat in the metropolis of a people +whose wealth and power arise entirely from the unbending energy with +which they apply themselves to advance the arts and to extend commerce, +added to its powers. Yet, even with these advantages, that Society has +never risen to the position it deserved, and has for years been +languishing in premature decay. Lately, indeed, a powerful impulse has +been communicated to its proceedings, but even the presidency of the +Prince-Consort has not yet raised it to its due position in the public +opinion. + +The causes of this state of things are not remote. The position of the +Royal and of other societies is equally influenced by them. Although +intimately connected with the greatest interests of the country, they +can offer to those who give their time or intellect to advance such +objects, neither wealth nor rank—neither place nor patronage. They +constitute no distinct combination of men into a powerful class, like +the Bar, the Navy, or the Army: they are of no party, and finally, they +are not fashionable. It is true that the discoveries which such +societies profess to reward, are in many instances the source of wealth +to the few who, fortunately for themselves, possess those other +qualities necessary for its acquisition, but which are so rarely united +with genius. It is also true that wealth once acquired, will, if +discreetly employed, certainly lead its possessor to all those other +things, equally coveted as the great prizes in the lottery of life by +the Bar, the Military, and even by the Church. Nor is this to be +regretted, seeing that the aristocracy of this country thus fortunately +receives fresh blood and renewed intellect by adopting into its class +the sagacious merchant, or the skilful fabricator of a princely fortune: +the time may thus be postponed when the accident of birth will no longer +be admitted as a fit qualification for a legislator. But even here it is +the wealth of the aspirant that wins the position, not the integrity and +sagacity of the man. + +In France the government itself took the lead in directing an +institution for the advancement of the arts. In 1795 it established the +Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers, in which are deposited an extensive +collection of drawings, models, and machines employed in the various +manufactures of the nation. + +Subsequently, ten professors were attached to this institution, to +lecture gratuitously on those sciences more immediately connected with +arts and manufactures. One of these devotes himself exclusively to the +explanation of machinery in actual employment. There are also lectures +on descriptive geometry, and on mechanical drawing. The expense of this +establishment is about 6,000_l._ a-year. + +§ The government of France perceived at a still earlier period the +advantages which would result from the juxtaposition, at proper +intervals of time, in one large building, of selected specimens of all +the produce of the national industry, and in 1798 the first of these +periodic meetings was held at the expense of the government. During +upwards of half a century, at intervals of about five years, France, +uninterrupted by the many changes in the form of its government, has +continued to maintain these valuable expositions with increasing success +and advantage. Prussia and Belgium also have adopted the plan of holding +these meetings. + +But if the principles on which they rest are well founded, it is clear +that they are applicable to a still wider field: and that as in the +Associations of science, cultivators from all nations are invited to be +present, so in the Exhibition of the productions of industry the general +advantage of mankind is most advanced by the joint contributions of the +whole industrial world. + +§ These views have long been felt and expressed, not merely by men of +speculation, but by those who take a practical part in the affairs of +life. + +Enlightened French statesmen had long been aware of the advantage of +this species of competition, and only abstained from proposing it until +the conviction of the nation justified the foresight of its chiefs. + +At length it was thought that the time had arrived for ascertaining more +correctly the general opinion. Previously, therefore, to making the +necessary arrangements for the Exposition at Paris in 1849, the Minister +of Commerce sent circulars to the several Chambers of Commerce +throughout France, in order to ascertain whether it was the general +opinion that foreign productions should be admitted to the competition. + +The opinion of the public was not, however, sufficiently advanced to +justify the undertaking; and considering the political situation of the +country, the government wisely abstained from a measure which was not +yet entirely in unison with the feelings of the people. + +Thus it has happened that it was reserved for Great Britain, the country +most interested in the cause, though the latest to adopt it, unprepared +by any previous experience at once to attempt this vast enterprise. + + [3] The first was held at Leipsic in 1822. + + [4] The Rev. Richard Jones, Professor of Political Economy at + Haileybury. + + + + + CHAPTER IV. + + ORIGIN OF THE EXPOSITION OF 1851. + + +§ It is not now necessary to inquire minutely into the origin of the +present Exposition. It is sufficient to state that it appears to have +been proposed by some members of the Society of Arts, who urged it on +the attention of Prince Albert. + +The magnitude of the undertaking, and the great principles on which it +rested, seem not to have been fully understood, and the public were very +imperfectly prepared either to appreciate its advantages or to +contribute to its support. A capitalist was therefore sought, and found +willing to undertake the risk of the speculation, and terms were agreed +upon, by which £20,000 was advanced for distribution in prizes, one of +which was to amount to £5,000. This contract contained some singular +stipulations, and formed the basis of the proceedings for several +months. It contained also a clause by which, on certain conditions, it +might be cancelled within a limited time. + +In order to carry out this undertaking, it was proposed that a Royal +Commission should be issued, over which, of course, Prince Albert should +preside. As soon as these views became publicly known, they excited +great discussion, and were the subject of much criticism. + +§ The Ministers could not of course commit themselves by publicly +avowing their disapprobation of an undertaking commenced under such high +auspices. It might, however, readily have been foreseen that they would +be averse to such a scheme, because whilst it was sure to give them a +great deal of trouble, it would afford them no compensation in the shape +of patronage. + +Those, however, who usually reflect and retail the opinions of the +Government, were by no means silent; at first it was said to be Utopian, +then ridiculous, then, in the slang of official life, it was +“_pooh-poohed_;” at a later period, when great public meetings had been +held, and when public dinners began to give it an English character, the +best speech which has yet been made on the subject, containing the +far-sighted views of a statesman, was ridiculed as full of _German_ +notions, by coxcombs whose intellect was as defective as their +foresight, and whose selfishness was more remarkable than either. + +Another class of persons, the Belgravians, though actuated by the same +motives, were induced to join in the outcry for other reasons. As soon +as it became known that the locality of the building would be the +southern side of Hyde Park, they represented that the park would be +destroyed, and become utterly useless. As if a building covering twenty +acres out of above three hundred and twenty, could prevent the people +from enjoying air and exercise on the remaining three hundred. + +Again, it was asserted that by cutting down a few trees within the +limits assigned to the building, the park would be desolated; the shady +walks destroyed; whilst all the while there was a goodly stock of +timber, old and young, abounding in the other three hundred acres. +Before this absurd delusion could be removed from the public mind, all +the plans were made specially to conform themselves to the enclosure of +these miserable trees. It was not discovered until after the Crystal +Palace was completed, that several of them were on the verge of +extinction, and that all would probably perish by exposure under such +unusual conditions. Some of the most decrepit and most inconveniently +situated trees have now been cut down. + +§ The Belgravians found out other causes of complaint. They could not +tolerate the mass of plebeians of all nations who would traverse their +sacred square, and they threatened to spoil the London season by going +out of town. When it was suggested to them, that in these days of +agricultural distress, if they left town they might console themselves +by letting their houses at a high price, they refused to be consoled. + +The Belgravians next consulted their “_medicine-men_,” who, seeing that +they wanted to be frightened, suggested to them that _some_ foreigners +were dirty,—that dirt in _some_ cases causes disease. The Belgravian +mind immediately made the inference that the foreigners would bring with +them the plague; then they dwelt on sanitary measures, and on the danger +to the public, until they themselves became nearly insane. + +It was then suggested that the foreigners might become assassins by +night,—or take military possession of London by day. Their tradesmen +too, who hated the scheme, and knew the humour of their customers, +assured them that trade would be entirely ruined; whilst at the same +time, it was whispered that many of them had sent large orders to France +for goods to be exhibited at the Crystal Palace, and afterwards to be +sold to their capricious customers, either as French, or as English +surpassing French, just as the whim of the moment might cause a demand +for the one or the other. + +This opposition of the inhabitants of Belgravia increased as the +preparations for the opening of the Exposition advanced. The working +classes had been favourable to the scheme from the commencement, and a +knowledge of its advantages seems to have advanced slowly in society +from below upwards. + +That the inhabitants of this fashionable quarter were necessarily +exposed to some inconveniences cannot be denied. Their much-frequented +riding ground was for a time interfered with, but they should have +remembered that although the public at large _paid_ for the maintenance +of the park, the greatest portion of its advantages were _enjoyed_ by +those residing nearest to it. + +Under these circumstances they ought to have been well content to forego +for a time these trifling advantages, and to suffer with a good grace +the little temporary inconveniences resulting from a plan which was +unrivalled for the advancement of the arts of peace, and calculated not +only to benefit our own country, but to contribute to the civilization +of the world. + +Notwithstanding much opposition and many prophecies of failure, a Royal +Commission was at last appointed. It consisted almost exclusively of +members of parliament, and of persons holding official situations. It +was stated that not more than two of its members had ever seen a foreign +exposition, and although it included many men distinguished in other +departments of knowledge, there was scarcely one whose name was known to +the nations we invited as at all eminent in that over which the +Commission presided. + +In England, a commissioner, however small his acquaintance with the +subject, is always deemed fully competent in virtue of his appointment. +The light in which this places us in the opinion of other nations is by +no means flattering to our national vanity. It has been admirably +described by an accomplished Italian resident amongst us in language +which an Englishman might be proud to own, and with a degree of moral +courage which few Englishmen would dare to exert on such a subject.[5] + +It was easy to perceive that when so great a mass of people in distant +quarters of the world was set in motion for such an object, it would be +impossible to draw back, and that its own momentum would carry on the +scheme. + +§ That the Prince who took so strong an interest in it, and who saw so +clearly and so far beyond the horizon which limited the view of those by +whom he was surrounded, should become its chief, was quite natural. +There are, however, circumstances in the state of society in this +country, and in the constitution of human nature itself, which render it +almost impossible to have unfettered discussion when a person of that +exalted rank takes the chair at the meetings of a Committee. + +These objections are entirely unconnected with the individual person, +and if any amount of good feeling and skill in such a Chairman could +remove the difficulty, we have fortunately had amongst us several +Princes who might easily have accomplished it. But the forms of society +forbid in the presence of princes that full and free discussion by which +alone the united knowledge of a Committee can be brought into play. +Debates must take place and divisions occur: otherwise some individual +may take upon himself to assume what either is, or appears to him to be, +the sense of the meeting: this is much more frequently simply the +expression of _his own views_. Thus, perhaps, he prevents the statement +of his opinion by some timid man, which is possibly worth more than that +of all the rest of the Committee. + +Again: in Committees presided over by persons of this elevated rank, it +is not an uncommon occurrence for some member, anxious for the success +of his _own_ views, privately to hint in conversation with other +members, that these are the wishes of their President. + +To these objections, which are generally true, there is, however, one +exception. When the Chairman is eminently conversant with the subject, +while at the same time the minds of the Committee are like a sheet of +blank paper,—the best course that can then be pursued is to allow the +Chairman to interpret the sense of the Committee. + +The first act of the Commission was most judicious. It was to annul the +contract with the capitalist who had undertaken the building and the +commercial management of the Exhibition. It is to be regretted, however, +that the actual amount of compensation which he was to receive, was not +finally settled at the time. The subsequent extent of the undertaking +having exceeded that which was originally contemplated, may render this +a question of some difficulty. + +The next step was to appeal to the public for subscriptions to carry on +the plan. For this object delegates were sent to many of the large +towns, some of whom, not possessing more knowledge of the subject than +the Commissioners themselves, and having none of their tact, nearly +caused the failure of the whole scheme. + +The knowledge and good sense, however, of the working and manufacturing +classes, supplied the deficiencies of these missionaries, and the +subject became popular amongst them. There were, indeed, many exceptions +even amongst these classes. Those whose business had been long +established, and who were manufacturing as largely as their capital +would admit, had no reason to seek additional publicity for the sale of +their produce. Upon them the Exposition would impose only trouble and +expense, without any corresponding advantage. + +Others who possessed machinery of peculiar powers of production, or for +the fabrication of curious products, were unwilling to expose these +singular and costly machines to the eyes of their rivals from all +countries. The produce of such machines being generally novelties, they +found a ready sale for it, and therefore had no reason to seek the +Exhibition as the means of publicity. + +The extent of the demand for space at the Exhibition, has been as was +naturally to be expected, so great, that it was quite unnecessary to +press any person to exhibit who was not fully aware that it was for his +own interest to do so. + +With respect to the subscriptions, there are some observations which it +may be useful to make for the sake of all subscribers to future schemes. +It is said that the total amount subscribed is nearly 90,000_l._ of +which only about 60,000_l._ have been paid. + +No subscription ought ever to be advertised until it has been actually +paid. It is quite unjustifiable to employ the money of _bonâ fide_ +subscribers in paying for advertisements to gratify the vanity of those, +who are ambitious of appearing large donors, and who are yet so mean as +to decline fulfilling their pledges. + +This practice has, unfortunately, of late years been too prevalent. +Persons of rank and position in the country have condescended to allow +their names to appear in lists, for subscriptions which they never +intended to pay, the effect of which has been to decoy others who +trusted to their respectability and truth. The public in future will do +well to abstain from subscribing to _any list_, however respectable the +names may apparently be, unless it is distinctly stated that the +subscriptions advertised have really been paid. + +In the present case it would be a further waste of money to advertise +the defaulters: but the Commission have a remedy, and they owe it to the +genuine subscribers. Let a circular be sent to each defaulter, +announcing that unless his subscription is paid by a certain day, his +name will be returned to the clerk of the _Black list_, who has +directions to make an alphabetical index of defaulters, several copies +of which will be exposed to the public in various parts of the Crystal +Palace during the whole time of the exhibition. + +If public opinion were fully ripe for such a vast industrial +undertaking, it ought to be entirely self-supporting. This seems to have +been the opinion of the Commission, and with every wish to assist that +object, and every desire to make allowances for the want of all past +experience on the subject, a few remarks may be made which may promote +the interests of some future Exposition, even though unavailing for the +present. + +The first question is necessarily the position of the building, and the +facilities for access and egress. As this question is discussed in +Chapter VII., it is sufficient here to state, that the amount received +from the admission of the public will very much depend upon this point. +On the other hand, the difficulty and expense of conveying the things +exhibited, will not be very different in different localities. This +arises from the fact that if a package has to be taken from a boat, a +ship, or a railway, and to be conveyed by cart to the locality at which +it is to be exhibited, the expense and the danger of injury will be but +very slightly increased, whether it is carted an additional quarter of a +mile, or mile, or even a still greater distance. + +Another very important question arises as to the price of admission to +the Exhibition. There is no doubt, that if it were entirely free to the +public, it would be almost entirely useless. Nor is it less certain that +various prices ought to be charged on different days. The Commission +seem to have made a very fair selection for the commencement of the +experiment. Perhaps it would have been better to allow Saturday to be +one of the cheapest days of admission, because in many workshops the +journeymen leave their work at an earlier hour on that day: by the +sacrifice of the half day’s work, they would then be able to spend a +considerable portion of the day in examining those objects in which they +take an interest. + +Perhaps on a future occasion some such scheme of admission as the +following might be found most productive. After the exceptional days at +the commencement, occupying the first fortnight, the admission might be +charged thus:— + + May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. + s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. + Mon. 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 6 0 6 0 3 + Tues. 10 0 5 0 2 6 2 0 1 6 1 0 + Wednes. 5 0 2 6 1 6 1 0 1 0 0 6 + Thurs. 2 6 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 6 0 3 + Frid. 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 6 0 6 0 3 + Sat. 1 0 1 0 0 6 0 6 0 3 0 3 + +The principle of this scale is, that each week day shall gradually +diminish in actual price, but shall always preserve its relative price. +Thus Tuesday is always the day of dearest admission, Wednesday of the +next dearest, whilst Saturday is always the day of cheap admission. +These periods might be distributed by weeks instead of months. + +Whatever arrangement is made as to the price of admission, it is of very +great importance that the number of visitors at the various prices +should be noted and recorded for future use. It will indeed be +unfortunate if knowledge so important for any similar occasion, should +not be registered on the present. + +For this purpose _every_ entrance should have one or more self-acting +turnstiles registering the number of those who pass through it. Not only +the public who pay, but the exhibitors and all who have free admissions +should be registered. At the end of each hour, when the clock strikes, +each gate-keeper should enter in a book the number indicated by his +register. Such a collection of facts, extending over the whole time of +the Exposition, would not only be invaluable for any future one, but +would furnish materials for other important inquiries. + +The general state of the weather, which of course would have a powerful +influence, might be known from other registers: but it would be +advisable that at the end of each day some note were made of the general +state of the weather at the Crystal Palace itself. + +§ After the first of these Expositions it seems probable that their +advantages will become so well known, that it may be quite possible to +let out the stalls to exhibitors under certain conditions. Foreigners +might still be admitted to exhibit without payment, because the expense +of carriage would more than compensate for the rent. + +Some stalls might be granted without rent by the Commissioners, the +peculiar circumstances of each case having been considered. Again, other +stalls, or at least other means of exhibition, might be accorded to +those who contributed articles of actual use in the building; as for +example, a large striking clock, a steam-engine to drive the machinery +or to supply the fountains. + +Other means might be readily devised of increasing the receipts, giving +at the same time increased convenience to the public. Thus, from the +great extent of the building, and from the crowd, it may become +difficult to pass easily from one part of the building to another. Now +if the stalls were placed back to back along the centre of the great +longitudinal avenues, a railway formed of wooden planks placed edgeways +might be raised above the middle of them at a height of about eight +feet, which would interfere but little with the stalls. + +On this open railway cars mounted on wheels bound with india-rubber,[6] +in order to avoid all noise, might travel at the rate of from one to two +or perhaps three miles an hour. These cars might have luxurious +cushions, and hold parties of different numbers. One line in a side +aisle, the “express,” might be devoted entirely to conveying passengers +from one end to the other at the rate of three miles an hour, setting +down at six or more intermediate stations: the payment might be one +penny, or perhaps, on grand days, two or three pence. The other lines +should take parties slowly along, so as to allow time to see the crowd +below and the wonders of the exhibition, which might be rendered more +distinct by means of opera glasses. Each trip might occupy twenty +minutes or half an hour, and be charged threepence, sixpence, or a +shilling, according to the price of admission on that day. By these +means multitudes of ladies, children, and even of men, relieved from +bodily fatigue, might be able to acquire knowledge or derive pleasure, +which without these resources it would be impossible for them to enjoy. + +It is probable that the light iron framing of such cars might be +provided gratuitously by some exhibitors, and the spring cushions and +ornamental drapery might be supplied by others, in consideration of the +advertisement thus afforded of the purveyor’s taste and skill. + +The chariots of these railways should be drawn by means of a rope +connected with the motive power. + +If dumb railways are not thought expedient, small galleries at least +might be made to which admission should be obtained by a small payment, +so that those who wanted to traverse quickly from one part to another of +the building, might thus, by avoiding the crowd, save time. + +Umbrellas, and sticks, and great coats might be taken charge of by +ticket on payment of one halfpenny. Also, any visitor might be allowed +to deposit on his departure a bag containing his catalogue, note-book, +or any articles which it might be inconvenient to him to take home with +him each day, as is customary at the railway stations. + +Other accommodations will suggest themselves, to be provided on the +payment of a very small fee; for example, soap and water and a clean +towel may be very desirable to some visitors, especially to those who +may examine the machinery. + +It is probable that there may occasionally occur large crowds pressing +for admittance. It may be worth while to consider whether in such cases +an additional reserved entrance might not be opened, through which +ladies and children, and men whom age or indisposition has deprived of +the physical force requisite for encountering a crowd, might be allowed +to pass on the farther payment, say of sixpence or a shilling. + +If it were possible to have a similar reserved enclosure close to the +building, in which carriages might remain on payment of a small fee, +much inconvenience would be saved to some of the visitors, and some +advantage would result to those who did not avail themselves of it, in +consequence of the diminished line of carriages at the public entrances. + + [5] “What shall we do with the Glass Palace? By Spiridione + Gambardella.” London: Aylott & Jones, Paternoster-row. + + The speech of the rash “commander of the Channel fleet” (page 9) is + worthy of the pen of the celebrated wit who bestowed that appointment. + + [6] Or the rails themselves might have grooves lined with vulcanized + india-rubber. + + + + + CHAPTER V. + + OBJECT AND USE OF THE EXPOSITION. + + +The approaching Exposition is considered by many as a great and splendid +show, calculated to give pleasure and excitement to hundreds of +thousands of persons. Even in this sense it would be beneficial, for it +is always important that the pleasures of the people should be +productive of some advance in their tastes and information. But its +great and paramount value depends on other causes. Its object may be +most concisely expressed by stating that— + +The Exposition is calculated to promote and increase the free +interchange of raw materials and manufactured commodities between all +the nations of the earth. + +Its object is not the exclusive benefit of England, and if any such +mistaken view is still entertained, it may without hesitation be stated +that it would be impossible by any mode of management to accomplish so +selfish an object. + +It is the interest of every people, that all other nations should +advance in knowledge, in industrial skill, in taste, and in science. The +advances made in the two latter subjects acquire _permanent_ existence +only through the _publicity_ given to their enunciation and discussion. +Refining and elevating all by whom they are received, new principles in +taste or in science, as soon as they are accepted as truths, become the +universal property of mankind. + +In whatever distant country any man devises means of diminishing the +cost of production of the commodity he deals in, the following effects +will result— + +He will make larger profits than usual. + +He will then diminish his price in order to get more customers. + +His rivals in trade now find it necessary to undersell him in order to +get back their customers. + +Whilst this competition goes on, the price of the commodity falls, a +larger consumption takes place and new purchasers will arise, which for +a time checks the fall. + +Ultimately, his rivals in the trade either remove their capital into +other lines of business, or adopt the improved process. + +In the mean time the first discoverer will, if a prudent and industrious +man, have realized a considerable capital, for he will be fully aware +that in the present state of science no monopoly can be permanent. He +will rather seek for a succession of moderate improvements, which +exciting no immediate inquiry or rivalry, shall increase the average per +centage of his profits, thus constantly keeping his manufactory one, or +at the utmost, only two steps in advance of his competitors. + +When in consequence of such an improvement, a reduced price and an +enlarged demand has arisen in his own country, the manufacturer will +naturally make inquiries whether at this diminished price other +countries may not be induced to become purchasers. If this is the case, +the fact of their free interchange with him proves that they can acquire +his commodity at a less cost than they can themselves produce it. + +But although the Exposition itself could not and ought not to have been +attempted for the sole benefit of this country, it is almost certain +that England will reap the greatest share of its advantages. This will +arise from the more extended system of her commerce, and from the habits +of her people. The profits of the merchant, other circumstances being +equal, depend upon the amount of his capital. Similarly, the knowledge +brought back by the traveller in foreign countries, or derived from his +observation in his own, will mainly depend on the stock of information +he carried with him to give in exchange. + +§ To arrive at those principles by which the Exposition ought to be +regulated, it becomes necessary to examine the nature and extent of the +interests involved. + +In all interchanges there are three distinct parties concerned— + + The Consumer, + The Middle-man, + The Producer. + +The overwhelming superiority both in amount of capital and in the number +of the first of these classes, the _Consumer_, is at once apparent, and +ought throughout the inquiry to be steadily borne in mind. In fact, each +individual of the other two classes is necessarily a member of the +first; for all men are _consumers_, and as such their common bond of +interest is to purchase every thing in the _cheapest_ market. + +§ The class _Producer_ is equally indispensable for the purposes of +exchange, but its number is much more limited. The interest of each +individual producer is, that he should sell his _own_ produce at as dear +a price as possible, whilst he purchases that of all other producers as +cheaply as he can. + +The class _Producer_, therefore, is not only comparatively small, but +has really a very divided interest, arising only from the difference +between the personal and the class interest of the individual. + +§ The class _Middle-man_ is more extensive, comprising merchants, +brokers, factors, wholesale and retail shopkeepers, hawkers, &c. The +profits of this class are generally regarded by the public with some +degree of suspicion. It is often thought that their profits are +exorbitant. But in truth this is not frequently the case. The division +of employments necessarily produces middle-men, and the public in the +long run obtain the articles they require with more convenience and +economy, and at a less fluctuating price, than it would be without such +agency. But the number of intermediate agents in any commerce is itself +subject to change, in different trades and at various times: it is quite +possible that these changes may not have taken place with sufficient +promptitude, and thus the public may have suffered for a time either by +an excess or a defect in the number of middle-men. + +The interests of middle-men are, individually, the same as those of +consumers. As a class, the extension of commerce is for their advantage, +because they are paid according to the amount of exchanges made. But +they have also another and a very powerful interest. They fear that if +the public were acquainted with the manufacturing price of articles, it +would consider the difference between that and the selling price as a +tax imposed by the middle-man upon the consumer. The middle-man +therefore has a direct interest in preventing the public from arriving +at a knowledge of the prices charged by the original manufacturer. It is +also the interest of the middle-man that the manufacturer should not +know the price at which his produce sells by retail: but, as it is in +most cases impossible to prevent this, few attempts at concealment are +made. + +§ It appears, then, that the interests of these classes may be thus +summed up— + +Consumers, including every human being, have a strong interest in the +freest competition as producing the lowest price. + +Producers have an interest in selling their produce in the dearest +market, and therefore claim free competition. But they have no advantage +in selling it at the highest price: because a high price limits the +extent of the sale. Their object is that the profit on each article, +multiplied by the number sold, shall be the greatest possible. + +Middle-men, although usually adverse to competition, have yet a direct +interest in the amount sold. + + + + + CHAPTER VI. + + LIMITS. + + +One of the great difficulties in exhibiting together samples of the +produce and the industry of the world, must obviously be the magnitude +and consequent expense of any building capable of containing such an +exposition. In order to do this most effectively, and to secure the +greatest amount of space for the primary object, it became necessary to +lay down principles within the limits of which the objects exhibited +should be confined. No real difficulty opposed the definition of this +boundary, even if a liberal interpretation were admitted. + +The Fine arts and the Industrial arts, although of the highest +importance each to the other, are separated by a sufficiently definite +line of demarcation, even at the points at which they most nearly +approach. The characteristic of the fine arts is, that each example is +an individual—the production of individual taste, and executed by +individual hands; the produce of the fine arts is therefore necessarily +costly. The characteristic of the industrial arts is, that each example +is but one of a multitude,—generated according to the same law, by tools +or machines, (in the largest sense of those terms,) and moved with +unerring precision by the application of physical force. Their produce +is consequently cheap. + +The fine arts idealize nature by generalizing from its individual +objects: the industrial arts realize identity by the unbounded use of +the principle of copying. + +The union of the two, enlarging vastly the utility of both, enables art +to be appreciated and genius to be admired by millions whom its single +productions would never reach; whilst the producer in return, elevated +by the continual presence of the multiplied reproductions of the highest +beauty, acquires a new source of pleasure, and feels his own mechanical +art raised in his estimation by such an alliance. + +§ This distinction between the fine arts and those of industry, would +appear to place some of the latter in a class to which they are not yet +generally admitted. It might seem that all lace not produced by +machinery, must according to this view be admitted amongst the fine +arts. + +There are in the Exhibition some beautiful examples of such lace amongst +the productions of other countries as well as of our own. They are made +by the united labour of many women. The cost of a piece of lace will +consist of— + +1.—The remuneration to the artist who designs the pattern. + +2.—The cost of the raw material. + +3.—The cost of the labour of a large number of women working on it for +many months. + +Let us compare this with the cost of a piece of statuary, which is +undoubtedly of a much higher class of art; it will consist of:— + +1.—The remuneration to the artist who makes the model. + +2.—The cost of the raw material. + +3.—The cost of labour by assistants in cutting the block to the pattern +of the model. + +4.—Finishing the statue by the artist himself. + +In lace-making the skill of the artist is required only for the +production of the first example. Every succeeding copy is made by mere +labour: each copy may be considered as an _individual_, and will cost +the same amount of time. + +In sculpture the three first processes are quite analogous to those in +lace-making. But the fourth process requires the taste and judgment of +the artist. It is this which causes it to retain its rank amongst the +fine arts, whilst lace-making must still be classed amongst the +industrial. + +Here we may observe the strong analogy which unites these very different +processes. If we continue the examination we shall find other +resemblances, and by contrasting sculpture with lace made by machinery, +we shall see in the very nature of their production, the wide interval +which separates the industrial from the fine arts. + +In the making both of lace and of statues, the remuneration to the +artists can only be reduced by producing a larger number of them through +more extended education. The expense of the raw material is small in +both. The expense of labour in lace-making is very large, and it is +perhaps considerable also in sculpture. The discovery of more convenient +localities yielding marble, may make some diminution in its cost; and +the improved manufacture of thread may slightly reduce the price of +lace. A reduction in the price of labour may to a very moderate extent +reduce the cost of the raw material of both. But it is evident that any +_very great_ reduction is not to be expected. + +Let us now contrast this possible reduction with the past history of +some industrial art. The plain lace made at Nottingham, called patent +net, will supply us with a good example. In the year 1813 that lace was +sold in the piece at the rate of 21_s._ a-yard. At the present time lace +of the same kind, but of a better quality, is sold under the same +circumstances at 3_d._ per yard. Thus, in less than forty years the +price of the industrial produce has diminished to one eighty-fourth part +of its original price. + +§ The fine arts, already possessing a building and an exhibition of +their own, which usually opens on the same day as that proposed for the +opening of the Palace of Industry, it seems difficult at first to +imagine why the limited space disposable within the latter edifice +should be occupied by any portion of a subject exclusively belonging to +the fine arts. Yet it has been decided that Sculpture shall be admitted +but Painting rejected.[7] + +Supposing both departments of art to be equally excluded, there would +still be a propriety, and even almost a necessity to admit some examples +of each. New tools used by the sculptor, suppose for preparing the +block, might require an example of their mode of application; whilst the +effects produced on the surface of the marble by other tools, could only +be shown by comparative specimens. + +Machinery of a very beautiful kind has been contrived for copying +accurately, on a reduced or an enlarged scale, both medals and statues. +The Venus de Medici itself could not be justly excluded from a purely +industrial exhibition,—if placed in the centre of a series diminishing +on the one side to a statuette of a foot high, and increasing on the +other to a figure double her own height. Such a series, though fairly +introduced as an illustration of industrial art, would, indeed, itself +be highly interesting to the fine arts, as exhibiting the effect of +change of magnitude, when the proportions remain identical. + +Enamel painting would be excluded as belonging to the fine arts, but +every painting on porcelain partakes in fact of the nature of an enamel +painting. A service of porcelain would of course be admitted as a +specimen of mechanical art, however highly it might be adorned by this +form of painting. + +New modes of engraving might be exhibited, analogous, for example, to +that by which medals are so beautifully represented. There are several +new methods of surface printing for multiplying original designs. In all +such cases it would be very desirable to place before the eye of the +spectator, the originals from which the copies were derived, and it +might also add to the utility and interest of the Exposition, even to +exhibit other forms of engraving of the same subject, for the sake of +comparison. + +The instruments by which daguerreotypes and talbotypes are produced, +would assuredly claim a place; so also might a collection of their +results. It would also be instructive that some of these productions +should be accompanied by the original forms or paintings from which they +were copied. + +The general rule, therefore, might be, that specimens of the fine arts +should not be admitted by themselves; but that they should not be +excluded,—as illustrations,—either of the use of some tool or instrument +by which their own production might be assisted,—or as forming parts or +decorations of objects of the industrial arts,—or for the sake of +comparison with the copies or imitations of them produced by these +latter arts. + + [7] Since this was written, the beautiful effect produced by sculpture + in the Crystal Palace has fully justified the decision of the + Commission. In fact, the only real objection to the admission either + of sculpture or painting arises from the extent of space required. + + + + + CHAPTER VII. + + SITE AND CONSTRUCTION OF BUILDING. + + +The questions connected with the construction of the building, were +surrounded with considerable difficulties, even to the best informed. It +should be capable of containing specimens, not merely of all the +manufactured products of the world, but also of all the raw materials +now used, and even of such, as being presented to the attention of +competent persons, might probably become useful hereafter. + +The site of such a building, its fitness for its purpose, and the cost +of its construction, were the chief points to be considered. + +Its situation especially was the most important, because that +circumstance would greatly influence the number of persons visiting the +Exposition, and therefore the amount of the receipts out of which the +building was to be paid for. + +The first principle which should guide the choice of a site, is +obviously the _convenience of visitors_; and a little observation, or a +moderate share of common sense, will show how the principle should be +applied. + +It is known to all those who have observed the course of crowds of human +beings going to and returning from some centre of attraction, that if +the spot on which the assemblage is to take place is subject to our +choice, much of the difficulty of the arrangements will be removed. + +Other circumstances being equal, that site is the best which admits of +the greatest number of independent channels by which the multitude can +arrive and retire. The means of access should be so arranged that +various divisions of the visitors would, according to the quarter in +which they reside, naturally take each its own most convenient course, +without the necessity of any instruction from police or attendants. + +Various sites had been proposed. Hyde Park;—the Regent’s Park;—Primrose +Hill, still more distant;—fields on the south side of the Thames +intended to form Battersea Park. + +It is fortunate that neither of the two latter was chosen, although they +had many advocates: for in all probability the receipts would have been +diminished by at least a third, if not by a half. + +Various situations were pointed out in Hyde Park. One on the north +nearly facing Hyde Park Gardens—one on the south nearly opposite the +Barracks; this latter was ultimately chosen. + +§ But a different position may be pointed out which combines so many +advantages that it is much to be regretted it was not placed at the +disposal of the Commission. + +The distance between Cumberland Gate and the gate at Hyde Park Corner, +is about 1,300 yards, or nearly three quarters of a mile. On the eastern +side of the park, adjoining Park Lane, there is a narrow strip occupied +by plantations, the circular reservoir and gardens. + +On the open ground adjacent to this strip, but rather nearer to +Cumberland Gate, the Crystal Palace might advantageously have been +placed. Its length being nearly 629 yards, each end would have been +about 350 yards from the two great roads of access. This site would have +possessed the following advantages:— + + 1. Its distance from the north or south entrance of the park would, + for the average of visitors, have been considerably less than that + of the present site. + + To persons standing at Hyde Park Corner or at Cumberland Gate, the + respective ends of the building would have appeared, from its great + elevation, almost close to them. + + 2. There are very few trees upon it, and those few are still young. + + 3. It is the highest ground in the park, and could, therefore, be + better drained. + +In its present position the building can scarcely be seen from either of +those positions. It is above half a mile from Hyde Park Corner: whilst +it is three quarters of a mile by footpath, and nearly a mile and a half +by carriage drive from Cumberland Gate. + +The large majority of visitors from the north and the south will enter +the park through these two approaches. The average distance, therefore, +which each will have to travel in the park, will be nearly three +quarters of a mile. + + Yards. + The distance of the nearest end of the present building + from Hyde Park Corner is about 940 + From Cumberland Gate is, by footpath, about 1560 + Ditto, by carriage, about 2490 + The distance of the end of the proposed site from Hyde + Park Corner, is about 375 + Ditto, from Cumberland Gate 375 + +If we consider how many persons might have entered close to a building +thus placed, through Grosvenor and Stanhope Gates, or through any +temporary ones near them, it will be perceived that this average +distance would in fact be much diminished. + +Supposing that an equal number of visitors arrive by each approach, we +have some means of approximating to one portion of the inconvenience and +loss which the public will suffer from its present position. + +In the first place the number of visitors has been variously estimated +from one to seven millions. Let us suppose it to be four millions. Each +of these four million visitors will, on an average, have to travel one +mile and a quarter more than would have been necessary to go to and +return from the Exposition. Thus five millions of miles will be +uselessly traversed. If the expense of transport were one penny a-mile, +and the value of time on an average four shillings a-day, the account +would run thus— + + 2,000,000 persons travel 1½ mile. + 1,000,000 + ---------- + 6) 3,000,000 miles at six miles per hour. + ---------- + 10) 500,000 hours. + ---------- + 4s.=⅕l.) 50,000 days of ten hours each. + ------ + 10,000l. value of lost time. + ------ + +A similar calculation of the time lost by 2,000,000 persons travelling +three miles an hour would give 13,333_l._ + +The expense of travelling at 1_d._ per mile of the first 2,000,000, who +travel in carriages, gives— + + 12) 3,000,000 miles. + --------- + 20) 250,000 + ------- + 12,500l. cost of carr. of two millions 1½ mile each. + 10,000l. cost of time of ditto. + 13,333l. cost of time of two millions at 1 mile each. + ------ + 35,833l. total loss. + ------ + +In this estimate the price of one penny a-mile may perhaps be thought +high, especially when it is known that many will go on foot, others in +omnibus, others in their own carriages: but in order to remain the same +number of hours in the present building, from the extra time required to +visit it, it will be necessary for many persons to spend one additional +day in London, which could scarcely be done under twenty pence even by +the poorest visitor. + +The allowance of six miles an hour for travelling in omnibus or +carriage, considering the stoppages of the one, and the crowd on the +single road of approach for both, will be admitted to be moderate. + +The rate of four shillings per day, or twenty-four shillings per week, +as the value of the time of the visitors, will probably be thought less +than its average value. + +There can be no doubt that under these disadvantages the actual site +must cause the loss of a large number of visitors, who would have +partaken of the enjoyment in the more favourable position. The amount of +_pure loss_ thus suffered by the visitors as a class, must be withdrawn +from the sum they intended to expend on their visit. + +One of the earliest acts of the Commission was to advertise for plans of +a building suitable for their purpose. + +Certain principles were laid down. It should be _temporary_ in its +character—it should be economical in its cost—it should be fire-proof or +nearly so—it should be built and fit for use in an inconceivably short +time, and capable of being removed in still less. + +A lithographed plan of the ground assigned for it, was circulated for +the use of all who chose to make suggestions, or to compete for the +prizes offered for the most approved designs; this insured a certain +amount of uniformity in scale, which rendered comparison easier. +Although, from necessity, a very short time could be allowed for +preparation, yet 240 designs for the building were offered. + +These were exhibited to the public at the apartments of the Society of +Arts; a certain number of them were selected as worthy of praise, and +some as deserving more substantial rewards. + +There appears to have existed from the beginning in the public mind, not +only in England but on the Continent, a belief that the Commissioners +would not be very rigid in interpreting their rules. This was probably +confirmed by the sudden and unlooked-for withdrawal of the large prizes +that had been promised to the public at the commencement. Accordingly, +the various plans seemed to vie with each other in violating the rules +laid down by the Commission; those selected for reward were not the most +consistent with them. In order to give confidence to the future, it +would have been expedient, previously to examining their merits, to have +rejected all which grossly violated the conditions proposed by the +Commission. + +Beautiful plans might be suggested for magnificent buildings, if the +designers were alike reckless of cost and of time of construction, and +those who had honestly confined themselves to the prescribed conditions +felt, with some reason, aggrieved at finding the violators of them +applauded and rewarded. + +Although there was, in the opinion of the Commissioners, much of beauty +and genius, and many suggestions of value, yet none of the plans +approached their own idea of what was requisite. It was therefore +resolved that the Commission should itself originate one, availing +themselves of the hints contained in these plans. + +In the mean time, Mr. Paxton, who had devised and successfully carried +out a new kind of architecture, the chief material of which was glass, +came to their assistance. He drew the plans of his singular design, and +was fortunate enough to find in Messrs. Fox and Henderson a firm capable +of supplying all those mechanical details necessary for its success, and +even of contracting to execute the work in a period of time so short +that it will probably long remain unrivalled in the art of construction. + +The Commission accepted this offer, and the present beautiful building +arose as if by magic. Amongst all the curious and singular products +which the taste, the skill, the industry of the world, have confided to +the judgment of England, there will be found within that crystal +envelope, few whose manufacture can claim a higher share of our +admiration than that palace itself, which shelters these splendid +results of advanced civilization. + +The building itself was regularly manufactured. Simple in its +construction, and requiring the multiplied repetition of few parts, its +fabrication was contrived with consummate skill. The internal economy +with which its parts were made and put together on the spot was itself a +most instructive study.[8] + + [8] The reader will find very interesting details and drawings of this + manufacture in the “Illustrated London News,” and in the “Expositor.” + + + + + CHAPTER VIII. + + PRICES. + + +The great mass of consumers are always anxious to know the _price_ of a +commodity. To them it is the most essential consideration in a purchase. +The thoughtless rich care little about the price, and those who don’t +intend to pay, care still less about it. The most knowing of this latter +class, indeed, often deceive the vigilance of honest tradesmen by +affecting a peculiar earnestness about cheapness. It is quite true that +many well-known articles in great demand have a certain market price, +and some a certain fixed price; as for instance, a penny roll. In this +latter case the judgment of the purchaser is directed to its size, or +its goodness, or to both those qualities together. + +§ It may be useful to trace out the course of purchases by retail, and +to show the fine gradations of impediment which are insensibly +interposed between the vendor and consumer, as obstacles to a full +examination of the article by the latter. Of course neither an article +of daily consumption ought to be taken as an example, nor yet one +immediately wanted by a consumer, whose time is so valuable that it +would be cheaper to go into the first shop he finds and purchase it at +any price. + +§ Let us suppose that a lady having some leisure goes out in search of a +fan. She passes several shops in which they may or may not be kept for +sale. + +She sees some fans in a shop window, but as they are _not open_ she +passes on, intending to return to them if she cannot suit herself +elsewhere. + +A few doors beyond there are some fans _open_, but none of them exactly +suit her taste, and she does not like to give the owner of the shop the +trouble of opening a number of fans, none of which may please her. + +In the next street she sees in the window of a shop some fans, which +_are open_. One of these appears to suit her, but there is no price +marked on it. She does not like to go into the shop and examine more +minutely whether the subtle implement she requires has sufficient +strength to withstand its ball-room trials, lest it may be too expensive +for her purse. + +A short distance beyond another set of _opened_ fans present themselves +to her notice in the window of another shop, each of them with its price +distinctly marked upon it. One of these the hesitating lady prefers, _a +little_, to the last she had approved, and she resolves to enter this +shop and examine the fan. But perceiving before she enters, that there +is no attendant in the shop, she thinks the mistress may be at dinner, +or have gone up stairs to her baby, and she says to herself, “It is of +no consequence; I will not disturb her now.” + +Still passing onward she finds a shop in the window of which is a pretty +fan, although not quite so good as the last, and within there sits the +shopkeeper—but the door is _shut_. + +Although the fan was not the most suitable the lady had seen, yet had +that door been open, she would have entered, hoping that the fans +exposed in the window were samples of classes kept in store within. + +At last she finds all these impediments removed; a fan that will nearly +suit her lies open in the window, with its price clearly marked, an +attendant is in the shop, and the door is hospitably _open_. She enters +and examines it, and finding it well made, asks whether there are others +of the same class of pattern, to which the reply is that it is the only +one remaining. Upon this she purchases the fan, although had she entered +several of the former shops, she might have found fans both more exactly +suited to her taste and at a less price. The _marking_ has decided her +choice. It is not to be imagined that all, or even the greater part of +these impediments, ever occurred to one person at the same time: but +there are few who have not at different times felt the effects of most +of them. + +§ It is said that _ladies by education and birth_ occasionally amuse +themselves by entering shops and giving interminable trouble, having no +intention of making any purchase. This doubtlessly is a libel. + +§ Several other minor impediments deter purchasers from some shops, and +incline them to frequent others; amongst these may be mentioned an over +officiousness in the attendants to recommend to the attention of the +purchaser other articles than those he requires. This pressure to induce +purchases is peculiarly offensive, and drives away the best customers. + +The absence of a marked price upon an article, tends to defeat the +effect of competition, as well as to produce loss of time both to +consumer and vendor. It is therefore, to a certain extent, a cause of +increase of price. + +Its effect is to cause the same article to be sold at different prices +in the same neighbourhood, thus counteracting that uniformity of price +at considerable distances, which is consequent upon rapid and cheap +communication. + +§ As the extent to which this is carried even in a great city, may not +be known, the following occurrence will afford an illustration:— + +A gentleman wishing to make the light of his reading lamp approach more +nearly to day-light, looked out for a lamp-glass of a blue tint. Having +observed one of the wished-for colour in a shop window marked at 1_s._ +6_d._ he purchased it. After a considerable trial he was so satisfied +with the comfort it afforded to his eyes, that he wished to have other +lamps in his house similarly furnished. On returning to the shop at +which the blue globe was purchased, he found that its proprietor had +retired, and his successor was in a different line of business. Seeing +in the window of another shop in his own neighbourhood, a coloured globe +of the same size, he entered and inquired the price. To his great +surprise the price was stated to be 3_s._; and on asking if any +reduction would be made if he took a dozen or two, the answer was that +in that case the lowest price would be half-a-crown each. + +This naturally led him to suppose that the cheapness of the first glass +arose from the accident of its proprietor being about to retire from +business, and he therefore decided upon confining his indulgence in the +luxury of white light to his single reading lamp. One day, however, he +accidentally saw in another shop window a similar globe of blue glass. +On inquiring within, he was informed that its price was 1_s._, and that +the price per dozen was 11_s._ + +Under these new circumstances he provided a blue globe for every lamp in +his house. + +Now it is necessary to observe that these glasses, charged at 3_s._, +1_s._ 6_d._, and 1_s._, were offered for sale at three different shops +not distant from each other a mile and a half, and were not only of the +same size, weight, shade of colour and quality of glass, but had each +the same maker’s stamp upon them, and may possibly have been taken from +the same pot of glass. It is remarkable also that the cheapest glass +globe, although exposed in the shop window, had no price attached to it. + +§ It is obvious, if it were the custom invariably to mark the price upon +each article exposed for sale, that such unreasonable differences of +price in the same article could not exist. It is certain that, if the +Royal Commissioners were to consult the dealer who charged 3_s._ for an +article sold by his neighbour at 1_s._, they would be informed that it +would be absolutely ruinous to have prices affixed to articles +exhibited. Such a tradesman would assure them, and with perfect truth, +that it would entirely destroy his trade. But if he cannot live upon the +ordinary profits of capital employed in his trade, are the unwary public +to pay two hundred per cent. beyond the market price, in order to +support a tradesman unfit for his business? If, on the other hand, the +Commissioners were to ask the opinion of the tradesman who sold the +glass at 1_s._, he undoubtedly would not object to the general practice +of affixing prices to each article. The opinion of the vendor of the +glass at 1_s._ 6_d._ was sufficiently expressed by its being attached to +that article. + +§ There are several causes assigned for the admitted repugnance of +shopkeepers to allow the price of any article they sell to be marked +upon it. + +It is broadly asserted that the public, being unable to judge of the +article, will be guided too much by the cheapness of its money price, +neglecting its other qualities, and will thus be induced to purchase +worthless things. + +It is always somewhat suspicious when the vendor volunteers to take care +of the interest of the purchaser. It reverses the decision of the common +sense of mankind, expressed in the ancient proverb, “_caveat emptor_.” +Besides, it is by no means true that the public are so ignorant or +incapable of appreciating all those other qualities. In some articles +the difficulty is undoubtedly great, whilst in others it may require +time to be spent in their examination even by those who are as +conversant with the articles as the vendor himself. But why should the +time of both parties be wasted by an examination, when the price may be +such as to preclude its purchase, whatever may be its other merits? + +§ Of all the various qualities which contribute to the excellence of any +given article, that which it is most easy to ascertain—that which it is +impossible to falsify—and that without the exact knowledge of which no +purchase can possibly be made, is the very one which it is wished to +withhold from the knowledge of the purchaser, until through the art of +the vendor, the finer feelings of the customer induce him to think +himself in some measure committed to purchase that of which he does not +entirely approve. + +It is from circumstances like these, that the prejudice against retail +dealers arises and is confirmed in the public mind. There is no reason +why that class should not be as highly respected as the possessors of +extensive domains. To deserve that respect they have only to insist upon +all persons in their employment abstaining from the slightest deception +in serving their customers; to which rule it would be desirable to add, +that the leading members of each trade should unite in discountenancing +those who are guilty of any such practices. + +§ The effect upon the sale of an article by the absence of its price may +be illustrated by another example. Some years ago a large bazaar was +held for some charitable object at the Hanover Square Rooms. It was +patronised by the highest rank, and the beauty of the fair shopkeepers +was even more attractive than the wares they had to dispose of. A +collector thought this a favourable opportunity of adding to his +collection a vase of porphyry: having paid the admission fee of 5_s._, +he entered, and soon perceived some beautiful specimens of the object he +desired. Having looked at them for some time, he selected in his mind +one which he would willingly have purchased if it were within the limit +(10_l._) which he had assigned for the gratification of his taste. There +was, however, no price attached to any of the vases, and fearing that +they were all beyond his means, he reluctantly departed without the +wished-for acquisition. It happened that he mentioned in the course of +the next year the circumstance to a friend who was acquainted with the +history of the vase in question. The vase for which he would willingly +have given 10_l._ was not sold at that bazaar, but some time after it +appeared at a less fashionable bazaar And was sold for 5_l._ + +§ Most of those who visit the Exposition will each according to their +means wish to retain some memorial of it. Many will have been +economising during the previous year in order to purchase some object of +utility or of pleasure either for their own use or to take back as +remembrances to their family and friends. It would be very difficult +amidst the vast variety of attractions, even if the price of each were +marked upon it, to select the most desirable article within those limits +of expense to which each purchaser is confined. But by forbidding the +marking of prices, this difficulty is converted into an impossibility. +The first step according to the decree of the Commissioners, would be to +go round and ask the price of at least a hundred, if not a thousand +articles. These must be written down by each inquirer unless the +Exhibitors supply him with printed lists. Even if he make a selection +out of these, it is a hundred to one that some other article in the +enormous collection would, if he had known its price, have pleased him +better. + +§ If we examine the history of the earlier stages of society, we shall +see the constant tendency of its institutions to facilitate the mutual +exchange of commodities between its members, and to remove every +obstacle impeding their interchange. When the population was thinly +scattered over the country, the possessor of a fowl, wanting a pound of +butter, was obliged to go some distance to a neighbour either to +purchase the butter or to get it in exchange for the fowl. But it would +have cost him more time than the worth of the butter if he had visited +several neighbours to find out where it was the cheapest. To remedy this +inconvenience, market days were established in the villages and towns at +more or less frequent intervals. On these occasions each farmer sent one +of the family to the periodic market, who sold the produce of the farm +and purchased whatever might be required of their neighbours, who were +each represented by one of their own family at that common market. +Itinerant vendors of various manufactured articles flocked to these +markets because they there met their customers with less loss of time +and less fatigue. + +Whilst these hawkers thus gained on the one hand, it must be admitted +that they lost on the other those occasionally extravagant profits +sometimes levied on the necessities of their isolated customers. But on +the whole they derived from their trade a more regular rate of profit, +because the competition side by side of rival goods and rival prices, +rendered that profit much less fluctuating. Their greatest gain, +however, arose from the time saved by all parties, which largely +increased the consumption of their respective articles of produce. + +§ When towns became enlarged, the same principle of mutual interest led +to the selection of particular streets or quarters of the town by +particular trades. In many cities on the continent, the jewellers, as +well as some other trades, still occupy entire streets by themselves. + +The next step seems to have been to hold a general exchange in a fixed +spot at certain periodic times. This was necessary for the merchants and +larger dealers, and for international exchanges. In great cities this +was again subdivided into various branches of business, as—The Corn +Exchange—The Coal Exchange, &c. + +§ At these marts a class of men called brokers arose, whose business it +was to sell on commission for the producers, and to purchase on +commission for the merchants or other middle men. + +The economy of time produced by this arrangement is very great. Let us +suppose an exchange or bazaar attended by a hundred purchasers and a +hundred sellers. Each purchaser, in order to become fully acquainted +with the state of the market, must ask at least two questions of each +seller— + + 1st. What is the price? + + 2d. What quantity have you for sale at that price? + +This alone gives rise to _twenty thousand questions_. If, on the other +hand, a broker is employed, each of the two hundred persons who +constitute the market, will have to answer those two questions only to +his own broker; consequently, there will only be four hundred such +questions. If there are twenty brokers, these may meet together at the +market, and each stating his commissions both for purchase and for sale, +a list may be immediately formed by which the state of the market as to +supply and demand becomes known, and in the event of there being but +little difference in the quality of the articles, it becomes easy for +the brokers to arrange the requisite exchanges at prices which are +equitable for all parties. + +§ Great, however, as this advantage is, it is small compared with +another which we shall now consider. When a bargain is made directly by +the two individuals interested in it, there usually occurs on both sides +an attempt to appear more or less indifferent about it, in order to +secure advantageous terms. Thus price is made to depend partly upon the +personal feelings and qualities of the parties, and the less impulsive +and more sagacious will gain considerable advantage over the hasty and +inexperienced. A certain degree also of misrepresentation often occurs, +and the price demanded is frequently greater than that which the seller +is willing to take: thus the quantity of time consumed by parties +themselves in bargaining, is always much greater than that in which +their brokers can do the business for them on more advantageous terms. + +Again: the broker has an interest in effecting sales, because he is paid +in proportion to their amount. But he has no interest in favouring one +class of his customers more than another: his profits depend entirely +upon his knowledge, his industry, and his integrity. The necessity of +the intervening broker arises from the imperfections of mankind, and +when rigidly honest his services are invaluable. If one party is +perfectly aware of all circumstances relating to the state of the +market, he has no need of any broker, because he can acquire no new +information: on the other hand, those who treat with him may as well +save themselves the expense of a broker, because nothing can be +communicated on the subject which is not already known. + +When these principles, which are found to prevail in large transactions, +are applied to the retail concerns of everyday life, the intervention of +the broker is not required. This arises from the multitude of the +transactions, the smallness of the individual amount of each, and the +immense variety of the articles of exchange. + +§ Another class of middle-men now come into existence, namely, +Shopkeepers. The evils already pointed out still exist. One of the +questions, it is true, need not be asked, for the quantity of an article +held by a retail dealer, is usually much larger than the wants of any +individual customer; but the question of price still remains. The +removal of all these difficulties may be accomplished by the adoption of +one simple plan—let the price be affixed to each article. + +Other advantages result from the publicity thus given to price. Many who +would not otherwise inquire the price, thinking it might be above their +means, will now become purchasers. Others, not themselves intending to +purchase, may incidentally cause their friends to purchase by quoting +the prices they have seen affixed to certain articles. Others again, may +be induced by the cheapness of an article to purchase it for uses for +which it was not originally intended,—as, for instance, a beautiful +chintz for papering a room. + +§ In almost all works of industry, whatever may be the kind of +excellence of an article exhibited, it is possible to produce one of +greater excellence. + +Take for instance a sheet of window-glass; its size might be adduced as +the ground of excellence. The beautiful process of “_flashing_” by which +it is made, is preceded by another in which the workman blows a large +globe of glass. The size of the expanded flat circle of glass, called a +“_table_,” depends on the magnitude of this sphere, which again is +limited by the power of the workman’s lungs. But when larger tables were +wanted, an observant workman found that if his mouth had been previously +washed out with water, a greater sphere was produced. In fact, a small +portion of the water, carried over with his breath, became converted +into steam by the heat, and thus increased the pressure within. This led +to a new limit, and there can be no doubt that by means of expensive +mechanical contrivances, still larger spheres might be blown. + +§ Now the whole merit of any such new process, in the eye of the +manufacturer, would depend on the _price_ at which the produce could be +sold. + +The same principle prevails in almost all works of the civil engineer. +With the talent now existing in that profession, scarcely any +undertaking is impossible. The real and most important limitation is the +_price_ of execution. + +§ In the fine arts also the ultimate object still is the acquisition by +the public of the productions submitted to their examination. If, +however, the price is not stated, it may happen that a person of +moderate means, more capable of appreciating a work of art than richer +men, might be prevented from acquiring it by a feeling of delicacy. For +not liking to ask the price, and thinking probably that it is beyond his +means, the object may be sold to a richer competitor at a lower price +than he would himself willingly have given. + +This consequence of the absence of price is injurious both to art and to +artists: it occasionally removes from the field of competition the best +judges of real merit. It is true that in several professions a certain +delicacy respecting money matters exists which is wanting in others. +Medical men and artists are peculiarly subject to its influence; but it +is not reported of any lawyer that he ever refused a fee, and it is +recorded of some Secretary of the Admiralty that he claimed _a quarter +of a year’s war salary_, on account of the two days interruption of +peace by the combat of Algiers. + +§ Another result of the prices not being marked upon objects is, that +the public are unable to form any just estimate of their commercial +value; consequently, no proper public opinion arises to assist the +juries in their decisions. This is a matter of considerable importance: +the duty of a juror at an exposition is quite different from that of a +juror in a legal question. It is the business of the Industrial juror to +avail himself of the knowledge and the observations of all around him. +Much of what he thus hears he may be able himself to verify by +examination or experiment, and thus public opinion will be more matured, +and the decisions of the juries have greater weight. + +§ Many of the qualities of the articles exhibited can only be +ascertained by use, or even by their destruction. In such cases a single +sample would often be purchased if it had its price affixed to it. + +Another class, small indeed in number, but important from its functions, +suffers the greatest inconvenience from the absence of price. Those +engaged in studying the commercial and economical relations of various +manufactures, either for the gratification of their own tastes or for +the instruction of the public, are entirely deprived of the most +important element of their reasonings. + +If _every article_ had its price affixed, many relations would strike +the eye of an experienced observer which might lead him to further +inquiries, and probably to the most interesting results. But it is quite +impossible for him to write to any considerable portion of 15,000 +expositors for their list of prices, or even to go round and ask for it +in the building itself. + +§ Price in many cases offers at once a verification of the truth of +other statements. Thus, to a person conversant with the subjects, + +The low _price_ of an article might prove that it had been manufactured +in some mode entirely different from that usually practised. This would +lead to an examination of it, in order to discover the improved process. + +The _price_ of an article compared with its weight, might prove that the +metal of which it is made _could not_ be genuine. + +The _price_ of a woven fabric, added to a knowledge of its breadth and +substance, even without its weight, might in many cases effectually +disprove the statement of its being entirely made of wool, or hair, or +flax, or silk, as the case might be. + +The exchange of commodities between those to whom such exchanges may be +desirable, being the great and ultimate object of the Exposition, every +circumstance that can give publicity to the things exhibited, should be +most carefully attended to. The price in money is the _most important +element_ in every bargain; to omit it, is not less absurd than to +represent a tragedy without its hero, or to paint a portrait without a +nose. + +It commits a double error: for it withholds the only test by which the +comparative value of things can be known, and it puts aside the greatest +of all interests, that of the consumer, in order to favour a small and +particular class—the middle-men. + +The composition of that Commission must be most extraordinary, where an +error so contrary to the principles and so fatal to the objects of the +Exposition, could have been committed. It is not too late to apply at +least a partial remedy to the evil, and it is scarcely credible that +those with whom it rests, can remain unconscious of the mistake into +which they have been led. + +§ At the eighth meeting of the Commissioners, on the 28th Feb. 1850, +further conditions and limitations were submitted to them by Col. Reid, +one of which was— + + “A price may be attached to the objects exhibited, and the objects, if + sold, may be marked; but no sales will be permitted within the + building.” + +This judicious recommendation was, however, not adopted, for on the 11th +April, 1850, the following rule was published— + + “The Exhibition being intended for the purposes of display only, and + not for those of sale.... + + “For the same reason the Commissioners have decided that the prices + are not to be affixed to the articles exhibited.” + +Several strong remonstrances were addressed to the Commissioners against +the rule forbidding the affixing prices to the articles exhibited. +Efforts were made both in public and through private representations to +some of its individual members, by persons competent to advise, and +anxious for the success of a great and meritorious undertaking. + +In the report of the Leeds Committee to the Commissioners the following +passage occurs:— + + “They are, further, most strongly of opinion that the statement of + price is essential, _if the Exhibition is to be of any real utility_. + To the manufacturer or merchant price will be the test of comparative + value and excellence in the majority of cases; and the inspection of + particular fabrics, especially the products of other districts or + countries, for the purposes of information or improvement, will be of + no avail to them if price as well as style and finish is not before + them.” + +From the secretary to the Hamburg Commission a communication was +received stating that— + + “In consequence of the decision of the Commissioners with respect to + the prohibition to attach prices, it is the opinion that there will be + an _incurable deficiency_ in the Exhibition.” + +From the Central Danish Commission a letter was sent, stating that— + + “By reason of the regulation of Her Majesty’s Commissioners that + prices may not be attached to articles sent for exhibition, and Danish + goods being chiefly remarkable for their cheapness, a space of about + 450 square ft. will be sufficient for Denmark.” + +The Chevalier Bunsen transmitted a despatch from the Prussian +government, _objecting to the decision_ of the Commissioners which +_prohibits the affixing of prices_ to articles exhibited. + +§ On the 14th November, 1850, an answer to this letter was approved, and +ordered to be sent to all foreign commissioners. + +The following are extracts:— + + “The arguments advanced by you in favour of authorizing the affixing + of prices to the articles exhibited, have received the maturest + consideration of Her Majesty’s Commissioners, who are fully sensible + of the great importance of the subject. + + “At the same time, every wish is felt on their part, to give to each + exhibitor the _benefit_ to be derived by him from the knowledge on the + part of the public, of the cheapness of the articles exhibited by him. + They feel, however, as they have already intimated, that by allowing + the affixing of the actual prices to articles themselves, they should + be making themselves responsible for the accuracy of those prices in + all instances, and they would not consider themselves warranted in + assuming this responsibility in the case of an Exhibition of the + productions of all the nations in the world (however perfect may be + the machinery in an individual country, like Prussia, for ensuring + that accuracy, and for preventing the liability to deception). But Her + Majesty’s Commissioners authorize the attachment of a notice to those + Goods, of which the merit consists in the low price at which they can + be produced, to the effect that they are _exhibited for cheapness_, + and they have made it a condition that all persons making this claim + must send the prices in an invoice to the Commissioners, who will + instruct the juries to make this an essential element in their + determination of their awards.” + +The Decision No. 16 was then altered as follows:— + + “Prices are not to be affixed to the articles exhibited, although the + articles may be marked as shown for economy of production. But as the + cost at which articles can be produced will, in some cases, enter into + the question of the distribution of rewards, the Commissioners, or the + persons intrusted with the adjudication of the rewards, may have to + make inquiries, and possibly to take evidence, upon the subject; still + they do not consider it expedient to affix a note of the price to the + articles displayed. When the Exhibitor considers the merit of his + article to consist in its cheapness, and founds a claim on this + ground, he must state the price in the invoice sent to the + Commissioners.” + +This rule is a model specimen of what very clever men united in a large +committee can assent to. + +The first and last sentences of the oracular writing pronounce that— + +Prices must not be affixed to any article exhibited for the judgment of +the public, _even though_ there should be _no other reason_ for +exhibiting it than its price. + +The intervening sentence reveals to us that even Commissioners may in +some cases be themselves unable to judge without a knowledge of the +price—that it may perchance be so important that they must take evidence +upon it. Yet, with a very flattering deference to the sagacity of the +public, they seem to think _it_ can, without that information, form as +good an opinion as their own. + +It may be remarked that the permission to ask of the attendant the price +of an article, on which much stress has been laid, depends on several +contingencies, namely:—that every article has an attendant;—that he is +at all times at his post;—and also that he _knows_ its price. + +It is admitted that the Commissioners wish “to give each exhibitor the +_benefit_ to be derived by him from the knowledge [of price] on the part +of the public,” and also that the public cannot judge without that +information, and yet, with singular inconsistency, they forbid the +simplest and most natural mode of accomplishing this object, placing in +fact an impediment in the way of their own wishes. + +The only argument which is urged in favour of this rule, occurs in the +reply to the Prussian application, in which it is stated, “after the +maturest consideration on the part of Her Majesty’s Commissioners,” they +feel “that by allowing the affixing the actual price to the articles +themselves, they should be making themselves responsible for the +accuracy of those prices in all instances.” This singular timidity in +fact involves the Commissioners in far larger responsibility, since +according to their own argument they admit that they are “_responsible_” +for any statement they “_allow_” the exhibitors to make; it follows, +therefore, that any statement they _command_ the exhibitors to attach to +the articles exposed must be still more firmly _guaranteed_ by the +Commissioners. + +But they have very rightly ordered that every article shall have +attached to it a statement of the _reason_ for which it is exhibited. +Consequently _they guarantee the statements made by exhibitors_. + +If, therefore, a piece of calico is exhibited entirely for the sake of +the _permanence_ of the beautiful colour with which it is dyed, the +beauty it is true may be evident to the eye, but the merit will consist +wholly in the _permanence_. If this is stated by the exhibitor, the +Commissioners themselves are responsible for its truth. + +Again, some beautiful damasked fabric is exhibited; the only merit +consists in its being made entirely of flax. This statement must be +appended, or there is no use in exhibiting it; but if stated, the +_Commissioners are responsible_ that there is no silk intermixed: +multitudes of similar cases might be adduced. + +But the truth is, that no such responsibility as that which they have +assumed, ought to be placed on the Commissioners; their duty is +sufficiently arduous, and their previous experience very limited. A +certain per centage of error and accident, will necessarily occur, even +to the most highly informed, and if they industriously exercise the +knowledge they may acquire in carrying on this undertaking, the public +ought to be grateful for their labours—to assist them in carrying out +their regulations, and remonstrate strongly only when their rules +violate the very foundations of those principles on which the whole +advantage of the Exposition rests. + +§ Nothing could have been more simple than to have repudiated any such +guarantee, and to have left the public to trust to the integrity and +honour of the exhibitors, which, considering the danger and facility of +detection, would have been a sufficient security. The Royal, and almost +all other scientific Societies, place at the head of each volume a +distinct declaration that their authors alone are responsible, both for +the facts as well as for the reasonings contained in their respective +memoirs. + +§ If the alternative were proposed, Shall the rule rigidly laid down +be?— + +“No article shall have its price marked on it”—or, + +“Every article must have its price marked upon it,”—the disadvantages +would be far less under the latter rule. The essential principle of the +Exposition being the increase of commerce and the exchange of +commodities, it might even be contended that sales should be permitted +on the premises. The chief objection to this arises from the impediments +it might offer to the free access of visitors to the examination of the +articles exhibited. + +Means, however, might be suggested by which that objection would be +considerably removed. It might, for instance, be permitted to all those +exhibitors of articles of moderate size, that they should bring in with +them each morning a sufficient number of such articles, done up in paper +ready to be delivered to the purchaser on his handing over the money +price. This would apply to a large number of articles, as shawls, +dresses, &c. + +In other articles, sold by weight, packets might be previously made up +of various weights, as one pound, three pounds, six pounds, &c. In those +sold by length, parcels of fixed numbers of yards might be prepared. + +If this system were still thought to be inconvenient from causing crowds +in particular spots, it might be permitted to the attendants to take +orders for articles to be sent home in the evening, and paid for either +at the time or on delivery. + +It is quite certain that under either of these conditions a much larger +quantity of merchandize would be sold immediately. + +Many would purchase on the spot who could never return for that purpose, +or who were on the point of leaving London, and much trouble would be +saved to a large class of purchasers. + +The effect of the purchases made in the earlier days of the Exposition, +would act as so many advertisements to attract visitors on the +succeeding days; some articles thus purchased would probably be sent +into the country by friends, and others be taken home by visitors, and +many additional country visitors would thus be attracted before the end +of the season. + +Another and a very important advantage would also accrue from such an +arrangement. The manufacturers acquire their knowledge of the demand for +their productions from the factors and agents; these again from the +shopkeepers who sell by retail to the public. Under the proposed +circumstances, this knowledge would be acquired much more rapidly, and +in the course of the first two or three weeks the opinion of the public +would be known upon all the articles of most popular demand. + +§ Upon the whole, the best plan seems to be that the rule should be— + +“Every article must have its price attached.” + +The exception should be exemptions granted by officers of the +Commission, and the ground of those exemptions should be stated on the +respective articles. + +At the Exposition at Paris, in 1849, the general rule was that upon each +article its price should be marked. Certain exceptions occurred, and in +two instances the writer of these pages wishing to purchase specimens, +although assisted most willingly by M. Le Dieu, the indefatigable head +of the management always present on the spot, was unable, after some +correspondence and much inquiry, to purchase or obtain samples of the +objects he desired. + +§ Perhaps the best way of complying with the rules of the Commissioners, +and yet giving the public what they tacitly admit the public will +demand, would be that the exhibitor should fix on each of his articles, +in a conspicuous manner, a letter or a number,[9] and that he should +have on the printed bill or card of address all the corresponding +numbers or letters, and opposite to each the price at which it was to be +sold at his warehouse or place of business. Each expositor might have a +quantity of these addresses hung up or placed upon his stall, with an +indication to the public that they were at liberty to take away these +cards or bills. + +It may be worth while to make a few observations on the reasons which +probably influenced and misled the Commission on so important a point. + +The tradesmen of London had been unduly and rather indelicately pressed +to subscribe towards the Exposition; many were compelled to subscribe +against their wishes. They saw few or none of the advantages which would +accrue to them from it, and they believed, (erroneously,) that it would +inundate the country with foreign and cheaper articles that would +supplant their own trade. + +It was thought that, when the public became acquainted with the +wholesale as well as with the retail price of articles, such knowledge +would lead to a reduction of the retail profits. The public, it was +argued, would be reluctant to make a fair allowance for the various +items which contribute to swell the amount of the difference between the +wholesale and retail price of commodities. + +§ It may be useful then to state broadly the principle, that it is +greatly for the advantage of the public, both as regards economy of time +and of money, that there should always exist a sufficient number of +middle-men of various orders. + +The shopkeeper, who is the one in immediate contact with the public, and +therefore liable to the greatest misrepresentation, has, amongst others, +the following expenses to add to the cost of production, which must +necessarily increase the retail price:— + +1. Commission to broker or other middle-man. + +2. Cost of carriage from manufactory to shop. + +3. Rent of shop itself, and perhaps, also of a warehouse. + +4. Insurance of stock against fire. + +5. Attendants to sell in shop. + +6. Sending goods home to purchasers. + +7. Expense of paper, string, &c. for packing goods delivered. + +8. Loss by plunder of servants. + +9. Expense of taking stock to diminish this loss. + +10. Goods soiled or injured by exposing to sale. + +11. Goods going out of fashion, cheapened by improved manufacture, or +superseded by new inventions. + +12. Giving long credit. + +13. Bad debts. + +14. Payment for his own personal services, as retail trader. + +15. Interest on capital employed. + +§ Admitting, however, that these grounds fully account for a large +difference between the wholesale and retail price, they will by no means +justify several practices which are too frequent at some shops at the +west end of the town. + +Different prices for the very same article are often demanded by retail +tradesmen, according to the supposed position of the purchaser. Fish, +for example, which varies much in price, and is at times very cheap, +will seldom be found charged in the household bill much below the +average price, unless the housekeeper is honest and looks sharply after +the matter. Few circumstances more annoy a customer or are more +injurious to the tradesman than this offence of having two prices. + +When the same prices are charged equally to all customers, it often +happens that it is much higher in the western than in less fashionable +localities. This may arise from a vicious system of giving credit, and +the extra price is necessary to compensate for risk of loss, and of +capital lying unproductive. The effect, however, is injurious to the +tradesman: many of those who pay ready money and would therefore be his +best customers, desert the shop. Those whose means are small, go to a +greater distance for the daily or weekly purchases; whilst those +possessed of larger incomes, purchase the same articles, not only at a +cheaper shop in the city but in larger quantities, and therefore more +nearly at the wholesale price. + +Our foreign visitors naturally ask how it happened that in the country +of Adam Smith so strange a mistake could have been made: they inquire +why none of the eminent disciples of that school were placed on the +Commission? They will learn with surprise that our Minister of Commerce +took, as befitted his office, an active part in it; that the great +economist, to whose profound views and extensive experience in monetary +affairs more than one minister has been indebted, was also a member; +that even the apostle of _free trade_ himself, whose successful +exertions have been crowned with merited reward, sat on the same +commission; and yet that the talents, the knowledge, and the eloquence +of such men, failed to convince the understandings of their colleagues, +who, in violation of the first principles of “_Free trade_,” +deliberately raised an obstacle against _competition_. + +Since the first edition of this work was printed, the Crystal Palace has +been filled by the industry and peopled by the nations of the earth. The +fears of the ignorant, the hopes of the selfish, the vaticinations of +the shallow, have proved alike groundless. Opinions expressed by the few +who were competent to judge, which were then scouted as the ravings of +visionaries, have now become realized as facts. + +However great the admitted advantages resulting from the Exposition have +been, still it has failed to produce anything like the information which +it was calculated to afford. Many of those who most rejoice in its +success regret that so much perseverance and energy have not, owing to +one fatal error, been permitted to accomplish the full amount of good +which they so well deserved to have achieved. + +The public have now had ample opportunity of forming their own opinion +upon the question of _price_; and they are almost unanimous in their +decision that without having the _price_ on the articles they examine, +the collection is of little intrinsic use to them, although it is a very +agreeable and splendid show. + +No attempt to answer the arguments on that question contained in the +first edition of this work has yet reached me. An entirely different +reason has now been assigned for the omission of _price_. + +It is asserted that the shopkeepers of London persuaded the +Commissioners that if _prices_ were permitted to be fixed upon articles, +they, the shopkeepers, would destroy the Exhibition, by not exhibiting +anything themselves, and by their determination ruin the producer, if, +by affixing prices to his produce, he should expose the “_secrets of +trade_.” + +One of the proverbs most frequently appealed to is—deprecation of +_protection_ by one’s _friends_: few cases have ever occurred in which +its application is more necessary. + +These friends thus maintain that the reason for _forbidding prices_ to +be placed upon articles, stated by the Commissioners to have been +arrived at after mature consideration, and _officially_ communicated by +them to foreign governments,—was not the _real reason_. + +The motive of the rule laid down by the Commission seems to have been a +conscientious wish not to mislead the public, and was at most only an +error of judgment. + +The _friends_ of the Commission, however, have imputed to them a line of +conduct which, to use the mildest form of expression, is highly +undignified, and have suggested that they were driven to the adoption of +the rule by fears which were absurd. + +Some of the fashionable shopkeepers at the West-end may have endeavoured +to alarm their too credulous customers by holding out such exaggerated +estimates of their own power; but the mass of London tradesmen are a +shrewder race, and estimate more truly their own influence. They well +know, in the present state of rapid communication throughout the land, +that any such attempt must necessarily fail. Imagine for a moment the +present race of butchers attempting to starve London by combining to +withhold meat. The utmost they could accomplish, if so inclined, would +be to put their customers to some small and temporary inconvenience, at +the expense of certain ruin to themselves. + +The practical effect of forbidding prices has been very unfortunate. The +great and meritorious efforts by which the plan has been carried out, +have been shorn of much of their utility. A building of half the size, +containing only articles _each_ of which had attached to it a short and +clear statement of the grounds on which it was exhibited, and the price +at which it could be acquired, would have conveyed far more instruction +to the public, and have been far more effective for the promotion of +commerce, thus fulfilling much more completely the two great objects of +the Exposition. + +To reply that prices may be obtained on inquiry, betrays a childish +ignorance of the whole subject. It is practically impossible to obtain +the required information; and those who have made the effort, have found +that even in the cases where an attendant is present to explain the +articles, he is often entirely ignorant of their price. + +The effect of the absence of price on visitors is a source of painful +annoyance to themselves, and of loss to the manufacturers and +shopkeepers, from whom they would otherwise have purchased largely. + +Foreigners are so sensible of this defect, that they have in many +instances printed priced catalogues of their own articles. Their +interpretation of our refusal to allow prices to be affixed is, that we +are unable to compete with other nations in economy of production. + +The philosopher and the economist, by whose researches and comparisons +the public might have been instructed, wander through the lofty avenues +and splendid galleries of the Crystal Palace, tantalized by +expectations, raised but to be disappointed. They at last are compelled +to abandon their mission in hopeless despair, wilfully deprived, by the +managers of this industrial feast, of that information on which all +their conclusions must ultimately rest. + + [9] As by one of the rules each separate article exhibited must have a + number, the same numbers might be used in the bills. + + + + + CHAPTER IX. + + PRIZES. + + +The great feature of the original plan of the Exposition was to give +large prizes. One, at least, was to have been 5,000_l._, and the whole +amount of them 20,000_l._ + +The anticipation of these prizes gave hope and industry to thousands: +means were examined and measures taken by many a workman, at the expense +of great personal sacrifices, to enable him to complete a model of some +favourite scheme, by which he might hope to win one amongst the many +pecuniary prizes, and thus be repaid at least for a portion of his +efforts. + +The announcement on the Continent of these liberal arrangements was +received with unbounded astonishment and admiration. The magnitude of +the great prize seemed to foreigners incredible, and the liberality of +offering it to the competing world, was altogether beyond their +conception of the character assigned to us as a nation. + +It was certainly very unfortunate that such an announcement should have +been made and then withdrawn. But as the question will probably arise +again, it may be useful for some future occasion to inquire now into the +principles on which pecuniary prizes should be awarded. + +Science, literature, and industrial art are in some measure subject to +the same laws in the distribution of pecuniary rewards. It is desirable +that such prizes should be given to those objects only which, possessing +very considerable merit and utility, are of such a nature as not to +repay the first inventors. + +§ One effect of such rewards would be to increase very much the number +of minds engaged in making inventions. This itself is a matter of more +importance than might at first be thought, as will be shown on some +future occasion in examining the question of monopoly. + +The inventor, the capitalist, and the manufacturer of articles are +usually distinct persons. Of these the inventor is generally the least +rewarded. The capitalist and the manufacturer can almost always make +their own way to wealth, and if successful their reward is usually +large, and almost always greater even than the highest prize which could +be offered by the managers of such an Exhibition as is now contemplated. + +If it were a condition for obtaining a prize that no patent should be +taken out, then the prize may be considered as the purchase money of the +patent for the use of the public. If a patent is desired by the +inventor, a medal or an honorary prize might be given, with the addition +in certain cases of a reward in money. + +Perhaps an enumeration of some objects which might become fit subjects +for prizes, may best illustrate these views. + +§ One of the inventions most important to a class of highly skilled +workmen (engineers) would be a small motive power,—ranging perhaps from +the force of half a man, to that of two horses, which might commence as +well as cease its action at a moment’s notice, require no expense of +time for its management, and be of moderate price both in original cost +and in daily expense. A small steam-engine does not fulfil these +conditions. In a town where water is supplied at high-pressure, a +cylinder and a portion of apparatus similar to that of a high-pressure +engine, would fully answer the conditions, if the water could be +supplied at a moderate price. Such a source of power would in many cases +be invaluable to men just rising from the class of journeyman to that of +master. It might also be of great use to many small masters in various +trades. If the cost per day were even somewhat greater than that of +steam for an equal extent of power, it would yet be on the whole much +cheaper, because it would _never consume power without doing_ _work_. It +might be applied to small planing and drilling machines, to lathes, to +grindstones, grinding mills, mangling, and to a great variety of other +purposes. + +§ In all large workshops a separate tool, or rather machine, is used for +each process, and this contributes to the economy of the produce. But +many masters in a small way are unable to afford such an expense, not +having sufficient work for the full employment of any one machine. + +Of this class are many jobbing masters who live by repairing machines. +Such also are that class of masters who make models of the inventions of +others and carry out for them their mechanical speculations. To these +two classes, that of amateur engineers may be added. + +The lathe with its sliding rest is the basis of their stock. With this +they can drill, and with the addition of a few wheels can cut screws. +The further addition of a vertical slide will enable them to plane small +pieces of metal by means of facing cutters on the mandril. By other +additions the teeth of wheels may also be cut, and in some rare cases, a +lathe may be converted into a small planing machine. The loss of time in +making the changes necessary to enable the lathe to fulfil all these +different functions, necessarily confines its use to the peculiar +classes alluded to above, but to make these changes is often less +expensive than to be obliged continually to send to larger workshops +where the heavier portion of their work can be executed. It would +certainly be desirable, if some good plan cannot be devised for bringing +the whole of such operations within the reach of _one_ machine of +moderate price, that at least a system should be devised for combining +them in _two_ separate machines. + +Some readers may possibly think such combinations as have been +mentioned, too minute and special for the subject of a prize: but when +it is considered that they bear upon the interests of one of the best +classes of workmen, and how important it is for the welfare of the +community that skill, industry, and intelligence should be assisted in +their efforts to rise in the social scale, these details will be +excused. + +§ The improvements which have been made in the economy of working +voltaic batteries, lead to the expectation that they may be employed as +sources of artificial light. Although the light thus obtained is not yet +sufficiently steady for general use, it may possibly become available +for light-houses. + +Galvanic light offers some advantages for this purpose on account of its +intensity and of the facility it affords for darkening and restoring the +light, by breaking and renewing the galvanic circuit. + +But it would be possible to adapt the same principle of occultations to +ordinary lighthouses. It would only be necessary to apply mechanism +which should periodically pull down an opaque shade over the glass +cylinders of the argand burners. This should be instantaneously thrown +back by a spring. A series of obscurations corresponding to the digits +of any number, and separated by any intervals, might thus be continually +repeated. + +Ready means might thus be supplied of clearly distinguishing one +light-house from another. For this purpose it would be necessary to +denote the light-houses on any coast by different numbers. + +Any digit might be expressed by an equivalent number of occultations and +restorations of the light: thus— + + 1 2 3 9 + 0.0 0.0.0 0.0.0.0, &c., 0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0 + +Again, the character of the digit might be indicated by occultations +preceded and followed, by shorter or longer intervals of light. + +At the commencement, the first digit of any number, might be +distinguished by a previous uniform continuance of the light during ten +or twenty seconds, whilst the separation of each digit from the next in +order might be denoted by a short pause of two or three or more seconds. + +Thus, if the number of a light-house were 253: after a cessation of any +obscuration during ten seconds, two occultations should follow each +other at intervals of about a second. A pause should then occur during +three seconds, after which five occultations should occur, at intervals +of one second, as before. Another pause of three seconds must then +happen, and be succeeded by three other occultations occurring at +intervals of one second each; after which ten seconds must elapse before +the cycle thus described is repeated. + +These might be thus represented:— + + 2 hundreds. 5 tens. 3 units. + 0000000000·0·000·0·0·0·0·000·0·0·0000000000 + \-------------------------------/ + +Thus, at about every half minute the number of the lighthouse would be +repeated. + +In this manner any number under 1,000 may be expressed in less than one +minute; since the largest, 999, would require + + Seconds. + For each digit 9, or in all 27 + Two short pauses between the digits 6 + One long long pause at end of the number 10 + --- + 43 + +Every light-house, therefore, would be continually repeating its own +number. + +It would contribute still more to prevent mistakes, if the light-houses +on a coast were not numbered in succession; for should any mistake be +made in counting the obscurations, it would most probably be detected if +the digits of the numbers of the light-houses on the same part of the +coast were as different as possible. + + Lighthouse numbered in succession— + 234 235 236 237 238 + Ditto irregularly— + 142 324 581 787 612 + +If a mistake of a single obscuration were made in the units of the +number 237, and it had been counted 236, this observation might, until +repeated, mislead the sailor, and induce him to suppose himself opposite +the preceding light-house. On the contrary, if the irregular mode of +numbering were adopted, the mistake of 786 for 787 could not mislead, +because the seven in the hundreds place would point out the error. It +would, however, be better to have the figure in the tens’ place also +different in any two light-houses so near that a possibility of mistake +is likely to occur. The general benefit which would result to all +maritime nations, renders the practical application of these principles +a peculiarly fit subject for a prize. + +Since the first edition of this work was published, an occulting light +has been exhibited for about three weeks, representing during each night +the constant repetition of one of the following numbers, 136, 227, 354, +432. + +As might easily have been anticipated, its effect was quite satisfactory +in determining those numbers. At about a distance of a quarter of a +mile, its occultations were even more distinct than at shorter +distances. + +Successive improvements have occurred, until it now seems desirable to +revise and simplify the light-houses of the world, by making them speak +one universal language, intelligible even to the commonest capacity. No +time could be more favourable than the present for establishing an +international system of signals, founded on numbers, and adapted to the +wants and convenience of all nations. The following brief outline of +such a plan requires, therefore, no apology. + +The present modes of identifying lighthouses are by + + 1. The _colour_ of the lights. + + 2. The _number_, _distance_, and _relative position_ of the lights + exhibited. + + 3. The _variations_ in colour or intensity, or in the time during + which the lights are partially or totally obscured, compared with + that during which they are visible. + + 4. By striking bells or gongs in foggy weather. + +There are around the coasts of Great Britain about 290 light-houses and +light-ships. They exhibit nearly 390 lights. Of these, about one hundred +lights are coloured, chiefly red. Fifty-five are revolving lights, +varying in their periods from five seconds to four minutes. In foggy +weather fifteen of these toll bells, and thirty-three strike gongs. It +is proposed to abolish all the revolving lights, and to retain white +light, to distinguish by its occupations the number of the light-house +which it is destined to indicate. + +With respect to those lighthouses which indicate ports, next to the +information as to the name of the port, the most important question is +the depth of water at its entrance. This may be given by allowing the +occupations of the white light to indicate the number of the port, after +which a glass of green or of any other colour being interposed, the +number of occultations mark the number of feet of the depth of water at +the time. + +A float in a well, to which the tide has access by a small aperture, +will serve the double purpose of raising the weight that drives the +mechanism for occulting, and of prescribing, according to the height of +the tide in feet, the corresponding number of occultations of the green +light. + +Thus a constant alternation will go on during the whole night of +repetitions of the _number_ of the port, by occultations of white light, +and of the number of feet which indicate the depth of water at its +entrance, by green light. + +There are certain cases of obscuration of lights by fog in which bells +and gongs are continually sounded. These convey information of danger, +but do not identify its position. The same principle which gives +numerical accuracy to light-houses, and even the same mechanism, may be +made to operate during fogs with equal effect on sounds. Thus, by +striking the gong the requisite number of times to indicate the +hundreds, the tens, and the units denoting the light, allowing, of +course, the usual pauses and the same long intervals, the number of the +light-house or light-ship may be known as quickly and as certainly by +means of bells, or gongs, or other sounds, as by the occultations of its +light. + +It may be worth examining what musical notes are heard at the greatest +distances through fogs, and the sounds of what instruments penetrate +farthest amidst the roar of winds and waves. The shrill whistle of the +steam carriage should be tried against the deep tones of the organ and +the loud noise of the trumpet. The most powerful sounds produced by air +require but little physical force for their generation; and whenever the +directions in which it is necessary to give warning are known, the +sounds employed may be concentrated by reflectors, in the same manner as +light. + +The depth of water at the entrance of harbours may easily be indicated +in the day-time by a tide-telegraph governed by the same float which +produces the occultations during the night. Its form may be as below, + + [Illustration: The tide-telegraph.] + +in which the arms projecting on the left side indicate the tens; those +on the right side the units. The long arm for the fifth saves trouble in +counting. These arms must be movable on centres within the mast, and +must be governed by cams connected with the float, so as to indicate at +any time the state of the tide. If it were found necessary to +distinguish light-houses during the day, then signs expressing their +permanent numbers might be painted upon them, or fixed to masts rising +out of each. The right side of the telegraph might, if required, be used +as a day telegraph for communicating with vessels. + +By means of such light-houses it would be easy to convey telegraphic +messages either to vessels in distress, or for other purposes. It would +simply be required to use the light itself or a subsidiary one to +indicate a series of numbers corresponding to those in some known +Telegraphic Dictionary. No danger of any mistake could arise during the +few minutes thus employed, because any other vessel on counting the +succession of obscurations would not only perceive that the light-house +was telegraphing, but would also know the object of the message. A small +apparatus might easily be contrived for the use of vessels, by which +they might ask any questions necessary for their safety. Such means for +ships sailing in company, or even for fleets, might enable them to +proceed on their voyage during the night, and to communicate any orders +even with greater facility than in the day. + +Sir David Brewster proposed in the _Edinburgh Philosophical +Transactions_ a plan for distinguishing light-houses by optical means. +The light transmitted through a thin film, when analysed by a prism, +appears either single, or subdivided into two, three, four or more +parts. Light-houses, therefore, might thus be distinguished from one +another numerically. + + + + + CHAPTER X. + + JURIES, ETC. + + +A clear statement of the _principles_ on which each jury is to award +prizes, should be placed before them. These principles ought to be well +discussed, and in that discussion manufacturers should be invited to +take a part. + +The first object of the jury should be to lay down rules by which these +principles are to be carried out. Each class of the subjects to be +rewarded will have its own rules. They will generally be few in number, +and capable of being expressed in few words: some of these are suggested +below, but merely by way of example. + +One of the most general rules will indicate the means by which the jury +can ascertain the fact, that the material of the manufacture under +consideration is truly the substance it is represented to be. + +For instance: some woven fabric is examined, professing to be made +either entirely of wool, or wholly of flax. It may be quite true that +experienced manufacturers and dealers, are able to detect any +adulteration of either material by admixture with the other. But +statements of facts made on authority, never possess the same weight +with the public as those which are accompanied by information enabling +any individual among that public to verify the fact for himself. + +The form of the fibre as shown by the microscope is one test. A more +simple one is to burn some fibres in the flame of a candle. Every fibre +which, when thus treated, produces the smell of burnt feathers, is +animal matter of some kind, as wool, silk, horse-hair, &c. The burnt +fibres of hemp, flax, cotton, and other vegetable matters have a totally +different scent; a fact of which any one may readily assure himself by +making the experiment. + +It may perhaps be necessary in some cases to wash the fabric under +examination, lest in what is termed the “getting up for the market,” +some animal matter or size might mislead. But the jury ought to be +acquainted with all such difficulties, and they should state the method +they took for investigating them. + +The microscope is of great use in the detection of adulterations in most +vegetable substances. + +§ Every object produced is subject to certain defects, and possessed of +certain excellences: these should be clearly enumerated. Whenever such +statements are expressed by numbers, the information will be more +satisfactory. + +Thus, in cutting tools, as applied to various metals, it is very +important that the angle at which the tool is applied, should be stated: +it is also necessary to state the angle which the edge of the tool +receiving the shaving cut off, makes with the surface cut. The velocity +of the tool in cutting should be stated, also the names of the fluids, +if any, used in cutting. + +The durability of woven fabrics, as well as of a great variety of other +manufactured articles, is a most essential quality, on which, combined +with the price, their chief value to the customer depends. + +It is very desirable that the jury should find satisfactory means of +testing this most important character, which is not discernible, even by +the most curious and instructed spectator. + +The knowledge of the weight required for tearing asunder any woven +fabric, as a ribbon, a stay-lace, tape, &c., together with the breaking +weight of their individual threads, and the number of these threads in +an inch, may in some cases be very valuable, especially in coarse +articles, such as sailcloth, sacking, &c. + +In other cases, the articles may be submitted to twenty or thirty +washings and dryings, during which it may repeatedly be examined. The +greatest change will most frequently occur on the first washing, which +removes the dressing. + +§ In many articles the durability of different parts varies +considerably. In some cases one part will wear out, if replaced, many +times before the remainder of the article is at all injured by use. In +all such cases the jury should adopt such rules as the following:— + +Examine the durability of each part, and also the difficulty and the +expense of replacing it when injured. + +Examine also, for the same purpose, what parts are most exposed to +injury or destruction by accident. + +Examine also the _relative_ expense of putting the article in a working +state when first purchased and brought home. + +These rules will be best understood by an illustration. Let us suppose a +jury to be examining the relative merits of several cottage stoves for +cooking. Of course the first inquiry will be as to which admits of the +best performance of the operations of— + + Boiling, Baking, + Stewing, Supply of hot water, + Roasting, Ironing, + Broiling, &c. + +The cost of the fuel must not only be given, but also its weight, +because the price of fuel varies in different localities. The capability +of using different sorts of fuel in the several stoves, and the amount +of fuel so consumed for its equivalent of coal, should also be stated. + +These and other comparative inquiries having been made, the durability +of that part of the stove which is subjected to the direct action of the +burning fuel, must be examined. It will be made either of iron or of +earthenware; and the relative merit of the various stoves will, as far +as this point is concerned, consist in the facility and economy with +which such parts can be removed, and the corresponding new parts be +purchased and replaced in their proper position. It is always desirable +for the consumer that the vendors of such articles should keep a stock +of the parts liable to wear out, and that the latter should undertake to +replace them at a fixed price. + +Those parts of the stove which project so as to be liable to accidental +blows, and those which from their more constant use are much exposed to +accident, as the hinges and the latches of doors, should then be +examined. These, if of cast-iron or other brittle material, and +constituting part of the substance of the door, should be sufficiently +strong to resist fracture: if they are attached to it by rivets or +otherwise, they will be lighter and stronger when made of wrought-iron. + +The last inquiry is into the expense of fixing the stove for use. It may +be set in brickwork, within the chimney, in which case it will require a +bricklayer and a large mass of materials in the shape of bricks and +mortar, and possibly of stone. Or it may stand on its own base +containing its own ash-pit, and by means of a small iron pipe the smoke +may be conveyed into a flue. In this case almost any workman with hammer +and chisel and a small quantity of mortar or cement, can fix it ready +for use. + +Again, the stop-cock for the water-cistern may be either hard-soldered, +riveted, or screwed in. If the latter, it can easily be unscrewed or +reground when necessary. The same remark applies to the leaden +supply-pipe; it may be connected by soldering, or by a union joint. In +the former case these parts will require the aid not only of the tinman +or coppersmith, but also of the plumber. + +§ The expense of repairing a machine does not in all cases depend on the +cost of the part replaced, or even on the actual cost of replacing that +part alone. It often happened in the earlier days of locomotive engines, +that the expense of some small reparation necessary to keep the machine +in good working order, did not amount to ten shillings; whilst the +expense of removing and replacing other parts, without which the workman +could not get at the defective part, amounted to fifty or eighty +shillings, or even to a still larger sum. + +Thus facility of getting at all the parts of an engine for the purposes +of repair, or even of examination, is one of the advantages which the +broad possesses over the narrow gauge. + +§ In many articles exposed to great or sudden force, and to much wear +and tear, it is very desirable that if any breakage occur, it should +happen at that point where the consequences would be the least dangerous +to the persons using it, and the reparation of it least expensive. + +During a series of experiments made by the author in 1839, on the Great +Western Railway, it was necessary, amongst a variety of other curves, to +cause a pen to draw upon long rolls of paper the curve described by the +centre of a carriage, projected on the plane of the road. When +everything is in proper order, this line ought to be parallel to, and in +the middle between, the two rails. But it is well known that instead of +answering these conditions, it often describes a _serpentine_ curve, +arising from that snake-like motion of a train which the carriages +acquire by rolling alternately towards each rail, until they are checked +by the flanges pressing against it. + +To accomplish the drawing of the line above-mentioned, it was necessary +to have depending from the carriage, a very stout jointed wooden arm, +terminating in an iron _shoe_ with a steel projection. This _shoe_ was, +by a powerful spring, pressed close to the rail in the middle point +between the two side wheels of the carriage, and by a communication with +the pen the required curve was described. + +But such an apparatus was exposed to very rough work, and, in fact, was +generally broken three or four times during each experimental journey. +If the broken part had fallen between the wheel and the rail, it might +have caused a serious accident. To prevent this the following +precautions were taken— + +The wooden arm was strengthened with thin strips of iron, except at one +part about an inch long. At this part of the wood a small notch was cut +with a saw. The lower portion had a strong iron eye fixed into it, which +was connected loosely to a hook by a rope passing through a hole in the +middle of the carriage. + +Whenever the apparatus broke, it was always at the notch. The position +of the loose rope holding the broken part was such, that the tendency +was immediately to drag it into the middle of the road under the centre +of the carriage. This at once removed it from interference with the +wheels. The pen describing the curve soon gave notice by ceasing to move +laterally, that the arm was broken; on which one of the assistants +immediately took hold of the loose rope, and pulling the broken fragment +close up to the bottom of the carriage, prevented the possibility of any +further danger. + +§ If each jury were to explain concisely the means employed by them to +examine the qualities of each class of objects submitted to them, much +valuable information would result. A collection of these rules for the +judgment or verification of articles, if reduced into order, and +published in a small compass, by a competent person, at the close of the +Exposition, would be invaluable to the public. The result would be +beneficial to all _honest_ tradesmen, and injurious only to the +_fraudulent_. Such means when put into the hands of the public would +soon enable it to distinguish the genuine from the sophisticated +articles, and to select those which in point of excellence and +durability are best suited to the means or wants of the purchaser.[10] +The increased knowledge of the public would be felt by the retail +dealers, and would make them more anxious to obtain excellent and +durable goods from the manufacturer. + +§ Several of the papers issued by the Commission bear honourable +testimony to the sagacity of those who composed them. They treat the +persons addressed as reasoning men, explaining to them the results +contemplated: thus whilst offering their own most strenuous exertions, +they admit that these would scarcely prove effective without the +co-operation of the public in a plan devised for the common advantage of +all. + +In former days had there been water-fowl in our parks, some such notice +as this would have been placarded:— + +“Whoever throws stones at, or frightens these birds, shall be prosecuted +with the utmost severity of the law.” + +In the present day we read the much more effective address, + +“These birds are recommended to the protection of the public.” + +However ragged the coat of the passer-by, his feelings not his fears are +addressed, and his pride is gratified by being appointed as it were a +temporary trustee for the safety of his feathered friends. The advantage +of acting upon this principle is not confined merely to its direct +efficiency for its purpose. A still more important benefit remains +latent, one which never ought to be lost sight of in the enactment or +the administration of laws. + +_It enlists public opinion in favour of law and of order._[11] + +Thus aiding the prevention, the detection, and the punishment of +offenders, it renders the interference of the police far less necessary, +and when called for, more effective. + +§ This principle might perhaps be applied with advantage to the +admission under regulations of certain classes of _skilled_ workmen by +means of tickets, for a limited number of days. + +Most effective assistance might be rendered both to the police and to +the attendants at the Exposition by the following plan:—Allow a certain +number of persons, in whom the executive can repose +confidence,—generally master manufacturers or employers,—the privilege +of recommending a small number of their best and most regular workmen or +assistants, to whom should be granted tickets of admission, subject to +the following conditions:— + +1. Tickets of admission shall be granted for periods of from three to +any greater number of days. Some tickets being for the first three days +of each week, or otherwise, as may be convenient. + +2. They shall either be gratuitous or obtainable by a small payment. + +3. Each ticket-holder shall wear the ticket by a string from the button +of his coat, or as may be arranged. + +4. He shall, when required by the police or attendants, assist in any +duty they may desire for the safety or general convenience of the +expositors. + +5. Whenever he observes any irregularity, or has reason to believe that +thieves or improper persons have obtained admission, he is to inform the +nearest policeman. + +6. Whenever he observes any machine or any object exhibited, to be out +of order, or in danger of being injured, or its parts misplaced, he is +to communicate the fact to the nearest attendant, who will refer him to +the proper superintendent of that department. He will explain the defect +he has pointed out, and if asked by the superintendent, he is to put it +in order, or suggest to him some other person then present, who may be +better able to complete the reparation. + +7. Each master should be required to pledge his word that he will only +recommend trustworthy persons. Each workman admitted might simply be +required to give his word of honour that he would assist. + +These regulations ought to be printed and stuck up in various parts of +the building. + +It would, indeed, be desirable to have a certain number of boards placed +in the most public parts of the Exposition, on which should be fixed and +properly classified all rules, and other information useful to the +public. Also notices as to prices and hours of visiting the Exposition +might from time to time be affixed. Each board ought also to have a plan +of the ground-floor and galleries of the building, on which the names of +the different subjects and countries occupying the various parts, might +be readily ascertained by the visitors. + + [10] Several valuable papers containing rules of this kind have lately + appeared in the _Lancet_. + + [11] The ancient law of rendering the hundred responsible for damages + done by a mob, is founded on this principle. It is so important, that + the reader will, perhaps, pardon another illustration. + + Amongst boys as amongst men, a degree of pugnacity exists, to the + annoyance of the more quiet portion. This was checked at a certain + school by giving full permission to the boys to fight whenever they + liked, and at the same time prescribing certain simple rules for the + combat, as follows:— + + 1. When two boys wish to fight, they must inform the chief usher of + their wish. + + 2. He must appoint a time for the combat, not sooner than three, + nor more than six hours, after the notice. + + 3. At the appointed time, if the lads are still desirous of the + contest, the chief usher must take the pugnacious ones to an + enclosure, where they cannot be seen by their comrades. He then + desires them to fight until they are tired, he standing by to see + fair play. + + 4. Any boy present or assisting at an illegal fight will be + punished. + + The consequence is that their honour or their ill-humour is soon + satisfied. No party is made, to back them; no friends call out to + them, “Give it him, Tom!” “At him, Jack!” Their pugnacity is not, as + it has been in some instances at public schools, unnaturally excited + by the stimulus either of betting or of brandy. + + After long experience, it was found that quarrels rarely arrived at a + fight. It was the _interest_ of all the rest of the school to make + some just and amicable arrangement. + + + + + CHAPTER XI. + + ULTERIOR OBJECTS. + + +Besides those universal advantages which will result, in a greater or +less degree, to every nation maintaining friendly intercourse with its +neighbours, there are others arising from the Exposition, which may be +secured by a little industry and small expense, if timely thought is +bestowed upon them. + +There are also opportunities for advancing several kindred subjects to +which it may be useful to allude. + +The most obvious is the facility it will afford of making extensive +collections of examples of the present state of many industrial +products.[12] All woven manufactures, for example, might be arranged in +books. A small piece of each article being pasted in, might be followed +by a short statement of the various facts relating to it—as, for +example, a piece of plain cambric— + + PLAIN CAMBRIC. (Date.) + Woven in a ---- loom, at ---- by ---- + Number of threads in warp. + Number of threads of weft, in ten inches length. + Breadth of piece in inches. + Length of piece in yards. + Weight per square yard. + Price per yard retail. + Price per piece of ---- yards, as sold by the manufacturer. + +Coloured woven goods might be similarly arranged as regards colour, and +the note connected with them ought to contain the name and locality of +the dyer, and also the nature of the dye used. Such volumes would +hereafter become highly instructive, and save many costly experiments. +But it will be necessary to provide against, or to allow for the fading +of the colouring matter. This could be done only by preserving some +portion of it unchanged by time or exposure. Woven fabrics will not +supply this test, but another department of manufacture would, if +properly treated, give by the permanence of its colours, invaluable aid +not only to many arts, but also to the naturalist and the man of +science. + +§ The enamel colours used on porcelain, have the permanent character +required. Different manufactories excel in different colours. The first +step therefore would be to invite each manufacturer to send tablets of +porcelain of a given size, on which are to be painted a number of small +squares, containing all the pure colours he employs. Besides these +squares, a certain number of other squares should contain two or more +combinations of these colours, two by two, or in such proportions as are +usually employed. + +The comparison of these tablets would indicate where the purest and most +useful porcelain colours could be obtained. The next step would be that +a small committee of manufacturers and men of science, should decide on +the number of combinations and shades of colour it might be desirable to +bring together as permanent and standard objects of reference. + +The different makers of porcelain should then each receive an order for +a certain number of tablets containing those colours in which they +respectively excel. Each small square should be numbered. A sufficient +quantity of the proper materials constituting each colour, should then +be mixed in the proper proportion, and applied at the same time, to the +same number on each tablet; and these tablets should be exposed to the +fire under as nearly as possible the same circumstances of heat, and for +the same length of time. + +Thus an extensive system of unchangeable colours might be obtained, and +if 500 sets were made, they might be distributed in all the great cities +and universities of the world. It might perhaps be found that certain +colours were deficient, and this would of course stimulate discovery by +making known the want. Thus, in the course of upwards of twenty-five +years, during which the author has been collecting on a small scale, +such tablets of colours, he has been unable to meet with any specimen of +an enamel colour at all approaching to the pure scarlet of the common +geranium. + +The utility of such sets of standard colours would be very great, +enabling all nations to speak a language regarding colour at once +accurate and universal. It might serve as the starting point and the +test of many analogous collections of materials tinted by colours of +more transitory duration, whose relative degree of fixity might thus be +measured: as silks, cottons, linens, woollens, leather, paper, and many +other materials. + +There are two coloured substances which seem to promise a higher degree +of permanence than those just mentioned—sealing-wax and glass. For these +admit of the renewal of their surfaces by grinding, in case atmospheric +or external causes should have altered or impaired the superficial +colour. + +A collection of small squares of sealing-wax would be cheaper, and might +if duly verified by comparison with the porcelain standard be in many +cases a useful instrument. Glass also might supply a suit of transparent +colours of great interest. A complete collection of the enamel colours +used for the mosaic work made at Rome would also be instructive. + +§ Perhaps the most important advantage which such an Exposition can +confer, is to instruct the consumer in the art of judging of the +character of the commodity he is about to purchase. Besides the money we +pay in return for the skill, labour, and capital expended in producing +each article we purchase; a further, and often a very considerable sum +is paid in order to assure us that it possesses those qualities which +the vendor has asserted. This is called the _cost of verification_; in +some cases, as in that of white sugar, it is very small, for almost +every one can see by its external character the degree of goodness of +that article. In other cases nothing less than a whole life spent in +acquiring a knowledge of his subject, can be of any avail, as _in the +case of the purchase of a field_. The verification of the fact that the +vendor has really the right to sell it, can, in many cases, be arrived +at only by a profound chancery-lawyer, and sometimes requires an expense +even beyond the value of the field itself. + +When the purchaser has been convinced that he is no judge of the +goodness of an article, he usually buys it at some shop having the +reputation of selling only the best of the kind. In this case he justly +pays a higher price to the vendor, who ought to be remunerated for his +skill in selecting good articles from the manufacturer or merchant, and +for his integrity in not taking advantage of the ignorance of his +customer. + +It may be contended that it is cheaper for the purchaser to pay for the +use of the skill and integrity of the vendor than to spend his own time +in acquiring the same skill; and in many instances this is true. Still, +however, the integrity remains to be paid for, and if simple and ready +modes of verification were more generally known, a very large portion of +this loss of time would be saved. + +In all those articles which are easily verified the retail price varies +but little; whilst on those that are difficult to verify, the price of +the same article, although apparently of the same quality, will be found +to vary considerably at different shops. + +The duties of the various juries who will examine and recommend the +articles for which prizes are to be awarded, will require much +consideration. It cannot be expected, even after long experience through +several successive expositions, that it would be possible to form a jury +which should satisfy every exhibitor. Much, however, may be done, even +at the first, by a sincere desire to arrive at just conclusions, and by +an earnest endeavour to inform the public of the principles, and to +point out the observations, which have led their judgment to the +decisions at which they may arrive. Each of the purely mechanical arts +is allied to one or more of the sciences; almost all their various +processes are amenable to, and explicable by known laws; it is possible +for him who is a perfect master of his own craft, so to explain them +without technical terms, and in the language of common sense, that most +persons of tolerably liberal education, and possessing a fair average +intellect, may not only understand the effect produced, but admire the +ingenuity by which it was attained. + +§ It is of great importance that an effort should be made to remove that +veil of mystery which unfortunately, even in minds otherwise well +instructed, often shrouds the principles on which perfection in +manufactures, in science, and still more remarkably in the fine arts, +depends. These principles nevertheless are founded immutably on the +nature of the material world around us, as well as upon our own internal +feelings. Those which regulate taste are as general, although its rules +are not so precise, as those which relate to physics. Nor need it be +dreaded that a knowledge of the _grounds_ of that admiration which works +of genius ever command from cultivated minds, should diminish the +pleasure derived from their contemplation. + +Show to the student some mechanism effecting results apparently beyond +the reach of the art, and he becomes impressed with the immense distance +between his own intelligence and that which contrived it. Explain to him +the simple means and the beautiful combinations by which it is effected, +you then raise him in his own estimation, and the studious disciple thus +instructed, will ultimately arrive at the conclusion that the only +distance which is really _immense_, is that existing between the +perfection of the highest work of human skill and the simplest of the +productions of nature. + +§ In questions relating to taste the subject matter is so idealized, +that the enthusiastic and the timid equally dread its contact with the +more sober powers of reasoning, lest the process of analysis should +disenchant its visionary scenes, and dissolve the unreal basis of their +delight. Taste the most perfect, without a knowledge of the principles +on which it rests, resembles the barren instinct of animals: like them, +it gathers but little improvement from experience, and like them it +perishes with the extinction of the individual life; its labours leave +no inheritance to its race. + +Taste united with an intimate knowledge of its principles, and still +more if conjoined with the power of eliminating from the fleeting +relations amongst the objects of its attention, those resemblances +which, when sufficiently multiplied and defined, lead up to the +discovery of higher generalizations, confers upon its enviable possessor +a double source of happiness; it adds the delight of an intellectual +triumph to those romantic feelings which are excited by the beautiful, +the lovely, or the sublime in Nature, or which are suggested by the most +perfect representations of art. + +The comprehension of the cause of our pleasure renders us more acute to +perceive those elements which conduce to its existence, to trace their +connexion, to estimate their amount, to mould into form, and to call up +for the happiness of others and of ourselves, their endless +combinations. + +There is, however, for that rare union of judgment, imagination, and +taste, which we call genius, when each exists in due proportion and in +rich abundance, a yet higher object, a still nobler ambition. To have +given to mankind those models, which, after twenty centuries, still +rivet their attention, commanding unbounded admiration and defying +rivalry, is indeed a splendid achievement, justly repaid by the undying +fame which accompanies the names of those benefactors to mankind. + +But great as undoubtedly our gratitude ought to be for such gifts, it is +trifling compared with that which civilized society would owe to him, +who should instruct us in the _principles_ that guided the intellect as +well as the hands, of those by whom such immortal works were executed. + +In the fine arts, and in the arts of industry, as well as in the +pursuits of science, the highest department of each is that of the +discovery of principles, and the invention of methods. To investigate +the laws by which human intellect picks with caution its uncertain track +through those obscure and outlying regions of our knowledge which +separate the known and the certain from the unknown;—to teach us how to +cast as it were an intellectual and temporary connecting line across +that chasm, by which a new truth is separated from the old—confident +that when arrested by that isolated truth it will have fixed itself upon +one solid point, amidst a floating chaos of error,—confident also that, +when once the fixity of that single point has been assured, it is always +_possible_, however formidable the task, to link it by innumerable ties +to established knowledge, and thus to fill up the intervening space even +to the very boundary of its enlarged domain:—to achieve such a conquest +in any science surpasses all other discoveries, for it supplies tools +for the use of intellect, and enlarges the limits and the powers of +human reason. + +§ One of the great advantages of the Exposition will arise from the +interchange of kindly feelings between the inhabitants of foreign +countries and our own. The classes who visit us will consist neither of +the very elevated nor of the very low. They will all of them, probably, +possess more instruction and information than the average of their class +amongst their countrymen: consequently they will consist of persons the +most likely to derive instruction from their visit, and therefore to +return home with pleasing impressions. + +It has been found on the continent that the periodic unions of men of +science have had an excellent effect in removing jealousies and +establishing friendships. It has not unfrequently happened that two +philosophers have met in such societies, and have entered into +discussions which have enabled each to appreciate more justly the talent +of the other, before one of them was aware that he had formerly +criticised a work of his new friend, in terms which their present good +understanding would effectually prevent him from repeating. + +The experience we have had of the visit of the National Guard of Paris, +strongly confirms this view. It brought out the better feelings of our +nature towards our neighbours, and all classes took their share in +endeavouring to make those visits agreeable. On their return home, the +feeling excited by the visit was conveyed far beyond the actual +visitors; and it has left on the population of Paris a permanent advance +in good will towards Englishmen. + +§ Several objects may be suggested whose discussion would be of the +greatest importance for the advancement of the industrial arts, but +which are not within the scope of the Exhibition. There are, however, +other places of meeting where some of these might be discussed. The +Society of Civil Engineers might entertain some inquiries, whilst the +Statistical Society would be the most appropriate place for others. + +A few of these objects may be shortly alluded to. + +§ The law of patents is, perhaps, one of the most interesting as well as +of the most difficult questions. Amongst our visitors, doubtless, there +will be several who have studied the subject in their own country and +who might assist us by their information and experience. + +§ We have another law—that of partnership—which presents greater +obstacles to the advance of the mechanical arts than even the defective +state of the patent law. In England, whoever enters into a partnership, +however small a share of the profits he is to receive, yet his whole +fortune becomes responsible for any losses. In most other countries +there are a class of partnerships called anonymous, or _en commandite_, +in which persons willing to risk only a limited sum are entirely +relieved of all further responsibility. + +The effect of our English system is highly unfavourable to inventors. It +prevents in all but a few cases a small capital from being raised by the +joint contributions of persons more immediately acquainted with the +character and prospects of the inventor, and who are in that respect +best fitted to measure the chance of his success. + +A far greater impediment, however, arises from its entirely preventing a +considerable quantity of capital from being directed to inventions. Its +operation may be thus explained. + +There exist in this country a great number of persons of manufacturing +and commercial habits, whose knowledge of men is considerable, and whose +judgment of the capabilities of a proposed scheme or invention, is +cautious and judicious. + +Persons of this description often possess capital, or such credit as +easily to command its use. If partnerships could be entered into, in +which the liability was limited, many persons so circumstanced would +naturally use their skill and knowledge in selecting a certain number of +schemes, in each of which they would embark a small sum. By thus +spreading the risks over an extensive field, the profits to the +capitalist would be much more certain: whilst many an excellent +invention now lost for want of capital to carry it out, would thus +enrich its inventor and benefit the country. + +§ Connected with the subject of patents is another, which is of some +consequence to the public. Many of those capable of improving the arts +by new inventions, have no desire to secure their discoveries by patent +and thus to render them profitable to themselves, but are willing to +give the public the entire advantage. + +Now it is supposed that, if an inventor, under the existing law, +publishes the drawings of an engine which has not actually been +constructed, a machine-maker might make the machine, take out a patent +for it, and supply the public to the exclusion even of the inventor +himself. + +If the invention is a purely mechanical contrivance, it is quite +possible with mere drawings and with the aid of the Mechanical Notation +to demonstrate the possibility of its construction and of all its +movements, with the same certainty as that with which a proposition in +Euclid is proved. + +It seems then desirable, that some mode of publication should be +arranged by which the public should really enjoy the gifts which science +may present without risking monopoly by an interloper. + +$ The subject of co-operation is one of the greatest importance, and +like many other social questions neither its principles nor its limits +seem to be clearly understood. It is of the utmost importance that the +masses should be enlightened on a subject so exciting, and bearing so +directly on their interests. But until it has been further investigated, +and numerous instances having a practical connexion with its principles +have been collected, it is hopeless to attempt a popular treatment of +the subject. It would be highly desirable that those of our foreign +visitors who have at all studied that most important question, should +communicate to us the results of their experience. + +§ The _Mechanical Notation_ to which a slight allusion has been made, is +a system of signs by which all machinery may be perfectly described even +without the necessity of any explanation in words. It forms in fact an +universal language, which will be, when generally employed, capable of +being read by every people, just as the Arabic numerals are at present. + +It has now been in use for more than twenty-five years, during which +time many improvements and additions have been made. A considerable +portion of it was published in 1826.[13] Amongst the subsequent +additions there is one called the Mechanical Alphabet, which consists of +very simple but expressive signs placed above those letters of the +alphabet used to express certain parts of machinery. Possibly from 100 +to 200 of such signs may be required. Now before any publication is made +of those already used, it is of the greatest importance that they should +be thoroughly revised, and that practical mechanicians familiar with +every branch of the art, should contribute information respecting the +requirements in their different departments. Those also who are most +experienced in the art of mechanical drawing, ought to confer together +respecting the new rules according to which all drawings should have +letters attached to the various parts of the machinery they represent. + +The _universality of the language_ is of such importance, that it would +be quite mischievous hastily to publish to the world any other than a +well-considered system of signs. The Exposition of 1851 furnishes an +opportunity for such a revision. + +§ Considerable discussion has arisen respecting the ultimate fate of the +Crystal Palace. Three questions have been agitated:— + +1. Shall it be pulled down? + +2. Shall it be removed to another locality? + +3. To what uses can the building be applied if it is retained? + +Public opinion has undergone a great revolution since the opening of the +Exhibition; but however strongly it may now be expressed, it ought not +to interfere with public faith. If, after all the protestations and +pledges of the Commission, that the building was to be of temporary +duration, it should be permitted to remain permanently in its present +locality, little faith will be given in future to the promises of public +bodies. The pledge contained in the document by which the Commission was +appointed, viz. that 20,000_l._ should be given in prizes, has neither +been redeemed nor forgotten; and the treatment of the income-tax by the +successive political parties has added little to the respect with which +official promises are regarded. + +If the country had originally maintained its undoubted right to use its +own parks for its own purposes, the building might then have remained; +but the inhabitants of Belgravia, having raised a violent opposition to +the selection of that locality, were only pacified on receiving the +strongest assurances that the building should be removed after it had +fulfilled its original purpose. In justice therefore to them, it must be +taken down. + +The second question, Shall the Crystal Palace be removed? is by no means +decided by the answer given to the first. It would be perfectly +consistent with good faith to remove it to any other part of the park +not contiguous to Belgrave Square. + +The third question, therefore, To what uses can the building be applied? +must now be examined, in order to arrive at a definitive decision upon +the second. + +A wish seems to be very generally entertained for the preservation of +the building; and various uses have been suggested to which it might be +advantageously applied. + +Mr. Paxton wishes to convert it into a winter garden. + +M. Gambardella, in his highly interesting pamphlet, “What shall we do +with the Glass Palace?”[14] has proposed to have within its walls +alternately exhibitions of painting and of sculpture. + +Permanent galleries of the fine arts have also been proposed. + +Collections of the industrial arts, and models, have also been +suggested. + +A portion of it might also be appropriated to the building of several +theatres for lectures, of various sizes, capable of containing from 100 +to 2,000 persons. + +The great principle to be borne in mind is, that, whatever the future +destination of the building, it must be self-supporting. The best and +most certain test of its utility to the public is furnished by the fact +of their being willing to pay for the enjoyments it affords them. + +The plan of having a considerable portion of the building devoted to a +winter garden would supply a great want in our wet and uncertain +climate. The temperature ought not to be high, so that exercise might be +taken under shelter. No dogs, horses, or carriages ought to be admitted. + +A large portion of those residing in the immediate neighbourhood would +subscribe, and also many who possessed carriages. But the number of +subscribers would depend chiefly on the position chosen for the +building. In its _present_ locality, the prejudices of the wealthier +class would be increased by the injustice of retaining it in violation +of the strongest pledges, and it would probably have a very limited +number of subscribers. + +Perhaps it might be desirable to add reading-rooms for newspapers and +for the periodical literature of the day. Subscriptions to these might +be either for limited periods, or even for a single day. A +refreshment-room, also, would be required. + +If, however, the building were removed to the situation proposed in the +seventh chapter of this volume, it would be accessible to a much larger +number of subscribers. Its two ends being then placed at a small +distance from the two great thoroughfares passing Hyde Park Corner and +the Marble Arch, a large number of its visitors would arrive by the +omnibuses which pass each of those well-frequented localities. + +Space might readily be found either for periodical or permanent +galleries of painting and of sculpture. An objection has been made to +the former, namely, that the light in the glass palace is not fit for +the exhibition of paintings. It is singular that it should not have +occurred to such objectors that this is almost the only building in +which, from its very nature, there exists the most unlimited control +over both the quantity and the direction of light that may be required. + +The profit to be derived from this part of the establishment will, as in +the former questions, depend greatly on the situation of the building. + +Another plan, mentioned in the first edition of this work, was, to have +collections of the produce and manufactures exhibited on the present +occasion. Few applications of the building would be more appropriate, +and scarcely any could be more useful, than this. Fortunately, the +Executive Committee have undertaken the task, and it cannot be doubted +that the exhibitors will willingly lighten their labour by giving every +assistance in their power. One or two suggestions may here be offered, +for the purpose of impressing on the exhibitors at future Expositions +the great importance of attaching to each object a brief and condensed +account of facts connected with it. In the article of raw materials +there will not be much difficulty, as there are many instances of +excellence in that department. The case of drugs from Liverpool is a +good illustration. Their price, however, is omitted, because it was +forbidden. In the permanent collection, this most important element +will, of course, occupy its proper place. It might also be useful to +give the date of the first importation of each drug, and the first +application to its various uses. The quantity, also, of the chemical +element on which its use is founded contained in a given weight of the +substance would, if known, be highly interesting: as, for instance, the +quantity of quinine in a given weight of bark. + +In making a collection of machines, there is some fear of occupying a +very large space without a corresponding advantage. A lace frame, making +in one breadth of fifteen feet from sixty to a hundred repetitions of +the same lace, would, commercially speaking, be the most advantageous; +but such a frame with only ten repetitions would be more useful for +instruction. The various self-acting mules, also, would easily fill a +large room. Perhaps the collection might be confined to working models: +these might be made, from time to time, to replace the larger machines, +and funds for that purpose might be derived from the payments of the +visitors both to the exhibition and to the lectures which ought to be +given to explain the collection. + +In making a collection of specimens of manufactured articles, as well as +of produce, it would in many cases add little to the expense if a +sufficient quantity were purchased to divide into many samples. Thus, +the collections of foreign countries and of our own cities might be +enriched by authentic specimens. This view applies more particularly to +collections of woven fabrics. + +A well authenticated collection of cotton, flax, wool, and silk, in the +raw state, through all their successive stages of manufacture, up to the +woven fabrics of which they constitute the basis, if accompanied by the +prices of each at intervals of ten years during the last century, would +furnish materials of the most valuable kind, and would greatly aid the +economist, the statesman, and the philosopher, in discovering and +putting to the test the principles connected with their several +inquiries. + +It is not necessary, or even desirable, that this collection should +consist of articles of fancy: it ought to be composed of all those +fabrics which, although at first rare and costly, have ultimately become +objects of habitual consumption by large classes of the community. + +Another purpose of great importance to which a portion of such a +building might be applied, is the construction of convenient theatres +for the delivery of lectures, and for the discussion of questions of +interest. The want of such buildings in the western part of the +metropolis has long been felt, and acts injuriously on the progress of +knowledge. + +In the present state of society, oral statements of the great principles +which govern it, illustrated by striking facts drawn with judgment from +varied sources, would, if delivered with ability and good taste, attract +large audiences. Even science itself might be rendered popular by such +means. Yet if any highly gifted person, qualified for such a task, were +willing to devote to the subject the time necessary to assure the +success of his efforts, he would now be stopped at the very threshold, +for he could find no convenient theatre in any part of the west of +London, which he could hire for the delivery of such a course of +lectures. + +The only theatre capable of holding 1,000 persons, is that of the Royal +Institution in Albemarle Street. Let us suppose the lecturer capable of +attracting 1,000 subscribers, each willing to pay a sovereign for a +short course of lectures. How would the sum thus raised be divided? He +could lecture at that theatre only by the permission of the Managers, +who would scarcely pay him more than 100_l._[15] for the course. The +1,000_l._ therefore, which the public would willingly pay for the +instruction they received would be thus divided:— + + To the intellect which charmed them £100 + To the rent of the room in which they listened 900 + ------ + £1,000 + ------ + +If the 900_l._ were the remuneration of the creative mind, and the +100_l._ were the payment for the use of the room and the necessary +attendants, the information of several classes of society would be far +other than it now is, and the status of the lecturer would be entirely +altered. At present, however great the talent of the instructor, his +position is not exactly that which the interests of society demand. The +term, _itinerant_ lecturer, has long been one of reproach, and even now +it is not thought quite dignified in a gentleman to give a lecture _for +money_. The reason is obvious: nothing is thought respectable in England +which does not produce wealth. Any shrewd and unscrupulous fellow, who +swindles on a gigantic scale, will, if he succeed, be immediately +received with welcome into what is called the best society. Neither wit +nor talent are necessary for his admission: if, indeed, he be horridly +vulgar, a few additional hundreds of thousands will procure him +absolution in fashionable eyes, even for that most deadly sin. + +Enable the instructor to receive his due portion of that reward which +the public are willing to pay, and he too will become rich, and +therefore eminently respectable. With this increased remuneration, minds +of a higher order will be attracted to the study of the most difficult +of arts,—that of teaching; and the time will arrive when accomplished, +enlightened, and independent men may earn from five to ten thousand +a-year without courting a constituency for parliamentary influence, or a +minister for justice to merit he is incapable of appreciating. + +Such results, however, demand the use of convenient theatres of various +sizes, placed in situations easily accessible. + +It appears then that, on every ground which has been considered, the +utility of the Crystal Palace will depend almost entirely on the +situation chosen for its ultimate position. + +Looking at the question in a purely commercial view, considering the +difficulty of access from the north to its present locality; contrasting +it with the facility of access from every quarter in the site proposed; +it is not too much to presume that its revenue would be so greatly +enlarged by the removal, that it would justify an expenditure of forty +or even of fifty thousand pounds. + + [12] The French chamber has devoted 50,000 francs to the purchase of + specimens.—(_Illustrated News_, 2d. Feb. 1851.) + + [13] Phil. Trans. 1826, p. 250. + + [14] Published by Aylott and Jones, Paternoster Row. + + [15] It is far from the author’s intention to reproach in the + slightest degree the Managers of that most valuable Institution. Every + member having a right to be present at every lecture, it is not in + their power to do otherwise. + + + + + CHAPTER XII. + + INTRIGUES OF SCIENCE. + + +Several causes have justly lowered the position of science in England. +The conduct of the Royal Society, and of men of science themselves, has +equally contributed to this result. In a work on the Decline of +Science[16] in 1830, I exposed the wretched mismanagement of the Royal +Society, but not until in conjunction with Wollaston and other eminent +men, I had found the inutility of every effort we made to improve it +from within. Our reform bill stands recorded upon the minutes of the +council, with the signatures of Wollaston, of Young, of Herschel, and of +others whose names ought to have commanded respect: but it was defeated +by an ingenious manœuvre. + +The facts stated in the work alluded to, have never been disputed: one +answer[17] only having, as far as I am aware, ever been attempted to any +part of that volume. It appeared in the Annals of Philosophy, and was +first mentioned to me by the late Francis Baily, F.R.S. Not having then +seen it, I inquired whether he thought any reply necessary; his answer +was, “_No: it is a full admission of the truth of your statement._” + +§ In France the body who elect to offices in the Institute, are men of +the highest intellectual attainments, whose suffrage it is an honour to +receive, and who, during the existence of the monarchy, constituted one +amongst the classes out of whom Peers of France were selected. + +In England, out of about 800 Fellows of the Royal Society, the greater +part of them know nothing of science, and of course their votes swamp +those of the members most competent to pronounce opinions. The new mode +of admitting fellows of the Royal Society, has had a good effect in +improving the qualification of those admitted; but unfortunately, its +operation is so slow that it will be many years before the Society is +relieved from its incumbrances. + +§ In the Academy of Sciences at Paris, the office of Secretary is an +object of ambition even to men of the highest scientific attainments. It +is usually held by persons of the greatest eminence, who are themselves +at the same time carrying out original inquiries on subjects connected +with their official duties. It is sufficient to cite the names of +Delambre, of Fourier, of Cuvier, and of Arago. + +In England the Secretary of the Royal Society of London occupies no such +position. To some of our most eminent men, it may, when young, have been +an object of ambition to hold it for a few years: but considering the +very moderate pay of 100_l._ a-year, and how considerable a portion of +time must be occupied by its duties if conscientiously fulfilled, it is +rare that any man of original talent and independent feeling will join +in the intrigues by which it is too frequently obtained. + +In consequence of this state of things, the officers of the Royal +Society are most frequently third or fourth-rate men, who not having +sufficient occupation in their own professions, seek the office as a +means of adding to their income. Or, they may be, in some cases, +military men, who being paid by the public for other duties, are glad to +get relieved from them without the loss of their emoluments. Persons +holding offices in the Royal Society ought by their scientific eminence +to confer dignity on their office: instead of acquiring a position in +the world by its acceptance. + +§ Again, the justice of the decisions of the Council in awarding their +medals, has been publicly impeached. A very few years since, a general +meeting of the Society was summoned on the requisition of several of its +members, to inquire into the circumstances attending the award of +certain Royal medals. It was admitted by the President that there had +been considerable irregularities in some of the awards, and the Council +only escaped a vote of censure in consequence of some little want of +management in those who proposed it. + +During this discussion one of the Fellows of the Royal Society got up, +and remarked that although this case was very bad, it became trifling +when compared with the circumstances attending the very first award of +the Royal medals; for on that occasion the Council had wilfully violated +the laws they had themselves established for their distribution, and +that on his formally demonstrating the facts by reference to their own +minutes, they with singular consistency refused to alter their unfair +and unjust decision. + +§ Difficulties of another kind arise respecting the Presidents of +Societies. When the office of President is really or practically a +permanent one, it is very difficult to carry on the business of the +Society if the President is a person of exalted rank, or if he do not +permanently reside in London. + +In either case it usually happens that a secretary or treasurer, or +other officer who is resident, insensibly becomes the means of +communication with the President, who is naturally anxious to be +acquainted with the feelings and wishes of the body over which he +presides. The most honest officer can scarcely fail to have some little +bias towards his own opinions: he will naturally mix more with those who +approve of, than with those who differ from them, and will consequently, +although perhaps unintentionally, communicate to the President a +one-sided view of his own, as the dominant opinion of the Society. + +The President, on the other hand, however really anxious he may be to +introduce any amendments which he conceives advantageous for the +Society, will naturally doubt their policy if informed that they are not +in unison with the opinions of the body. He will communicate with his +treasurer, secretary, or other officer, and almost always express his +concurrence in the course proposed to him as being the most agreeable to +the body at large. + +The officer, receiving such a reply, will naturally mention at the +Council the opinions of the President. He may even from good nature +allow the Council to think that the President himself _originated_ the +views he only _adopted_ because he believed them to be those of the +Society. + +Under such circumstances, it is difficult to oppose the expressed wishes +of the absent President, and strangely enough, without any intentional +deceit, President, Council, and Society are supposed to be unanimous in +doing what each by itself thinks inexpedient. + +§ It is true that by great kindness, good sense, and decision of +character, the Prince or absent President may in some cases mitigate or +prevent these evils. Such cases, however, are the exception, not the +rule. + +§ In a work containing views on the state of science in England, +foreigners at least will expect that I should take some notice of my own +calculating engines. + +I had hoped that the history of the transactions between myself and the +government respecting them, as related in the eleventh chapter of the +History of the Royal Society by Mr. Weld, together with the two +criticisms on that work in the Athenæum,[18] would have rendered any +further explanation on my part unnecessary. Many persons, however, who +admit these as fully explaining the part I was compelled to take, have +at the same time expressed to me their doubts that some occult agency +was at work to prejudice the government, and have asked who were its +scientific advisers on such an important subject, during the long period +in which the Difference Engine was in abeyance. + +§ I have not been blind to the passions and interests of men. My own +pursuits were of such a character that they interfered with those of +none of my colleagues in the paths of science; and perhaps I may have +trusted too much to this circumstance as exempting me from rivalry and +jealousy. + +As a reformer both in science and in politics, I knew that I should +excite enmity in the minds of some honest men, and also in those of many +other persons who dreaded inquiry into jobs not yet exposed. When I +published the Decline of Science, in 1830, I certainly was not aware how +many would include themselves in the latter class: but had I foreseen +it, I should not have altered my course. To have met and to have +defeated intrigue by watchfulness, might not have been a difficult task, +but it would have required too great a sacrifice of time devoted to far +higher objects. It was, moreover, an occupation for which I had little +taste. + +The time, however, has now arrived when, having given up all expectation +of constructing the Analytical Engine from the drawings which I had +caused to be made at very great expense, I think it right to state the +result of my own observations, and especially to point out the facts +that have come to light to confirm them. These, if they do not open the +eyes of some, who, having been themselves deceived, have done me +injustice, will at all events be of use for the future, and may save the +young and inexperienced enthusiast of science from embarking in +undertakings, honourable to the country, but ruinous to himself. + +It has often been remarked, that an event in itself trivial sometimes +leads to results with which it seems to have no conceivable connexion. + +A beaver constructing his dwelling on the plateau of the Andes, may have +turned the course of a river, which otherwise would shortly have joined +the Pacific, into a valley through which, after lengthened wanderings, +it now flows into the Atlantic Ocean. + +So, by some strange combination of circumstances, a quarrel in which I +had no part, and with whose origin I am unacquainted, seems to have had +an unanticipated effect in impeding the construction of the Calculating +Engines. + +At the time of the foundation of the Astronomical Society, Sir James +South, whose observatory and whose house were hospitably open to every +cultivator of astronomy, was on terms of intimate friendship with almost +all of those persons at that period most eminent in science. It is +sufficient to mention the names of Wollaston and Davy, and to add that +when the late Mr. Fallows was appointed Astronomer at the Cape, although +previously a stranger, he became for several months the guest of Sir +James South, who assisted him in acquiring that practical knowledge of +instruments so necessary in his new avocation.[19] + +§ In 1829 Sir James South was elected President of the Astronomical +Society. It now appears, however, that previously to this appointment, +_a party had been formed_ adverse to Sir J. South, which party, with the +view of thwarting him, placed in the office of Secretary the Rev. +Richard Sheepshanks, Fellow of Trinity Coll., Cambridge.[20] + +In March, 1831, the Board of Visitors of the Royal Observatory of +Greenwich, met at the Admiralty, to consider the propriety of separating +the duties of Superintendent of the Nautical Almanac from those of +Astronomer Royal. The new arrangement was advocated, amongst others, by +Sir J. South, and after some discussion, in which Capt. Beaufort and +myself took part, it was ultimately carried. As we were leaving the +meeting-room, Mr. Sheepshanks addressing me said: “I am determined to +put down Sir James South, and if you and other respectable men will give +him your support, I will put you down.” He at the same time told me he +“intended to put Captain Beaufort down.” + +During the course of 1832, it was found that the large equatorial +mounting which had been contrived and executed by Troughton, for his +friend Sir J. South’s twelve-inch object-glass, was an entire failure. +This produced at the time a difference between two friends who esteemed +each other highly, and who had been for years united by reciprocal acts +of kindness in ties of “_very intimate_” friendship. Well acquainted +myself with the character of the parties, and the circumstances of the +case, I have not the slightest doubt that this unfortunate affair might +easily, by the exertions of judicious friends, have terminated in the +entire restoration of their former friendship. But this was a course +which the Rev. R. Sheepshanks took effectual means to prevent. Having +himself a “_personal_” quarrel with Sir James South, he “_offered_” his +services to assist Messrs. Troughton and Simms. He “_offered to go_” +himself to examine the instrument in Sir J. South’s observatory, and +“_got his friend, Professor Airy, to go with him_” for the purpose of +remedying the defects of the Equatorial. + +Notwithstanding he was told by Mr. Simms that “_Sir J. South had +declared that no person could have been pitched upon more obnoxious than +yourself_,” he still persevered in obtruding himself into Sir J. South’s +observatory as the agent of Troughton and Simms, until it was at last +discovered that no after contrivances or expense could correct the +errors of an instrument itself radically defective in principle. + +It may readily be supposed that the continuance for months of these +visits by Mr. Sheepshanks and Professor Airy, and the _irritating +correspondence_ consequent upon them, which, though _nominally_ that of +Troughton and Simms, was really “_directed by_” the Rev. R. Sheepshanks, +destroyed all hope of a reconciliation. The parties then had recourse to +the Court of King’s Bench, and it was curious to observe the vigour and +energy with which the Rev. R. Sheepshanks applied himself to the +exercise of his earlier studies.[21] + +Having _volunteered_ his services to Messrs. Troughton and Simms—he +“_wrote every letter_” for them during the subsequent law-suit—he acted +for them in all the various characters of “_friend_” and “_adviser_”—of +“_workman_” and “_agent_”—of “_attorney_” and “_counsel_;”[22]—he made +an “_affidavit_” in the case—became a _witness_ himself—and undertook to +_intimidate witnesses_ on the opposite side. + +This latter performance is fortunately rare in England, and is so +remarkable that it is necessary to give some account of the proceedings. + +Not wishing to become involved in so disagreeable a case, I had refused +to be a witness on the part of Sir J. South. Having, however, had some +conversation on the subject with the late Lord Abinger (then Mr. +Scarlett), he represented to me that my evidence was essential for the +justice of the case, and upon that ground I reluctantly waived my +objection to appear as a witness. + +Having been examined in chief on the seventeenth day of the Arbitration, +I remained in the room a few minutes after the Arbitrator had left it. +The Rev. R. Sheepshanks, the only other person then present, addressing +me said, “it was necessary to _discredit me_ because I had supported Sir +J. South.” He added that “he would, at a future time, _attack me_ +publicly on _another subject_, on account of the part I had taken in +this matter.” + +The remembrance of his former threats more than four years before at the +Visitation at the Admiralty, added to the knowledge of the unremitting +perseverance with which he had carried on his hostility to Sir J. South, +satisfied me that it would be unsafe for the cause of truth, and +possibly injurious to myself, if I were not to take measures for making +known the nature of the weapons which the Rev. R. Sheepshanks was +employing. As he had ventured, _after_ my having given evidence on oath, +to threaten me with injury, with the hope of inducing me to modify that +evidence on cross-examination, it appeared to me probable that he might +have been tampering with the evidence of other witnesses in the same +cause, who from their position or circumstances in life, might be +compelled by the fear of his vengeance to shape their evidence so as to +adapt it to his views. + +The Rev. R. Sheepshanks discovered on reflection no impropriety in this +course of intimidating witnesses, or of attacking those who could not be +induced to take up his own private quarrels. He thus defended both. + +“_I think it allowable to throw down the gauntlet in this manner._” + +“_I have another ground of dispute with Captain Beaufort, and certainly +intend to put him down._” + +The gallant Admiral has survived many a dangerous day, and needs not the +pen of a friend to protect his honest and well-earned fame. + +The reader may perhaps be astonished at the statement made in the +preceding pages, and feel disposed to consider it an _ex parte_ +statement. It _is entirely_ an _ex parte_ statement: it is not necessary +for its support that the reader should give credence even to that small +part of it which appears to rest on my own evidence before the +Arbitrator. _The whole of it is founded entirely on the testimony of +the_ Rev. R. Sheepshanks _himself._ Every statement of those which are +marked as quotations was either elicited from him on his +cross-examination, or in the few instances in which it came from myself, +its correctness was confirmed by his subsequent admission or +re-statement. After my statement, and the Rev. R. Sheepshanks’ reply to +it, the Arbitrator addressing him said— + +“With respect to the matter of fact, you agree?” + +Rev. R. Sheepshanks. “Yes, we agree as to the matter of fact.” + +Professor Airy, who was afterwards appointed Astronomer Royal, had long +before become as deeply engaged as his friend Mr. Sheepshanks in this +most unfortunate quarrel. Years of aggravating delay and discussion +resulted from the procrastinated reference, and at length one of the +parties, Mr. Troughton, being dead, a decision not satisfactory to +either was given in December 1838. But the inextinguishable desire “to +put down Sir James South” survived the lawsuit which was only used as a +means, and reappeared from time to time through the aid of the press, in +forcible but somewhat unmeasured charges and recriminations between the +Astronomer Royal, the Rev. R. Sheepshanks and others on the one side, +and the astronomer of Campden Hill on the other. + +It was a curious though a very painful study, to observe from time to +time the various consequences of this feud. + +Against those men of science who refused to forsake their ancient social +relations with Sir James South, a system of disparagement was maintained +which could not fail in the course of time to produce its effects. The +avowed object of the party of which the Rev. R. Sheepshanks was the +organ, was, in his own expressive words, to _discredit and put down +every respectable person_ who supported Sir J. South. + +It was melancholy to observe the gradual change in the expression of +opinions by some of those qualified from their knowledge to guide the +opinion of the public. Intimidated at first into silence; the +uncontradicted assertions of those around them then got possession of +their minds, until at length, without any new examination, they were +flattered into an acquiescence in, if not indeed into the expression of, +opinions entirely opposite to their former ones. These new views were +doubtless conveyed by their flatterers to other ears, and thus the +process of “_discrediting every respectable person_” opposed to them, +was carried on under the authority of honourable names. + +One after another almost all Sir James South’s old friends and +acquaintance amongst _men of science only, however_, were alienated from +him. + +One man was alarmed by the fear that some inaccuracies in his +astronomical publications should be severely criticised. Of another it +was hinted that his mathematics were all wrong, and might be shown up. + +Those who were timid feared the anger of the dominant party; those who +were young might have their prospects blighted by even appearing in +friendly relations with him who supported the unequal conflict; those +who were old loved repose, and found it easiest to appear to side with +the most numerous party; whilst those who saw through the whole of it, +had better things wherewith to occupy their minds, than to attend to +such affairs. + +It is obvious to all who have observed society that such a system of +“_discrediting_” carried on for a series of years, especially against +one too much occupied or too proud to expose it, must end in +establishing the set of opinions propagated by the party. Honest and +even tolerably well-informed persons, will at length be misled, and be +found to adopt them. + +Opinions thus propagated must have had their influence widely spread, +and unless those members of the various administrations with whom +decisions relative to the Difference Engine rested, had been either +highly skilled in mathematical science, or deeply read in human nature, +it would have been almost impossible for them not to have been misled. + +The former qualification is unnecessary; the latter is indispensable for +a statesman. Of the _eight_ Prime-ministers with whom I have had +communications relative to the Difference Engine, _one_ only personally +examined it; doubtless not with the view of criticising the mechanism, +but of reading the character of its author. Had my _official_ +intercourse with that eminent man commenced earlier or continued later, +the fate of the Calculating Engines would probably have been far +different. + +It is always difficult to trace intriguers up to a direct intercourse +with government. In the present case, the vanity of some of them +overcame their judgment, and they gave themselves out as advisers of the +government on scientific subjects. To these I shall not at present +refer, but confine myself to citing from official documents two cases of +direct communication with the government by persons on whose judgment it +appears to have relied. + +The Whigs seemed to have had great confidence in the devotion of the +Rev. R. Sheepshanks to their interests, since they took the +extraordinary step of appointing him, although a Clergyman, one of the +Boundary Commissioners under the Reform Bill, and he is, I believe, at +present one of the Standard Measure Commission. + +The Astronomer Royal, besides his situation at Greenwich, has been a +member of several Commissions:— + + The Tidal Harbour Commission. + The Standard Measure Commission. + The Harbour of Refuge Commission. + The Railway Gauge Commission. + +The following are extracts from his Annual Reports:— + + “The Board of Admiralty, on my representation of the interruption to + our business caused by the rating of so many Chronometers, and _by my + own employment on public business unconnected with the Observatory_, + immediately sanctioned the employment of an additional + computer.”—_Astron. Royal, Rep. June 1841_, p. 7. + + “On former occasions I have avowed without scruple that I do not + consider the Royal Observatory as a mere isolated place for the + conduct of Astronomical observations. I consider it a part, perhaps + the most important part, of the scientific institutions of this + country.”—P. 18. + + “In concluding this long report, I have been uniformly supported by + the _confidence of the government_.”—_Astron. Royal, Rep. June 1844_, + p. 20. + +The following extract of a letter from the Astronomer Royal to the late +Sir Robert Peel, shows that his time was so occupied with the labours of +the Railway Gauge Commission, that he was unable to draw up a memorial +which he had himself proposed, even though it related to an astronomical +subject—our colonial observatories. + + * * * * “I have been so closely employed on the papers of the Railway + Gauge Commission, that it has been impossible for me to draw up a + memorial before the present time. * * * * + + “April 16th, 1846. + To the Right Hon. Sir Robert Peel, Bart., &c.” + + “By the giving opinions on subjects of railways and _other mechanical + matters referred to me by Government_, it has appeared that our + energies are not wholly absorbed in the mere Astronomy of the + Observatory.”—_Astron. Royal, Rep. June 1846_, p. 10. + + (N.B. The italics do not occur in the original quotations.) + +Now it is evident from these extracts from Reports of the Astronomer +Royal to the Board of Visitors and from other facts, that he wishes +himself to be considered the general referee of Government in all +scientific questions. + +The office of Astronomer Royal is one of great importance: it requires +the undivided energy and talents of one person, and great as Mr. Airy’s +abilities undoubtedly are, yet it is highly injudicious to divert them +from their legitimate object,—the direction of the many arduous duties +of the establishment over which he presides. + +During many years I have frequently found, in my communications with +members of Government on subjects connected with the Calculating +Engines, difficulties on their part which remained entirely +unexplained;—unseen obstacles which were never alluded to, but whose +existence could not be doubted. + +Although frequently warned by personal friends that it was unwise to +neglect such machinations as those which I have, at length, been +reluctantly compelled to expose; yet I was unwilling for a long time to +believe that they were directed against myself. + +I have now traced the connexion of the Rev. R. Sheepshanks, (who had +avowed his determination “_to discredit me_,” and also to “_attack me on +another subject at a future time_,”) through his friend the Astronomer +Royal, with the Government. According to the Astronomer Royal’s own +statement, he was their adviser on all scientific subjects. The +Government had no other official adviser, and would scarcely have +ventured to decide upon points connected with some of the most profound +questions of mathematics, on their own responsibility. + +There are, I am aware, other channels than those of official reports, by +which the Government may have been influenced. I do not, therefore, +expect to find any formal report denying the practical utility of the +Calculating Engines, or the possibility of constructing them. + +If there is any such, I claim as a matter of justice, that it be +published. The Difference Engine and the Analytical Engine, are +questions of pure science. If the Astronomer Royal has maintained that +they are either useless or impracticable, then the grounds of that +opinion _must_ have been stated, and, if published, the solidity of +those grounds might be examined. + +It now becomes necessary to take a very brief review of the conduct of +Government with respect to the Difference Engine. Having contrived and +executed a small model of a Difference Engine, I published a very short +account of it in a letter to Sir Humphry Davy, in the year 1822. At the +wish of the Government I undertook to construct for them an engine on a +much larger scale, which should print its results. I continued to work +at this Engine until 1834, refusing in the mean time other sources of +profitable occupation, amongst which was an office of about 2,500_l._ +a-year. Circumstances over which I had no control then caused the work +to be suspended. + +After eight years of repeated applications, and of the most harassing +delay, at the end of 1842 the Government arrived at the resolution of +giving up the completion of the Difference Engine, on the alleged ground +of its expense. + +In the mean time, new views had opened out to me the prospect of +performing purely algebraic operations by means of mechanism. To arrive +at so entirely unexpected a result I deemed worthy of any sacrifice, and +accordingly spared no expense in procuring every subsidiary assistance +which could enable me to attain it. Each successive difficulty was met +by new contrivances, and at last I found that I had surmounted all the +great difficulties of the question, and had made drawings of each +distinct department of the Analytical Engine. + +Having expended upwards of 20,000_l._ on the experiments and inquiries +which had led me to these results, it would not have been prudent to +attempt the _construction_ of such an engine. I thought, however, that +there were several offices in the appointment of Government for which I +was qualified, and to which, under the circumstances, I had some claim. +I hoped if I had obtained one of these, by fulfilling its laborious +duties for a few years, and by allowing the whole salary to accumulate, +that I might then have been able to retire, and adding the money thus +earned to my own private resources, that I might yet have enough of life +and energy left to _execute_ the Analytical Engine, and thus complete +one of the great objects of my ambition. + +Having neither asked nor been offered any acknowledgment for all the +sacrifices I had made, I felt that I had some just claims to one of +these appointments. Every application was unsuccessful; whatever may +have been the reasons, the conduct of Government has been exactly that +which might have been expected had they been the _allies_ or the _dupes_ +of the party which thought it necessary, from enmity to Sir James South, +to “discredit” the author of the Analytical Engine. + +One only of the many reports which were circulated, I thought it worth +while to contradict, and that cost me more trouble, and wasted more of +my time, than the refutation of the calumny was worth. It was boldly and +perseveringly stated that I had received from the Government a large +pecuniary reward for my services. The fact was, not merely that I never +_did_ receive any such reward, but that I was almost constantly +_advancing money_ to pay the engineer who was constructing the Engine +for the Government, before I had myself received the amount of his bills +from the Treasury. + +On tracing up these rumours, they were usually found to arise from a +species of dishonesty very difficult to convict. Thus one person +circulated them widely; when asked for the grounds of the charge, he +referred to certain Parliamentary Papers, and affected to believe that +the sums paid _for the workmen_ were paid to the _inventor_: of course +_he_ could no longer safely propagate the falsehood. Another then took +up the tale, until he was met by the same question, when _he_ not only +expressed his delight at being informed of the truth, but half convinced +his indignant, though credulous auditor, that _he_ would assist in +propagating the correction. Thus the assertion was continually repeated, +until honourable and upright men, who had been deceived and discovered +the deception, were so frequent in society, that it became dangerous to +the character of the traducers to continue the circulation of the +calumny. + +Even since the first edition of this work has appeared, one of these +calumnies has been again revived, in the statement that— + + The reason why the Government gave up the construction of the original + Difference Engine was, that Mr. Babbage refused to finish _it_, and + wished them to take up the Difference Engine No. 2. + +An attempt has been made to prove its truth by a quotation from this +volume, in which the accuser, mistaking dates, assigns the drawings of +the Difference Engine No. 2, which did not exist until 1847, as the +causes of the discontinuance of No. 1, which was given up in 1843. This +charge too is made in the face of a distinct denial by Mr. Babbage that +the late Sir Robert Peel could have been influenced by any such +_supposed_ wish, because he had in his possession a written _disavowal_ +of it from Mr. B. himself; it is also made in the teeth of the very +words used by the Chancellor of the Exchequer, who, in his letter to Mr. +B. regretting the necessity of giving it up, assigns as its cause “_the +expense_.” Both these latter statements had been already published in +1848. + + [16] Reflections on the Decline of Science in England, and on some of + its Causes. 1830. + + [17] A small pamphlet, the production of an amiable and excellent + foreign philosopher, cannot be considered an answer: since it did not + _contradict_ the facts, and only answered opinions on science, which + were _not_ maintained in that book. + + [18] Athenæum, 14 Oct. 1848, and 16 Dec. 1848. + + [19] Sir James South, in conjunction with Sir John Herschel, completed + the examination of 380 double and triple stars; a work for which the + authors were awarded the great Astronomical prize of the Institute of + France in 1825, and the Medal of the Astronomical Society of London in + 1826. + + [20] “When he [Sir J. S.] was elected President, I [Rev. R. S.] was + elected Secretary to keep him in order.” + + [21] At an earlier period of his life, his studies were directed + towards the profession of the law. + + [22] On the 19th July, 1836, at the 23d meeting under the Arbitrator, + the Rev. R. Sheepshanks _cross-examined_ Mr. Savage the Architect. + + + + + CHAPTER XIII. + + CALCULATING ENGINES. + + +It is not a bad definition of _man_ to describe him as a _tool-making +animal_. His earliest contrivances to support uncivilized life, were +tools of the simplest and rudest construction. His latest achievements +in the substitution of machinery, not merely for the skill of the human +hand, but for the relief of the human intellect, are founded on the use +of tools of a still higher order. + +The successful construction of all machinery depends on the perfection +of the tools employed, and whoever is a master in the art of tool-making +possesses the key to the construction of all machines. + +The Crystal Palace, and all its splendid contents, owe their existence +to _tools_ as the physical means:—to intellect as the guiding power, +developed equally on works of industry or on objects of taste. + +The contrivance and the construction of tools, must therefore ever stand +at the head of the industrial arts. + +The next stage in the advancement of those arts is equally necessary to +the progress of each. It is the art of drawing. Here, however, a +divergence commences: the drawings of the artist are entirely different +from those of the mechanician. The drawings of the latter are +Geometrical projections, and are of vast importance in all mechanism. +The resources of mechanical drawing have not yet been sufficiently +explored: with the great advance now making in machinery, it will become +necessary to assist its powers by practical yet philosophical rules for +expressing still more clearly by signs and by the letters themselves the +mutual relations of the parts of a machine. + +As we advance towards machinery for more complicated objects, other +demands arise, without satisfying which our further course is absolutely +stopped. It becomes necessary to see at a glance, not only every +_successive_ movement of each amongst thousands of different parts, but +also to scrutinize all contemporaneous actions. This gave rise to the +Mechanical Notation, a language of signs, which, although invented for +one subject, is of so comprehensive a nature as to be applicable to +many. If the whole of the facts relating to a naval or military battle +were known, the mechanical notation would assist the description of it +quite as much as it would that of any complicated engine. + +This brief sketch has been given partly with the view of more distinctly +directing attention to an important point in which England excels all +other countries—the art of _contriving and making tools_; an art which +has been continually forced upon my own observation in the contrivance +and construction of the Calculating Engines. + +When the first idea of inventing mechanical means for the calculation of +all classes of astronomical and arithmetical tables, occurred to me, I +contented myself with making simple drawings, and with forming a small +model of a few parts. But when I understood it to be the wish of the +Government that a large engine should be constructed, a very serious +question presented itself for consideration:— + +Is the present state of the art of making machinery sufficiently +advanced to enable me to execute the multiplied and highly complicated +movements required for the Difference Engine? + +After examining all the resources of existing workshops, I came to the +conclusion that, in order to succeed, it would become necessary to +advance the art of construction itself. I trusted with some confidence +that those studies which had enabled me to contrive mechanism for new +wants, would be equally useful for the invention of new tools, or of +other methods of employing the old. + +During the many years the construction of the Difference Engine was +carried on, the following course was adopted. After each drawing had +been made, a new inquiry was instituted to determine the mechanical +means by which the several parts were to be formed. Frequently sketches, +or new drawings, were made, for the purpose of constructing the tools or +mechanical arrangements thus contrived. This process often elicited some +simpler mode of construction, and thus the original contrivances were +improved. In the mean time, many workmen of the highest skill were +constantly employed in making the tools, and afterwards in using them +for the construction of parts of the engine. The knowledge thus acquired +by the workmen, matured in many cases by their own experience, and often +perhaps improved by their own sagacity, was thus in time disseminated +widely throughout other workshops. Several of the most enlightened +employers and constructors of machinery, who have themselves contributed +to its advance, have expressed to me their opinion that if the +Calculating Engine itself had entirely failed, the money expended by +Government in the attempt to make it, would be well repaid by the +advancement it had caused in the art of mechanical construction. + +It is somewhat singular, that whilst I had anticipated the difficulties +of construction, I had not foreseen a far greater difficulty, which, +however, was surmounted by the invention of the Mechanical Notation. + +The state of the _Difference Engine_ at the time it was abandoned by the +Government, was as follows: A considerable portion of it had been made; +a part (about sixteen figures) was put together; and the drawings, the +whole of which are now in the Museum of King’s College at Somerset +House, were far advanced. Upon this engine the Government expended about +£17,000. + +The drawings of the _Analytical Engine_ have been made entirely at _my +own cost_: I instituted a long series of experiments for the purpose of +reducing the expense of its construction to limits which might be within +the means I could myself afford to supply. I am now resigned to the +necessity of abstaining from its construction, and feel indisposed even +to finish the drawings of one of its many general plans. As a slight +idea of the state of the drawings may be interesting to some of my +readers, I shall refer to a few of the great divisions of the subject. + +ARITHMETICAL ADDITION.—About a dozen plans of different mechanical +movements have been drawn. The last is of the very simplest order. + +CARRIAGE OF TENS.—A larger number of drawings have been made of modes of +carrying tens. They form two classes, in one of which the carriage takes +place successively; in the other it occurs simultaneously, as will be +more fully explained at the end of this chapter. + +MULTIPLYING BY TENS.—This is a very important process, though not +difficult to contrive. Three modes are drawn; the difficulties are +chiefly those of construction, and the most recent experiments now +enable me to use the simplest form. + +DIGIT COUNTING APPARATUS.—It is necessary that the machine should count +the digits of the numbers it multiplies and divides, and that it should +combine these properly with the number of decimals used. This is by no +means so easy as the former operation: two or three systems of +contrivances have been drawn. + +COUNTING APPARATUS.—This is an apparatus of a much more general order, +for treating the indices of functions and for the determination of the +repetitions and movements of the Jacquard cards, on which the Algebraic +developments of functions depend. Two or three such mechanisms have been +drawn. + +SELECTORS.—The object of the system of contrivances thus named, is to +choose in the operation of Arithmetical division the proper multiple to +be subtracted; this is one of the most difficult parts of the engine, +and several different plans have been drawn. The one at last adopted is, +considering the object, tolerably simple. Although division is an +inverse operation, it is possible to perform it entirely by mechanism +without any tentative process. + +REGISTERING APPARATUS.—This is necessary in division to record the +quotient as it arises. It is simple, and different plans have been +drawn. + +ALGEBRAIC SIGNS.—The means of combining these are very simple, and have +been drawn. + +PASSAGE THROUGH ZERO AND INFINITY.—This is one of the most important +parts of the Engine, since it may lead to a totally different action +upon the formulæ employed. The mechanism is much simpler than might have +been expected, and is drawn and fully explained by notations. + +BARRELS AND DRUMS.—These are contrivances for grouping together certain +mechanical actions often required; they are occasionally under the +direction of the cards; sometimes they guide themselves, and sometimes +their own guidance is interfered with by the Zero Apparatus. + +GROUPINGS.—These are drawings of several of the contrivances before +described, united together in various forms. Many drawings of them +exist. + +GENERAL PLANS.—Drawings of all the parts necessary for the Analytical +Engine have been made in many forms. No less than thirty different +general plans for connecting them together, have been devised and +partially drawn; one or two are far advanced. No. 25 was lithographed at +Paris in 1840. These have been superseded by simpler or more powerful +combinations, and the last and most simple has only been sketched. + +A large number of Mechanical Notations exist, showing the movements of +these several parts, and also explaining the processes of arithmetic and +algebra to which they relate. One amongst them, for the process of +division, covers nearly thirty large folio sheets. + +About twenty years after I had commenced the first Difference Engine, +and after the greater part of these drawings had been completed, I found +that almost every contrivance in it had been superseded by new and more +simple mechanism, which the construction of the Analytical Engine had +rendered necessary. Under these circumstances I made drawings of an +entirely new Difference Engine. The drawings, both for the calculating +and the printing parts, amounting in number to twenty-four, are +completed. They are accompanied by the necessary mechanical notations, +and by an index of letters to the drawings; so that although there is as +yet no description in words, there is effectively such a description by +signs, that this new Difference Engine might be constructed from them. + +Amongst the difficulties which surrounded the idea of the construction +of an Engine for developing Analytical formulæ, there were some which +seemed insuperable if not impossible, not merely to the common +understandings of well-informed persons, but even to the more practised +intellect of some of the greatest masters of that science which the +machine was intended to control. It still seemed, after much discussion, +at least highly doubtful whether such formulæ could ever be brought +within the grasp of mechanism. + +I have met in the course of my inquiries with four cases of obstacles +presenting the appearance of impossibilities. As these form a very +interesting chapter in the history of the human mind, and are on the one +hand connected with some of the simplest elements of mechanism, and on +the other with some of the highest principles of philosophy, I shall +endeavour to explain them in a short, and, I hope, somewhat popular +manner, to those who have a very moderate share of mathematical +knowledge. Those of my readers to whom they may not be sufficiently +interesting, will, I hope, excuse the interruption, and pass on to the +succeeding chapters. + +§ The first difficulty arose at an early stage of the Analytical Engine. +The mechanism necessary to add one number to another, if the carriage of +the tens be neglected, is very simple. Various modes had been devised +and drawings of about a dozen contrivances for carrying the tens had +been made. The same general principle pervaded all of them. Each figure +wheel when receiving addition, in the act of passing from nine to ten +caused a lever to be put aside. An axis with arms arranged spirally upon +it then revolved, and commencing with the lowest figure replaced +successively those levers which might have been put aside during the +addition. This replacing action upon the levers caused unity to be added +to the figure wheel next above. The numerical example below will +illustrate the process. + + 597,999 Numbers to be added. + 201,001 + ------- + 798,990 Sum without any carriage. + 1 Puts aside lever acting on tens. + ------- + 798,900 First spiral arm adds tens and + 1 puts aside the next lever. + ------- + 798,000 Second spiral arm adds hundreds, and + 1 puts aside the next lever. + ------- + 799,000 Third spiral arm adds thousands. + +Now there is in this mechanism a certain analogy with the act of memory. +The lever thrust aside by the passage of the tens, is the equivalent of +the note of an event made in the memory, whilst the spiral arm, acting +at an after time upon the lever put aside, in some measure resembles the +endeavours made to recollect a fact. + +It will be observed that in these modes of _carrying_, the action must +be _successive_. Supposing a number to consist of thirty places of +figures, each of which is a nine, then if any other number of thirty +figures be added to it, since the addition of each figure to the +corresponding one takes place at the same time, the whole addition will +only occupy nine units of time. But since the number added may be unity, +the carriages may possibly amount to twenty-nine. Consequently the time +of making the carriages may be more than three times as long as that +required for addition. + +The time thus occupied was, it is true, very considerably shortened in +the Difference Engine: but when the Analytical Engine was to be +contrived, it became essentially necessary to diminish it still further. +After much time fruitlessly expended in many contrivances and drawings, +a very different principle, which seemed indeed at first to be +impossible, suggested itself. + +It is evident that whenever a carriage is conveyed to the figure above, +if that figure happen to be a nine, a new carriage must then take place, +and so on as far as the nines extend. Now the principle sought to be +expressed in mechanism amounted to this. + +1st. That a lever should be put aside, as before, on the passage of a +figure-wheel from nine to ten. + +2d. That the engine should then ascertain the position of all those +nines which by carriage would ultimately become zero, and give notice of +new carriages; that, foreseeing those events, it should anticipate the +result by making all the carriages simultaneously. + +This was at last accomplished, and many different mechanical +contrivances fulfilling these conditions were drawn. The former part of +this mechanism bears an analogy to memory, the latter to foresight. The +apparatus remembers as it were, one set of events, the transits from +nine to ten: examines what nines are found in certain critical places: +then, in consequence of the concurrence of these events, acts at once so +as to anticipate other actions that would have happened at a more +distant period, had less artificial means been used. + +§ The second apparent impossibility seemed to present far greater +difficulty. Fortunately it was not one of immediate _practical_ +importance, although as a question of philosophical inquiry it possessed +the highest interest. I had frequently discussed with Mrs. Somerville +and my highly gifted friend the late Professor M‘Cullagh of Dublin, the +question whether it was possible that we should be able to treat +algebraic formulæ by means of machinery. The result of many inquiries +led to the conclusion, that if not really impossible, it was almost +hopeless. The first difficulty was that of representing an indefinite +number in a machine of finite size. It was readily admitted that if a +machine afforded means of operating on _all_ numbers under twenty places +of figures, then that any number, or _an indefinite_ number, of less +than twenty places or figures might be represented by it. But such +number will not be really indefinite. It would be possible to make a +machine capable of operating upon numbers of forty, sixty, or one +hundred places of figures: still, however, a limit must at last be +reached, and the numbers represented would not be really _indefinite_. +After lengthened consideration of this subject, the solution of the +difficulty was discovered; and it presented the appearance of reasoning +in a circle. + +Algebraical operations in their most general form cannot be carried on +by machinery without the capability of expressing _indefinite_ +constants. On the other hand, the only way of arriving at the expression +of an indefinite constant, was through the intervention of Algebra +itself. + +This is not a fit place to enter into the detail of the means employed, +further than to observe, that it was found possible to evade the +difficulty, by connecting _indefinite_ number with the _infinite in +time_ instead of with the _infinite in space_. + +The solution of this difficulty being found, and the discovery of +another principle having been made, namely—that _the nature of a +function might be indicated by its position_—algebra, in all its most +abstract forms, was placed completely within the reach of mechanism. + +§ The third difficulty that presented itself was one which I had long +before anticipated. It was proposed to me nearly at the same time by +three of the most eminent cultivators of analysis then existing, M. +Jacobi, M. Bessel, and Professor M‘Cullagh, who were examining the +drawings of the Analytical Engine. The question they proposed was +this:—How would the Analytical Engine be able to treat calculations in +which the use of tables of logarithms, sines, &c. or any other tabular +numbers should be required? + +My reply was, that as at the time logarithms were invented, it became +necessary to remodel the whole of the formulæ of Trigonometry, in order +to adapt it to the new instrument of calculation: so when the Analytical +Engine is made, it will be desirable to transform all formulæ containing +tabular numbers into others better adapted to the use of such a machine. +This, I replied, is the answer I give to you as mathematicians; but I +added, that for others less skilled in our science, I had another +answer: namely— + +That the engine might be so arranged that wherever tabular numbers of +any kind, occurred in a formula given it to compute, it would on +arriving at any required tabular number, as for instance, if it required +the logarithm of 1207, stop itself, and ring a bell to call the +attendant, who would find written at a certain part of the machine +“Wanted log. of 1207.” The attendant would then fetch from tables +previously computed by the engine, the logarithm it required, and +placing it in the proper place, would lift a detent, permitting the +engine to continue its work. + +The next step of the engine, on receiving the tabular number (in this +case the logarithm of 1207) would be to _verify_ the fact of its being +really that logarithm. In case no mistake had been made by the +attendant, the engine would use the given tabular number, and go on with +its work until some other tabular number were required, when the same +process would be repeated. If, however, any mistake had been made by the +attendant, and a wrong logarithm had been accidentally given to the +engine, it would have discovered the mistake, and have rung a louder +bell to call the attention of its guide, who on looking at the proper +place, would see a plate above the logarithm he had just put in with the +word “_wrong_” engraven upon it. + +By such means it would be perfectly possible to make all calculations +requiring tabular numbers, without the chance of error. + +Although such a plan does not seem absolutely impossible, it has always +excited, in those informed of it for the first time, the greatest +surprise. How, it has been often asked, does it happen if the engine +knows when the _wrong_ logarithm is offered to it, that it does not also +know the right one; and if so, what is the necessity of having recourse +to the attendant to supply it? The solution of this difficulty is +accomplished by the very simplest means. + +§ The fourth of the apparent impossibilities to which I have referred, +involves a condition of so extraordinary a nature that even the most +fastidious inquirer into the powers of the Analytical Engine could +scarcely require it to fulfil. + +Knowing the kind of objections that my countrymen make to this +invention, I proposed to myself this inquiry:— + +Is it possible so to construct the Analytical Engine, that after the +cards representing the formulæ and numbers are put into it, and the +handle is turned, the following condition shall be fulfilled? + +The attendant shall stop the machine in the middle of its work, whenever +he chooses, and as often as he pleases. At each stoppage he shall +examine all the figure wheels, and if he can, without breaking the +machine, move any of them to other figures, he shall be at liberty to do +so. Thus he may from time to time, falsify as many numbers as he +pleases. Yet notwithstanding this, the final calculation and all the +intermediate steps shall be entirely free from error. I have succeeded +in fulfilling this condition by means of a principle in itself very +simple. It may add somewhat, though not very much, to the amount of +mechanism required; in many parts of the engine the principle has been +already carried out. I by no means think such a plan _necessary_, +although wherever it can be accomplished without expense it ought to be +adopted. + + + + + CHAPTER XIV. + + POSITION OF SCIENCE. + + +Science in England is not a profession: its cultivators are scarcely +recognised even as a class. Our language itself contains no _single_ +term by which their occupation can be expressed. We borrow a foreign +word [_Savant_] from another country whose high ambition it is to +advance science, and whose deeper policy, in accord with more generous +feelings, gives to the intellectual labourer reward and honour, in +return for services which crown the nation with imperishable renown, and +ultimately enrich the human race. + +The first question which presents itself to a government desirous of +advancing science, is to consider what departments of knowledge it is +important that it should reward. This is a point upon which much +misunderstanding prevails, and with regard to which interested parties +have studiously endeavoured to delude the public. + +As the fund which can be applied to this purpose even by a generous +nation, is moderate, the first limitation of its application ought +naturally to be,—to confine it to those discoveries which are from their +very nature not immediately capable of becoming a source of profit. + +One of the most common errors, is to reward persons who have merely +acquired an extensive knowledge of various departments of science, but +who have neither extended its boundaries by new methods, nor added new +principles to its theories. + +§ An analogous mistake often occurs to wealthy and benevolent persons +residing in the country, who, finding in the son of their village +blacksmith or other artificer, some great aptitude for figures, +immediately conclude that if properly trained and then sent to College, +he will turn out a great mathematician. Now although in very rare +instances such cases may have occurred, the general result is quite +different. The lad thus selected, if as is usually the case he is +somewhat above the average intellect, will under such favourable +circumstances probably acquire a considerable knowledge of science, and +become a very respectable member of society. But if the benevolent +person who thus totally changed the position in life of this young man, +had first made inquiries at our national schools, he would probably have +found several out of every hundred scholars, capable under similar +treatment of acquiring a still larger amount of that knowledge. + +§ With the increasing extension of science the labour of some of its +details becomes excessive, and those who are able to afford the expense, +gladly employ computers to relieve them from the more irksome portions +of their toil. The reduction of astronomical and meteorological +observations are of this kind. When once the formulæ to be used are +decided upon, and a skeleton form is ruled or printed and a system of +checks is devised, the remaining work may be executed by persons of very +moderate attainments. This may be extended to the computation of the +orbits of planets, of comets, and of double stars, and such assistance +may usually be had on very moderate terms. In more extensive operations, +the liability to error from the want of sufficient checks, and the great +tediousness and even uncertainty of the result must remain, until +mechanism shall entirely relieve the mind from these difficulties. + +§ Let us now consider what is the present situation of men of science in +England. + +The estimate which is formed of the social position of any class of +society, depends mainly upon the answer to these two questions:— + +What are the salaries of the highest offices to which the most +successful may aspire? + +What are the honorary distinctions which the most eminent can attain? + +Offices of a strictly scientific nature are few, and their salaries are +generally of small amount: amongst these there are— + +A few of the professorships at our universities. + +The Astronomer Royal. + +The Astronomers of some of our Colonial Observatories. + +The Master of Mechanics to the Queen. + +The Conductor of the Nautical Almanac. + +The Director of the Museum of Economical Geology and of the Geological +Survey. + +Various officers of the same institution. + +Some of the officers in the Natural History department of the British +Museum. + +The most valuable of these, that of Astronomer Royal, receives about +1,300_l._ a-year, including a pension of 300_l._ + +Thus there is amongst this class one solitary prize of at the utmost +1,300_l._ a-year, and that is confined to one department of science. + +Offices for which men of science are at least as fit as any other +persons, are numerous, though they are very rarely attained by those who +pursue it. + + +It may, perhaps, have been expected that the recent appointment of Sir +John Herschel to the Mastership of the Mint, should have been noticed in +the previous list. But until the motives which dictated it are known, I +have no observation to make, except that it is gratifying to me to find +that the great principle of the “claims of science,” for which I have +all my life been contending, has been thus as it were, unconsciously +admitted by the minister: and had the accident of birth placed me in his +position, the appointment would have been the same, although the motives +for it might have been different. + +Let us now turn to the _honorary distinctions_ which await science. +During the eleven years of the present reign, one solitary instance is +to be found of a baronetcy given for science, and that too occurred only +at a festival (the coronation) at which baronetages and peerages were +showered upon those whose sole claim was founded on the mere support of +party. + +During the same interval, about half a dozen of those who cultivate +science, have been knighted. + +It appears then that the highest position a man of science can attain, +and that but very rarely, is a baronetcy; that the highest salary is +about 1,000_l._ a-year. When this is compared with the most successful +prizes in the army, the navy, the church, or the bar, it shows at once +the inferior position occupied by science. + +Connected with the navy is an office which ought to be held by a person +eminently uniting science with practical skill. The Surveyor-General of +the Navy has to decide upon questions of the greatest difficulty. The +mathematical theories and inquiries on which the various qualities of +sailing vessels and steamers depend, are of the most complicated kind, +and are not even yet sufficiently advanced to serve as secure and +absolute guides. Yet without a knowledge of their present state, and a +power of advancing those theories, it is hopeless to expect the greatest +and most valuable additions to the science of naval architecture. This +can only be accomplished by one who combines a great facility in +applying such portions of them as admit of it, to the practical facts +which experience is continually bringing to light. + +The talent for commanding a fleet is by no means rare: the most +successful in that line may attain fortune, the peerage, and a large +pension. The talent for investigating the laws regulating the forms of +ships, is of the very rarest order. Even if its possessor should happen +to be of the naval profession, his greatest reward could only extend to +knighthood, and a thousand a-year during the tenure of an office of +great labour. Of course, naval men having the requisite talents, would +never turn them into so unprofitable a direction: yet it would be +difficult to say how many millions of money have been, and continue to +be, uselessly expended for want of that knowledge. + +Amongst those situations in the appointment of the government, there are +many in which a knowledge of various branches of science is highly +useful. A considerable number of these are filled by officers of +engineers, artillery, and other corps of the army and of the navy. Thus +those whose service is already paid for by the country, are excused from +doing their ordinary duty, and are paid again for doing another and +perhaps a more agreeable duty. + +Under the delusive plea that _military_ and _civil_ engineering are the +same science, military engineers have been placed in situations for +which they were unfit, and civil engineers have been excluded, to the +injury of that profession, and to the much greater damage of the +country. The Ordnance Magnetical Observatories will furnish an example +of the _economy_ which, it is pretended, results from such arrangements. + +Some ten or twelve years ago, it was proposed by Humboldt that various +governments should establish magnetical observatories at different +points on the earth’s surface, so chosen that by the united information +thus obtained, we might arrive at more accurate and correct ideas of the +state of the earth’s magnetism. That plan has been pursued with great +advantage to science. A magnetical observatory was built at Greenwich, +and continuous observations were made which have been reduced and +published annually under the direction of the Astronomer Royal. The +expense[23] of the Magnetic and Meteoric Observatory, excluding that +portion of the Astronomer Royal’s salary which may be considered due to +his services in the direction of this department, but _including the +whole of the making and recording the observations themselves_, is +720_l._ annually. + +There are other magnetical observatories in several of our colonies in +which observations are made. These observations appear to be sent for +reduction to an establishment at Woolwich, under the superintendence of +Colonel Sabine. + +Now the first and most obvious course would have been to have employed +an additional number of computers at Greenwich, who should use the same +formulæ and methods of reduction. This would ensure perfect uniformity, +and would apparently be the most economical plan. + +The course that is actually pursued is to have a separate establishment +at Woolwich, with an officer, and several non-commissioned officers on +extra pay, so that the account stands thus:—[24] + + £ s. d. + One officer, extra pay 182 10 0 + One non-commissioned officer, ditto 27 7 6 + Three non-commissioned officers, ditto 68 8 9 + Contingent, not exceeding 200 0 0 + ------------ + Apparent expense £478 6 3 + +But to this must be added— + + The full pay of Lieut.-Colonel 300 0 5 + His extra pay 273 15 0 + Full pay of one officer, if a Captain 192 16 3 + Ditto one non-commissioned ditto[25] 20 0 0 + Ditto three ditto ditto 50 0 0 + ------------- + Real expense £1,314 17 11 + +In the estimate for civil service for 1850[26] the following items +occur:— + + £ s. d. + Extra pay to Colonel Sabine, Royal Artillery, for + services in connexion with the Magnetic and + Meteorological Observations, for ten years, from + 7th May, 1839, to 7th May, 1849, at 15s. a-day 2,739 15 0 + Deduct 3s. 4d. per day granted him from 1st June, + 1841, to 7th May, 1848, as compensation for loss + of command pay 434 8 0 + -------------- + £2,305 7 0 + +This certainly requires an explanation. Here is an officer not doing the +services of his profession, who it seems has been allowed a compensation +for what he _might_ have received if he _had_ rendered those services: +notwithstanding which, at the end of ten years, he claims and is allowed +the above sum of £2,305 7_s._ for services the payment of which it would +seem by this account was never contemplated during those ten years. + +It is also to be remarked that Colonel Sabine does not reside at +Woolwich, where the only effective portion of the work is carried on. + +§ But to return to our argument: it is singular that even the principles +on which science ought to be rewarded, are not entirely settled. + +Should all equally great discoveries be rewarded in the same way, +without regard to the different positions in society which the +discoverers occupy? If this principle were admitted, the rewards must be +very large, or there would be none for the higher classes of society. + +Of all steps in the social scale, that which first elevates a man into +the class of Gentlemen is by far the greatest. In this country, where +the differences of rank are great, there is fortunately, until we +approach royalty, no absolute line of demarcation between any classes, +except the one alluded to; even the peerage to a private gentleman is +not so great an advance. + +It is without doubt very desirable that all classes should contribute to +the intellectual advancement of the country. But unless different +advantages are proposed to different classes, it is not possible to +apply any general stimulus to all. + +§ Those who maintain that science is its own reward, cannot have +remarked the vicious circle in which they reason. The delight derived +from discovery is indeed a high intellectual reward, but the force of +this maxim is only known practically to those who have already advanced +in the career of discovery: it can, therefore, never direct the inquirer +into that line. All men are subject to the same feelings and passions. +It is assuredly true that men of wealth and rank will be happier if they +cultivate their faculties, and add to the amount of human knowledge: but +they cannot be aware of this truth until they are considerably advanced, +consequently it cannot have induced them to commence this cultivation. + +§ But it is for the interest of those who are the consumers of +knowledge, that all other minds should be induced to advance it: +therefore it is our interest to place even before the highest classes, +at the commencement of their career, motives for its pursuit. Having +raised such expectations, justice requires us to fulfil them; nor can we +regret that the advantages derived from the course into which we have +invited them, should have proved beneficial to them beyond even the +limits of our prediction. + +It is of the very nature of knowledge that the recondite and apparently +useless acquisition of to-day, becomes part of the popular food of a +succeeding generation. Thus the nobleman who spends his wealth in +constructing unrivalled instruments, and his nights in scrutinizing with +them the remotest boundaries of space into which human vision has yet +penetrated, is preparing a source of pleasure and happiness for the +descendants of those very peasants whom his practical skill in +engineering has raised by his own instructions above the ranks in which +he originally found them. + +§ Another question has been raised, but not yet answered, respecting +those pensions which have been awarded for scientific discoveries. A +certain definite limit has been fixed by practice, which has never yet +been exceeded in pensions assigned to science. The sum of three hundred +a-year, the maximum of reward to science, is almost the minimum of +reward for other services. + +The most important question is, Whether these pensions are given as the +reward of scientific services rendered to the country, or as charity to +enlightened and studious persons who happen to be poor? In the one case, +they are an honour which a philosopher may be proud of receiving from +his country: in the other, they are no more than a higher order of +pauper relief, which an independent gentleman can scarcely condescend to +accept. + +Another important question, though of a different nature, also arises +here. Are these pensions, thus small in amount, fit to be offered to +those who, in order to arrive at their discoveries, have themselves in +some cases spent out of their own private fortune, sums far larger than +the fee simple of the rewards thus offered to them. + +Is it just that the _same rewards_ should be given to persons filling +well-endowed scientific offices, supplied with all the means of +discovery which the most perfect art can produce, as to other +philosophers, who, at the expense of their own personal comfort and +perhaps of the interests of their family, have purchased the costly +means by which they have succeeded in _equally_ improving their several +departments of science? + +For the honour and the advancement of science, it is necessary that +these questions should be distinctly answered. It is to be hoped that +some independent member of parliament will at last press them in a +manner which no ministerial shuffling can evade. + + [23] See App. to Rept. of Select Com. on Misc. Expenditure, p. 222. + + [24] See p. 221 App. to Rept. on Misc. Expenditure, p. 848 (543) II. + + [25] The pay of the non-commissioned officers has been assumed as + somewhat less by ten per cent. than their extra pay. + + [26] See p. 41, App. to Rept. on Misc. Expenditure, p. 848, (268) IV. + + + + + CHAPTER XV. + + THE PRESS. + + +Some of the principles for the discovery of truth, professed and acted +upon by those who administer the laws of England, and by those who +practice in its courts, are certainly repugnant to the first impressions +and feelings of honest men, if not also to common sense. It is, +therefore, absolutely necessary, in order to remove these impressions, +to state the ground on which those principles are defended. That ground +may be shortly expressed thus— + +It has been found by long experience that it is more for the advantage +of truth and justice that professional men should be stimulated by fees +and the hope of advancement, to put forward or conceal every fact, to +advance, withhold, or oppose every inference and argument, _solely_ as +it may be of advantage to the party by whom they are employed. + +It is also stated that the public are aware of this convention, and, +therefore, are not deceived by the speeches of the advocate. + +Without asking whether the long experience alluded to has ever been +fortified by the trial and the failure of an opposite course, it may be +at once stated that this mode of arriving at truth is contrary to the +result of long experience in matters of science. In all discussions on +those subjects, it is found far more conducive to truth, if either party +in discussing a mooted point discover in his own argument a flaw, +unobserved by his opponent, that he should immediately point it out, and +that they should both apply their minds to repair it, and if +unsuccessful, admit it. The same course is pursued with regard to facts; +every circumstance, however apparently remote, is contributed by both +inquirers to the common stock, without the slightest care as to its +bearings on one or the other side of the question. Facts thus conveyed +for the first time to the mind of one of the parties, often recall to +his memory analogous facts, and thus the materials of reasoning or of +induction become largely increased. + +§ To this supposed legal principle, it may be fairly objected that it is +entirely a theoretical view. To be convinced of this it is enough to +appeal to every man who has ever sat on a jury or heard one addressed by +counsel. He well knows that the very first effort of the learned +advocate is to attempt to persuade the jury that he is no advocate at +all. This line is sustained throughout his address, and his great object +is to convince them that he himself personally believes both the facts +to which his witnesses testify, and the inferences he adduces from their +evidence. The more skilful the advocate, the more he endeavours to +persuade the jury that he is merely an impartial observer, assisting +them in arriving at a just conclusion. + +The effects of long habit in thus mystifying less practised reasoners, +cannot fail to be injurious to the moral character of the man. Take a +case of title to property, on which a barrister is consulted. Suppose +the holder has no right whatever to it, yet will the barrister by every +means his knowledge and ingenuity can suggest, help his client to rob +some other person of his property. It is useless to say that in such +circumstances the attorney conceals certain facts of his case, and does +not put the facts to the counsel in this plain way. On such occasions +the most skilful counsel are always employed, and they are certainly +competent, _if they choose it_, to ascertain the real state of the case. +In criminal cases such attempts to mislead juries are still more +reprehensible. + +§ If the principle now discussed is sound, it is capable of application +to another subject—the press. But strangely enough, lawyers, more than +any other class, abuse the press because it treats its subject +commercially, and refuse to admit that rule in the case of editors of +newspapers, which they claim as a sanction for themselves. A little +examination, however, will show that the conduct of the press is much +more defensible than that of the bar. + +The public require a daily account of all facts connected with politics +and the institutions of the country; it also demands analyses, +discussions, and opinions on the bearings of all such facts upon its +interests. As opinions amongst the public are often much opposed to, or +widely different from each other, it is clear that this demand cannot be +satisfied without many newspapers. Now, looking solely to the commercial +profit arising from its sale, it is tolerably certain that some one +paper supported by greater capital, and conducted with greater skill, +will endeavour to represent the opinions of the largest class of those +who purchase these sheets of diurnal information. The first place being +thus occupied, other journals will arise to represent the opinions of +smaller, yet, perhaps, of powerful classes. Thus the opinions of all +parties, and, in some measure, their relative strength, become known to +each other. This is an end much to be desired. + +If the opinions of the public change, those of the leading journal must +of course follow, even though they are directly opposed to those +advocated by it a few days before. Such a change undoubtedly shocks the +feelings of many who remain constant to their own views, and cases often +occur in which these latter give up their usual paper. It must, however, +be admitted that there are few political or economical questions on +which one side is morally right, the other morally wrong. That a given +man has or has not got possession of another man’s estate, that a man +has or has not committed a murder or other crime, must, in most cases, +be well known to his counsel; if in either case the wrong-doer escapes +punishment, an injury is done to society. But whether a given line of +policy or a given law, is more or less beneficial or even injurious to +the State, is generally dependent on so many causes that very few are +able to foresee their consequences with tolerable certainty. + +The most general and unsophisticated opinion is, that no man is +justified in advocating, even when unpaid, doctrines in which he does +not himself believe. With respect to the press, it is possible that the +writer of the second article may be a different individual from the +person who wrote the first article; but even were he the same person, +the bar at least have no right to find fault with him. + +§ The press then may advantageously be considered as expressing the +opinions of classes, not of individuals. It has greatly improved in the +last quarter of a century, in consequence of the general improvement of +all classes. + +There is now also fortunately established a certain professional feeling +amongst its members that reports of speeches, or of facts, ought to be +_rigidly exact_. Abstracts of speeches will occasionally be coloured not +by additions, but by selections or omissions, according to the side of +the question advocated by the writer. Yet even here the more popular +papers are careful to do justice to all parties. It is the more +important that this latter rule should be admitted as a principle, +because, from the great length of the debates themselves, they are +rarely read by persons much occupied, except when questions of great +interest occur. + +To such persons an _impartial_ abstract is invaluable. + +In the leading articles greater latitude is allowable. These, if the +theory which has been explained is admitted, are avowedly the +expressions of the opinion of its customers. The power of the press is +undoubtedly great, yet it is bound by the strongest ties of interest not +to abuse that power. It is clearly its interest to seem consistent, and +consequently to employ, at almost any expense, the best means of +ascertaining the opinions of the country _before_ they are publicly +expressed. Having attained this knowledge, it will get the credit of +appearing to lead public opinion. + +Its powers of doing good when honestly conducted, are yet larger than +its powers of mischief. Yet even here its power is of necessity limited. +It cannot advocate even the _best_ course of policy on any important +subject unless it is tolerably certain that it will succeed in +convincing its customers that it is _really_ the best. It _ought_ not to +advocate that best course, because the falling off of its subscribers +might then disable it from as effectually assisting the _second best_. +It, however, neither ought, nor is it ultimately its interest, to +conceal those opinions from its subscribers. + +The power it possesses, of exposing knaves and swindlers, by means of +its correspondents, and of sending highly intelligent commissioners from +time to time to inquire personally into the situation of various classes +of the population, are of great value, and could only be exercised by a +wealthy as well as by a powerful press. + + + + + CHAPTER XVI. + + PARTY. + + “Of all the tyrannies that molest this terrestrial scene perhaps there + is none so arbitrary, so extravagant, or so grotesque as the tyranny + of party. There is none that so frequently subjects the wise to the + caprices of the fool, and the good to the designs of the knave.”—_The + Times, Dec. 1850._ + + +There are two great principles of government which divide the opinions +of mankind. + +1st. Unchangeableness; or, “Let things alone:”—the law of the Medes and +Persians. + +2d. Progress; or, the continual advancement of mankind in the +improvement of their Institutions. + +No number of persons sufficiently extensive to deserve the name of a +class, have ever advocated the principle of _Retrocession_. Some few +enthusiasts have indeed believed in a golden age, and have advocated the +pastoral, or even the hunting life. These, however, were not persons +capable of collecting, examining, and weighing the evidence on which +alone an opinion on the comparative happiness of people existing in a +savage or in a civilized state of life can justly be formed. + +A larger number exist, the admirers of the past, each perhaps the +worshipper of his own peculiar age. Had he lived in those times, +enjoying only the ordinary capacity he now possesses, but endowed with +all the increased knowledge of the present day, he might then have +attained a position more commensurate with his wishes, though quite +disproportioned to the industry of his exertions or the calibre of his +intellect. + +§ In our own country, “the wisdom of our ancestors” is with some the +hackneyed theme of unbounded admiration. + +Our ancestors were generally wise and sagacious men: they applied their +energies and their knowledge, as far as it went, to their _existing_ +wants and necessities. Those amongst them who deserved that character, +would, if questioned, have expressed in language the precept to which +their deeds conformed. Availing themselves gratefully of all the +knowledge bequeathed to them by their predecessors, they struggled to +advance it for their own and their children’s benefit, and thus they +might have counselled every generation to their latest posterity:— + +“You have received from us, tested by many trials, the treasured +knowledge, gathered under difficulty and danger, of our country’s +experience. + +“Let the great object of each generation be to purify that body of +knowledge from its partial errors, to add to it the greatest amount of +new truths. + +“Remember that accumulated knowledge, like accumulated capital, +increases at compound interest: but it differs from the accumulation of +capital in this; that the increase of knowledge produces a more rapid +rate of progress, whilst the accumulation of capital leads to a lower +rate of interest. Capital thus checks its own accumulation: knowledge +thus accelerates it own advance. Each generation, therefore, to deserve +comparison with its predecessor, is bound to add much more largely to +the common stock than that which it immediately succeeds.” + +§ A question has not unfrequently been proposed by those who apply their +foresight to remote rather than to immediate objects— + +“What will become of our posterity when our coal-fields are exhausted?” + +The best answer to this question is, that when that distant day arrives, +if our posterity, with the accumulated knowledge of centuries, shall +have failed to find any substitute for coal in the many other sources of +heat which nature supplies, they will then deserve to be frost-bitten. + +§ It is remarkable that the great parties adopt opposite principles in +pursuance of the same line of reasoning. + +The advocates of things as they are, wish to stop all change, in order +to _prevent revolution_. Those who inculcate continual progress, support +it, because it makes all changes gradual, and thus, in their opinion, it +_prevents revolution_. + +It is by sudden changes in laws and institutions that the greatest +misery is inflicted on mankind. Those gradual changes which are spread +over a considerable period are foreseen, and men make preparation +beforehand to accommodate themselves to the new but expected +circumstances. + +If the changes effected by the Reform Bill, had been spread over the ten +preceding and ten subsequent years, few will deny that it would have +been a better measure, and more effective for its purpose. The +experience derived from its earlier changes would then have been +available for its later uses. The pertinacity, however, with which all +reform was resisted, led to such a state of affairs, that after the +refusal to transfer the franchise from East Retford, revolution was +averted only by vast and _immediate_ concession. + +§ The terms Tory and Whig had been the watchwords of these two parties, +until, at last, the public lost all confidence in either. With the +increasing wealth of the country, and with the greater application of +observation, of reasoning, and of science, to its many arts and +manufactures, a vast increase has been produced in the numbers, the +power, and the influence of the middle classes. Many individuals who +have raised themselves by their intellect and industry into this class, +have been so fully impressed with the advantages of previous training, +that they have made efforts to give their children an education more +extensive and more liberal than any which, until lately, our +universities had attempted to supply. + +It is to the growth of this class, which includes men possessing from +500_l._ to 5,000_l._ a-year, that we are indebted for much of the +strength which public opinion now exerts upon the ministry of the day. +Notwithstanding the vast influence of wealth and of rank throughout the +country, there are still amongst these middle classes, thousands whose +moderation renders them rich; who, therefore, can afford to be honest, +and whose approbation is neither to be purchased by wealth, nor won by +the seductions of rank and of fashionable life. + +Such men, on all public questions, influence widely and justly the +opinions of those around them. There are such in the House of Commons; +and, with the extension of knowledge, many more will be added to their +number. + +Thus the very weakness of an administration may possibly become an +advantage, since it thus becomes impossible for government to carry any +measure entirely opposed to the calm good sense of the people. This, +however, admits of one excepted case. If a party to advance its own +interests will pander to some strong passion, to some prejudice of +ignorance or of bigotry, it may for a time succeed, though it will +ultimately lose in character. + +In the meantime, the people have found out that Party is made use of +only for the aggrandizement of a few families; that it has degenerated +into a clique, banded together for mercenary purposes, without +enthusiasm or genius to compensate for its meanness, and with little of +talent to palliate its want of integrity. + +The reign of party, however, verges towards its end; the supplies on +which it feeds are sapped by economical reform. That almost all places +under Government are greatly overpaid admits of no denial. The demand +for them is notoriously great, and it is equally notorious that nothing +but the strongest political interest has any chance in the contest for +them. + +The government of England is nominally a limited monarchy, but +practically almost an oligarchy. A large number of its appointments are +shared by a few families, into which some daring and unscrupulous +intruders occasionally force their way, by opposition which it is easier +to quell by place than to answer by argument: or into which less gifted +and more cunning supporters sometimes obtain an entrance by a judicious +alliance. + +§ It is strongly asserted that government cannot go on without party. +That those who maintain this opinion are incapable of so conducting it, +must be at once admitted. + +Without, however, entering into the debateable question of the _limits_ +of party, it is sufficient to state another principle, which no honest +man will deny, and then to leave to the advocates of party to reconcile +it with their doctrine. + +_It is morally wrong to endeavour to convince any one of the truth of an +opinion in which the advocate himself does not believe._ + +If this principle were practically acted upon, how much of the valuable +time of both Houses of Parliament would be saved! In looking over a +debate, or still better, a _division_, the private opinions of many of +the speakers are often well known by their friends to be quite at +variance with the doctrines they advocated in their speeches. The +quasi-honesty of those who admit the truth in private, is however +venial, when compared with the hypocrisy of those who are equally false +on both occasions. + +Party, then, as it practically exists, is one of the evils of the +political state of England. + +The remedy must come partly from the reduction of temptation, by +diminishing the salaries of all those places and appointments for which +there is such immense competition; partly from the effect of public +opinion; and ultimately, to a far greater extent, when any sincere +desire exists to restrain it, from improved methods of distributing +patronage. + +But one defect seems almost always to accompany a high state of +civilization, namely,—a great deficiency of moral courage in large +classes of persons, who from knowledge and position ought rightly to +contribute their share to the formation and expression of public +opinion. The first evil which this produces, is an excessive zeal and +energy in a few of those who are most strongly convinced. These bear the +brunt of the attacks of all who are interested in the support of abuses. +If, unhappily, they are not independent in fortune as well as in spirit, +these, the forlorn hope of reform, are sure ultimately to be trampled +upon and destroyed by the jobbers—they die with ruined fortunes and +broken hearts. + +Many of those who shared their opinions, and urged on their enthusiasm, +but who warily abstained from expressing their own thoughts _in public_, +now venture to avow those principles, to which opinion has at length +advanced: these reap the rewards won by the energies and sacrifices of +their martyred friends. For such, the epithet the poet applied to Bacon +is not unfit: + + —“the wisest—meanest of mankind.”—POPE. + +A very serious evil arises from this timidity in expressing opinions. +The whole state of society presents a counterfeit surface,—no man knows +how many or how few really share his opinions: its whole fabric is in a +state of unstable equilibrium; it is liable at every moment to most +unlooked-for changes, from accidents apparently trivial. + +The following is one amongst many examples which might have been +selected of the different standard with which Party measures services +rendered to the public by those within and those without its own limits. + +In the year 1847, when some millions of English money were sent over to +save the people of Ireland from perishing by famine, it became necessary +to organize a system of accounts and of regulations, for the direction +of those officers who were sent over for the purpose of personally +superintending the distribution of this relief. + +These arrangements were made by the Assistant Secretary of the Treasury, +Sir C. T----, K.C.B., at extra hours; but it does not appear how many +months he was so employed. + +The office at that time held by this gentleman, was one for which he +received a salary of £2,500 per annum; and certainly this liberal salary +ought to have commanded the devotion of his whole time, if necessary, to +the public service. It would seem that some application was made from +the Treasury, and that Lord John Russell acceded to it with unwonted +liberality. He gave the remuneration in a manner thought +unconstitutional by several eminent members of the House of Commons, and +to an extent justly considered extravagant by the public. + +The following extracts from Hansard will explain the matter. + + “The Chancellor of the Exchequer.—With regard to Sir C. T----, the + case was an exceptional one; but his services on the extraordinary + emergency alluded to were so very great that it had been thought right + to make a Treasury minute, awarding him £2,500. The item would be + found in the ‘Civil Contingencies’ laid before the House. + + “Mr. Disraeli,—while readily acknowledging the great services rendered + by this gentleman, could not forget that the Order of the Bath had + been conferred upon him—a reward bestowed upon him as for services + which could not be paid by a pecuniary grant. The vote of £2,500 was + surely conceived in rather bad taste; and a _preux chevalier_ like Sir + C. T----, bearing his blushing honours, might well be supposed to + recoil from receiving an extra year’s salary. + + “Mr. Gladstone—condemned the conduct of Government in this matter. It + was their duty to have submitted a vote to the House, not to have + taken on themselves to reward a public servant. If there was one rule + connected with the public service which more than any other ought to + be scrupulously observed, it was this, that the salary of a public + officer, more especially if he were of high rank, ought to cover all + the services he might be called upon to render. Any departure from + this rule must be dangerous. + + “Lord John Russell said, that the Government thought the services of + Sir C. T---- were deserving of reward. + + “Mr. Goulburn.—According to all precedent, the House of Commons ought + to have fixed the amount of Sir C. T.’s remuneration. + + “Lord John Russell.—Sir C. T---- stated in his evidence that he worked + three hours before breakfast; that he then went to the Treasury, where + he worked all day; and that the pressure upon him was such that he + wondered that he had been able to get through it alive.”—_Hansard_, + Vol. 101, p. 138, 1848. Supply, 14th Aug. 1848. + +There appears to be some indistinctness as to the fund out of which this +2,500_l._ was taken. Compare Hansard with Questions 1693 and 1696 of the +Report on Miscellaneous Expenditure. + +No mode of keeping accounts, however, will alter the fact; that if the +famine had not occurred, neither would the 2,500_l._ have been required; +consequently, that sum was part of the whole amount our humanity cost +us. + +The liberality of the Minister to the Assistant Secretary of the +Treasury, may be explained by stating that he was the _brother-in-law_ +of a Cabinet Minister. + +There was another gentleman at least equal in talent to the Assistant +Secretary, whose services were gratuitous, who, at the risk of his +health, was actively engaged on the spot in superintending the +distribution of the relief. To him the Government thought it sufficient +to give the Companionship of the Bath, whilst the Assistant Secretary +was made a Commander of that Order. + + + + + CHAPTER XVII. + + REWARDS OF MERIT. + + +The personal distinctions in the gift of the Government of this country +consist of the following five orders of knighthood:— + + NAME. NO. OF MEMBERS. + GRAND KNIGHT COMP. + CROSS. COM. + The Garter 25 + The Thistle 16 + St. Patrick 16 + The Bath Military 50 102 525 + The Bath Civil 25 50 200 + St. George and St. Michael 15 20 25 + --------------------- + 147 172 750 + +Of these, the first three are restricted, with few and rare exceptions, +to persons of a certain rank—including earls, and those above them. The +number of these, with the addition of three sons for each duke, and of +the eldest sons of marquesses, amounts to about four hundred and fifty. +Amongst this favoured class fifty-seven ribbons may be conferred; so +that about one-eighth of the class enjoy the decoration. + +These ribbons, although much sought after by the class amongst which +they are distributed, are more correctly appreciated by the public at +large. + +With some illustrious and honourable exceptions, they are usually given +by those in power to their party supporters. They have also occasionally +been employed by the minister of the day, as inducements to persuade his +friends to postpone inconvenient questions, to the agitation of which +they had been publicly pledged. + +An amusing and characteristic anecdote respecting one of these Orders, +the Garter, is related of a late Premier. At a time when several of +these “baubles” had fallen vacant, and been judiciously given away by +the discreet minister, a friend asked him, why he had not retained a +Garter for himself? to which he wittily replied, “Why, the fact is, I +don’t see the use of a man’s bribing himself.” + +The order of St. Michael and St. George was instituted for the Ionian +Islands, and is usually given, after a certain time of service, to the +Lord High Commissioner, to the Commanders-in-Chief of the Mediterranean +fleet, and to other persons connected with the public service in those +quarters. + +Thus England has, practically, only one order of merit; and, singularly +enough, with the exception of a few civil crosses of the first-class +almost invariably given for diplomatic service, until lately, that order +was not accessible to any other than military merit. + +§ In countries, however, which we fondly flattered ourselves were less +advanced in civilization than our own, the vulgar notion of paying +homage to brute force has long been superseded by a more just +appreciation of the elements of military glory. Nations even the most +ambitious of this species of renown, have admitted that physical +prowess, that recklessness of personal danger, form but the smallest +amongst those qualities which contribute to military success. + +It is now felt and admitted, that it is the civil capacity of the great +commander which prepares the way for his military triumphs; that his +knowledge of human nature enables him to select the fittest agents, and +to place them in the situations best adapted to their powers; that his +intimate acquaintance with all the accessaries which contribute to the +health and comfort of his troops, enables him to sustain their moral and +physical energy. It has been seen that he must have studied and properly +estimated the character of his foes as well as of his allies, and have +made himself acquainted with the personal character of the chiefs of +both; and still further, that he must have scrutinized the secret +motives which regulated their respective governments. + +When directly engaged in the operations of contending armies occupying a +wide extent of country, he must be able, with rapid glance, to ascertain +the force it is possible to concentrate upon each of many points in any +given time, and the greater or less chance of failing in the attempt. He +must also be able to foresee, with something more than conjecture, what +amount of the enemy’s force can be brought to the same spot in the same +and in different times. With these elements he must undertake one of the +most difficult of mental tasks, that of classifying and grouping the +innumerable combinations to which either party may have recourse for +purposes of attack or defence. Out of the multitude of such +combinations, which might baffle by their simple enumeration the +strongest memory, throwing aside the less important, he must be able to +discover, to fix his attention, and to act upon the most favourable. +Finally, when the course thus selected having been pursued, and perhaps +partially carried out, is found to be entirely deranged by one of those +many chances inseparable from such operations, then, in the midst of +action, he must be able suddenly to organise a different system of +operations, new to all other minds, yet possibly although unconsciously, +anticipated by his own. + +The genius that can meet and overcome such difficulties _must_ be +intellectual, and would, under different circumstances, have been +distinguished in many a different career. + +Nor even would it be very surprising that such a commander, estimating +justly the extent of his own powers, and conscious of having planned the +best combinations of which his mind is capable, should, having issued +his orders, calmly lie down on the eve of the approaching conflict, and +find in sleep that bodily restoration so indispensable to the full +exercise of his faculties in the mighty struggle about to ensue. + +§ It is not uninteresting to observe in society the opinions of its +different classes respecting honours conferred on science. Military and +naval men, especially the most eminent, feel that genius is limited by +no profession, and themselves sympathizing with it, would gladly hail as +brothers in the same distinction, the philosopher and the poet. With +lawyers the case is reversed; genius dwells not in their courts: +industry and acuteness, monopolised by one absorbing professional +subject, exclude larger views; and ribbons not being amongst the +honoraria of their own profession, they reprobate their application to +science. To this there are, however, some noble exceptions. Amongst the +brightest ornaments of their own profession, men are to be found of +larger experience and more extended views than it often produces, who +are themselves qualified to have become discoverers in other sciences. +It is much to be regretted when such powers are applied to the mere +administration, instead of to the reformation, of the laws of their +country. + +It is difficult to pronounce on the opinion of the ministers of our +Church as a body: one portion of them, by far the least informed, +protests against anything which can advance the honour and the interests +of science, because, in their limited and mistaken view, science is +adverse to religion. This is not the place to argue that great question. +It is sufficient to remark, that the best-informed and most enlightened +men of all creeds and pursuits, agree that truth can never damage truth, +and that every truth is allied indissolubly by chains more or less +circuitous with all other truths; whilst error, at every step we make in +its diffusion, becomes not only wider apart and more discordant from all +truths, but has also the additional chance of destruction from all rival +errors. + +All established religions are, and must be in practice, political +engines—they have all a strong tendency to self-aggrandisement. Our own +is by no means exempt from this very natural infirmity. + +The Church has been reproached with endeavouring to appropriate to +itself all those professorships in our Universities which are connected +with science: it is however certain that the larger portion of these +ill-remunerated offices have been filled by clergymen. + +But a much graver charge attaches itself, if not to our clergy, +certainly to those who have the distribution of ecclesiastical +patronage. The richest Church in the world maintains that its funds are +quite insufficient for the purposes of religion, and that our working +clergy are ill-paid, and church accommodation insufficient. It calls +therefore upon the nation to endow it with larger funds, and yet, while +reluctant to sacrifice its own superfluities, it approves of its rich +sinecures being given to reward,—not the professional service of its +indefatigable parochial clergy, but those of its members who, having +devoted the greater part of their time to scientific researches, have +political or private interest enough to obtain such advancement. + +But this mode of rewarding merit is neither creditable to the Church nor +advantageous to science. It tempts into the Church talents which some of +its distinguished members maintain to be naturally of a disqualifying, +if not of an antagonistic nature to the pursuits of religion; whilst, on +the other hand, it makes a most unjust and arbitrary distinction amongst +men of science themselves. It precludes those who cannot conscientiously +subscribe to Articles, at once conflicting and incomprehensible, from +the acquisition of that preferment and that position in society, which +thus in many cases, must be conferred on less scrupulous, and certainly +less distinguished inquirers into the works of nature. + +As the honorary distinctions of orders of knighthood are not usually +bestowed on the clerical profession, its members generally profess to +entertain a great contempt for them, and pronounce them unfit for the +recognition of scientific merit. + +The want of an order for the reward of civil service, having been +publicly commented upon, the question was at last forced upon the +attention of the government. A plan was drawn up for the reformation of +the Order of the Bath, and amongst the qualifications for its civil +grades the word science was for the first time introduced. The draft, +however, remained in the office, and the intention, if such it were, of +the Tories was not followed out. + +On the advent of the Whigs to office, they seized upon so plausible an +opportunity for gaining popularity, whilst in reality they were serving +their own purposes. They proceeded to reconstruct the Order of the Bath, +making two divisions, the Military and the Civil, each of which +consisted of three classes. + +On the 25th May, 1847, there appeared in the Gazette letters patent +under the great seal reconstituting the Order of the Bath. It was +announced that it should consist of two divisions, the Military and the +Civil; each division comprising three classes. This memorable document +was accompanied by certain regulations as to the number of each class of +the knights, followed by a new set of thirty-seven statutes, which it +declares “_shall henceforth be inviolably observed and kept within_ _the +said Order_.” But throughout these “_inviolable_” statutes, _scientific_ +merit is not even mentioned as a qualification. + +In the Civil branch of the Order the qualification for the first class +is prescribed by the eighth statute, and the tenth and twelfth statutes +distinctly refer to the same. The only qualification to be found in the +statutes applicable to either of the three civil classes, is when, +referring to the first class of the order, it is stated that— + +“No persons shall be nominated thereto, or to either of the other two +civil divisions of this Order, who shall not _by their personal services +to our crown_, or _by the performance of public duties_, have merited +our royal favour.” + +The first of these two qualifications includes the services in the +household of the Sovereign. Now although it may be agreeable, and may +even be thought desirable, that the head of the State should have means +of occasionally conferring distinction upon those of its subjects in +personal attendance upon it, who have undertaken and accomplished duties +beyond the immediate sphere of those for which they are paid in money +and by position, yet such claims are personal, not national claims. The +lord-in-waiting who has been the agreeable cicerone of some foreign +prince, may well be contented with the diamond ring, the costly +_tabatière_, or the flattering miniature, eclipsed only by the +brilliants surrounding it, which recall to his memory those hours of +idleness. If the prince be also a sovereign, he may add to these +gratifications, that of conferring a ribbon as a further return for the +_empressement_ with which the polished official has fulfilled the duties +of his office. Under such circumstances he will easily acquire +permission to wear that distinction in his own country: a permission +which would be refused by government to the author of the most splendid +scientific discovery which might shed a lustre over the age in which he +lives. + +If such decorations are desirable for such services, let them be +confined to one or to all of the four other orders: but let one national +order at least be consecrated to real merit. + +The only other class who are qualified by the Statutes for the honours +of the Bath, are “those who by the performance of public duties have +merited our favour.” This may indeed include every person who holds +office, but it is clear that the intention was to exclude everybody not +already receiving pay from the public. + +It has been suggested that a different conclusion may be inferred from +the tenth paragraph of the prefatory matter to these statutes, in which +the following words occur:— + +“To the due distribution of rewards amongst such of our faithful +subjects as are now or shall hereafter become eminently distinguished by +their loyalty and merit in the military or civil service of us, our +heirs, and successors, or _shall otherwise have merited our favour_.” + +These latter words are certainly placed with some skill, to furnish a +loophole for escape, if public opinion should scout the limited range to +which the gratitude of the country would thus be confined by a party, +who differ only from the Tories in affecting an admiration for knowledge +which they do not feel. It must, however, be observed that this is a +mere statement, and that no such words occur in any _statute_. Besides, +those who maintain that the party in power when these statutes were +issued, intended that science or any other kind of unpaid civil merit, +should be susceptible of reward by the Order of the Bath, except it also +received pay from the country, must at the same time admit that during +the four years in which that party has distributed those honours, +England has not furnished one single instance of any other than a paid +official having been thought sufficiently distinguished to deserve the +honour. + +The public recollect with sufficient disgust the professions of both +parties respecting science and literature, when the “pension list” was +revised in 1838. The claims of science and of literature were then with +affected generosity put forward by party, while the true object was to +save for their own advantage as large a pension list as they could. That +object once attained, a different view of those claims was taken, as we +see by its results, of which a searching analysis must at no distant day +be made. + +The statements uttered in both Houses even during the last session, by +members of the present administration, have been so _extraordinary_, +that the public are compelled to look beyond the plain English meaning +of words, and to withhold their confidence until they have examined them +with the scrutiny of a casuist. It is not therefore surprising that +those who interpret statutes issued by such parties, should suspect the +existence of latent meanings. + +Dismissing this point, however, the obvious interpretation of the +_statutes_ of the Bath is that no one is qualified to become a member +who has not been actually in the _service_ of the country, that is, who +has not already been paid for his labours. + +The real intention of the concoctors of this scheme is too evident to be +concealed. They hoped, by bestowing the Order in few and rare cases on +some public servants who had made exertions beyond those of their class, +or sacrifices beyond necessity, to get credit for a generosity to which +they are strangers, whilst the real object was to secure for their own +party and supporters the largest possible share of the patronage. + +The advantages they promised themselves from the present arrangement +were these:— + +1st. By confining the Order of the Bath to officials, they limited the +number of competitors. + +2d. They thus limited it to a class which contained already a large +proportion of their own friends and of the friends of their opponents. + +3d. This plan enabled them, by putting into office their own connexions, +persons perhaps of very ordinary abilities, ultimately to push them into +the upper departments, and then on pretence of extraordinary service to +give them these honours. + +4th. It enabled them also to make way for such connexions, by tempting +those above them, whether friends or opponents, to retire on the receipt +of one or other of the decorations of the Bath. + +It is not to be denied that such rewards, fairly and judiciously given +for _great_ and _extraordinary_ services, might furnish fit motives for +extraordinary exertions. But if honours are to be given to every chief +of an office or head of a department, after more or less service in +proportion to the extent of his political interest, or to every minister +we send abroad, without regard to the success of his mission; and if +promotion in the Order is to depend on the time during which they have +been members of it, then the Bath will no longer be the reward of great +exertions or of brilliant talent, but of seniority and routine. Its +crimson ribbon will thus cease to distinguish civil merit, and become +the appropriate reward of _red-tape_ mediocrity. + +It has been suggested that a new order of knighthood should be created, +for the purpose of rewarding scientific and literary merit. This plan is +entirely inadmissible: there are already five Orders of English Knights, +and the new Order would, as the most recent creation, be inferior in +rank to those now existing. It would, therefore, necessarily fix science +at a low point in the social scale. + +If it were adopted, the numerous members of the Order of the Bath would +then look down upon and disparage the new Order; whilst, on the other +hand, if great discoveries in science were admitted as claims to its +honours, every member of the Order of the Bath would be interested in +defending his scientific brethren. + +§ Much discussion has lately arisen respecting the payment of persons in +the employment of government. The economists have lately had a committee +of the House of Commons, in which they have in some instances damaged a +good cause by want of information. Their enemies will doubtless take +advantage of their ignorance, and seem not unwilling to have allowed +them to fall into these mistakes. + +Those who contend that persons in office are under-paid, generally +maintain the doctrine that the holder of every office ought to receive +enough to support him, without any assistance from private fortune, in +that position of society which others in the same or similar offices +occupy. + +This may be true for some of the higher stations, where great talents +and industry are essential; but these offices are the exceptions. To +maintain this doctrine is to assert, that the government must pay such a +salary to every employé as to be able to choose out of the whole number +of persons existing in the country, those most capable of filling that +office. Now in every country where capital has at all accumulated, there +will always be a sufficient number of persons, having some amount of +private fortune, who will be able and willing to fill all the ordinary +offices requiring no very special talent, for a much smaller sum than +their average expenditure would require. This more limited class is yet +sufficiently large for the government to select from. The competition of +capital with labour leads to this result. + +The inducements to office under government are many, in addition to that +of its salary. + +1st. The salary itself generally increases with the time of service. + +2d. There is usually a retiring pension after a certain time of service, +or in case of accidental incapacity. + +3d. There is the chance of promotion by political interest, or perchance +from skill and industry displayed in office. + +4th. Some incapable head of a department may want a clever fellow to do +the work for which he is himself either too idle or too ignorant. + +5th. There is the chance of being promoted, in order to make a vacancy +for some one below who has more influence. + +6th. Then there are the great prizes,—few indeed, but very great when +occurring to those without the accidents of birth or interest. It is +possible that a clerk commencing at a salary of 80_l._ may ultimately +attain a seat in the cabinet, and then the peerage is open to him. + +Admitting that there are several cases in which offices are considerably +underpaid, no answer has yet been given to the great argument arising +from supply and demand. It is an admitted fact, that for every office +under government, and for every grade in the army and navy, the number +of fitting candidates on each vacancy is very large, and the political +and family interest set at work to acquire it, is very great. This can +arise only from those offices being overpaid, not by the actual money +payment, but by combining that form of remuneration with position in +society, and other advantages to which they lead. If this be the case, +it is quite unnecessary to add any new inducement—such as the decoration +of the Bath—to those so circumstanced, unless it be indeed for very +extraordinary services. + +Another indication of over-payment is to be found in the fact, that in +several professions such offices are matter of sale and purchase. They +are so avowedly both in the Church and in the Army. + +The Whigs, afraid of intellect when combined with independence, have, +during their temporary and tolerated possession of office, confined the +new honours the country has to bestow, to those persons only who can be +influenced by the hope of promotion,—namely, to those already occupying +office. If a distinction is to be made amongst scientific men, let us +inquire whether those who fill the few public situations reserved for +science and paid by the country, ought to be eligible rather than those +whose equally successful contributions to science have been given +without any such advantage. + +To enable any individual in the present day to enlarge the bounds of +science by original discovery, he must be content to sacrifice his whole +time and energies to that object. It is true that a considerable or even +a great knowledge of certain sciences, and possibly the power of making +some additions to them, may co-exist in a few instances with the +qualifications necessary for other employments. Such attainments are +highly creditable to those officials who so employ their leisure without +neglecting their official duties. But the more successful their +scientific discoveries, the greater must be the regret that the whole +power of such intelligence cannot be directed to one subject. + +The various sciences have, it is true, such relations to each other, +that few can be cultivated to any great advantage without some +acquaintance with those sciences intimately connected with the favourite +pursuit. But if it is admitted that all inquiries into Nature and her +laws, are directly beneficial to the arts and commerce of the country, +it is, in a national point of view, eminently impolitic not to secure +for science that division of labour which so remarkably contributes to +the progress of all other subjects. + +In addition to the unbounded occupation of time and thought, necessary +for the most effective employment of mind in the path of original +discovery, there are far other requisites. In some sciences, many +laborious transcriptions, in others still more laborious arithmetical +computations, are required; in others, abstruse and complicated although +known and regulated algebraical processes, must be gone through; in +others, drawings of the most complicated description must be executed +with almost overwhelming labour; in others, extensive experiments must +be made. Again, in some, where mechanical means must be contrived for +new and intellectual processes, it may be necessary even to invent and +make new tools for the purpose of bringing mechanical art itself up to +that degree of perfection which science demands. Although the contriving +and directing mind engaged in researches that require such aids, ought +undoubtedly to be united with a physical structure capable itself of +accomplishing each and all that such pursuits require, yet it is often +impossible that one human frame, however hardy, can sustain that labour: +time itself would be wanting, limited as it ever must be by the duration +of one human life. + +Yet if the powers of that mind and that frame have been rightly +cultivated, and if the want of pecuniary means do not prevent their +exercise, it is quite possible, by proper aid, to concentrate in one +life the accumulated labour of many. Assistants of various degrees of +manual and mental skill may be employed, the economical organization of +their labour may be arranged. The most perfect effect of such an +establishment can only be attained when the presiding head is never +employed except on work for which money could procure no substitute, and +when each assistant is devoted to work of the highest kind which he can +successfully execute. + +He who directs a scientific establishment for the Government, has all +these means provided for him, and is himself paid, though not always +liberally, for his own labours. _He_ is to be deemed _qualified_ for the +order of the Bath. + +_He_ who sacrifices profession and that position to which its most +successful members usually attain, who spends a fortune in purchasing +that assistance which alone can render his power effective, and has +spent his life in cultivating highly that power for the advancement of +science, is deemed by his country, however great his success, +_disqualified_ for the Order of the Bath. + +But it is not the sound and wholesome part of the country—it is not the +people of England who have arrived at this conclusion;—it is the +insolence of power,—it is the meanness of party,—it is the selfishness +of a clique. + +The spirit which dictated a limitation equally opposed to every generous +feeling and to every statesman-like view, is consistent only with such +influences. When the ministry founded that new source of patronage, it +sought to acquire for itself a kind of popularity amongst its adherents. +Had it admitted intellectual merit, it would have obtained popularity +for the Crown from an enlightened nation. But the interests of party are +transitory,—those of the sovereign permanent: it is the interest of +party to be ever jealous of the personal popularity of the Crown. + +In thus excluding from its honours one class of the intelligence of the +country, did it never occur to the short-sighted minister who planned +this arrangement, that some portion of the talents thus insulted, might +be driven to other inquiries which it would neither be easy to answer +nor even expedient to discuss? + +A party which first refuses to science the means of acquiring +competence,—then excludes it from personal honours because it has +already been denied official position,—and which refuses it hereditary +rank, because it has not devoted itself to the acquisition of wealth, +will naturally cause questions to be raised as to the expediency of +different forms of government. + +Of what class, it will naturally be asked, are the persons who have made +such laws? + +Is the possession of hereditary rank at all necessary for the government +of the country? + +At a distant period, and under a less complicated form of society, the +obvious disadvantages of appointing a legislator for life from the +accident of his birth, instead of the fitness of his talents, might have +been tolerated under the influence of force. It has since been +consecrated by established usage, and some of its evils mitigated by the +continual infusion of fresh blood into decaying stocks. But at the +present day, and amidst the multiplied relations of highly civilized +life, the question whether an upper chamber ought to be hereditary, or +appointed only for life, is one upon which nations as well as +philosophers, avowedly disagree. + +In a very few years this great question will come to be more thoroughly +investigated, and those who now advocate the continuance of existing +institutions, will then have enough on their hands, without rashly +forcing, by injustice and insult, both talent and interest into the +ranks of their opponents. + +At present it is sufficient to call attention to a statement often made, +that a chamber of Peers for life is incompatible with the existence of a +limited monarchy. This, like many other party dogmas, is a mere +gratuitous assertion, put forward to alarm the timid who have +experienced the advantages and are anxious for the continuance of that +form of government. + +Various opinions have been advanced, and are current in society, +concerning the proper reward for those _whose science adds to the +boundaries of human knowledge_, and certain principles are held by the +occupiers of high political office, to which it may be well to advert. + +Some of these persons have themselves acquired a smattering of one +science, political economy, and thus they reason:—They are informed that +it is a highly agreeable occupation to make discoveries, and although it +is known that it costs years of labour and study to acquire that power, +yet it is found that many persons are willing to indulge in this luxury, +and are generally disposed to publish the results of their discoveries. +Since, therefore, the public can get the benefit of the knowledge for +nothing, it would be very extravagant in the stewards of the public to +pay anything for it. + +But it seems not to have been observed by these reasoners, that although +all discoveries are of value to the country, yet the time at which they +become practically useful occurs at very different, and often at distant +periods. It might also be suggested to them, that the discoverers of the +great principles of nature are very rarely the persons most capable of +applying them to practice. It is also clear that the acquisition of +money was not one of their objects in devoting themselves to such +unprofitable pursuits. + +Under such circumstances, if the Government neither encourage science by +pecuniary nor by honorary reward, it is most probable that the +discoveries which are made, will occur in its more recondite recesses; +and as the only recompense obtained is the intellectual pleasure felt in +the pursuit, the greater part of the discoveries made will be of the +most abstract kind. + +This tendency is still further increased by the fact that the far larger +number of those who cultivate science, are precluded from competition by +the expense necessary for the pursuit of many of its more practical +branches. The most highly intellectual and exciting,—all the departments +of the pure mathematics, for example, attract by the comparative economy +of the expenditure they demand. + +And yet it may happen that immense sums might have been saved to the +nation, if the efforts of competent men had been applied to reform the +domestic economy or rather the domestic extravagance of many of our +public establishments, instead of expending them more agreeably though +less profitably, on the interpretation of an almost impossible cypher, +or the still more interesting discovery of relations amongst new orders +of imaginary quantities. + +How often has the question been asked by persons seeking a profitable +investment of their capital, Will such a canal or railroad pay? This is +really an indefinite question, and admits of no one answer applicable to +all cases. It may, for example, in some particular instance, be +tolerably certain that at the end of the first four years, if the shares +are sold, and the account closed, there will be an entire loss of half +the principal, and all interest during that time. If the shares are not +sold until the end of eight years, they will produce a return of the +original capital, together with a profit of five per cent. If, however, +those shares were retained until the end of twelve years, they might, +when sold, produce a return of the original capital, together with a +profit of ten per cent. during the whole time. + +Now, it is obvious that the answer to the question, “Will that canal or +railway pay?” must depend on the capital possessed by the purchaser and +on the period of time during which he can afford to abstain from its +use. The purchaser who could not abstain from the use of the interest of +his money for four years might be ruined, whilst he who could abstain +for twelve, might be greatly enriched. But a wealthy country is +generally better able to abstain than any commercial firm, and the +investment in discoveries becoming productive at a distant time, will be +of far more advantage to a nation than to individuals. + +A certain number of persons maintain the opinion, that if men of science +became rich they would become idle, and that it is expedient to starve +them into discovery. Such persons may perhaps have been misled by +arguing from a supposed analogy with some other profession. But the +pleasure of science arises from the exertion, not from the inactivity of +the mind. + +Others, and a very large number, hold that science is of so sublime a +nature, that it ought to be above all sublunary rewards;—they maintain +that it is beneath its dignity to wish for the wealth or the honours +awarded to success in other pursuits;—that ribbons and titles are quite +unworthy of the ambition of those who are searching into the truths of +nature. + +When men state a principle, the best test of their sincerity is to be +found in their application of it. We may ourselves utterly repudiate a +principle, and yet be unable to show that it is not sincerely believed +by those who assert its authority. Man cannot dive into the mind of his +fellow-man, and witness the internal conviction he asserts; but he can +always examine the _fairness_ with which he applies that principle. + +Now, if the lofty dignity of science is such that it is, from its very +nature, incompatible with wealth—if decorations and titles are entirely +unworthy of its legitimate ambition,—then, as a necessary consequence, +all pursuits of a higher order are still more absolutely excluded from +such vanities. + +Is it consistent, therefore, with these opinions, to maintain that the +Ministers of a Christian Church, who interpret to us the _word_ of God, +should receive payment for their labour, rank for their exertions, and, +in some instances, even the very ribbons[27] so contemned: whilst those +who make us intimately acquainted with the _works_ of the Almighty, who +discover to us the laws which he has impressed on matter, and thus add +to the physical comfort, the intellectual pleasure, and the religious +feeling of mankind, should be compelled to exercise those rare +endowments, only by the sacrifice of fortune and the renunciation of all +those enjoyments, rewards, and honours, which the ministers even of the +purest creed receive without reproach? + +But these are the opinions of the shallow and the thoughtless. The +pursuits of mind may modify, they can never obliterate the instincts, +the feelings, or the passions of man. + +The consciousness of power, and the conviction of its successful +exertion, exist undiminished by the neglect or the ingratitude of the +country he inhabits. The certainty that a future age will repair the +injustice of the present, and the knowledge that the more distant the +day of reparation, the more he has outstripped the efforts of his +cotemporaries, may well sustain him against the sneers of the ignorant, +or the jealousy of rivals. + +It is possible that in some rare instance such a man may feel personally +little ambition to attain what all others covet; still, however, he may +be bound by other ties which link him inseparably to the present. + +He may look with fond and affectionate gratitude on her whose maternal +care watched over the dangers of his childhood; who trained his infant +mind, and with her own mild power, checking the rash vigour of his +youthful days, remained ever the faithful and respected counsellor of +his riper age. To gladden the declining years of her who with more than +prophetic inspiration, foresaw as woman only can, the distant fame of +her beloved offspring, he may well be forgiven the desire for some +outward mark of his country’s approbation. + +If such a relative were wanting, there might yet survive another parent +whose less enthusiastic temperament had ever repressed those fond +anticipations of maternal affection, but who now in the ripeness of his +honoured age, might be compelled, with faltering accents, to admit that +the voice of the country confirmed the predictions of the mother. + +Perhaps another and yet dearer friend might exist, the partner of his +daily cares, the witness of his unceasing toil; whose youthful mind, +cultivated by his skill, rewards with enduring affection those efforts +which called into existence her own latent and unsuspected powers. When +driven by exhausted means and injured health almost to despair of the +achievement of his life’s great object—when the brain itself reels +beneath the weight its own ambition has imposed, and the world’s neglect +aggravates the throbbings of an overtasked frame, an angel spirit sits +beside his couch ministering with gentlest skill to every wish, watching +with anxious thought till renovated nature shall admit of bolder +counsels, then points the way to hope, herself the guardian of his +deathless fame. + +The fool may sneer, the worldly-wise may smile, the heartless laugh,—the +saint may moralize, the bigot preach: there dwells not within the deep +recesses of the human heart one sentiment more powerful, more exalted, +or more pure than these. + +That man is not a statesman, who is unaware of the strength of these +powerful excitements to human action. Cold and incapable of such +sentiments himself,—no grasp of intellect enables him to infer their +existence, and thus to supply the deficiencies of his own, by an insight +into the hearts of others. + +That man is a fool, not a statesman, who knowing their strength, +hesitates to avail himself of it for the benefit of his country and of +mankind. + +But if there should arise a man conscious of their power, who yet should +dare to use it for the purposes of party, that man will combine in his +character the not incongruous mixture of statesman and of knave. A +statesman he may be, if he can penetrate into the character of men, and +can divine the action of human motives upon the masses, as well as on +the individuals of his race. With such knowledge, and with the talent +that its possession implies, he cannot be a fool; except indeed, in as +far as he is entitled to credit for that limited amount of folly which +is inseparably attached to him in his other character of knave. It is +_possible_ that he may be successful in his day; it is _certain_ that he +will ultimately be found out and disgraced in the eyes of posterity. His +name may remain a beacon for a time, until some greater or more recent +knave supersedes his example, and thus consigns him to oblivion. + +It is not then the gaudy ribbon, the brilliant star, the titled name, +that have intrinsic charms for him who dedicates his genius to the +search for truth. How large a portion of his real greatness, even of his +most splendid discoveries, would he not willingly sacrifice to confer on +those he loves that exquisite happiness, which arises only when hidden +but long-cherished convictions, entertained diffidently from the +consciousness of partial affection, receive at length their final +confirmation by that decision which national acknowledgment can alone +command! + + [27] The following dignitaries of the Church wear decorations of + Orders of Knighthood. + + Archbishop of Armagh. Bishop of Oxford. + Archbishop of Dublin. Dean of Westminster. + Dean of St. Patrick. + + The vestments of the Bishop of Oxford throw into the shade those even + of Roman Catholic prelates. + + “The said prelate shall have and wear for his habit, a mantle of + crimson velvet, lined with white taffeta, richly guarded with the + Sovereign’s badges and cognizances, and upon his right shoulder an + escutcheon of the arms of the Order, within a garter, and the lace of + his mantle shall be of blue silk, interwoven with gold.”—_History of + British Orders of Knighthood, by Sir Harris Nicolas_, p. 430. + + + + + Appendix. + + --------------- + + THE + ELEVENTH CHAPTER + OF THE + HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY. + + + BY + C. R. WELD, ESQ. + ASSISTANT SECRETARY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY. + + --------------- + + REPRINTED WITH THE PERMISSION OF THE PROPRIETOR. + + + + + EXTRACT FROM WELD’S + HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY. + + --------------- + + + CHAPTER XI. + + The Society receive a Letter from the Treasury respecting Mr. + Babbage’s Calculating Machine—Letter from Mr. Babbage to Sir H. + Davy—A Committee appointed to consider Mr. Babbage’s Plan—They + Report in favour of it—Mr. Babbage has an interview with the + Chancellor of the Exchequer—Government advance + 1,500_l_.—Difference-Engine commenced—Mr. Babbage gives all his + labour gratuitously—Advice of the Society again requested—Mr. + Babbage’s Statement—Committee appointed to inspect the Engine—Their + Report—Heavy Expenses not met by the Treasury—Meeting of Mr. + Babbage’s personal friends—Their Report—Duke of Wellington inspects + the Works—His Grace recommends the Treasury to make further + Payments—Letter from Mr. Babbage to the Treasury—Communication from + the Treasury to the Council—Referred to a Committee—Report of + Committee—They recommend the Works to be removed to the vicinity of + Mr. Babbage’s Residence—Government act on the + Recommendation—Fire-proof Buildings erected—Misunderstanding with + Mr. Clement—Works stopped—Mr. Babbage discovers new principles + which supersede those connected with the Difference-Engine—He + requests an interview with Lord Melbourne—Letter to M. Quetelet + explaining the principles of Analytical-Engine—Mr. Babbage visits + Turin—M. Menabrea’s account of the Engine—Translated with Notes by + Lady Lovelace—Mr. Babbage applies to Government for their + Determination—Letter from the Chancellor of the Exchequer—Mr. + Babbage’s Answer—Government resolve not to proceed with the + Engine—Mr. Babbage has an interview with Sir R. + Peel—Difference-Engine placed in the Museum of King’s + College—Present State of the Analytical-Engine. + + --------------- + + + 1820-25. + +On the 1st April, 1823, a letter was received from the Treasury, +requesting the Council to take into consideration a plan which had been +submitted to Government by Mr. Babbage, for “applying machinery to the +purposes of calculating and printing mathematical tables;” and the Lords +of the Treasury further desired “to be favoured with the opinion of the +Royal Society on the merits and utility of this invention[28].” + +This is the earliest allusion to the celebrated Calculating Engine of +Mr. Babbage, in the records of the Society[29]. But the invention had +been brought before them in the previous year by a letter from Mr. +Babbage to Sir H. Davy, dated July 3, 1822, in which he gives some +account of a small model of his engine for calculating differences, +which “produced figures at the rate of 44 a minute, and performed with +rapidity and precision all those calculations for which it was +designed[30].” He then proceeds to enumerate various tables which the +machine was adapted to calculate, and concludes: “I am aware that these +statements may perhaps be viewed as something more than Utopian, and +that the philosophers of Laputa may be called up to dispute my claim to +originality. Should such be the case, I hope the resemblance will be +found to adhere to the nature of the subject, rather than to the manner +in which it has been treated. Conscious from my own experience of the +difficulty of convincing those who are but little skilled in +mathematical knowledge, of the possibility of making a machine which +shall perform calculations, I was naturally anxious, in introducing it +to the public, to appeal to the testimony of one so distinguished in the +records of British science[31]. Induced by a conviction of the great +utility of such engines, to withdraw for some time my attention from a +subject on which it has been engaged during several years, and which +possesses charms of a higher order, I have now arrived at a point where +success is no longer doubtful. It must, however, be attained at a very +considerable expense, which would not probably be replaced by the works +it might produce for a long period of time, and which is an undertaking +I should feel unwilling to commence, as altogether foreign to my habits +and pursuits.” + +The Council appointed a Committee to take Mr. Babbage’s plan into +consideration, which was composed of the following gentlemen: Sir H. +Davy, Mr. Brande, Mr. Combe, Mr. Baily, Mr. (now Sir Mark Isambard) +Brunel, Major (now General) Colby, Mr. Davies Gilbert, Mr. (now Sir +John) Herschel, Captain Kater, Mr. Pond (Astronomer-Royal), Dr. +Wollaston, and Dr. Young. On the 1st May, 1823, the Committee reported: +“That it appears that Mr. Babbage has displayed great talents and +ingenuity in the construction of his machine for computation, which the +Committee think fully adequate to the attainment of the objects proposed +by the inventor, and that they consider Mr. Babbage as highly deserving +of public encouragement in the prosecution of his arduous +undertaking[32].” + +This Report was transmitted to the Lords of the Treasury, by whom it +was, with Mr. Babbage’s letter to Sir H. Davy, printed and laid before +Parliament[33]. + +In July, 1823, Mr. Babbage had an interview with the Chancellor of the +Exchequer, Mr. Robinson (now Earl of Ripon), to ascertain if it were the +wish of Government that he should construct a large engine of the kind, +which would also print the results it calculated. Unfortunately, no +Minute of that conversation was made at the time, nor was any +sufficiently distinct understanding arrived at, as it afterwards +appeared that a contrary impression was left on the mind of either +party[34]. Mr. Babbage’s conviction was, that whatever might be the +labour and difficulty of the undertaking, the engine itself would, of +course, become the property of the Government, which had paid for its +construction. + +Soon after this interview with the Chancellor of the Exchequer, a letter +was sent from the Treasury to the Royal Society, informing them that the +Lords of the Treasury “had directed the issue of 1,500_l._ to Mr. +Babbage, to enable him to bring his invention to perfection, in the +manner recommended.” + +These words “_in the manner recommended_,” can refer only to the +previous recommendation by the Royal Society; but it does not appear +from their Report, that any plan, terms, or conditions had been pointed +out. + +Towards the end of July, 1823, Mr. Babbage took measures for the +construction of the present Difference-Engine[35], and it was regularly +proceeded with for four years. + +And here it is right to state, that Mr. Babbage gave his mental labour +gratuitously, and that from first to last he has not derived any +emolument whatever from Government[36]. Sectional, and other drawings, +of the most delicate nature had to be made; tools to be formed expressly +to meet mechanical difficulties; and workmen to be educated in the +practical knowledge necessary in the construction of the machine. The +mechanical department was placed under the management of Mr. Clement, a +draughtsman of great ability, and a practical mechanic of the highest +order[37]. Money was advanced from time to time by the Treasury, the +accounts furnished by the engineer undergoing the examination of +auditors[38], and passing through the hands of Mr. Babbage. Thus years +elapsed, and public attention became at length directed to the fact, +that a large sum had been expended upon the construction of the engine, +which was not completed. Again the advice of the Royal Society was +solicited. + +In December, 1828, Government begged the Council “to institute such +enquiries as would enable them to report upon the state to which it (the +machine) had then arrived; and also whether the progress made in its +construction confirmed them in the opinion which they had formerly +expressed, that it would ultimately prove adequate to the important +object which it was intended to attain.” + +Accompanying this communication was a statement from Mr. Babbage of the +condition of the engine, in which he says:— + + “The machine has required a longer time and greater expense than was + anticipated, and Mr. Babbage has already expended about 6,000_l._ on + this object. The work is now in a state of considerable forwardness, + numerous and large drawings of it have been made, and much of the + mechanism has been executed, and many workmen are occupied daily in + its completion.” + +A Committee was appointed by the Council, consisting of Mr. Gilbert +(President), Dr. Roget, Captain Sabine, Sir John Herschel, Mr. Baily, +Mr. Brunel, Captain Kater, Mr. Donkin, Mr. Penn, Mr. Rennie, Mr. Barton, +and Mr. Warburton.[39] + +They minutely inspected the drawings, tools, and the parts of the engine +then executed, and drew up a report, “declining to consider the +principle on which the practicability of the machinery depends, and of +the public utility of the object which it proposes to attain; because +they considered the former fully admitted, and the latter obvious to all +who consider the immense advantage of accurate numerical tables in all +matters of calculation, which it is professedly the object of the engine +to calculate and print with perfect accuracy.” + +They further stated, that “the progress made was as great as could be +expected, considering the numerous difficulties to be overcome; and +lastly, that they had no hesitation in giving it as their opinion, that +the engine was likely to fulfil the expectations entertained of it by +its inventor.” + +The Council adopted the Report, expressing their trust, that while Mr. +Babbage’s mind was intently occupied on an undertaking likely to do so +much honour to his country, he might be relieved as much as possible +from all other sources of anxiety. + +It is clear that the Council of the Royal Society regarded Mr. Babbage’s +engine, as it then existed, in a favourable light, and were sanguine +respecting its satisfactory completion. + +Government acted on the foregoing Report; funds were advanced, the +machinery was declared national property, and the works were continued. +But there was evidently a misgiving on the part of the Lords of the +Treasury, for the official payments soon failed to meet the heavy and +increasing expenses incurred by Mr. Babbage. + +Under these circumstances, by the advice of Mr. Wolryche Whitmore (Mr. +Babbage’s brother-in-law), a meeting of Mr. Babbage’s personal friends +was held on the 12th of May, 1829. It consisted of:— + + The Duke of Somerset, F.R.S., + Lord Ashley, M.P., + Sir John Franklin, Capt. R.N., F.R.S., + Mr. Wolryche Whitmore, M.P., + Dr. Fitton, F.R.S., + Mr. Francis Baily, F.R.S., + Sir John Herschel, F.R.S. + +They drew up the annexed Report:— + + “_May 12, 1829._ + + “The attention of the undersigned personal friends of Mr. Babbage + having been called by him to the actual state of his Machine for + Calculating and Printing Mathematical Tables; and to his relation to + the Government on the one hand, and to the Engineers and workmen + employed by him in its execution on the other, declare themselves + satisfied, from his statements and from the documents they have + perused, of the following facts. + + “That Mr. Babbage was originally induced to take up the work on its + present extensive scale, by an understanding on his part, that it was + the wish of Government he should do so, and by an advance of 1,500_l._ + in the outset, with a full impression on his mind that such further + advances would be made as the progress of the work should require, and + as should secure him from ultimate loss. + + “That the public and scientific importance of the Engine has been + acknowledged, in a Report of a Committee of the Royal Society, made at + the time of its first receiving the sanction of His Majesty’s + Government, and that its actual state of progress is such, as in the + opinion of the most eminent Engineers and other Members of the Royal + Society, as detailed in a further Report of a Committee of that body, + to warrant their impression of the moral certainty of its success, + should funds not be wanting for its completion. + + “That it appears, that Mr. Babbage’s actual expenditure has amounted + to nearly 7,000_l._ and that the whole sum advanced to him by the + Government is 3,000_l._ + + “That Mr. Babbage has devoted, from the commencement of his arduous + undertaking, the most assiduous and anxious attention to the work in + hand, to the injury of his health, and the neglect and refusal of + other profitable occupations. + + “That a very huge expense still remains to be incurred, to the + probable amount of at least 4,000_l._, as far as he can foresee, + before the Engine can be completed; but that Mr. Babbage’s private + fortune is not such as, in their opinion, to justify the sacrifices he + must make in completing it without further and effectual assistance + from Government; taking into consideration not only his own interest, + but that of his family dependent on him. + + “Under these circumstances, it is their opinion that a full and speedy + representation of the case ought to be made to Government, and that in + the most direct manner by a personal application to his Grace the Duke + of Wellington. + + “And that in case of such application proving unsuccessful in + procuring effectual and adequate assistance, they must regard Mr. + Babbage as no longer called on—considering the pecuniary and personal + sacrifices he will then have made; considering the entire and _bonâ + fide_ expenditure of all that he will have received from the public + purse on the object of its destination, and considering the moral + certainty to which it is at length by his exertions reduced—as no + longer called on to go on with an undertaking which may prove the + destruction of his health, and the great injury, if not the ruin of + his fortune. + + “That it is their opinion that Mr. W. Whitmore and Mr. Herschel should + request an interview with the Duke of Wellington for the purpose of + making this representation. + + (Signed,) SOMERSET. + ASHLEY. + JOHN FRANKLIN. + W. W. WHITMORE. + WM. HENRY FITTON. + FRANCIS BAILY. + J. F. W. HERSCHEL.” + +In consequence of what passed at this interview, which took place as +suggested, the Duke of Wellington, accompanied by the Chancellor of the +Exchequer (Mr. Goulburn) and Lord Ashley, inspected the _model_ of the +engine, the drawings, and parts in progress. The Duke recommended that a +grant of 3,000_l._ should be made towards the completion of the machine, +which was duly paid by the Treasury. + +In the mean time, difficulties of another kind arose. The engineer, who +had constructed the Engine under Mr. Babbage’s directions, had delivered +his bills in such a state, that it was impossible to judge how far the +charges were just and reasonable; and although Mr. Babbage had paid +several thousand pounds, there yet remained a considerable balance, +which could not be liquidated until the accounts had been examined, and +the charges approved by professional engineers. + +With a view of drawing attention to these charges, Mr. Babbage addressed +the following letter to the Chancellor of the Exchequer:— + + “_Dorset Street, 21 December, 1830._ + “MY LORD, + “I beg to call your Lordship’s attention to the enclosed + account[40] of the expenses of the Machine for calculating and + printing mathematical tables, by which it appears that a sum of + 592_l._ 4_s._ 8_d._ remained due to myself upon the last account, and + that a further sum of nearly 600_l._ has since become due to Mr. + Clement. + + “It is for the payment of this latter sum that I wish to call your + Lordship’s attention. Mr. Maudslay, one of the engineers appointed by + the Government to examine the bills of Mr. Clement, having been unable + from illness to attend, his report has been delayed, and Mr. Clement + informs me that should the money remain unpaid much longer, he shall + be obliged, from want of funds, to discharge some of the workmen; an + event which I need not inform your Lordship would be very prejudicial + to the progress of the machine. + + “Another point which I wish to submit to your attention, when your + Lordship shall have had leisure to examine personally the present + state of the works, is, that since it is absolutely necessary to find + additional room for the erection of the machine, it becomes a matter + of serious consideration whether it would not contribute to the + speedier completion of the machine, and also to economy in + expenditure, to remove the works to the neighbourhood of my own + residence. + “I have, &c. + “C. BABBAGE.” + +The receipt of this letter caused the Treasury to make the following +communication to the Secretary of the Royal Society:— + + “_Treasury, 24 December, 1830._ + “SIR, + “The Lords Commissioners of H. M. Treasury, having had under + their consideration a letter from Mr. Babbage, containing an account + of the expense which has been incurred in the construction of the + Machine for calculating and printing mathematical tables, amounting to + the sum of 7,192_l._ 4_s._ 8_d._, and requesting an advance of 600_l._ + to defray a part of that expense; I am commanded by their Lordships to + refer you to the Report of the Council of the Royal Society dated 16th + February, 1829, which entirely satisfied their Lordships of the + propriety of supporting Mr. Babbage in the construction of this + machine, and to state that advances to the amount of 6,000_l._ have + been made on this account, and that directions have been given for a + further advance of 600_l._ + + “I am also to acquaint you, that the Machine is the property of + Government, and consequently my Lords propose to defray the further + expense necessary for its completion. I am further to request you will + move the Council of the Royal Society to cause the machine to be + inspected, and to favour my Lords with their opinion whether the work + is proceeding in a satisfactory manner, and without unnecessary + expense, and what further sum may probably be necessary for completing + it. + “I am, &c. + “J. STEWART.” + “_The Secretary, Royal Society._” + +The consideration of this letter was referred to the same Committee +which had previously been appointed for a similar purpose, with the +addition of Sir John Lubbock and Mr. Troughton. + +Again the Committee met[41] Mr. Babbage, at No. 21, Prospect Place, +Lambeth (where the construction of the engine was carried on), and +minutely inspected the machinery and drawings. + +Their Report embodied the whole facts of the case:—the workmanship of +the various parts of the machine was declared to have been executed with +the greatest possible degree of perfection, and the pains taken to +verify the charges on the part of the Government altogether +satisfactory. It was recommended that the vacancy occasioned by the +decease of Mr. Maudslay, who had been appointed to inspect the accounts, +should be filled up by another engineer, conversant with the execution +of machinery, and the value thereof. With respect to the suggested +removal of the workshops nearer to Mr. Babbage’s residence, the +Committee gave their entire concurrence, on the ground that greater +expedition would thereby be attained in carrying on the work, and that +it was highly essential to secure all the machinery and drawings in +fire-proof premises, without delay. A plot of ground held on lease by +Mr. Babbage, adjacent to his garden at the back of his house in Dorset +Street, was recommended as a desirable site for the contemplated +erections, of which the plans and estimates had been submitted to the +Committee. The framers of the Report stated in conclusion that:— + + “Such an arrangement would be eminently conducive to the speedy and + economical completion of the Machine, as well as to the effectual + working and employment of the same, after it shall have been + completed. + + “That as to the sum which may be necessary for completing the Engine, + they attach hereto the estimate of Mr. Brunel.”[42] + +The Report, with Mr. Brunel’s estimate, were sent to the Treasury on the +13th April, 1831: and having been approved by a Committee of practical +engineers appointed by Government, the latter acted on the +recommendations which it contained. The piece of ground adjoining Mr. +Babbage’s garden was taken, and a fire-proof building erected, designed +to contain the plans and drawings, and also the engine when completed. +But new and unforeseen difficulties arose. When about 17,000_l._ had +been expended, further progress was arrested on account of a +misunderstanding with Mr. Clement, who made the most extravagant demands +as compensation for carrying on the construction of the engine in the +new buildings. These demands could not be satisfied with proper regard +to the justice due to Government. Mr. Clement accordingly withdrew from +the undertaking, and carried with him all the valuable tools that had +been used in the work; a proceeding the more unfortunate, as many of +them had been invented expressly to meet the unusual forms and +combinations arising out of the novel construction.[43] + +An offer was made to surrender the tools, for a given sum, which was +declined, and the works came to a stand-still. But other circumstances +interposed to prevent the completion of the original design. + +During the suspension of the works, Mr. Babbage had been deprived of the +use of his own drawings. Having in the meanwhile naturally speculated +upon the general principles on which machinery for calculation might be +constructed, _a principle of an entirely new kind_ occurred to him, the +power of which over the most complicated arithmetical operations seemed +nearly unbounded. This was the executing of analytical operations by +means of an analytical-engine. On re-examining his drawings, when +returned to him by the engineer, the new principle appeared to be +limited only by the extent of the mechanism it might require. The +invention of simpler mechanical means for performing the elementary +operations of the engine, now derived a far greater importance than it +had hitherto possessed; and should such simplifications be discovered, +it seemed difficult to anticipate, or even to over-estimate, the vast +results which might be attained. + +These new views acquired additional importance from their bearings upon +the engine already partly executed for the Government; for, if such +simplifications should be discovered, it might happen that the +Analytical-Engine would execute with greater rapidity the calculations +for which the Difference-Engine was intended; or that the +Difference-Engine would itself be superseded by a far simpler mode of +construction. + +Though these views might perhaps at that period have appeared visionary, +they have subsequently been completely realized. To have allowed the +construction of the Difference-Engine to be resumed, while these new +conceptions were withheld from the Government, would have been improper; +yet the state of uncertainty in which those views were then necessarily +involved, rendered any written communication respecting their probable +bearing on that engine, a task of very great difficulty. It therefore +appeared to Mr. Babbage, that the most straightforward course was to ask +for an interview with the head of the Government, and to communicate to +him the exact state of the case. + +On the 26th September, 1834, Mr. Babbage requested an audience of Lord +Melbourne, for the purpose of placing these views before him; his +Lordship acceded to the request, but from some cause the interview was +postponed; and soon after, the ministry went out of office, without the +desired conference having taken place. + +The duration of the Duke of Wellington’s administration was short; and +no decision on the subject of the _Difference_-Engine was obtained. + +In May, 1835, Mr. Babbage announced in a letter[44] to M. Quetelet, +which was laid before the Academy of Sciences at Brussels, that he had +“for six months been engaged in making the drawings of a new calculating +engine of _far greater power than the first_.” “I am myself astonished,” +says Mr. Babbage, “at the power I have been enabled to give to this +machine; a year ago I should not have believed this result possible. +This machine is intended to contain a hundred variables, or numbers +susceptible of changing, and each of these numbers may consist of +twenty-five figures. The greatest difficulties of the invention have +already been surmounted, and the plans will be finished in a few +months.” + +Subsequently to the date of this letter, Mr. Babbage visited Turin, +where he explained to Baron Plana, M. Menabrea, and several other +distinguished philosophers of that city, the mathematical principles of +his Analytical-Engine, and also the drawings and engravings of the more +curious mechanical contrivances, by which those principles were to be +carried into effect. M. Menabrea, with Mr. Babbage’s consent, published +the information which he had received in the 41st volume of the +_Bibliothèque Universelle de Génève_. The article is remarkable as +giving the first account of the Analytical-Engine.[45] An English +translation, with copious original notes, made by a lady of +distinguished rank and talent,[46] was published in the third volume of +Taylor’s _Scientific Memoirs_. + +But it did not contain all the information respecting the +Difference-Engine that was desirable, and Mr. Babbage was consequently +led to communicate a short article upon this subject to the +_Philosophical Magazine_, which is inserted in the 23rd volume[47]. The +more comprehensive statements and official documents which Mr. Babbage +has placed at my disposal renders it unnecessary to do more than allude +to that article. + +For nine years, that is, from the year 1833, when the construction of +the Difference-Engine was suspended, until 1842, no decision respecting +the machine was arrived at, although Mr. Babbage made several +applications to Government on the subject. + +On the 21st October, 1838, he wrote to the Chancellor of the Exchequer, +stating that the question he wished to have settled was:—“Whether the +Government required him to superintend the completion of the +Difference-Engine, which had been suspended during the last five years, +according to the original plan and principle, or whether they intended +to discontinue it altogether.” This letter produced no result. Time wore +on, and Sir Robert Peel became Prime Minister. This was in 1841. Up to +the termination of the Parliamentary Session in 1842, Mr. Babbage had +received no other communication on the subject than a note from Sir +George Clerk (Secretary to the Treasury), written in January of that +year, stating that he feared the pressing official duties of Sir Robert +Peel would prevent him turning his attention to the matter for some +days. + +Having availed himself of several private channels for recalling the +question to Sir Robert Peel’s attention without effect, Mr. Babbage, on +the 8th of October, 1842, again wrote to him, requesting an early +decision. + +At last Mr. Babbage received the following letter:— + + “_Downing Street, Nov. 3, 1842._ + “MY DEAR SIR, + “The Solicitor-General has informed me that you are most + anxious to have an early and decided answer as to the determination of + the Government with respect to the completion of your Calculating + Engine. I accordingly took the earliest opportunity of communicating + with Sir R. Peel on the subject. + + “We both regret the necessity of abandoning the completion of a + Machine on which so much scientific ingenuity and labour have been + bestowed. But on the other hand, the expense which would be necessary + in order to render it either satisfactory to yourself, or generally + useful, appears on the lowest calculation so far to exceed what we + should be justified in incurring, that we consider ourselves as having + no other alternative. + + “We trust that by withdrawing all claim on the part of the Government + to the Machine as at present constructed, and by placing it at your + entire disposal, we may, to a degree, assist your future exertions in + the cause of science. + “I am, &c. + “HENRY GOULBURN. + “_Charles Babbage, Esq._” + + “P.S. Sir R. Peel begs me to add, that as I have undertaken to express + to you our joint opinion on this matter, he trusts you will excuse his + not separately replying to the letter, which you addressed to him on + the subject a short time since.” + +To this letter Mr. Babbage replied as follows:— + + “_Dorset Street, Nov. 6, 1842._ + “MY DEAR SIR, + “I beg to acknowledge the receipt of your letter of the + 3rd of Nov., containing your own and Sir Robert Peel’s decision + respecting the Engine for calculating and printing mathematical tables + by means of Differences, the construction of which has been suspended + about eight years. + + “You inform me that both regret the necessity of abandoning the + completion of the Engine, but that not feeling justified in incurring + the large expense which it may probably require, you have no other + alternative. + + “You also offer, on the part of Government, to withdraw all claim in + the Machine as at present constructed, and to place it at my entire + disposal, with the view of assisting my future exertions in the cause + of science. + + “The drawings and the parts of the Machine already executed are, as + you are aware, the absolute property of Government, and I have no + claim whatever to them. + + “Whilst I thank you for the feeling which that offer manifests, I + must, under all the circumstances, decline accepting it. + “I am, &c. + “C. BABBAGE.” + +Mr. Babbage had an interview with Sir R. Peel subsequently to the date +of the foregoing letter: the result was, however, entirely +unsatisfactory; and thus, with the communication from the then +Chancellor of the Exchequer, terminated an engagement which had existed +upwards of twenty years, during which period it is due to Mr. Babbage to +state, that he refused more than one highly desirable and profitable +situation,[48] in order that he might give his whole time and thoughts +to the fulfilment of the contract, which he considered himself to have +entered into with the Government. + +With respect to the Difference-Engine little remains to be added. In +1843, an application was made to Government, by the Trustees of King’s +College, London, to allow the Engine, as it existed, to be removed to +the museum of that institution. The request was complied with; and the +Engine, enclosed within a glass case, now stands nearly in the centre of +the Museum. It is capable of calculating to five figures, and two orders +of differences, and performs the work with absolute precision; but no +portion whatever of printing machinery, which was one of the great +objects in the construction of the Engine, exists. All the drawings of +the machinery and other contrivances are also in King’s College. + +Before closing this Chapter, it will not be out of place to put upon +record the state of the Analytical-Engine at this period (1848). + +Mechanical Notations have been made, both of the actions of detached +parts, and of the general action of the whole, which cover about four or +five hundred large folio sheets of paper. + +The original rough sketches are contained in about five volumes. There +are upwards of one hundred large drawings. No part of the construction +of the Analytical-Engine has yet been commenced. A long series of +experiments have, however, been made upon the art of shaping metals; and +the tools to be employed for that purpose have been discussed, and many +drawings of them prepared. The great object of these inquiries and +experiments is, on the one hand, by simplifying the construction as much +as possible, and on the other, by contriving new and cheaper means of +execution, ultimately to reduce the expense within those limits which a +private individual may command. + + [28] In the following account of the Difference and Analytical + Engines, besides the MS. documents in the Archives of the Royal + Society, I have derived very valuable information from an unpublished + statement drawn up by Mr. Babbage, which he has been so kind as to + place in my hands. The original documents which are in Mr. Babbage’s + possession, and which are referred to, I have myself examined. + + [29] The idea of a Calculating Engine is not new. The celebrated + Pascal constructed a machine for executing the ordinary operations of + arithmetic, a description of which will be found in the _Encycl. + Méthod._, and in the Works of Pascal, Tom. IV. p. 7, Paris, 1819. In + his _Pensées_ he says, alluding to this Engine: “_La machine + arithmétique fait des effets qui approchent plus de la pensée que tout + ce que font les animaux; mais elle ne fait rien qui puisse faire dire + qu’elle a de la volonté comme les animaux._” Subsequently, Leibnitz + invented a machine by which, says Mr. De Morgan, “arithmetic + computations could be made.” Polenus, a learned and ingenious Italian, + invented a machine by which multiplication was performed—and + mechanical contrivances for performing particular arithmetical + processes were made about a century ago, but they were merely + modifications of Pascal’s. These Engines were very different to Mr. + Babbage’s Difference-Engine. + + [30] This letter was printed and published in July, 1822. + + [31] Sir H. Davy had witnessed and expressed his admiration of the + performances of the Engine. + + [32] I am informed upon good authority, that Dr. Young differed in + opinion from his colleagues. Without doubting that an engine could be + made, he conceived that it would be far more useful to invest the + probable cost of constructing such a calculating machine as was + proposed, in the funds, and apply the dividends to paying calculators. + + [33] Parliamentary Paper, No. 370, 1823. + + [34] Mr. Babbage very justly observes, that had the mutual relations + of the two parties, and the details of the plans then adopted, been + clearly defined, there is little doubt but that the Difference-Engine + would long since have existed. + + [35] It will be desirable to distinguish between, + + 1. The small _Model_ of the Original or Difference-Engine. + + 2. The Difference-Engine itself, belonging to the Government, a + part only of which has been put together. + + 3. The designs for another Engine called the Analytical-Engine. + + [36] Sir R. Peel distinctly admitted this in the House of Commons in + March, 1843. + + [37] A curious anecdote is related illustrative of the great + perfection to which Mr. Clement was in the habit of bringing + machinery. He received an order from America to construct a large + screw in the _best possible manner_, and he accordingly made one with + the greatest mathematical accuracy. But his bill amounted to some + hundreds of pounds, which completely staggered the American, who never + calculated upon paying more than 20_l._ at the utmost for the screw. + The matter was referred to arbitrators, who gave an opinion in favour + of Mr. Clement. + + [38] They were Messrs. Brunel, Donkin, and Field. + + [39] Colonel Sabine informs me, that Dr. Whewell was afterwards added + to the Committee. + + [40] + £ s. d. + Expense to end of 1824 600 0 0 + Expense to end of 1827 521 16 9 + Mr. Clement’s Bills to June, 1827 4,775 15 3 + Ditto, 9th May, 1829 730 12 8 + ------------- + 6,628 4 8 + Deduct old tools sold 36 0 0 + ------------- + 6,592 4 8 + Mr. Clement’s Bill to December, 1830, about 600 0 0 + ------------- + 7,192 4 8 + ------------- + + [41] I have a letter of Sir J. Herschel’s before me, expressing his + regret at being unable to attend on this occasion, but that his faith + in the engine and its inventor remained unshaken. + + [42] Mr. Brunel’s estimate appears in the following letter to Mr. + Warburton:— + + “_Feb. 28, 1831._ + “DEAR SIR, + “Having taken in consideration the erection of the + proposed shops, the removal of the machinery, the accommodation for + it, and also for the maker; having also taken into consideration the + further completion of the drawings, and the ultimate accomplishment + of the Engine until it is capable of producing plates for printing; + though I feel confident that the sum of 8,000_l._ will be ample to + realize the objects that are contemplated, I should nevertheless + recommend that the Government be advised to provide for the sum of + 12,000_l._ by way of estimate, and that the yearly sum required, + exclusive of the sum requisite for the buildings and removal (say + 2,000_l._), will not exceed from 2,000_l._ to 2,500_l._ + “I am, &c. + “M. I. BRUNEL.” + “_Henry Warburton, Esq._” + + [43] This Mr. Clement had a legal right to do. Startling as it may + appear to the unprofessional reader, it is nevertheless the fact, that + engineers and mechanics possess the right of property to all tools + that they have constructed, although the cost of construction has been + defrayed by their employers. + + [44] Mr. Babbage informs me, that this letter was intended only as a + private communication. + + [45] In the _Ninth Bridgewater Treatise_, Mr. Babbage has employed + various arguments deduced from the Analytical-Engine, which afford + some idea of its powers. See second edition. In 1838, several copies + of plans of this new engine, engraved on wood, were circulated amongst + Mr. Babbage’s friends at the Meeting of the British Association at + Newcastle. + + In 1840, Mr. Babbage had one of his general plans of the + Analytical-Engine lithographed at Paris. + + [46] I am authorized by Lord Lovelace to say, that the translator is + Lady Lovelace. + + [47] “The Difference-Engine could only tabulate, and was incapable by + its nature of developing; the Analytical-Engine was intended to either + tabulate or develop. The Difference-Engine is the embodying of one + particular and very limited set of operations, the Analytical-Engine, + the embodying of the science of operations. The distinctive + characteristic of the Analytical-Engine, is the introduction into it + of the principle which Jacquard devised for regulating by means of + punched cards the most complicated patterns in the fabrication of + brocaded stuffs. Nothing of the sort exists in the Difference-Engine. + We may say most aptly, that the Analytical-Engine weaves _Algebraical + patterns_, just as the Jacquard loom weaves flowers and leaves!”—Note + to translation of Menabrea’s Memoir. The 59th volume of the _Edinburgh + Review_ contains an able and elaborate article upon the + Difference-Engine, written by Dr. Lardner. + + [48] Mr. Babbage has shown me letters by which it appears that he + declined offices of great emolument, the acceptance of which would + have interfered with his labours upon the Difference-Engine. + + + + +The annexed Review of the Eleventh Chapter of MR. WELD’S HISTORY OF THE +ROYAL SOCIETY, by Professor DE MORGAN, has been reprinted with his +permission, and that of the Editor, _verbatim_, from the Athenæum of +October 14th, 1848. + +Three Notes at the foot of the pages have been added for the purpose of +explanation. + +These are followed by the remarks upon them, reprinted from the +“_Athenæum_” of 16th December, 1848. + + + + + PROFESSOR DE MORGAN’S REVIEW _of_ WELD’S + HISTORY _of the_ ROYAL SOCIETY. + + --------------- + + THE ATHENÆUM. + _LONDON, SATURDAY, OCTOBER 14, 1848._ + + --------------- + + + + + MR. BABBAGE’S CALCULATING MACHINE. + + +In our review of Mr. Weld’s “History of the Royal Society,” [_ante_, p. +621,] we noted that one chapter was devoted to the history of the +celebrated undertaking above named. This chapter is taken from materials +furnished by Mr. Babbage himself, all the documents having undergone the +inspection of Mr. Weld. Of recent publications on the subject it may be +well to note—1. A short account of the transactions with the Government, +communicated by Mr. Babbage to the _Philosophical Magazine_ for +September, 1843. 2. A sketch of the _Analytical Engine_ (on which Mr. +Babbage is now at work, that commenced by the Government being the +_Difference Engine_) written in Italian by Menabrea, and translated, +with notes (and a list of all previous publications), by the Countess of +Lovelace (August 1843). The statements put forward by Mr. Babbage have +thus been in substance before the public for five years, without +contradiction: for though the account (No. 1) was not signed, it was +stated to be _from authority_, allowed to pass as such by the Editors of +the magazine, and generally understood to emanate from Mr. Babbage. We +are then bound to take this first statement as admitted by Government, +more especially after the publication by Mr. Weld, avowedly made from +the documents furnished by Mr. Babbage himself: and assuredly we +understand Mr. Weld as conceiving himself to be distinctly informed by +Mr. Babbage, that _all_ documents of any importance had been +communicated. + +The heads of the public history of the _Difference Engine_ are as +follows:—In April, 1823, the Government requested the opinion of the +Royal Society on Mr. Babbage’s plan for “applying machinery to the +purposes of calculating and printing mathematical tables.” The Royal +Society reported favourably, that the machine was “fully adequate to the +objects proposed,”—and this report was laid before Parliament. In July, +Mr. Babbage had an interview with the Chancellor of the Exchequer (Earl +of Ripon) to ascertain if Government would wish him to construct for +_printing_ as well as _calculating_. There is no minute of this +conversation, and the parties have different memories upon it. But soon +after, the Treasury informs the Royal Society that 1,500_l._ was to be +issued to Mr. Babbage “to enable him to bring his invention to +perfection, in the manner recommended.” Mr. Weld remarks that no plan +had been pointed out; but it must be noticed that the original +application was for an opinion upon _calculating and printing_, that the +opinion spoke of the _full adequacy_ of the plan for _the objects +proposed_, and that the final determination of the Government was to +proceed _as recommended_. Unless there were a previous understanding +that all documents should either speak with the verbal completeness of +an indictment or be wholly void, it is clear that the Government +determined to assist Mr. Babbage in realizing the full invention, and +told him so.[49] + +The work went on for four years, under advances of money from time to +time: the funds were applied by Mr. Babbage, and the accounts were +audited by Messrs. Brunel, Donkin, and Field. We suppose that Government +did not exceed the proposed advance of 1,500_l._; but this is not +expressly stated. In December, 1828, Government applied again to the +Royal Society to report upon the state, progress, and prospects of the +machine. Mr. Babbage at the same time stated that he had expended +6,000_l._—meaning, we suppose, 4,500_l._ over and above the Government +advance. A Committee, consisting of Messrs. Gilbert, Roget, Sabine, +Herschel, Baily, Brunel (the elder), Kater, Donkin, Penn, Rennie, +Barton, Warburton, declined to report on practicability or utility, +considering both as fully established, and reported that, the +difficulties considered, the progress was as great as could be expected, +and that the engine was likely to fulfil the expectations of its +inventor. On this report the Government made further advances, and the +machine was declared national property. But the official payments soon +failed: and Mr. Babbage called a meeting of private friends, in May +1829, who, on the representation that he had then advanced 4,000_l._ +himself, in addition to the Government advance of 3,000_l._, advised him +strongly not to proceed without adequate help from the Government. On +this representation, the Duke of Wellington, Mr. Goulburn, and Lord +Ashley inspected what there was to show, and the Treasury advanced +3,000_l._ more. In December 1830, nearly 600_l._ was still due to Mr. +Babbage, “upon the last account,” and that sum to the superintendent, +Mr. Clement. The Treasury gave directions for the advance of 600_l._ to +pay Mr. Clement, and desired a fresh inspection and opinion from the +Royal Society. The Committee above named (with the addition of Sir J. +Lubbock and Mr. Troughton) reported (April 1831) as favourably as before +on every point, and recommended attention to Mr. Babbage’s suggestion +that the workshops should be removed to the neighbourhood of his +residence. With regard to probable expense, they subjoined Mr. Brunel’s +estimate that 8,000_l._ additional would be sufficient; but recommending +that the Government be advised to provide for 12,000_l._ by way of +estimate. A piece of ground adjoining Mr. Babbage’s garden was taken, +and a fire-proof building was erected. When about 17,000_l._ had been +expended altogether, further progress was arrested by the extravagant +demands made by Mr. Clement, as compensation for carrying on the +construction in the new buildings. These were out of the question: and +Mr. Clement withdrew, taking with him all the tools which had been used, +many of which had been invented for the occasion. For it is the law that +engineers and mechanics possess the right of property in all tools they +have constructed, even though the cost of construction may have been +defrayed by their employers. A special agreement ought, the reader will +say, to have been made as to these tools; but whether the neglect is to +be charged on Mr. Babbage, or on the Government, those must say who feel +able. As it very seldom happens that the employer furnishes tools, it is +easy to see how the necessity for a special agreement may have escaped +the notice of all parties. + +So far all is intelligible enough, and no blame attaches to either side, +at least that we can venture to impute. But now the question divides in +a curious way. While the works were suspended, Mr. Babbage reconsidered +the whole question, and invented what he calls the _Analytical +Engine_,—which we will take, on his word and Menabrea’s publication, +derived from his communications, to be immensely superior to the +_Difference Engine_. To resume the latter, while Government was +unacquainted with these new and more simple conceptions, would have been +improper; to write on unfinished speculations would have been difficult. +Mr. Babbage therefore (September 1834) requested a personal interview +with Lord Melbourne; which was agreed to,—but before it took place the +ministry was dissolved. From this time until 1842 Mr. Babbage made +applications to the various administrations, which remained unanswered; +until at last, in November, 1842, a letter from Mr. Goulburn, in answer +to a new application, informed Mr. Babbage that the Government intended +to discontinue the project on the ground of expense. + +In the meanwhile Mr. Babbage incurred severe censure in scientific +circles, as being himself the cause of the delay. It was asserted that +he had compromised the Royal Society, which had so strongly recommended +his project to the Government. It was pretty generally believed that the +delay arose from his determination that the Government should take up +the new engine and abandon the old one. + +But, until the statement made by him shall be proved either false or +defective, it must stand that the Government never returned any answer +to the question—Shall the new engine be constructed, or shall the old +one be proceeded with? We are of opinion that they ought to have +required him to proceed with the old one. They ought to have said—The +public can only judge by results: how well satisfied soever men of +science may be that the new machine is immeasurably superior to the old +one, society at large will never comprehend the abandonment of a scheme +on which so much has been expended; they will say—What if, in +constructing No. 2, No. 3 should be discovered, as much superior to No. +2 as No. 2 is to No. 1! And if Mr. Babbage had declined to proceed with +his first project, when thus urged, it is our opinion that he would have +richly deserved a very harsh censure. And of this we are sure, that if +Government had allowed him to finish the first machine, and he had done +so with success, the House of Commons would willingly have granted money +for the second,—aye, and for the third and fourth, if he had invented +them. But the Government itself prevented the matter from coming to any +such issue. It is possible that Sir R. Peel and Mr. Goulburn allowed Mr. +Babbage’s well-known wish[50] to abandon the first plan in favour of the +new one to influence their decision. It may be that they were startled +at finding that 17,000_l._ expended upon one project was only the +precursor of another. If so, we think they put themselves in the wrong +by not fastening on Mr. Babbage the alternative of either proceeding +with the existing construction, or taking the entire responsibility of +refusal upon himself. As the matter now stands, and unless Mr. Babbage +can be refuted, the answer to the question why he did not proceed is, +that during the eight years in which he had to bear the blame of the +delay he could not procure even the attention of the Government, much +less any decision on the course to be taken. + +It is generally understood that Mr. Babbage is determined to proceed +with the _Analytical Engine_, gradually, and at his own expense; and +that the drawings are in a state of great forwardness. According to Mr. +Babbage himself, many experiments have been made with the object “on the +one hand, by simplifying the construction as much as possible, and on +the other, by contriving new and cheaper means of execution, ultimately +to reduce the expense within those limits which a private individual may +command.” + +In looking at all the circumstances of this statement, we regret its +divided responsibility. Mr. Weld has seen Mr. Babbage’s documents. +Should he have made an insufficient selection, who is to blame? Mr. Weld +says, “I have derived very valuable information from an unpublished +statement drawn up by Mr. Babbage, which he has been so kind as to place +in my hands. The original documents, which are in Mr. Babbage’s +possession, and which are referred to, I have myself examined.” From all +this we should conclude that if Mr. Weld had omitted anything material, +or fallen into any misconception, Mr. Babbage would before this have set +it right. But it would be more satisfactory if we had Mr. Babbage’s own +acceptance of the statement thus made, as being that on which he is +content to rest his case; at least until some specific counter-statement +should demand more detail of explanation. Continued silence will be +tantamount to such acceptance. + +There is also one piece of information which must be drawn out before +the case can be finally adjudicated. We stand thus:—Scientific rumour +states that Mr. Babbage compelled the Government to give him up by +demanding permission to abandon the _Difference Engine_ and substitute +the _Analytical Engine_. To this, in the formal point of view, Mr. +Babbage has fully answered, by showing that the Government never +communicated to him that it was their pleasure he should proceed on the +plan originally contemplated. The question now remains—Did Mr. Babbage, +or did he not, in the several unanswered applications which he made to +the Ministry, press the claims of the new machine and the abandonment of +the old? If so, did he do it in such a manner as to give to understand, +or make apparent, that he would not consent to recommence operations at +the point of relinquishment? The “several applications” which were made +from 1833 to 1838 are not particularized, much less described as to +contents. But, in October 1838, Mr. Babbage wrote to the Chancellor of +the Exchequer, stating, to use Mr. Weld’s words, that “the question he +wished to have settled” was, whether the Government required him to +superintend the completion of the _Difference Engine_ according to the +original plan and principle, or whether they intended to discontinue it +altogether. Now the words _quoted_ are very like the idiom a person +would employ who had in his mind that up to that time some other +question had been among those proposed for discussion. And it is worthy +of note that all the communications are undescribed until we come to the +one of October 1838; which shows that then at least, whether before or +not, Mr. Babbage had put the question on the right issue. Of what tenor, +then, were the undescribed applications?[51] If of the same as that of +October 1838, Mr. Babbage stands quite clear; but if they were such as +fairly to give rise to the rumour above mentioned, then it must be said, +that though _he_ had every disposition to get wrong, Government always +prevented him by blocking his path with an error of its own. But in any +case it is to be remembered, that for the last four years of unanswered +application Mr. Babbage stood upon the right ground; and also that the +rumoured _refusal_ to proceed never was made. + +The public, we think, has a right to explanation from the Government, +and to further explanation from Mr. Babbage. Sir R. Peel turned it off +with a joke in the House of Commons. He recommended that the machine +should be set to calculate the time at which it would be of use. He +ought rather to have advised that it should be set to compute the number +of applications which might remain unanswered before a Minister, if the +subject were not one which might affect his parliamentary power. If it +had done this, it would have shown that its usefulness had commenced. + + [49] By the words “_no plan_,” the reviewer here evidently refers to + the _mechanical and mathematical plan_, on the fitness of which the + Royal Society had already, as he observes, made a report. Mr. Weld, on + the other hand, refers to the _mutual relations_ of the two parties, + Mr. Babbage and the Chancellor of the Exchequer, relative to the + expenses and even to the ownership of the _Difference-Engine_, as + appears by the footnote (34) at page 256. + C. B. + + [50] It is scarcely possible that this _supposed_ wish could have + influenced Sir Robert Peel, because he had before him a written + disavowal of it from Mr. Babbage himself. + C. B. + + [51] The two following will sufficiently explain them:—On the 23d + December, 1834, Mr. Babbage addressed a statement to the Duke of + Wellington, pointing out the only plans which, in his opinion, could + be pursued for terminating the questions relative to the _Difference + Engine_, namely: + + _First_, the Government might desire Mr. Babbage to continue the + construction of the Engine in the hands of the person who has hitherto + been employed in making it. + + _Secondly_, the Government might wish to know whether any other person + could be substituted for the engineer at present employed to continue + the construction; a course which was possible. + + _Thirdly_, the Government might (although he did not presume that they + would) substitute some person to superintend the completion of the + Engine instead of Mr. Babbage himself. + + _Fourthly_, the Government might be disposed to give up the + undertaking entirely. + + A letter to Sir R. Peel from Mr. Babbage, dated 7th April, 1835, and + enclosing the above plans, concludes thus:— + + “The delays and difficulties of years will, I hope, excuse my + expressing a wish that I may at length be relieved from them by an + early decision of the Government on the question.” + C. B. + + + + + _From the_ ATHENÆUM _of_ SATURDAY, DEC. _16th, 1848_. + + --------------- + + +Mr. Babbage has reprinted, for private circulation, Mr. Weld’s chapter +on his _Calculating Machine_, and has appended to it our review[52] of +that chapter [see _ante_, p. 1029] with three short foot-notes. The +first of these is on a point immaterial to the issue; the second and +third contain distinct statements of fact from Mr. Babbage, in reference +to our comments upon his proceedings and those of the Government. Our +readers will remember that from September 1834 to November 1842, Mr. +Babbage could not procure the attention of the Government to the state +of the engine, on which 17,000_l._ had been spent; and that, about the +beginning of that period, Mr. Babbage had invented the new engine, which +he called the _Analytical Engine_. And further, they will remember that +all notion of the possibility of blame having been justly incurred by +Mr. Babbage rested, in our comment, upon the hypothesis that he had put +his wish to abandon the _Difference Engine_ and substitute the +_Analytical Engine_ before the Government in such a form as to give them +a right to suppose that he was unwilling to proceed with the former. On +our remark that it is possible that Sir R. Peel and Mr. Goulburn allowed +his well-known wish to influence their decision, Mr. Babbage +observes:—“It is scarcely possible that this _supposed_ wish could have +influenced Sir Robert Peel, because he had before him a written +disavowal of it from Mr. Babbage himself.” + +Again, of the first half of the period of unanswered application Mr. +Weld gives no account, as to the tenor of the applications therein made +to the Government: though he shows by documents that during the second +half Mr. Babbage, to repeat our own phrase, “stood upon the right +ground.” And thereupon we expressed our opinion that the public had a +right to explanation from the Government, and to further explanation +from Mr. Babbage. This further explanation Mr. Babbage now gives, in the +following words; among which we insert some bracketed comments:— + +“The two following [applications made to the Government] will +sufficiently explain them [the undescribed applications of the first +half of the period of unanswered application]:—On the 23rd December, +1834, Mr. Babbage addressed a statement to the Duke of Wellington, +pointing out the only [the reader will remark this word _only_] plans +which in his opinion could be pursued for terminating the questions +relative to the _Difference Engine_, namely—_First_, the Government +might desire Mr. Babbage to continue the construction of the engine in +the hands of the person who has hitherto been employed in making it. +_Secondly_, the Government might wish to know whether any other person +could be substituted for the engineer at present employed to continue +the construction—a course which was possible. _Thirdly_, the Government +might (although he did not presume that they would) substitute some +person to superintend the completion of the engine instead of Mr. +Babbage himself. _Fourthly_, the Government might be disposed to give up +the undertaking entirely.” A letter to Sir Robert Peel from Mr. Babbage, +dated the 7th of April, 1835, and enclosing the above plans, concludes +thus: “The delays and difficulties of years will, I hope, excuse my +expressing a wish that I may at length be relieved from them by an early +decision of the Government on the question.” + +From the above it appears that at the end of 1834, Mr. Babbage—though +then so full of the _new_ engine, that in September he had asked an +audience of Lord Melbourne, to communicate the exact state of the case, +and to request, of course, his consideration of the question whether the +new engine should or should not take the place of the old one—began his +applications to the Government with distinct reference to the _old_ +engine, and to the question of its completion or abandonment. Certainly +the first of the two applications was not well timed, for it was made +when the Duke of Wellington held all the seals, and a Government courier +was hunting Sir Robert Peel all over Italy, to tell him to come home +quick and be Prime Minister. But it was repeated to Sir Robert Peel in +the April following, when the latter was also in official possession of +the previous letter. + +Mr. Babbage having thus filled up the only _lacuna_ which the public +press has brought to his notice, we can but repeat that those who would +impute to him the blame of the failure of Government to complete his +Calculating Machine must begin by proving his statement to be false or +defective. In 1835 he complains _to_ the Government of “delays and +difficulties,” which he implies to be mainly caused _by_ the Government, +and he gets no answer whatever to repeated applications, until 1843. +Those who have propagated the rumours that his conduct was the cause of +the delay, and that he compromised his friends in the Royal Society, who +had aided in bringing him under the notice of the Government, are bound +to abstain in future, or to show cause. + +We end by a quotation from Mr. Weld, which we abstained from giving so +long as we supposed that the discontinuance of the Calculating Machine +might be, in any degree, Mr. Babbage’s fault. “Mr. Babbage has shown me +letters, by which it appears that he declined offices of great +emolument, the acceptance of which would have interfered with his +labours upon the _Difference Engine_.” + + [52] We said in that review that Menabrea’s Memoir was in Italian:—we + should have said French. + + THE END. + + + + + Transcriber’s Notes. + + + New original cover art included with this eBook is granted to the + public domain. + + Italic text is denoted by underscores _thus_, small capitals have been + changed to all capitals. + + Some words are inconsistently hyphenated such as “light-house”, + “lighthouse” and “astronomer-royal”, “astronomer royal”. These have + been left as originally printed. + + The footnotes have been renumbered throughout the book and moved to + the ends of the chapters. + + The Appendix consists of extracts from other publications. The + footnotes have been renumbered but there remain references to page + numbers in the original publications. + + Some small changes have been made as follows: + + A closing quotation mark at the end of the first sentence of footnote + 47 has been removed since all of this text is taken from the note + cited. + + In order to obtain the correct alignment of text: + + On page 126 the dashes serving to indicate repeated text have been + replaced by duplicated text. + + In the table in footnote 40 the ditto marks have been replaced by + duplicated text. + + In the table on page 220 “The Bath” has been repeated instead of being + bracketed to “Military” and “Civil”. + + + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 76507 *** diff --git a/76507-h/76507-h.htm b/76507-h/76507-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..13f1c85 --- /dev/null +++ b/76507-h/76507-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,11634 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html> +<html lang="en"> +<head> +<meta charset="UTF-8"> +<title>The Exposition of 1851 | Project Gutenberg</title> +<link rel="icon" href="images/cover.jpg" type="image/x-cover"> +<style> +body { margin-left:10%; margin-right:10%; position: relative;} +p {text-align: justify; text-indent: 1.4em; margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0;} +hr {margin: 1ex 37% 1ex 37%;} +h1 {page-break-before: always; font-weight: normal; font-size: 1em; margin-bottom: 0; margin-top: 0} +h2 {padding-top: 6em; page-break-before: avoid; text-align: center; font-weight: normal; font-size: large;} +table {padding: 1ex;} +th {font-weight: normal; padding: 0; padding-left: 0.2em;} +td {padding: 0; } +.align_c { text-align: center; text-indent: 0;} +.title_size {font-size: x-large;} +.four_space { margin-top: 2em;} +.pagenum { position: absolute; right: -3.5em; font-size: small; text-indent: 0; text-align: right; border: 1px solid silver; margin-top: 0.3em; padding: 0 0.2em; color: silver;} +.x_small { font-size: x-small;} +.one_space { margin-top: 1.3ex; margin-bottom: 1.3ex;} +.break_before {page-break-before: always; margin-top: 6em;} +.x-ebookmaker .break_before {page-break-before: always; margin-top: 0;} +.emph { letter-spacing: 0.2em;} +.font2p { font-size: 2em; } +.small { font-size: small;} +.chapter { page-break-before: always;} +.smaller { font-size: smaller;} +.two_space { margin-top: 2em;} +.small-caps { font-variant: small-caps;} +.footnote { font-size: small; margin: 2ex 0;} +.center { margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;} +.fontp9 { font-size: 0.875em;} +.align_l { padding-left: 1.5em; text-indent: -1.2em;} +.valign_t { vertical-align: top;} +.align_r { text-align: right; } +.valign_b { vertical-align: bottom;} +.avoid_break {page-break-inside: avoid;} +.pad_left { padding-left: 1.5em;} +.italic { font-style: italic;} +.block_align_l {text-align: left; display: inline-block;} +.noindent {text-indent: 0;} +.hang_indent {text-align: justify; padding-left: 2.5em; text-indent: -1.2em;} +.justify { text-align: justify; } +.bot_line { border-bottom: 1px solid black;} +.margtb { margin: 1em 0;} +.image-center { text-align: center; margin: 1em 0;} +.image_a { width: 6em;} +.pad_lx { padding-left: 3em;} +.space_after { margin-bottom: 1.3ex;} +.valign_m { vertical-align: middle;} +.pad_lr { padding: 0 1em;} +.large { font-size: large;} +.sig { text-align: right; margin-right: 2em;} +.right { margin-left: auto;} +.indent_a { text-indent: 7em;} +.right2 { text-align: right; margin-right: 6em;} +.indent_b { text-indent: 4em;} +.indent_large { text-indent: 8em;} +.right3 { text-align: right; margin-right: 10em;} +.box {page-break-before: always; margin: 4em 1em 1em 1em; border: 2px solid grey; padding: 1em;} +h2 {font-size: 1em; line-height: 2;} +</style> +</head> +<body> +<div style='text-align:center'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 76507 ***</div> +<p class="align_c title_size four_space"> +THE EXPOSITION<br> +<span class='x_small'>OF</span><br> +1851. +</p> +<hr> +<p class="align_c x_small one_space"> +LONDON:<br> +<span class='x_small'>R. CLAY, PRINTER, BREAD STREET HILL.</span> +</p> +<hr> +<h1 class="align_c break_before"> +<span class='font2p'><span class='emph'>THE EXPOSITIO</span>N</span><br> +<span class='x_small'>OF</span><br> +<span class='font2p'><span class='emph'>1851</span>;</span> +</h1> +<p class="align_c x_small one_space"> +OR, +</p> +<p class="align_c one_space"> +VIEWS OF THE INDUSTRY,<br> +THE SCIENCE, AND THE GOVERNMENT,<br> +OF ENGLAND. +</p> +<p class="align_c one_space"> +<span class='x_small'>BY</span><br> +CHARLES BABBAGE, ESQ.<br> +<span class='x_small'>CORRESPONDING MEMBER OF THE ACADEMY OF MORAL SCIENCES OF THE INSTITUTE OF FRANCE.</span> +</p> +<p class="align_c small four_space"> +SECOND EDITION, WITH ADDITIONS. +</p> +<p class="align_c one_space"> +LONDON:<br> +JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET.<br> +1851. +</p> +<div class="chapter"><h2 id='tg_pref'><span class='emph'>PREFAC</span>E<br> +<span class='smaller'>TO THE FIRST EDITION.</span> +</h2></div> +<hr> +<p class='two_space'> +<span class="small-caps">England</span> has invited the civilized world to meet +in its great commercial centre; asking it, in friendly +rivalry, to display for the common advantage of all, +those objects which each country derives from the +gifts of nature, and on which it confers additional +utility by processes of industrial art.</p> +<p> +This invitation, universally accepted, will bring +from every quarter a multitude of people greater +than has yet assembled in any western city: these +welcome visitors will enjoy more time and opportunity +for observation than has ever been afforded +on any previous occasion. The statesman and the +philosopher, the manufacturer and the merchant, +and all enlightened observers of human nature, +may avail themselves of the opportunity afforded +by their visit to this Diorama of the Peaceful Arts, +<span id='page-vi' class='pagenum'>vi</span>for taking a more correct view of the industry, +the science, the institutions, and the government of +this country. One object of these pages is, to suggest +to such inquirers the agency of those deeper-seated +and less obvious causes which can be detected +only by lengthened observation, and to supply them +with a key to explain many of the otherwise incomprehensible +characteristics of England. +</p> +<p> +Who, for instance, could have conceived that +England, after making unexampled efforts for the +adoption of “<i>Free Trade</i>,” should be the first +nation to prohibit[<a href='#fn_1' id='fnb_1'>1</a>] its very basis, “<i>competition</i>,” +at the world’s great bazaar? +</p> +<p> +This country is fortunate in having on the Western +Continent, a great nation derived from the same +common stock, speaking the same language, sharing +the same feelings, but fortunately not partaking +the same <i>prejudices</i>. Proud of the only ancestry +which is not contemptible, it glories in the genius +and the virtues of our common forefathers, and in +its young ambition now strives in science and in +literature, to prove itself <i>their</i> worthy descendants⁠—<i>our +own</i> generous rivals. +</p> +<p> +<span id='page-vii' class='pagenum'>vii</span>Separated from us by an intervening ocean, the +judgment of America is not obscured by the repulsion +or the fascination of personal manners,⁠—by the +tales of jealous rivals or enthusiastic friends. It can +thus, as it were, anticipate for us the decision of posterity +upon the reputation of those English writers +who have never visited her shores. Many foreigners +speaking other tongues, whose researches in industrial, +economical, and physical science, have conferred +honour on their own country, now visit +ours. These and their congenial spirits throughout +the world, sit in judgment on the <i>prejudices</i> of +England, and will, if I mistake not, find ample +reason to agree with the Danish statesman in the +opinion,⁠—that great nations are often governed by +very small people. +</p> +<p> +England has invited the judgment of the world +upon its <i>Arts</i> and its <i>Industry</i>;⁠—science appeals +to the same tribunal against its <i>ingratitude</i> and its +<i>injustice</i>. +</p> +<p> +Several friends whose esteem I prize, have urged +me to avoid everything personal,⁠—some even to +suppress this volume. I value their friendship, +whilst I reject their counsel. In illustrating the +<span id='page-viii' class='pagenum'>viii</span>position of science in this country, it would have +been affectation not to have mentioned the Calculating +Engines. Who else <i>could</i> have fully known,⁠—who +else <i>would</i> have fully told their history? +</p> +<p> +It has been suggested to me that, to select +<i>individual</i> examples for illustration, is personality. +To have made general charges without them, +would have been termed <i>vague</i>, and would certainly +have been <i>useless</i>. It still however appears to me +that a <i>single</i> illustration in each case, would cause the +least pain, and might yet be sufficient for the purpose. +If it is thought otherwise the remedy is easy. +</p> +<p> +The facts stated in the following pages are not +drawn from any violation of the confidences of +private society: those whose names are mentioned, +are paid by the nation, and therefore responsible to +their employers. Against them I have no personal +feeling; their official acts are necessarily mentioned +as parts of the system to which they belong. +</p> +<p> +The remark most frequently made has been, “that +the publication of this volume will do me injury.” +This opinion is indeed a severer censure on the +conduct of the government than any I have myself +pronounced. I do not agree in it, for I know of +<span id='page-ix' class='pagenum'>ix</span>no injury within the power of those who have never +given me a single occasion for gratitude. +</p> +<p> +Bad men always hate those they have injured;⁠—Good +or great men, when they have discovered that +they have been unjust, always more than repair +the injury they have committed. +</p> +<p> +Those who, from an acquaintance with the case, +can truly interpret this volume, will <i>know</i> that I +have abstained; they will <i>see</i> that I possess the +power, though not the disposition, to avenge injury. +But the same spirit which has carried me through +difficulties few have encountered, at the expense of +sacrifices which I hope fewer may ever be called +upon to make, forbids me tamely to submit to +injustice. +</p> +<p> +The reader of these pages will observe that I +have exposed with an unsparing pen the dishonesty +of party. The modes employed by it to “discredit” +and intimidate an honest man are various. +</p> +<p> +If he agree with them in a principle, but differ +in its application, he is called “<i>crotchety</i>.” If he +cannot be induced by sophistry to vote with them +against his sense of right, he is called “<i>impracticable</i>.” +If, when passed over in the appointment +<span id='page-x' class='pagenum'>x</span>to some office for which he is qualified by knowledge +and entitled by position, he complain of the +neglect; notwithstanding he continues to vote with +his party, he is called a “<i>disappointed man</i>.” If, +however, he has energy, and is backed by great +political or professional interest, he may then secure +a <i>present</i> peerage for himself, his wife, or his +relative, with a promise of better treatment when +anything desirable becomes vacant. +</p> +<p> +At last, having discovered that his party are sincere +and united only in their desire to retain office; +if his arguments admit of no refutation,⁠—if his +perception of right can be obscured by no sophistry,⁠—if +he can himself be cajoled by no flattery, +seduced by no advantage, deterred by no intimidation, +from expressing his real opinion upon the +merits of his party: then, although he may support +them whenever they are true to their principles, +yet he is pronounced a “<i>cantankerous +fellow</i>.” Thus bad names are coined by worse[<a href='#fn_2' id='fnb_2'>2</a>] +men to destroy honest people; as the madness of +innocent dogs arises from the cry of insanity raised +by their villanous pursuers. +</p> +<p> +<span id='page-xi' class='pagenum'>xi</span>The merit of the original conception of the +present Exposition is insignificant in comparison +with that of the efforts by which it was carried out, +and with the importance of its practical results. +</p> +<p> +To have seen from afar its effects on the improvement, +the wealth, and the happiness of the people⁠—to +have seized the fit moment, when, by the right +use of the influence of an exalted station, it was +<i>possible</i> to overcome the deeply-rooted prejudices of +the upper classes⁠—to remove the still more formidable, +because latent, impediments of party⁠—generously +to have undertaken great responsibility, and +with indefatigable labour to have endeavoured to +make the best out of the only materials at hand,⁠—these +are endowments of no ordinary kind. +</p> +<p> +To move in any rank of society an exception to +its general rules, is a very difficult, and if accompanied +by the consciousness of the situation, a very +painful position to a reflecting mind. +</p> +<p> +Whatever may be the cause, whether exalted +rank, unbounded wealth, surpassing beauty, or unrivalled +wit,⁠—the renown of daring deeds, the +magic of a world-wide fame; to all within those +narrow limits the dangers and the penalties are +<span id='page-xii' class='pagenum'>xii</span>great. Each exists an isolated spirit; each, unconsciously +imprisoned within its crystal globe, perceives +the colours of all external objects modified +by those tints imparted to them by its own surrounding +sphere. No change of view can teach +it to rectify this partial judgment; throughout its +earthward course the same undying rainbow +attends to the last its parent drop. +</p> +<p> +Rarely indeed can some deep-searching mind, +after long comparison, perceive the real colours of +those translucent shells which encompass kindred +spirits; and thus at length enable him to achromatise +the medium which surrounds his own. To +one who has thus rectified the “colour-blindness” +of his intellectual vision, how deep the sympathy he +feels for those still involved in that hopeless obscurity +from which he has himself escaped. None +can so justly appreciate that sense of loneliness, +that solitude of mind, which surrounds unquestioned +eminence on its lofty throne;⁠—none, therefore, can +make so large an allowance for its errors;⁠—none +so skilfully assist in guiding its hazardous career. +</p> +<p> +The triumph of the industrial arts will advance +the cause of civilization more rapidly than its +<span id='page-xiii' class='pagenum'>xiii</span>warmest advocates could have hoped, and contribute +to the permanent prosperity and strength of +the country, far more than the most splendid victories +of successful war. The influences thus +engendered, the arts thus developed, will long +continue to shed their beneficent effects over +countries more extensive than those which the +sceptre of England rules. +</p> +<hr> +<p> +P.S.⁠—The greater part of this Work was in +type some time previous to the opening of the +Exposition:⁠—it would be of no interest to the +public to explain the cause of this delay. +</p> +<hr> +<p class="align_c one_space"> +NOTE ADDED TO THE SECOND EDITION. +</p> +<p class='one_space'> +<span class="small-caps">It</span> has been suggested to me that, without some +explanation, the Author of this Volume might +appear to have reserved his opinions on the subject +of the Exposition, until it was too late for the +Commission to make use of them. This was not +the case.</p> +<p> +<span id='page-xiv' class='pagenum'>xiv</span>Being fully aware of the importance of such +exhibitions, and having myself, many years before, +endeavoured to connect them with the British +Association, I hailed the announcement of the plan +as one calculated to produce the most extensive +good. At that period I was in Paris, and both +abroad and at home I have uniformly spoken of +the Exposition with the highest approbation. +</p> +<p> +On one or two points I differed entirely from +the opinion of those to whom its management was +confided. The questions of the <i>site of the building</i>, +and of <i>affixing prices to articles exhibited</i>, were the +most important of them. I took the earliest opportunity +of expressing strongly my views on those +subjects to several personal friends who were +members of that Commission, nor did I ever fail to +communicate through the fittest channel any +circumstance I became acquainted with which might +advance its interests. +</p> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_1'> +<p> +[<a href='#fnb_1'>1</a>] See Chapter on Prices. +</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_2'> +<p> +[<a href='#fnb_2'>2</a>] “A bad old woman making a worse will.”⁠—<span class="small-caps">Byron.</span> +</p> +</div> +<div class="chapter"><h2 id='tg_contents'> +<span class='emph'>CONTENT</span>S. +</h2></div> +<hr> +<table class='center fontp9'> +<tr class="small"> +<th class="align_l valign_t"></th> +<th class="align_r valign_t">PAGE</th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="2" class="align_c valign_t"><a href='#tg_1'>CHAPTER I.</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t"><span class="small-caps">Introduction</span></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">1</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="2" class="align_c valign_t"><a href='#tg_2'>CHAPTER II.</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t"><span class="small-caps">Error Respecting the Interchange of Commodities</span></td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">7</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="2" class="align_c valign_t"><a href='#tg_3'>CHAPTER III.</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t"><span class="small-caps">Of Societies</span></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">12</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="2" class="align_c valign_t"><a href='#tg_4'>CHAPTER IV.</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t"><span class="small-caps">Origin of the Exposition of 1851</span></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">26</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="2" class="align_c valign_t"><a href='#tg_5'>CHAPTER V.</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t"><span class="small-caps">Object and Use of the Exposition</span></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">42</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="2" class="align_c valign_t"><a href='#tg_6'>CHAPTER VI.</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t"><span class="small-caps">Limits</span></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">48</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="2" class="align_c valign_t"><a href='#tg_7'>CHAPTER VII.</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t"><span class="small-caps">Site and Construction of Building</span></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">55</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="2" class="align_c valign_t"><a href='#tg_8'>CHAPTER VIII.</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t"><span class="small-caps">Prices</span></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">64</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="2" class="align_c valign_t"><a href='#tg_9'>CHAPTER IX.</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t"><span class="small-caps">Prizes</span></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">99</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="2" class="align_c valign_t"><a href='#tg_10'>CHAPTER X.</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t"><span class="small-caps">Juries, etc.</span></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">112</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="2" class="align_c valign_t"><a href='#tg_11'>CHAPTER XI.</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t"><span class="small-caps">Ulterior Objects</span></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">125</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="2" class="align_c valign_t"><a href='#tg_12'>CHAPTER XII.</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t"><span class="small-caps">Intrigues of Science</span></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">149</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="2" class="align_c valign_t"><a href='#tg_13'>CHAPTER XIII.</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t"><span class="small-caps">Calculating Engines</span></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">173</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="2" class="align_c valign_t"><a href='#tg_14'>CHAPTER XIV.</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t"><span class="small-caps">Position of Science</span></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">189</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="2" class="align_c valign_t"><a href='#tg_15'>CHAPTER XV.</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t"><span class="small-caps">The Press</span></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">202</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="2" class="align_c valign_t"><a href='#tg_16'>CHAPTER XVI.</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t"><span class="small-caps">Party</span></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">209</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="2" class="align_c valign_t"><a href='#tg_17'>CHAPTER XVII.</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t"><span class="small-caps">Rewards of Merit</span></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">220</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="2" class="align_c valign_t"><a href='#tg_app'>APPENDIX.</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t"><span class="small-caps">The Eleventh Chapter of Mr. Weld’s History of the Royal Society</span></td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">251</td> +</tr> +</table> +<div class="chapter"><h2 id='tg_1'>CHAPTER I.<br> +<span class='smaller'>INTRODUCTION.</span> +</h2></div> +<p class='two_space'> +<span class="small-caps">One</span> of the most frequent sources of mistaken +views in economical science, arises from confounding +the nature of <i>universal</i> with that of <i>general +principles</i>.</p> +<p> +§ <i>Universal principles</i>, such as the fact that +every number ending with the figure five is itself +divisible by five, rarely occur except in the exact +sciences. Universal principles are those which do +not admit of a single exception. +</p> +<p> +<i>General principles</i> are those which are much +more frequently obeyed than violated. Thus it is +generally true that <i>men will be governed by what +they believe to be their interest</i>. Yet it is certainly +true that many individuals will at times be governed +by their passions, others by their caprice, others by +entirely benevolent motives: but all these classes +together, form so small a portion of mankind, that +it would be unsafe in any inquiry to neglect the +<span id='page-2' class='pagenum'>2</span>great principle of self-interest. Notwithstanding, +however, all the exceptions we may meet with, it +is impossible to take any just views of society +without the admission of general principles, and on +such grounds they will be used in these pages. +</p> +<p> +Self-interest, combined in various degrees with +knowledge, assumes the most diversified forms. It +excites our contempt or raises our admiration, +according to the littleness or the greatness of the +object it pursues⁠—according to the temporary or the +more distant advantages it seeks. On the one hand, +it governs the minister of a party on his doubtful +eminence, whilst on the other it guides the enlightened +statesman to the object of his distant ambition. +</p> +<p> +§ Again, it is admitted as a general principle that +<i>each man is the best judge of his own wants and of +his own interest</i>. Now although many individuals, +and even whole classes of society, have at times +been thought by more enlightened men to have +formed erroneous opinions as to their true interest, +yet, when it is remembered, that every man must +see many views of his own case, and must know +many facts connected with it, which he has not +communicated even to his most confidential adviser, +those who have had most experience are most inclined +to believe that the exceptions are much less +frequent than at first sight would appear. +</p> +<p> +Another source of erroneous opinions arises from +neglecting causes apparently insignificant. +</p> +<p> +<span id='page-3' class='pagenum'>3</span>In taking a comprehensive view of any subject, +it is very desirable to throw into the shade all its +minor points; but in estimating the consequences +of any set of facts, there is another condition which +must be fulfilled, before we can arrive at accurate +conclusions. If we are about to neglect a cause +on account of its apparent insignificance, it is <i>essential</i> +that it should not be one of <i>frequent</i> recurrence. +Thus, if a labourer inconsiderately lift his +shovel but an inch or two more than is necessary +to throw its load into his barrow, although the +exertion of force is trivial in each instance, its +repeated occurrence during the whole day, will +produce at its conclusion a very sensible difference +either in fatigue or in the amount of the work +done. Napoleon is said to have remarked of Laplace, +when he was Minister of the Interior, that +he was too much occupied with considering <i>les +infiniment petites</i>. To dwell upon small affairs +which are isolated, is not the province of a statesman; +but to integrate the effect of their constant +recurrence is worthy of the greatest. +</p> +<p> +One of the most important processes in all inquiry, +is to divide the subject to be considered +into as many different questions as it will admit +of, and then to examine each separately, or in other +words to suppose that each single cause successively +varies whilst all the others remain constant. +</p> +<p> +But this most obvious doctrine of common sense +<span id='page-4' class='pagenum'>4</span>has frequently been contested in questions of +economical science, and has been often characterized +as theoretical, and as entirely inapplicable to the +affairs of life. It is certain that very little progress +can be made in any subject without this aid, +and it is hopeless for those whose minds are +incapable of mastering the simpler questions, ever +to institute successfully an investigation into their +united action. +</p> +<p> +A familiar illustration will explain this better. +Two men are making an excavation, removing the +earth in the usual way with spades and wheelbarrows. +</p> +<p> +One of these men, Q., does more work than his +companion P., and if an inquiry is made, Why is +this so? the usual reply would be that Q. is either +stronger, more active, or more skilful than P. +</p> +<p> +Now it is the third of these qualifications which +is the most important, because if Q. were inferior +even both in strength and in activity, he might yet +by means of his skill perform a greater quantity +of work without fatigue. +</p> +<p> +He might have ascertained that a <i>given</i> weight of +earth raised at each shovelfull, together with a +certain number of shovelfulls per hour, would be +more advantageous for his strength than any other +such combination. +</p> +<p> +That a shovel of a certain weight, size, and form +would fatigue him less than those of a different +construction. +</p> +<p> +<span id='page-5' class='pagenum'>5</span>That if its handle were two or three inches longer +than he required, its additional weight would at the +end of the day have been uselessly lifted many hundred +times. +</p> +<p> +That if each spadefull of earth were lifted but an +inch or two above the barrow beyond what was +necessary, a still greater waste of force would arise. +</p> +<p> +That if the barrow itself had its wheel at a distance +beyond the centre of its load, it would be +more fatiguing to draw. +</p> +<p> +That if the barrow had upright sides, it would +require more exertion to turn out its load than if +its sides were much inclined. +</p> +<p> +Thus although Q. might have less strength and +less activity than P., he might yet by skill and +practice, have arrived at some combination of these +tools which should enable him with less fatigue +to do more daily work than P. +</p> +<p> +But in order to have arrived at this degree of +skill, Q. must when a boy have been taught to +examine <i>separately</i> the consequences of any defect +or inconvenience in the parts of the tools he was +to use in after life, or in the modes of using them. +If not so taught, he must have arrived at the +same knowledge by the slower and more painful +effort of his own reflections. +</p> +<p> +In either case he would be able to communicate +his knowledge to his friends or his children; and if +circumstances induced or obliged him to enter upon +<span id='page-6' class='pagenum'>6</span>a new trade, he would naturally apply those principles +to his new tools. Indeed, whatever subject +might be presented to a mind thus trained, such +habits of inquiry would most probably be applied +to its examination. Thus, by the early education of +his reasoning faculties on the trade by which he is +to subsist, he would not only render his own labour +more productive, but would have his mind better +prepared for the reception of other truths. +</p> +<div class="chapter"><span id='page-7' class='pagenum'>7</span><h2 id='tg_2'>CHAPTER II.<br> +<span class='smaller'>ERROR RESPECTING THE INTERCHANGE OF COMMODITIES.</span> +</h2></div> +<p class='two_space'> +<span class="small-caps">There</span> exists in society a widely-spread error +relating to the very principle of that interchange +of property between individuals which is usually +called a bargain. It is almost always supposed +that one party is a gainer whilst the other is a loser. +Indeed, by those whose reasoning on the subject +has been limited to this single view of the question, +it is with some plausibility maintained, that since +the quantity of the commodities interchanged is in +no case augmented by the bargain, the gain of one +party can be accomplished only by an equal loss on +the part of the other.</p> +<p> +The insufficiency of this reasoning depends upon +the truth of the principle that each party, being the +best judge of the pleasure or advantage he can derive +from the possession of a thing, <i>himself</i> decides that +in his own case it will be increased by the exchange. +</p> +<p> +It may, however, be asked, How does it happen +<span id='page-8' class='pagenum'>8</span>that the sum of two commodities so exchanged has +a greater value after the exchange than before? or +in other words, Whence has the profit arisen?⁠—is +there any third party at whose expense it has been +acquired? The answer is⁠—that there is another +source which almost always either directly or indirectly +contributes towards this profit. The advantage +is most frequently won by industry and +knowledge from nature herself. +</p> +<p> +§ The following illustration, which happens also +to be a tolerable approach to truth, will explain +this principle more clearly:⁠— +</p> +<p> +It is found by experience that the upper-leather +of Boots made in France, is better and more +durable than the upper-leather manufactured in +England. On the other hand, it is found that the +leather prepared in England for the soles of boots +is less permeable by water, and more durable than +that made in France. +</p> +<p> +Let us suppose that in each country a pair of +boots will endure twelve months’ continual wear; +after which time they are thrown aside. +</p> +<p> +In England the destruction of the boots will +arise from that of the upper-leather, whilst in France +it will be caused by that of the sole. Let us also +suppose that the upper-leather of France will wear +three months longer than the French soles, and +reciprocally that the soles of England will wear three +months longer than the English upper-leather. +</p> +<p> +<span id='page-9' class='pagenum'>9</span>Under these circumstances, it is clear that if the +inhabitants of each country insist on making their +boots <i>entirely</i> with the produce of <i>their own</i> tanneries, +the average duration of a pair of boots both +in France and in England will be twelve months. +</p> +<p> +Let us assume, for the sake of simplicity, that in +each country the upper-leather and the soles have +the same value. Then it is equally clear, if England +were to give to France a million pair of soles in +exchange for a million pair of French upper-leathers, +that one million of the inhabitants of each nation +would find their boots last during fifteen instead +of twelve months. +</p> +<p> +This prolonged duration of their boots would +not have been acquired by any sacrifice on either +side: the exchange is here for the common and +great advantage of both. +</p> +<p> +This probably arises from the joint action of many +causes. The animals which in each country supply +the hides, may either from breed, from food, or +from climate be best adapted to produce that kind +of leather in which each country excels. The +water, the bark, or the climate peculiar to each +country, may then contribute its share to the same +effect. Again, the industry, the skill, and the +knowledge of the people employed, as well as the +character of the population and the distribution of +its capital, may also have its influence on these +results. +</p> +<p> +If we pursue this illustration one stage further, +<span id='page-10' class='pagenum'>10</span>it will appear that it is our interest not only that +we should make these exchanges with France, but +that she should also make exchanges with other +countries than our own. +</p> +<p> +Let us suppose that France, having a larger +population than England, required for its annual +consumption two million pair of boots, and also +that she possessed no other commodities which we +required. Under these circumstances there could +be no further direct interchange of leather, and +France would possess a million pair of upper-leathers +beyond our demand. But it is clear that if France +could exchange these upper-leathers for the wools +or any other produce of Germany which we might +require, she would not only gain the additional +duration of three months for her own extra million +pair of boots, but would also enrich us by the +advantage which we should derive from the exchange +of the strong hides of England for the produce transmitted +to us from Germany. +</p> +<p> +§ The general result of all those inquiries of which +only the slightest sketch has now been attempted, is +that⁠—<i>the free and unlimited exchange of commodities +between nations, contributes to the advantage +and the wealth of all</i>;⁠—that this benefit arises from +no sacrifice on the part of one nation for the +profit of another; but that the sum of the productive +powers of man is by these means, without any +increased labour, largely augmented throughout the +world;⁠—that this increment is won partly by +<span id='page-11' class='pagenum'>11</span>the suppression of ignorance and fraud, and partly +by the united effects of industry, of skill, and of +science, in compelling nature to minister to the +wants of man. +</p> +<p> +All who admit the truth of these principles, must +feel an earnest desire to support every effort which +may assist in their dissemination amongst the +masses of mankind. Education is the earliest, and +the most effective aid; but it must be secular education. +It must be the education of the faculties of +each child, with reference to the wants of his future +course of life. The religion of the uneducated and +unenlightened man, even when true, partakes of the +nature of superstition, and instruction in religious +truth <i>alone</i> will not be enough: his mind must be +opened and informed on other subjects also. He +who by observation and inquiry has arrived at the +conviction that any line of conduct which is dishonest +towards his neighbour, will most probably +prove unprofitable to himself in this world, will +surely have a strong additional motive to guard +him in the hour of temptation from those courses +which his religion teaches him will incur punishment +in a future state. +</p> +<div class="chapter"><span id='page-12' class='pagenum'>12</span><h2 id='tg_3'>CHAPTER III.<br> +<span class='smaller'>OF SOCIETIES.</span> +</h2></div> +<p class='two_space'> +<span class="small-caps">Associations</span> for occasional discussion, of men +pursuing the same or similar studies, have long +been found advantageous for the inter-communication +of the difficulties, the doubts, and the +discoveries of students. In more recent times, +when each art has gradually connected itself with +the sciences on which its success depends, the +importance of these meetings has become obvious +to the manufacturer, although in this country it +may not yet have become apparent to the statesman.</p> +<p> +The Academia del Cimento, the Royal Society of +London and the Academy of Sciences at Paris, have +had a long series of imitators in the principal cities +of the civilized world. The increasing extension of +science and the wants of its cultivators, have led +them to subdivide their pursuits and to form +Societies specially devoted to each separate subject. +</p> +<p> +§ These learned bodies, however, are of a stationary +character, located for convenience in some +<span id='page-13' class='pagenum'>13</span>capital or large city. With the advance of civilization +new wants arose, and Professor Oken of +Munich, feeling the great advantage of periodical +meetings of the cultivators of the natural sciences, +organized an annual assemblage of German naturalists +to be held successively in each of the great +cities of Germany, thus rendering the field of +friendly intercourse and of scientific observation +much more easily accessible to all who felt an interest +in their common object. +</p> +<p> +Although the earliest meetings were small,[<a href='#fn_3' id='fnb_3'>3</a>] +their value was soon perceived, and the cultivators +of other sciences more or less connected with +natural history, were gradually admitted, to the +manifest advantage of all parties, until at the great +meeting in 1828 at Berlin, the physical sciences +themselves possessed their fair share of eminent +representatives. But another important improvement +had already commenced: foreigners were +admitted to this German union, and amongst +upwards of four hundred members, although nearly +thirty were aliens in language and in country, they +were welcomed with the warmest kindness by their +enlightened friends. +</p> +<p> +Baron Alexander Humboldt, the President of +the Association, in his inaugural address proclaimed +its principle in the following words:⁠— +</p> +<p> +“May those excellent persons, who, deterred +<span id='page-14' class='pagenum'>14</span>neither by the perils of the sea nor of the land, +have hastened to our meeting from Sweden, +from Norway, from Denmark, from Holland, from +England, and from Poland, point out the way +to other strangers in succeeding years, so that +by turns every part of Germany may enjoy the +effects of scientific communication with the different +nations of Europe.” +</p> +<p> +At that meeting a map of Europe was published +on which were conspicuously indicated those towns +and countries only, which had sent representatives +to this congress of intellect. On that map Austria +figured an intellectual desert, not because her philosophers +were less industrious in the researches of +science, less acute in combining into laws the facts +they had ascertained, nor in any way unworthy of +sitting amongst the congregated talent of their own +or of other races: but because the government of +the country, more ignorant of its interest than the +philosophers were of theirs, refused them passports. +</p> +<p> +§ A few years afterwards, the light of truth +having penetrated official heads, the learned of +Europe, to the credit of the Austrian government, +were invited and hospitably entertained at Vienna. +The stability of the great empire which welcomed +them, was not shaken by their patient and acute +discussions: and it was at last perceived that unless +when depressed by neglect or persecution, philosophers +possess in their own departments subjects +<span id='page-15' class='pagenum'>15</span>of far more animating and delightful interest than +the unstable and inconclusive discussions of politics. +</p> +<p> +Sweden sent thirteen representatives to the meeting +at Berlin in 1828, Denmark seven, Poland +three, Holland two. Russia, France, England and +Naples each sent one. +</p> +<p> +§ An account of this scientific congress at Berlin +was published in 1829 in the <i>Edinburgh Journal of +Science</i>. It was communicated by the author of +these pages to Sir David Brewster. In the number +of the same Journal for April, 1831, is an account +by J. F. W. Johnstone, Esq., of the meeting of +this scientific Congress, at Hamburgh, in September, +1830. Sir David Brewster, in conjunction +with the late secretary of the Royal Society of +Edinburgh, Sir J. Robison, and the Rev. William +Vernon Harcourt, and several other cultivators of +science, resolved on attempting to organize a similar +institution in Great Britain. The difficulties as +well as the advantages of this undertaking were +then discussed. In Prussia the social position of +men of science is quite different from that which +they occupy in England. In Prussia the sovereign +was aware of the value of science to his country, +and was therefore induced to support it by an +enlightened patriotism as well as by a generous +ambition. In England science is pursued by no +powerful profession which can aid or thwart +the measures of the minister of the day. He is, +<span id='page-16' class='pagenum'>16</span>therefore, indifferent to its progress, and is usually +incapable of distinguishing the charlatan from the +philosopher. +</p> +<p> +§ In 1831 the first meeting of the British Association +for the Advancement of Science was held at +York. It was proposed by those who undertook its +management, that each succeeding meeting should +be held in some large city or town at a considerable +distance from that which received it in the previous +year, and that after its objects had become well +understood by the public, it should complete its +cycle by holding a meeting in the metropolis. But +it was soon felt that in order to influence public +opinion, it was necessary that it should combine +larger interests than were yet enlisted in its cause. +</p> +<p> +Such at that time was the state of education +in England, that amongst the influential classes, +country gentlemen, lawyers, members of parliament, +peers, &c., few were found qualified for, or +even capable of taking any interest in the then +<i>existing</i> Sections of the British Association. +</p> +<p> +Accident fortunately supplied an occasion for +remedying, at least partially, this defect. The +opportunity occurred at the meeting at Cambridge +in 1833, and was instantly seized upon, although +in a somewhat irregular manner. Professor Quetelet +had been deputed by the Belgian government to +attend the third meeting of the British Association. +The varied knowledge and enthusiastic love of +<span id='page-17' class='pagenum'>17</span>science possessed by M. Quetelet, might have qualified +him to take part in any of its sections, but it +so happened that he had brought over with him +some highly interesting statistical documents which +unfortunately could find a reception in none. +Under these circumstances, a gentleman[<a href='#fn_4' id='fnb_4'>4</a>] who fully +understood their value invited a few of his private +friends most interested in that subject to meet +M. Quetelet in his own rooms in college, for the +purpose of talking over this valuable budget. The +author of these pages was one of those thus +honoured. He perceived the advantage that might +be taken of the accident, and immediately suggested +to his friend that the invitation should be extended +to all those known to be interested in statistical +inquiries, and that those present should at once +form themselves into a Statistical Section, and then +apply to the council for a bill of indemnity for the +irregularity. The plan being unanimously approved +of, it was immediately acted upon, and before the +termination of the meeting a Statistical Section was +not only recognised by the Association, but was +as fully attended as even the most popular of the +other sections. +</p> +<p> +At the concluding meeting of the Statistical +Section at Cambridge it was resolved, that a more +permanent body was necessary to carry out the +<span id='page-18' class='pagenum'>18</span>views and wishes of the section, and it was agreed +to establish a Statistical Society in London. +The author of these pages was deputed to carry +out those arrangements which terminated in its +establishment. +</p> +<p> +The more pressing difficulty being thus removed, +the principle of extending the basis of the Association +so as to unite the interests of various classes, +was steadily and unremittingly pursued. The +Physical and Mathematical Section was divided, +and a new section, that of the practical application +of mechanical science, or Civil Engineering, was +formed. The next step was very important, but +more difficult to accomplish. It was proposed by +an exhibition of the raw produce, the processes, +and the instruments for the production of manufactured +goods, to unite in the same common +interest, not only all the consumers, but all those +who contributed to the production, or even to the +distribution of wealth. +</p> +<p> +The numerous foreigners who flocked to these +annual meetings of the British Association, might, +it was naturally thought, be induced to bring over +with them new instruments of science, or objects of +art and industry, the produce of their respective +countries. Whilst thus giving, and receiving in +return new ideas and valuable information, the +commercial interchanges between different nations +would necessarily be augmented by the steadily +<span id='page-19' class='pagenum'>19</span>increasing knowledge of the wants of each, and +by the peaceful rivalry of all. +</p> +<p> +The first exhibition of this kind took place at +Newcastle in 1838. The number of exhibitors +was not large, but it was hoped that with time and +encouragement this commencement might lead to +much more extensive expositions of more general +utility. It was followed by another on an enlarged +scale, held at Birmingham in the succeeding year, +after which it was discontinued. +</p> +<p> +The following extracts from a letter addressed +by the Author to the Members of the British Association, +were printed in 1839:⁠— +</p> +<p> +“My reasons for not resigning the trusteeship +of the British Association at Newcastle were, that +by retaining it until the following meeting, I +should give the Society more time to select my +successor; and that by remaining on the council +until the meeting at Birmingham, I might be +enabled to assist more effectually in the arrangement +of the collections relating to the mechanical +arts, which it was anticipated would be amongst +the largest yet called forth by the British +Association.” +</p> +<p> +“The real merits of the British Association +have been misunderstood by the superficial; but +it possesses in its bearings upon the pecuniary +interests of large masses of the community a +power and an influence which nothing but great +<span id='page-20' class='pagenum'>20</span>misconduct can destroy. Look at the manufacturers +of produce and of machinery, flocking +to our annual meeting to interchange their ideas, +enlightening their practical experience by the +reasonings of science, and returning laden with +the seeds of permanent ameliorations in their +establishments. Look at the exhibitions of the +productions of our factories, and say whether the +humblest shopkeeper has not an interest in the +existence of that body which gives publicity to +the objects in which he deals, and which spreads +them so largely before the eyes of those who can +appreciate their merit, as well as of those who +are likely to become consumers.” +</p> +<p> +“These are material interests permanently engaged +in our cause by the strongest ties⁠—those +of mutual advantage, cemented by reciprocity of +kindly feelings.” +</p> +<p> +§ This is not the place to discuss the causes +which have led to the present state of things. It +is sufficient here to observe, that if the views of +those who originally organized the British Association, +had been supported both from within and +from without, in the manner which so important a +project in the history of science deserved, the +Exhibition of 1851 would have found itself led +by the science of the country, prepared by long +experience on a smaller scale, yet under very various +circumstances, to guide with some reasonable prospect +<span id='page-21' class='pagenum'>21</span>of success that gigantic undertaking, and to +elicit from it the many invaluable services it might +be expected to render to civilization. +</p> +<p> +Its legislative department would not have been +committed to the guidance of a body of men, all +of them respectable, and some, indeed, eminent in +their several lines, but entirely inexperienced in the +conduct and arrangement of any such undertaking⁠—persons, +all of them amiable and excellent in +their private capacity, yet who have exhibited in +their corporate union an entire ignorance of the +great principle on which alone such expositions +rest,⁠—and who, contrary to the advice and the +remonstrance of the best informed, have forbidden +the most important quality by which men judge +of commodities, their <i>Price</i>, from being attached to +the objects on which their judgment is to be +pronounced. +</p> +<p> +§ Long, however, before the origin of these +itinerant societies, the voice of the statesmen of +other countries, and the popular voice in England, +had called into existence societies for the promotion +of the arts connected with commerce and manufactures. +In France, the “Conservatoire des Arts et +Metiers” was established. In England the Society +of Arts has endured above a century. Its novelty +and utility caused it to flourish for a time: its +seat in the metropolis of a people whose wealth +and power arise entirely from the unbending energy +<span id='page-22' class='pagenum'>22</span>with which they apply themselves to advance the +arts and to extend commerce, added to its powers. +Yet, even with these advantages, that Society has +never risen to the position it deserved, and has +for years been languishing in premature decay. +Lately, indeed, a powerful impulse has been communicated +to its proceedings, but even the presidency +of the Prince-Consort has not yet raised it +to its due position in the public opinion. +</p> +<p> +The causes of this state of things are not remote. +The position of the Royal and of other societies +is equally influenced by them. Although intimately +connected with the greatest interests of the +country, they can offer to those who give their time +or intellect to advance such objects, neither wealth +nor rank⁠—neither place nor patronage. They constitute +no distinct combination of men into a powerful +class, like the Bar, the Navy, or the Army: they +are of no party, and finally, they are not fashionable. +It is true that the discoveries which such societies +profess to reward, are in many instances the source +of wealth to the few who, fortunately for themselves, +possess those other qualities necessary for its acquisition, +but which are so rarely united with genius. +It is also true that wealth once acquired, will, if discreetly +employed, certainly lead its possessor to all +those other things, equally coveted as the great prizes +in the lottery of life by the Bar, the Military, and +even by the Church. Nor is this to be regretted, +<span id='page-23' class='pagenum'>23</span>seeing that the aristocracy of this country thus +fortunately receives fresh blood and renewed intellect +by adopting into its class the sagacious +merchant, or the skilful fabricator of a princely +fortune: the time may thus be postponed when +the accident of birth will no longer be admitted +as a fit qualification for a legislator. But even +here it is the wealth of the aspirant that wins the +position, not the integrity and sagacity of the man. +</p> +<p> +In France the government itself took the lead in +directing an institution for the advancement of the +arts. In 1795 it established the Conservatoire des +Arts et Metiers, in which are deposited an extensive +collection of drawings, models, and machines employed +in the various manufactures of the nation. +</p> +<p> +Subsequently, ten professors were attached to +this institution, to lecture gratuitously on those +sciences more immediately connected with arts and +manufactures. One of these devotes himself exclusively +to the explanation of machinery in actual +employment. There are also lectures on descriptive +geometry, and on mechanical drawing. The expense +of this establishment is about 6,000<i>l.</i> a-year. +</p> +<p> +§ The government of France perceived at a still +earlier period the advantages which would result +from the juxtaposition, at proper intervals of time, +in one large building, of selected specimens of all +the produce of the national industry, and in 1798 +the first of these periodic meetings was held at the +<span id='page-24' class='pagenum'>24</span>expense of the government. During upwards of +half a century, at intervals of about five years, +France, uninterrupted by the many changes in the +form of its government, has continued to maintain +these valuable expositions with increasing +success and advantage. Prussia and Belgium also +have adopted the plan of holding these meetings. +</p> +<p> +But if the principles on which they rest are well +founded, it is clear that they are applicable to a +still wider field: and that as in the Associations of +science, cultivators from all nations are invited +to be present, so in the Exhibition of the productions +of industry the general advantage of mankind +is most advanced by the joint contributions of the +whole industrial world. +</p> +<p> +§ These views have long been felt and expressed, +not merely by men of speculation, but by those +who take a practical part in the affairs of life. +</p> +<p> +Enlightened French statesmen had long been +aware of the advantage of this species of competition, +and only abstained from proposing it until +the conviction of the nation justified the foresight +of its chiefs. +</p> +<p> +At length it was thought that the time had +arrived for ascertaining more correctly the general +opinion. Previously, therefore, to making the +necessary arrangements for the Exposition at Paris +in 1849, the Minister of Commerce sent circulars +to the several Chambers of Commerce throughout +<span id='page-25' class='pagenum'>25</span>France, in order to ascertain whether it was the +general opinion that foreign productions should be +admitted to the competition. +</p> +<p> +The opinion of the public was not, however, +sufficiently advanced to justify the undertaking; +and considering the political situation of the country, +the government wisely abstained from a measure +which was not yet entirely in unison with the +feelings of the people. +</p> +<p> +Thus it has happened that it was reserved for +Great Britain, the country most interested in the +cause, though the latest to adopt it, unprepared +by any previous experience at once to attempt this +vast enterprise. +</p> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_3'> +<p> +[<a href='#fnb_3'>3</a>] The first was held at Leipsic in 1822. +</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_4'> +<p> +[<a href='#fnb_4'>4</a>] The Rev. Richard Jones, Professor of Political Economy +at Haileybury. +</p> +</div> +<div class="chapter"><span id='page-26' class='pagenum'>26</span><h2 id='tg_4'>CHAPTER IV.<br> +<span class='smaller'>ORIGIN OF THE EXPOSITION OF 1851.</span> +</h2></div> +<p class='two_space'> +<span class="small-caps">§ It</span> is not now necessary to inquire minutely +into the origin of the present Exposition. It is +sufficient to state that it appears to have been proposed +by some members of the Society of Arts, who +urged it on the attention of Prince Albert.</p> +<p> +The magnitude of the undertaking, and the great +principles on which it rested, seem not to have +been fully understood, and the public were very +imperfectly prepared either to appreciate its advantages +or to contribute to its support. A capitalist +was therefore sought, and found willing to +undertake the risk of the speculation, and terms +were agreed upon, by which £20,000 was advanced +for distribution in prizes, one of which was to +amount to £5,000. This contract contained some +singular stipulations, and formed the basis of the +proceedings for several months. It contained also +a clause by which, on certain conditions, it might +be cancelled within a limited time. +</p> +<p> +In order to carry out this undertaking, it was +<span id='page-27' class='pagenum'>27</span>proposed that a Royal Commission should be issued, +over which, of course, Prince Albert should preside. +As soon as these views became publicly known, +they excited great discussion, and were the subject +of much criticism. +</p> +<p> +§ The Ministers could not of course commit themselves +by publicly avowing their disapprobation of an +undertaking commenced under such high auspices. +It might, however, readily have been foreseen that +they would be averse to such a scheme, because +whilst it was sure to give them a great deal of +trouble, it would afford them no compensation in +the shape of patronage. +</p> +<p> +Those, however, who usually reflect and retail +the opinions of the Government, were by no means +silent; at first it was said to be Utopian, then ridiculous, +then, in the slang of official life, it was +“<i>pooh-poohed</i>;” at a later period, when great public +meetings had been held, and when public +dinners began to give it an English character, the +best speech which has yet been made on the subject, +containing the far-sighted views of a statesman, +was ridiculed as full of <i>German</i> notions, by coxcombs +whose intellect was as defective as their foresight, +and whose selfishness was more remarkable +than either. +</p> +<p> +Another class of persons, the Belgravians, though +actuated by the same motives, were induced to join +in the outcry for other reasons. As soon as it became +<span id='page-28' class='pagenum'>28</span>known that the locality of the building would +be the southern side of Hyde Park, they represented +that the park would be destroyed, and become +utterly useless. As if a building covering twenty +acres out of above three hundred and twenty, could +prevent the people from enjoying air and exercise +on the remaining three hundred. +</p> +<p> +Again, it was asserted that by cutting down a +few trees within the limits assigned to the building, +the park would be desolated; the shady walks destroyed; +whilst all the while there was a goodly +stock of timber, old and young, abounding in the +other three hundred acres. Before this absurd +delusion could be removed from the public mind, +all the plans were made specially to conform themselves +to the enclosure of these miserable trees. It +was not discovered until after the Crystal Palace +was completed, that several of them were on +the verge of extinction, and that all would +probably perish by exposure under such unusual +conditions. Some of the most decrepit and most +inconveniently situated trees have now been cut +down. +</p> +<p> +§ The Belgravians found out other causes of +complaint. They could not tolerate the mass of +plebeians of all nations who would traverse their +sacred square, and they threatened to spoil the +London season by going out of town. When it was +suggested to them, that in these days of agricultural +<span id='page-29' class='pagenum'>29</span>distress, if they left town they might console themselves +by letting their houses at a high price, they +refused to be consoled. +</p> +<p> +The Belgravians next consulted their “<i>medicine-men</i>,” +who, seeing that they wanted to be frightened, +suggested to them that <i>some</i> foreigners were dirty,⁠—that +dirt in <i>some</i> cases causes disease. The Belgravian +mind immediately made the inference that +the foreigners would bring with them the plague; +then they dwelt on sanitary measures, and on the +danger to the public, until they themselves became +nearly insane. +</p> +<p> +It was then suggested that the foreigners might +become assassins by night,⁠—or take military possession +of London by day. Their tradesmen too, +who hated the scheme, and knew the humour of +their customers, assured them that trade would be +entirely ruined; whilst at the same time, it was +whispered that many of them had sent large orders +to France for goods to be exhibited at the Crystal +Palace, and afterwards to be sold to their capricious +customers, either as French, or as English surpassing +French, just as the whim of the moment might +cause a demand for the one or the other. +</p> +<p> +This opposition of the inhabitants of Belgravia +increased as the preparations for the opening of the +Exposition advanced. The working classes had +been favourable to the scheme from the commencement, +and a knowledge of its advantages seems +<span id='page-30' class='pagenum'>30</span>to have advanced slowly in society from below +upwards. +</p> +<p> +That the inhabitants of this fashionable quarter +were necessarily exposed to some inconveniences +cannot be denied. Their much-frequented riding +ground was for a time interfered with, but they +should have remembered that although the public +at large <i>paid</i> for the maintenance of the park, the +greatest portion of its advantages were <i>enjoyed</i> by +those residing nearest to it. +</p> +<p> +Under these circumstances they ought to have +been well content to forego for a time these trifling +advantages, and to suffer with a good grace the +little temporary inconveniences resulting from a +plan which was unrivalled for the advancement +of the arts of peace, and calculated not only to +benefit our own country, but to contribute to the +civilization of the world. +</p> +<p> +Notwithstanding much opposition and many +prophecies of failure, a Royal Commission was at +last appointed. It consisted almost exclusively of +members of parliament, and of persons holding +official situations. It was stated that not more +than two of its members had ever seen a foreign +exposition, and although it included many men +distinguished in other departments of knowledge, +there was scarcely one whose name was known to +the nations we invited as at all eminent in that +over which the Commission presided. +</p> +<p> +<span id='page-31' class='pagenum'>31</span>In England, a commissioner, however small his +acquaintance with the subject, is always deemed +fully competent in virtue of his appointment. The +light in which this places us in the opinion of other +nations is by no means flattering to our national +vanity. It has been admirably described by an +accomplished Italian resident amongst us in language +which an Englishman might be proud to +own, and with a degree of moral courage which +few Englishmen would dare to exert on such a +subject.[<a href='#fn_5' id='fnb_5'>5</a>] +</p> +<p> +It was easy to perceive that when so great a +mass of people in distant quarters of the world +was set in motion for such an object, it would be +impossible to draw back, and that its own momentum +would carry on the scheme. +</p> +<p> +§ That the Prince who took so strong an interest +in it, and who saw so clearly and so far beyond the +horizon which limited the view of those by whom +he was surrounded, should become its chief, was +quite natural. There are, however, circumstances +in the state of society in this country, and in the +constitution of human nature itself, which render it +almost impossible to have unfettered discussion +when a person of that exalted rank takes the chair +at the meetings of a Committee. +</p> +<p> +<span id='page-32' class='pagenum'>32</span>These objections are entirely unconnected with +the individual person, and if any amount of good +feeling and skill in such a Chairman could remove +the difficulty, we have fortunately had amongst us +several Princes who might easily have accomplished +it. But the forms of society forbid in the presence +of princes that full and free discussion by which +alone the united knowledge of a Committee can +be brought into play. Debates must take place +and divisions occur: otherwise some individual +may take upon himself to assume what either is, +or appears to him to be, the sense of the meeting: +this is much more frequently simply the expression +of <i>his own views</i>. Thus, perhaps, he prevents the +statement of his opinion by some timid man, which +is possibly worth more than that of all the rest of +the Committee. +</p> +<p> +Again: in Committees presided over by persons +of this elevated rank, it is not an uncommon occurrence +for some member, anxious for the success of +his <i>own</i> views, privately to hint in conversation with +other members, that these are the wishes of their +President. +</p> +<p> +To these objections, which are generally true, +there is, however, one exception. When the Chairman +is eminently conversant with the subject, while +at the same time the minds of the Committee are +like a sheet of blank paper,⁠—the best course that +can then be pursued is to allow the Chairman to +interpret the sense of the Committee. +</p> +<p> +<span id='page-33' class='pagenum'>33</span>The first act of the Commission was most judicious. +It was to annul the contract with the +capitalist who had undertaken the building and the +commercial management of the Exhibition. It is +to be regretted, however, that the actual amount of +compensation which he was to receive, was not +finally settled at the time. The subsequent extent +of the undertaking having exceeded that which +was originally contemplated, may render this a +question of some difficulty. +</p> +<p> +The next step was to appeal to the public for +subscriptions to carry on the plan. For this object +delegates were sent to many of the large towns, +some of whom, not possessing more knowledge of +the subject than the Commissioners themselves, and +having none of their tact, nearly caused the failure +of the whole scheme. +</p> +<p> +The knowledge and good sense, however, of the +working and manufacturing classes, supplied the +deficiencies of these missionaries, and the subject +became popular amongst them. There were, +indeed, many exceptions even amongst these +classes. Those whose business had been long +established, and who were manufacturing as largely +as their capital would admit, had no reason to seek +additional publicity for the sale of their produce. +Upon them the Exposition would impose only +trouble and expense, without any corresponding +advantage. +</p> +<p> +<span id='page-34' class='pagenum'>34</span>Others who possessed machinery of peculiar +powers of production, or for the fabrication of +curious products, were unwilling to expose these +singular and costly machines to the eyes of their +rivals from all countries. The produce of such machines +being generally novelties, they found a ready +sale for it, and therefore had no reason to seek the +Exhibition as the means of publicity. +</p> +<p> +The extent of the demand for space at the Exhibition, +has been as was naturally to be expected, so +great, that it was quite unnecessary to press any +person to exhibit who was not fully aware that it +was for his own interest to do so. +</p> +<p> +With respect to the subscriptions, there are some +observations which it may be useful to make for the +sake of all subscribers to future schemes. It is said +that the total amount subscribed is nearly 90,000<i>l.</i> +of which only about 60,000<i>l.</i> have been paid. +</p> +<p> +No subscription ought ever to be advertised +until it has been actually paid. It is quite unjustifiable +to employ the money of <i>bonâ fide</i> subscribers +in paying for advertisements to gratify the vanity +of those, who are ambitious of appearing large +donors, and who are yet so mean as to decline +fulfilling their pledges. +</p> +<p> +This practice has, unfortunately, of late years +been too prevalent. Persons of rank and position +in the country have condescended to allow their +names to appear in lists, for subscriptions which +<span id='page-35' class='pagenum'>35</span>they never intended to pay, the effect of which has +been to decoy others who trusted to their respectability +and truth. The public in future will do +well to abstain from subscribing to <i>any list</i>, however +respectable the names may apparently be, unless +it is distinctly stated that the subscriptions advertised +have really been paid. +</p> +<p> +In the present case it would be a further waste +of money to advertise the defaulters: but the Commission +have a remedy, and they owe it to the +genuine subscribers. Let a circular be sent to +each defaulter, announcing that unless his subscription +is paid by a certain day, his name will be +returned to the clerk of the <i>Black list</i>, who has +directions to make an alphabetical index of defaulters, +several copies of which will be exposed to the public +in various parts of the Crystal Palace during the +whole time of the exhibition. +</p> +<p> +If public opinion were fully ripe for such a vast +industrial undertaking, it ought to be entirely self-supporting. +This seems to have been the opinion +of the Commission, and with every wish to assist +that object, and every desire to make allowances +for the want of all past experience on the subject, +a few remarks may be made which may promote +the interests of some future Exposition, even though +unavailing for the present. +</p> +<p> +The first question is necessarily the position of +the building, and the facilities for access and egress. +<span id='page-36' class='pagenum'>36</span>As this question is discussed in <a href='#tg_7'>Chapter VII.</a>, +it is sufficient here to state, that the amount +received from the admission of the public will very +much depend upon this point. On the other hand, +the difficulty and expense of conveying the things +exhibited, will not be very different in different +localities. This arises from the fact that if a +package has to be taken from a boat, a ship, or +a railway, and to be conveyed by cart to the locality +at which it is to be exhibited, the expense and the +danger of injury will be but very slightly increased, +whether it is carted an additional quarter of a mile, +or mile, or even a still greater distance. +</p> +<p> +Another very important question arises as to the +price of admission to the Exhibition. There is no +doubt, that if it were entirely free to the public, it +would be almost entirely useless. Nor is it less certain +that various prices ought to be charged on different +days. The Commission seem to have made a +very fair selection for the commencement of the experiment. +Perhaps it would have been better to allow +Saturday to be one of the cheapest days of admission, +because in many workshops the journeymen leave +their work at an earlier hour on that day: by the +sacrifice of the half day’s work, they would then be +able to spend a considerable portion of the day in examining +those objects in which they take an interest. +</p> +<p> +Perhaps on a future occasion some such scheme +of admission as the following might be found most +<span id='page-37' class='pagenum'>37</span>productive. After the exceptional days at the commencement, +occupying the first fortnight, the +admission might be charged thus:⁠— +</p> +<table class='avoid_break center fontp9'> +<tr> +<th class="align_l valign_t"></th> +<th colspan="2" class="align_r valign_t">May</th> +<th colspan="2" class="align_r valign_t">June</th> +<th colspan="2" class="align_r valign_t">July</th> +<th colspan="2" class="align_r valign_t">Aug.</th> +<th colspan="2" class="align_r valign_t">Sept.</th> +<th colspan="2" class="align_r valign_t">Oct.</th> +</tr> +<tr class="small italic"> +<th class="align_l valign_t"></th> +<th class="align_r valign_t pad_left">s.</th> +<th class="align_r valign_t">d.</th> +<th class="align_r valign_t pad_left">s.</th> +<th class="align_r valign_t">d.</th> +<th class="align_r valign_t pad_left">s.</th> +<th class="align_r valign_t">d.</th> +<th class="align_r valign_t pad_left">s.</th> +<th class="align_r valign_t">d.</th> +<th class="align_r valign_t pad_left">s.</th> +<th class="align_r valign_t">d.</th> +<th class="align_r valign_t pad_left">s.</th> +<th class="align_r valign_t">d.</th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t">Mon.</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">1</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">1</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">1</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">6</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">6</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">3</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t">Tues.</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">10</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">5</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">2</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">6</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">2</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">1</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">6</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">1</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t">Wednes.</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">5</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">2</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">6</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">1</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">6</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">1</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">1</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">6</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t">Thurs.</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">2</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">6</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">1</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">1</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">1</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">6</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">3</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t">Frid.</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">1</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">1</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">1</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">6</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">6</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">3</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t">Sat.</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">1</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">1</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">6</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">6</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">3</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">3</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p> +The principle of this scale is, that each week day +shall gradually diminish in actual price, but shall +always preserve its relative price. Thus Tuesday is +always the day of dearest admission, Wednesday of +the next dearest, whilst Saturday is always the day +of cheap admission. These periods might be distributed +by weeks instead of months. +</p> +<p> +Whatever arrangement is made as to the price of +admission, it is of very great importance that the +number of visitors at the various prices should be +noted and recorded for future use. It will indeed +be unfortunate if knowledge so important for any +similar occasion, should not be registered on the +present. +</p> +<p> +For this purpose <i>every</i> entrance should have one +or more self-acting turnstiles registering the number +of those who pass through it. Not only the public +who pay, but the exhibitors and all who have free +admissions should be registered. At the end of +<span id='page-38' class='pagenum'>38</span>each hour, when the clock strikes, each gate-keeper +should enter in a book the number indicated by his +register. Such a collection of facts, extending over +the whole time of the Exposition, would not only +be invaluable for any future one, but would furnish +materials for other important inquiries. +</p> +<p> +The general state of the weather, which of course +would have a powerful influence, might be known +from other registers: but it would be advisable +that at the end of each day some note were made +of the general state of the weather at the Crystal +Palace itself. +</p> +<p> +§ After the first of these Expositions it seems +probable that their advantages will become so well +known, that it may be quite possible to let out the +stalls to exhibitors under certain conditions. Foreigners +might still be admitted to exhibit without +payment, because the expense of carriage would +more than compensate for the rent. +</p> +<p> +Some stalls might be granted without rent by +the Commissioners, the peculiar circumstances of +each case having been considered. Again, other +stalls, or at least other means of exhibition, might +be accorded to those who contributed articles of +actual use in the building; as for example, a large +striking clock, a steam-engine to drive the machinery +or to supply the fountains. +</p> +<p> +Other means might be readily devised of increasing +the receipts, giving at the same time increased +<span id='page-39' class='pagenum'>39</span>convenience to the public. Thus, from the great +extent of the building, and from the crowd, it may +become difficult to pass easily from one part of the +building to another. Now if the stalls were placed +back to back along the centre of the great longitudinal +avenues, a railway formed of wooden planks +placed edgeways might be raised above the middle +of them at a height of about eight feet, which +would interfere but little with the stalls. +</p> +<p> +On this open railway cars mounted on wheels +bound with india-rubber,[<a href='#fn_6' id='fnb_6'>6</a>] in order to avoid all noise, +might travel at the rate of from one to two or perhaps +three miles an hour. These cars might have +luxurious cushions, and hold parties of different +numbers. One line in a side aisle, the “express,” +might be devoted entirely to conveying passengers +from one end to the other at the rate of three +miles an hour, setting down at six or more intermediate +stations: the payment might be one +penny, or perhaps, on grand days, two or three +pence. The other lines should take parties slowly +along, so as to allow time to see the crowd below +and the wonders of the exhibition, which might be +rendered more distinct by means of opera glasses. +Each trip might occupy twenty minutes or half an +hour, and be charged threepence, sixpence, or a +shilling, according to the price of admission on that +<span id='page-40' class='pagenum'>40</span>day. By these means multitudes of ladies, children, +and even of men, relieved from bodily fatigue, +might be able to acquire knowledge or derive pleasure, +which without these resources it would be +impossible for them to enjoy. +</p> +<p> +It is probable that the light iron framing of such +cars might be provided gratuitously by some exhibitors, +and the spring cushions and ornamental +drapery might be supplied by others, in consideration +of the advertisement thus afforded of the purveyor’s +taste and skill. +</p> +<p> +The chariots of these railways should be drawn by +means of a rope connected with the motive power. +</p> +<p> +If dumb railways are not thought expedient, +small galleries at least might be made to which +admission should be obtained by a small payment, +so that those who wanted to traverse quickly from +one part to another of the building, might thus, by +avoiding the crowd, save time. +</p> +<p> +Umbrellas, and sticks, and great coats might be +taken charge of by ticket on payment of one halfpenny. +Also, any visitor might be allowed to deposit +on his departure a bag containing his catalogue, +note-book, or any articles which it might be inconvenient +to him to take home with him each day, +as is customary at the railway stations. +</p> +<p> +Other accommodations will suggest themselves, +to be provided on the payment of a very small +fee; for example, soap and water and a clean towel +<span id='page-41' class='pagenum'>41</span>may be very desirable to some visitors, especially +to those who may examine the machinery. +</p> +<p> +It is probable that there may occasionally occur +large crowds pressing for admittance. It may be +worth while to consider whether in such cases an +additional reserved entrance might not be opened, +through which ladies and children, and men whom +age or indisposition has deprived of the physical +force requisite for encountering a crowd, might be +allowed to pass on the farther payment, say of sixpence +or a shilling. +</p> +<p> +If it were possible to have a similar reserved +enclosure close to the building, in which carriages +might remain on payment of a small fee, much +inconvenience would be saved to some of the +visitors, and some advantage would result to those +who did not avail themselves of it, in consequence +of the diminished line of carriages at the public +entrances. +</p> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_5'> +<p> +[<a href='#fnb_5'>5</a>] “What shall we do with the Glass Palace? By Spiridione +Gambardella.” London: Aylott & Jones, Paternoster-row. +</p> +<p> +The speech of the rash “commander of the Channel fleet” +(page 9) is worthy of the pen of the celebrated wit who +bestowed that appointment. +</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_6'> +<p> +[<a href='#fnb_6'>6</a>] Or the rails themselves might have grooves lined with +vulcanized india-rubber. +</p> +</div> +<div class="chapter"><span id='page-42' class='pagenum'>42</span><h2 id='tg_5'>CHAPTER V.<br> +<span class='smaller'>OBJECT AND USE OF THE EXPOSITION.</span> +</h2></div> +<p class='two_space'> +<span class="small-caps">The</span> approaching Exposition is considered by +many as a great and splendid show, calculated to +give pleasure and excitement to hundreds of thousands +of persons. Even in this sense it would be +beneficial, for it is always important that the pleasures +of the people should be productive of some +advance in their tastes and information. But its +great and paramount value depends on other +causes. Its object may be most concisely expressed +by stating that⁠—</p> +<p> +The Exposition is calculated to promote and +increase the free interchange of raw materials and +manufactured commodities between all the nations +of the earth. +</p> +<p> +Its object is not the exclusive benefit of England, +and if any such mistaken view is still entertained, +it may without hesitation be stated that it would be +impossible by any mode of management to accomplish +so selfish an object. +</p> +<p> +It is the interest of every people, that all other +<span id='page-43' class='pagenum'>43</span>nations should advance in knowledge, in industrial +skill, in taste, and in science. The advances made +in the two latter subjects acquire <i>permanent</i> existence +only through the <i>publicity</i> given to their enunciation +and discussion. Refining and elevating all +by whom they are received, new principles in taste +or in science, as soon as they are accepted as truths, +become the universal property of mankind. +</p> +<p> +In whatever distant country any man devises +means of diminishing the cost of production of the +commodity he deals in, the following effects will +result⁠— +</p> +<p> +He will make larger profits than usual. +</p> +<p> +He will then diminish his price in order to get +more customers. +</p> +<p> +His rivals in trade now find it necessary to +undersell him in order to get back their customers. +</p> +<p> +Whilst this competition goes on, the price of the +commodity falls, a larger consumption takes place +and new purchasers will arise, which for a time +checks the fall. +</p> +<p> +Ultimately, his rivals in the trade either remove +their capital into other lines of business, or adopt +the improved process. +</p> +<p> +In the mean time the first discoverer will, if +a prudent and industrious man, have realized a considerable +capital, for he will be fully aware that in +the present state of science no monopoly can be +permanent. He will rather seek for a succession +<span id='page-44' class='pagenum'>44</span>of moderate improvements, which exciting no immediate +inquiry or rivalry, shall increase the average +per centage of his profits, thus constantly keeping +his manufactory one, or at the utmost, only two +steps in advance of his competitors. +</p> +<p> +When in consequence of such an improvement, +a reduced price and an enlarged demand has arisen +in his own country, the manufacturer will naturally +make inquiries whether at this diminished price +other countries may not be induced to become +purchasers. If this is the case, the fact of their +free interchange with him proves that they can +acquire his commodity at a less cost than they can +themselves produce it. +</p> +<p> +But although the Exposition itself could not and +ought not to have been attempted for the sole +benefit of this country, it is almost certain that +England will reap the greatest share of its advantages. +This will arise from the more extended +system of her commerce, and from the habits of +her people. The profits of the merchant, other +circumstances being equal, depend upon the amount +of his capital. Similarly, the knowledge brought +back by the traveller in foreign countries, or derived +from his observation in his own, will mainly depend +on the stock of information he carried with him to +give in exchange. +</p> +<p> +§ To arrive at those principles by which the +Exposition ought to be regulated, it becomes necessary +<span id='page-45' class='pagenum'>45</span>to examine the nature and extent of the +interests involved. +</p> +<p> +In all interchanges there are three distinct parties +concerned⁠— +</p> +<div class="align_c one_space"><div class="block_align_l">The Consumer,<br> +The Middle-man,<br> +The Producer.<br> +</div></div><p class='noindent one_space'> +The overwhelming superiority both in amount of +capital and in the number of the first of these +classes, the <i>Consumer</i>, is at once apparent, and +ought throughout the inquiry to be steadily borne +in mind. In fact, each individual of the other two +classes is necessarily a member of the first; for all +men are <i>consumers</i>, and as such their common bond +of interest is to purchase every thing in the <i>cheapest</i> +market.</p> +<p> +§ The class <i>Producer</i> is equally indispensable +for the purposes of exchange, but its number is +much more limited. The interest of each individual +producer is, that he should sell his <i>own</i> produce at +as dear a price as possible, whilst he purchases that +of all other producers as cheaply as he can. +</p> +<p> +The class <i>Producer</i>, therefore, is not only comparatively +small, but has really a very divided interest, +arising only from the difference between the personal +and the class interest of the individual. +</p> +<p> +§ The class <i>Middle-man</i> is more extensive, comprising +merchants, brokers, factors, wholesale and +retail shopkeepers, hawkers, &c. The profits of this +<span id='page-46' class='pagenum'>46</span>class are generally regarded by the public with some +degree of suspicion. It is often thought that their +profits are exorbitant. But in truth this is not +frequently the case. The division of employments +necessarily produces middle-men, and the public in +the long run obtain the articles they require with +more convenience and economy, and at a less fluctuating +price, than it would be without such agency. +But the number of intermediate agents in any commerce +is itself subject to change, in different trades +and at various times: it is quite possible that these +changes may not have taken place with sufficient +promptitude, and thus the public may have suffered +for a time either by an excess or a defect in the +number of middle-men. +</p> +<p> +The interests of middle-men are, individually, +the same as those of consumers. As a class, the +extension of commerce is for their advantage, +because they are paid according to the amount of +exchanges made. But they have also another and a +very powerful interest. They fear that if the public +were acquainted with the manufacturing price of +articles, it would consider the difference between +that and the selling price as a tax imposed by the +middle-man upon the consumer. The middle-man +therefore has a direct interest in preventing the +public from arriving at a knowledge of the prices +charged by the original manufacturer. It is also +the interest of the middle-man that the manufacturer +<span id='page-47' class='pagenum'>47</span>should not know the price at which his produce sells +by retail: but, as it is in most cases impossible to +prevent this, few attempts at concealment are made. +</p> +<p> +§ It appears, then, that the interests of these +classes may be thus summed up⁠— +</p> +<p> +Consumers, including every human being, have +a strong interest in the freest competition as producing +the lowest price. +</p> +<p> +Producers have an interest in selling their produce +in the dearest market, and therefore claim free +competition. But they have no advantage in selling +it at the highest price: because a high price limits +the extent of the sale. Their object is that the +profit on each article, multiplied by the number +sold, shall be the greatest possible. +</p> +<p> +Middle-men, although usually adverse to competition, +have yet a direct interest in the amount sold. +</p> +<div class="chapter"><span id='page-48' class='pagenum'>48</span><h2 id='tg_6'>CHAPTER VI.<br> +<span class='smaller'>LIMITS.</span> +</h2></div> +<p class='two_space'> +<span class="small-caps">One</span> of the great difficulties in exhibiting together +samples of the produce and the industry of the +world, must obviously be the magnitude and consequent +expense of any building capable of containing +such an exposition. In order to do this +most effectively, and to secure the greatest amount +of space for the primary object, it became necessary +to lay down principles within the limits of which +the objects exhibited should be confined. No real +difficulty opposed the definition of this boundary, +even if a liberal interpretation were admitted.</p> +<p> +The Fine arts and the Industrial arts, although +of the highest importance each to the other, are +separated by a sufficiently definite line of demarcation, +even at the points at which they most nearly +approach. The characteristic of the fine arts is, that +each example is an individual⁠—the production of +individual taste, and executed by individual hands; +the produce of the fine arts is therefore necessarily +<span id='page-49' class='pagenum'>49</span>costly. The characteristic of the industrial arts is, +that each example is but one of a multitude,⁠—generated +according to the same law, by tools or +machines, (in the largest sense of those terms,) and +moved with unerring precision by the application +of physical force. Their produce is consequently +cheap. +</p> +<p> +The fine arts idealize nature by generalizing from +its individual objects: the industrial arts realize +identity by the unbounded use of the principle of +copying. +</p> +<p> +The union of the two, enlarging vastly the utility +of both, enables art to be appreciated and genius +to be admired by millions whom its single productions +would never reach; whilst the producer in +return, elevated by the continual presence of the +multiplied reproductions of the highest beauty, +acquires a new source of pleasure, and feels his +own mechanical art raised in his estimation by +such an alliance. +</p> +<p> +§ This distinction between the fine arts and those +of industry, would appear to place some of the +latter in a class to which they are not yet generally +admitted. It might seem that all lace not produced +by machinery, must according to this view +be admitted amongst the fine arts. +</p> +<p> +There are in the Exhibition some beautiful examples +of such lace amongst the productions of +other countries as well as of our own. They are made +<span id='page-50' class='pagenum'>50</span>by the united labour of many women. The cost of +a piece of lace will consist of⁠— +</p> +<p> +1.⁠—The remuneration to the artist who designs +the pattern. +</p> +<p> +2.⁠—The cost of the raw material. +</p> +<p> +3.⁠—The cost of the labour of a large number of +women working on it for many months. +</p> +<p> +Let us compare this with the cost of a piece of +statuary, which is undoubtedly of a much higher +class of art; it will consist of:⁠— +</p> +<p> +1.⁠—The remuneration to the artist who makes +the model. +</p> +<p> +2.⁠—The cost of the raw material. +</p> +<p> +3.⁠—The cost of labour by assistants in cutting +the block to the pattern of the model. +</p> +<p> +4.⁠—Finishing the statue by the artist himself. +</p> +<p> +In lace-making the skill of the artist is required +only for the production of the first example. Every +succeeding copy is made by mere labour: each copy +may be considered as an <i>individual</i>, and will cost +the same amount of time. +</p> +<p> +In sculpture the three first processes are quite +analogous to those in lace-making. But the +fourth process requires the taste and judgment +of the artist. It is this which causes it to +retain its rank amongst the fine arts, whilst lace-making +must still be classed amongst the industrial. +</p> +<p> +Here we may observe the strong analogy which +<span id='page-51' class='pagenum'>51</span>unites these very different processes. If we continue +the examination we shall find other resemblances, +and by contrasting sculpture with lace +made by machinery, we shall see in the very nature +of their production, the wide interval which separates +the industrial from the fine arts. +</p> +<p> +In the making both of lace and of statues, the +remuneration to the artists can only be reduced by +producing a larger number of them through more +extended education. The expense of the raw material +is small in both. The expense of labour in lace-making +is very large, and it is perhaps considerable +also in sculpture. The discovery of more convenient +localities yielding marble, may make some diminution +in its cost; and the improved manufacture of +thread may slightly reduce the price of lace. A +reduction in the price of labour may to a very +moderate extent reduce the cost of the raw material +of both. But it is evident that any <i>very great</i> +reduction is not to be expected. +</p> +<p> +Let us now contrast this possible reduction with +the past history of some industrial art. The plain +lace made at Nottingham, called patent net, will +supply us with a good example. In the year +1813 that lace was sold in the piece at the rate of +21<i>s.</i> a-yard. At the present time lace of the same +kind, but of a better quality, is sold under the +same circumstances at 3<i>d.</i> per yard. Thus, in less +than forty years the price of the industrial produce +<span id='page-52' class='pagenum'>52</span>has diminished to one eighty-fourth part of its +original price. +</p> +<p> +§ The fine arts, already possessing a building and +an exhibition of their own, which usually opens on +the same day as that proposed for the opening +of the Palace of Industry, it seems difficult at first +to imagine why the limited space disposable within +the latter edifice should be occupied by any portion +of a subject exclusively belonging to the fine arts. +Yet it has been decided that Sculpture shall be +admitted but Painting rejected.[<a href='#fn_7' id='fnb_7'>7</a>] +</p> +<p> +Supposing both departments of art to be equally +excluded, there would still be a propriety, and +even almost a necessity to admit some examples of +each. New tools used by the sculptor, suppose for +preparing the block, might require an example of +their mode of application; whilst the effects produced +on the surface of the marble by other tools, +could only be shown by comparative specimens. +</p> +<p> +Machinery of a very beautiful kind has been +contrived for copying accurately, on a reduced or +an enlarged scale, both medals and statues. The +Venus de Medici itself could not be justly excluded +from a purely industrial exhibition,⁠—if +<span id='page-53' class='pagenum'>53</span>placed in the centre of a series diminishing on the +one side to a statuette of a foot high, and increasing +on the other to a figure double her own height. +Such a series, though fairly introduced as an illustration +of industrial art, would, indeed, itself be +highly interesting to the fine arts, as exhibiting the +effect of change of magnitude, when the proportions +remain identical. +</p> +<p> +Enamel painting would be excluded as belonging +to the fine arts, but every painting on porcelain +partakes in fact of the nature of an enamel painting. +A service of porcelain would of course be +admitted as a specimen of mechanical art, however +highly it might be adorned by this form of +painting. +</p> +<p> +New modes of engraving might be exhibited, +analogous, for example, to that by which medals +are so beautifully represented. There are several +new methods of surface printing for multiplying +original designs. In all such cases it would be +very desirable to place before the eye of the +spectator, the originals from which the copies were +derived, and it might also add to the utility and +interest of the Exposition, even to exhibit other +forms of engraving of the same subject, for the +sake of comparison. +</p> +<p> +The instruments by which daguerreotypes and +talbotypes are produced, would assuredly claim a +place; so also might a collection of their results. +<span id='page-54' class='pagenum'>54</span>It would also be instructive that some of these +productions should be accompanied by the original +forms or paintings from which they were copied. +</p> +<p> +The general rule, therefore, might be, that specimens +of the fine arts should not be admitted by +themselves; but that they should not be excluded,⁠—as +illustrations,⁠—either of the use of some tool or +instrument by which their own production might +be assisted,⁠—or as forming parts or decorations of +objects of the industrial arts,⁠—or for the sake of +comparison with the copies or imitations of them +produced by these latter arts. +</p> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_7'> +<p> +[<a href='#fnb_7'>7</a>] Since this was written, the beautiful effect produced by +sculpture in the Crystal Palace has fully justified the decision +of the Commission. In fact, the only real objection to the +admission either of sculpture or painting arises from the extent +of space required. +</p> +</div> +<div class="chapter"><span id='page-55' class='pagenum'>55</span><h2 id='tg_7'>CHAPTER VII.<br> +<span class='smaller'>SITE AND CONSTRUCTION OF BUILDING.</span> +</h2></div> +<p class='two_space'> +<span class="small-caps">The</span> questions connected with the construction +of the building, were surrounded with considerable +difficulties, even to the best informed. It should be +capable of containing specimens, not merely of all +the manufactured products of the world, but also of +all the raw materials now used, and even of such, +as being presented to the attention of competent +persons, might probably become useful hereafter.</p> +<p> +The site of such a building, its fitness for its +purpose, and the cost of its construction, were the +chief points to be considered. +</p> +<p> +Its situation especially was the most important, +because that circumstance would greatly influence +the number of persons visiting the Exposition, and +therefore the amount of the receipts out of which +the building was to be paid for. +</p> +<p> +The first principle which should guide the choice +of a site, is obviously the <i>convenience of visitors</i>; and +a little observation, or a moderate share of common +sense, will show how the principle should be applied. +</p> +<p> +<span id='page-56' class='pagenum'>56</span>It is known to all those who have observed the +course of crowds of human beings going to and returning +from some centre of attraction, that if the +spot on which the assemblage is to take place is +subject to our choice, much of the difficulty of +the arrangements will be removed. +</p> +<p> +Other circumstances being equal, that site is the +best which admits of the greatest number of independent +channels by which the multitude can +arrive and retire. The means of access should be +so arranged that various divisions of the visitors +would, according to the quarter in which they +reside, naturally take each its own most convenient +course, without the necessity of any instruction +from police or attendants. +</p> +<p> +Various sites had been proposed. Hyde Park;⁠—the +Regent’s Park;⁠—Primrose Hill, still more distant;⁠—fields +on the south side of the Thames intended +to form Battersea Park. +</p> +<p> +It is fortunate that neither of the two latter +was chosen, although they had many advocates: +for in all probability the receipts would have been +diminished by at least a third, if not by a half. +</p> +<p> +Various situations were pointed out in Hyde +Park. One on the north nearly facing Hyde Park +Gardens⁠—one on the south nearly opposite the +Barracks; this latter was ultimately chosen. +</p> +<p> +§ But a different position may be pointed out +which combines so many advantages that it is much +<span id='page-57' class='pagenum'>57</span>to be regretted it was not placed at the disposal +of the Commission. +</p> +<p> +The distance between Cumberland Gate and the +gate at Hyde Park Corner, is about 1,300 yards, or +nearly three quarters of a mile. On the eastern +side of the park, adjoining Park Lane, there is a +narrow strip occupied by plantations, the circular +reservoir and gardens. +</p> +<p> +On the open ground adjacent to this strip, but +rather nearer to Cumberland Gate, the Crystal +Palace might advantageously have been placed. Its +length being nearly 629 yards, each end would have +been about 350 yards from the two great roads of +access. This site would have possessed the following +advantages:⁠— +</p> +<p class='hang_indent'> +1. Its distance from the north or south entrance +of the park would, for the average of +visitors, have been considerably less than +that of the present site.</p> +<p class='hang_indent'> +To persons standing at Hyde Park Corner or +at Cumberland Gate, the respective ends of +the building would have appeared, from its +great elevation, almost close to them.</p> +<p class='hang_indent'> +2. There are very few trees upon it, and those +few are still young.</p> +<p class='hang_indent'> +3. It is the highest ground in the park, and +could, therefore, be better drained.</p> +<p> +In its present position the building can scarcely +be seen from either of those positions. It is above +<span id='page-58' class='pagenum'>58</span>half a mile from Hyde Park Corner: whilst it is three +quarters of a mile by footpath, and nearly a mile and +a half by carriage drive from Cumberland Gate. +</p> +<p> +The large majority of visitors from the north and +the south will enter the park through these two approaches. +The average distance, therefore, which +each will have to travel in the park, will be nearly +three quarters of a mile. +</p> +<table class='avoid_break center'> +<tr> +<th class="align_l valign_t"></th> +<th class="align_r valign_b">Yards.</th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t justify">The distance of the nearest end of the present building from Hyde Park Corner is about</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">940</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t justify">From Cumberland Gate is, by footpath, about</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">1560</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t justify">Ditto, by carriage, about</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">2490</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t justify">The distance of the end of the proposed site from Hyde Park Corner, is about</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">375</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t justify">Ditto, from Cumberland Gate</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">375</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p> +If we consider how many persons might have +entered close to a building thus placed, through +Grosvenor and Stanhope Gates, or through any temporary +ones near them, it will be perceived that this +average distance would in fact be much diminished. +</p> +<p> +Supposing that an equal number of visitors arrive +by each approach, we have some means of approximating +to one portion of the inconvenience and +loss which the public will suffer from its present +position. +</p> +<p> +<span id='page-59' class='pagenum'>59</span>In the first place the number of visitors has been +variously estimated from one to seven millions. +Let us suppose it to be four millions. Each of +these four million visitors will, on an average, have +to travel one mile and a quarter more than would +have been necessary to go to and return from the +Exposition. Thus five millions of miles will be +uselessly traversed. If the expense of transport +were one penny a-mile, and the value of time on +an average four shillings a-day, the account would +run thus⁠— +</p> +<table class='avoid_break center fontp9'> +<tr> +<td class="align_r valign_t"></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">2,000,000</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t"></td> +<td class="align_l valign_t">persons travel 1½ mile.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_r valign_t"></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">1,000,000</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t"></td> +<td class="align_l valign_t"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_r valign_t"></td> +<td class='bot_line'></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t"></td> +<td class="align_l valign_t"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_r valign_t">6)</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">3,000,000</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t"></td> +<td class="align_l valign_t">miles at six miles per hour.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_r valign_t"></td> +<td class='bot_line'></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t"></td> +<td class="align_l valign_t"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_r valign_t">10)</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">500,000</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t"></td> +<td class="align_l valign_t">hours.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_r valign_t"></td> +<td class='bot_line'></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t"></td> +<td class="align_l valign_t"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_r valign_t">4<i>s.</i>=⅕<i>l.</i>)</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">50,000</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t"></td> +<td class="align_l valign_t">days of ten hours each.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_r valign_t"></td> +<td class='bot_line'></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t"></td> +<td class="align_l valign_t"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_r valign_t"></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">10,000</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t"><i>l.</i></td> +<td class="align_l valign_t">value of lost time.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_r valign_t"></td> +<td class='bot_line'></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t"></td> +<td class="align_l valign_t"></td> +</tr> +</table> +<p> +A similar calculation of the time lost by 2,000,000 +persons travelling three miles an hour would give +13,333<i>l.</i> +</p> +<p> +The expense of travelling at 1<i>d.</i> per mile of the +first 2,000,000, who travel in carriages, gives⁠— +</p> +<table class='avoid_break center fontp9'> +<tr> +<td class="align_r valign_t">12)</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">3,000,000</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t"></td> +<td class="align_l valign_t">miles.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_r valign_t"></td> +<td class='bot_line'></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t"></td> +<td class="align_l valign_t"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_r valign_t">20)</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">250,000</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t"></td> +<td class="align_l valign_t"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_r valign_t"></td> +<td class='bot_line'></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t"></td> +<td class="align_l valign_t"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_r valign_t"></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">12,500</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t"><i>l.</i></td> +<td class="align_l valign_t">cost of carr. of two millions 1½ mile each.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_r valign_t"></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">10,000</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t"><i>l.</i></td> +<td class="align_l valign_t">cost of time of ditto.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_r valign_t"></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">13,333</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t"><i>l.</i></td> +<td class="align_l valign_t">cost of time of two millions at 1 mile each.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_r valign_t"></td> +<td class='bot_line'></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t"></td> +<td class="align_l valign_t"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_r valign_t"></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">35,833</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t"><i>l.</i></td> +<td class="align_l valign_t">total loss.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_r valign_t"></td> +<td class='bot_line'></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t"></td> +<td class="align_l valign_t"></td> +</tr> +</table> +<p class='noindent'> +<span id='page-60' class='pagenum'>60</span>In this estimate the price of one penny a-mile may +perhaps be thought high, especially when it is +known that many will go on foot, others in omnibus, +others in their own carriages: but in order to +remain the same number of hours in the present +building, from the extra time required to visit it, it +will be necessary for many persons to spend one +additional day in London, which could scarcely be +done under twenty pence even by the poorest visitor.</p> +<p> +The allowance of six miles an hour for travelling +in omnibus or carriage, considering the stoppages +of the one, and the crowd on the single road of +approach for both, will be admitted to be moderate. +</p> +<p> +The rate of four shillings per day, or twenty-four +shillings per week, as the value of the time of the +visitors, will probably be thought less than its +average value. +</p> +<p> +There can be no doubt that under these disadvantages +the actual site must cause the loss of a +large number of visitors, who would have partaken +of the enjoyment in the more favourable position. +The amount of <i>pure loss</i> thus suffered by the visitors +as a class, must be withdrawn from the sum they +intended to expend on their visit. +</p> +<p> +One of the earliest acts of the Commission +was to advertise for plans of a building suitable for +their purpose. +</p> +<p> +Certain principles were laid down. It should +be <i>temporary</i> in its character⁠—it should be economical +<span id='page-61' class='pagenum'>61</span>in its cost⁠—it should be fire-proof or nearly +so⁠—it should be built and fit for use in an inconceivably +short time, and capable of being removed +in still less. +</p> +<p> +A lithographed plan of the ground assigned for +it, was circulated for the use of all who chose to +make suggestions, or to compete for the prizes +offered for the most approved designs; this insured +a certain amount of uniformity in scale, which rendered +comparison easier. Although, from necessity, +a very short time could be allowed for +preparation, yet 240 designs for the building were +offered. +</p> +<p> +These were exhibited to the public at the apartments +of the Society of Arts; a certain number of +them were selected as worthy of praise, and some +as deserving more substantial rewards. +</p> +<p> +There appears to have existed from the beginning +in the public mind, not only in England but on the +Continent, a belief that the Commissioners would +not be very rigid in interpreting their rules. This +was probably confirmed by the sudden and unlooked-for +withdrawal of the large prizes that had +been promised to the public at the commencement. +Accordingly, the various plans seemed to vie with +each other in violating the rules laid down by the +Commission; those selected for reward were not +the most consistent with them. In order to give +confidence to the future, it would have been expedient, +<span id='page-62' class='pagenum'>62</span>previously to examining their merits, to have +rejected all which grossly violated the conditions +proposed by the Commission. +</p> +<p> +Beautiful plans might be suggested for magnificent +buildings, if the designers were alike reckless +of cost and of time of construction, and those who +had honestly confined themselves to the prescribed +conditions felt, with some reason, aggrieved at +finding the violators of them applauded and +rewarded. +</p> +<p> +Although there was, in the opinion of the Commissioners, +much of beauty and genius, and many +suggestions of value, yet none of the plans approached +their own idea of what was requisite. It +was therefore resolved that the Commission should +itself originate one, availing themselves of the hints +contained in these plans. +</p> +<p> +In the mean time, Mr. Paxton, who had devised +and successfully carried out a new kind of architecture, +the chief material of which was glass, came to +their assistance. He drew the plans of his singular +design, and was fortunate enough to find in Messrs. +Fox and Henderson a firm capable of supplying all +those mechanical details necessary for its success, +and even of contracting to execute the work in a +period of time so short that it will probably long +remain unrivalled in the art of construction. +</p> +<p> +The Commission accepted this offer, and the +present beautiful building arose as if by magic. +<span id='page-63' class='pagenum'>63</span>Amongst all the curious and singular products which +the taste, the skill, the industry of the world, have +confided to the judgment of England, there will +be found within that crystal envelope, few whose +manufacture can claim a higher share of our +admiration than that palace itself, which shelters +these splendid results of advanced civilization. +</p> +<p> +The building itself was regularly manufactured. +Simple in its construction, and requiring the multiplied +repetition of few parts, its fabrication was +contrived with consummate skill. The internal +economy with which its parts were made and put +together on the spot was itself a most instructive +study.[<a href='#fn_8' id='fnb_8'>8</a>] +</p> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_8'> +<p> +[<a href='#fnb_8'>8</a>] The reader will find very interesting details and drawings +of this manufacture in the “Illustrated London News,” and in +the “Expositor.” +</p> +</div> +<div class="chapter"><span id='page-64' class='pagenum'>64</span><h2 id='tg_8'>CHAPTER VIII.<br> +<span class='smaller'>PRICES.</span> +</h2></div> +<p class='two_space'> +<span class="small-caps">The</span> great mass of consumers are always anxious +to know the <i>price</i> of a commodity. To them it is +the most essential consideration in a purchase. The +thoughtless rich care little about the price, and +those who don’t intend to pay, care still less about +it. The most knowing of this latter class, indeed, +often deceive the vigilance of honest tradesmen by +affecting a peculiar earnestness about cheapness. +It is quite true that many well-known articles in +great demand have a certain market price, and some +a certain fixed price; as for instance, a penny roll. +In this latter case the judgment of the purchaser +is directed to its size, or its goodness, or to both +those qualities together.</p> +<p> +§ It may be useful to trace out the course of +purchases by retail, and to show the fine gradations +of impediment which are insensibly interposed between +the vendor and consumer, as obstacles to a +full examination of the article by the latter. Of +course neither an article of daily consumption ought +<span id='page-65' class='pagenum'>65</span>to be taken as an example, nor yet one immediately +wanted by a consumer, whose time is so valuable +that it would be cheaper to go into the first shop +he finds and purchase it at any price. +</p> +<p> +§ Let us suppose that a lady having some leisure +goes out in search of a fan. She passes several +shops in which they may or may not be kept for +sale. +</p> +<p> +She sees some fans in a shop window, but as +they are <i>not open</i> she passes on, intending to return +to them if she cannot suit herself elsewhere. +</p> +<p> +A few doors beyond there are some fans <i>open</i>, +but none of them exactly suit her taste, and she +does not like to give the owner of the shop the +trouble of opening a number of fans, none of which +may please her. +</p> +<p> +In the next street she sees in the window of +a shop some fans, which <i>are open</i>. One of these +appears to suit her, but there is no price marked on +it. She does not like to go into the shop and +examine more minutely whether the subtle implement +she requires has sufficient strength to withstand +its ball-room trials, lest it may be too expensive +for her purse. +</p> +<p> +A short distance beyond another set of <i>opened</i> +fans present themselves to her notice in the window +of another shop, each of them with its price distinctly +marked upon it. One of these the hesitating +lady prefers, <i>a little</i>, to the last she had +<span id='page-66' class='pagenum'>66</span>approved, and she resolves to enter this shop +and examine the fan. But perceiving before she +enters, that there is no attendant in the shop, she +thinks the mistress may be at dinner, or have gone +up stairs to her baby, and she says to herself, “It +is of no consequence; I will not disturb her now.” +</p> +<p> +Still passing onward she finds a shop in the +window of which is a pretty fan, although not quite +so good as the last, and within there sits the shopkeeper⁠—but +the door is <i>shut</i>. +</p> +<p> +Although the fan was not the most suitable the +lady had seen, yet had that door been open, she +would have entered, hoping that the fans exposed +in the window were samples of classes kept in store +within. +</p> +<p> +At last she finds all these impediments removed; +a fan that will nearly suit her lies open in the +window, with its price clearly marked, an attendant +is in the shop, and the door is hospitably <i>open</i>. She +enters and examines it, and finding it well made, +asks whether there are others of the same class of +pattern, to which the reply is that it is the only one +remaining. Upon this she purchases the fan, +although had she entered several of the former +shops, she might have found fans both more exactly +suited to her taste and at a less price. The +<i>marking</i> has decided her choice. It is not to be +imagined that all, or even the greater part of these +impediments, ever occurred to one person at the +<span id='page-67' class='pagenum'>67</span>same time: but there are few who have not at +different times felt the effects of most of them. +</p> +<p> +§ It is said that <i>ladies by education and birth</i> +occasionally amuse themselves by entering shops +and giving interminable trouble, having no intention +of making any purchase. This doubtlessly is +a libel. +</p> +<p> +§ Several other minor impediments deter purchasers +from some shops, and incline them to frequent +others; amongst these may be mentioned an over +officiousness in the attendants to recommend to the +attention of the purchaser other articles than those +he requires. This pressure to induce purchases is +peculiarly offensive, and drives away the best +customers. +</p> +<p> +The absence of a marked price upon an article, +tends to defeat the effect of competition, as well as +to produce loss of time both to consumer and +vendor. It is therefore, to a certain extent, a cause +of increase of price. +</p> +<p> +Its effect is to cause the same article to be sold +at different prices in the same neighbourhood, thus +counteracting that uniformity of price at considerable +distances, which is consequent upon rapid and +cheap communication. +</p> +<p> +§ As the extent to which this is carried even in a +great city, may not be known, the following occurrence +will afford an illustration:⁠— +</p> +<p> +A gentleman wishing to make the light of his +<span id='page-68' class='pagenum'>68</span>reading lamp approach more nearly to day-light, +looked out for a lamp-glass of a blue tint. Having +observed one of the wished-for colour in a shop +window marked at 1<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> he purchased it. After +a considerable trial he was so satisfied with the +comfort it afforded to his eyes, that he wished to +have other lamps in his house similarly furnished. +On returning to the shop at which the blue globe +was purchased, he found that its proprietor had +retired, and his successor was in a different line of +business. Seeing in the window of another shop +in his own neighbourhood, a coloured globe of the +same size, he entered and inquired the price. To +his great surprise the price was stated to be 3<i>s.</i>; +and on asking if any reduction would be made if +he took a dozen or two, the answer was that in that +case the lowest price would be half-a-crown each. +</p> +<p> +This naturally led him to suppose that the cheapness +of the first glass arose from the accident of its +proprietor being about to retire from business, and +he therefore decided upon confining his indulgence +in the luxury of white light to his single reading +lamp. One day, however, he accidentally saw in +another shop window a similar globe of blue glass. +On inquiring within, he was informed that its price +was 1<i>s.</i>, and that the price per dozen was 11<i>s.</i> +</p> +<p> +Under these new circumstances he provided a +blue globe for every lamp in his house. +</p> +<p> +Now it is necessary to observe that these glasses, +<span id='page-69' class='pagenum'>69</span>charged at 3<i>s.</i>, 1<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i>, and 1<i>s.</i>, were offered for +sale at three different shops not distant from each +other a mile and a half, and were not only of the +same size, weight, shade of colour and quality of +glass, but had each the same maker’s stamp upon +them, and may possibly have been taken from the +same pot of glass. It is remarkable also that the +cheapest glass globe, although exposed in the shop +window, had no price attached to it. +</p> +<p> +§ It is obvious, if it were the custom invariably +to mark the price upon each article exposed for sale, +that such unreasonable differences of price in the +same article could not exist. It is certain that, if the +Royal Commissioners were to consult the dealer +who charged 3<i>s.</i> for an article sold by his neighbour +at 1<i>s.</i>, they would be informed that it would +be absolutely ruinous to have prices affixed to +articles exhibited. Such a tradesman would assure +them, and with perfect truth, that it would entirely +destroy his trade. But if he cannot live upon the +ordinary profits of capital employed in his trade, +are the unwary public to pay two hundred per +cent. beyond the market price, in order to support +a tradesman unfit for his business? If, on the +other hand, the Commissioners were to ask the +opinion of the tradesman who sold the glass at 1<i>s.</i>, +he undoubtedly would not object to the general +practice of affixing prices to each article. The +opinion of the vendor of the glass at 1<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> was +<span id='page-70' class='pagenum'>70</span>sufficiently expressed by its being attached to that +article. +</p> +<p> +§ There are several causes assigned for the +admitted repugnance of shopkeepers to allow the +price of any article they sell to be marked upon it. +</p> +<p> +It is broadly asserted that the public, being +unable to judge of the article, will be guided too +much by the cheapness of its money price, neglecting +its other qualities, and will thus be induced to +purchase worthless things. +</p> +<p> +It is always somewhat suspicious when the vendor +volunteers to take care of the interest of the +purchaser. It reverses the decision of the common +sense of mankind, expressed in the ancient proverb, +“<i>caveat emptor</i>.” Besides, it is by no means true +that the public are so ignorant or incapable of +appreciating all those other qualities. In some +articles the difficulty is undoubtedly great, whilst in +others it may require time to be spent in their examination +even by those who are as conversant with +the articles as the vendor himself. But why should +the time of both parties be wasted by an examination, +when the price may be such as to preclude its +purchase, whatever may be its other merits? +</p> +<p> +§ Of all the various qualities which contribute to +the excellence of any given article, that which it is +most easy to ascertain⁠—that which it is impossible +to falsify⁠—and that without the exact knowledge of +which no purchase can possibly be made, is the +<span id='page-71' class='pagenum'>71</span>very one which it is wished to withhold from the +knowledge of the purchaser, until through the art +of the vendor, the finer feelings of the customer +induce him to think himself in some measure +committed to purchase that of which he does not +entirely approve. +</p> +<p> +It is from circumstances like these, that the prejudice +against retail dealers arises and is confirmed +in the public mind. There is no reason why that +class should not be as highly respected as the possessors +of extensive domains. To deserve that +respect they have only to insist upon all persons in +their employment abstaining from the slightest deception +in serving their customers; to which rule it +would be desirable to add, that the leading members +of each trade should unite in discountenancing +those who are guilty of any such practices. +</p> +<p> +§ The effect upon the sale of an article by the +absence of its price may be illustrated by another +example. Some years ago a large bazaar was held +for some charitable object at the Hanover Square +Rooms. It was patronised by the highest rank, +and the beauty of the fair shopkeepers was even +more attractive than the wares they had to dispose +of. A collector thought this a favourable opportunity +of adding to his collection a vase of porphyry: +having paid the admission fee of 5<i>s.</i>, he entered, +and soon perceived some beautiful specimens +of the object he desired. Having looked +<span id='page-72' class='pagenum'>72</span>at them for some time, he selected in his mind +one which he would willingly have purchased +if it were within the limit (10<i>l.</i>) which he had +assigned for the gratification of his taste. There +was, however, no price attached to any of the vases, +and fearing that they were all beyond his means, he +reluctantly departed without the wished-for acquisition. +It happened that he mentioned in the +course of the next year the circumstance to a friend +who was acquainted with the history of the vase in +question. The vase for which he would willingly +have given 10<i>l.</i> was not sold at that bazaar, but +some time after it appeared at a less fashionable +bazaar And was sold for 5<i>l.</i> +</p> +<p> +§ Most of those who visit the Exposition will +each according to their means wish to retain some +memorial of it. Many will have been economising +during the previous year in order to purchase some +object of utility or of pleasure either for their own +use or to take back as remembrances to their family +and friends. It would be very difficult amidst the +vast variety of attractions, even if the price of each +were marked upon it, to select the most desirable +article within those limits of expense to which each +purchaser is confined. But by forbidding the +marking of prices, this difficulty is converted into +an impossibility. The first step according to the +decree of the Commissioners, would be to go round +and ask the price of at least a hundred, if not +<span id='page-73' class='pagenum'>73</span>a thousand articles. These must be written down +by each inquirer unless the Exhibitors supply him +with printed lists. Even if he make a selection out of +these, it is a hundred to one that some other article +in the enormous collection would, if he had known +its price, have pleased him better. +</p> +<p> +§ If we examine the history of the earlier stages +of society, we shall see the constant tendency of its +institutions to facilitate the mutual exchange of +commodities between its members, and to remove +every obstacle impeding their interchange. When +the population was thinly scattered over the country, +the possessor of a fowl, wanting a pound of +butter, was obliged to go some distance to a neighbour +either to purchase the butter or to get it +in exchange for the fowl. But it would have cost +him more time than the worth of the butter if he +had visited several neighbours to find out where +it was the cheapest. To remedy this inconvenience, +market days were established in the villages and +towns at more or less frequent intervals. On +these occasions each farmer sent one of the family +to the periodic market, who sold the produce of the +farm and purchased whatever might be required of +their neighbours, who were each represented by +one of their own family at that common market. +Itinerant vendors of various manufactured articles +flocked to these markets because they there met their +customers with less loss of time and less fatigue. +</p> +<p> +<span id='page-74' class='pagenum'>74</span>Whilst these hawkers thus gained on the one +hand, it must be admitted that they lost on the +other those occasionally extravagant profits sometimes +levied on the necessities of their isolated customers. +But on the whole they derived from their +trade a more regular rate of profit, because the +competition side by side of rival goods and rival +prices, rendered that profit much less fluctuating. +Their greatest gain, however, arose from the time +saved by all parties, which largely increased the +consumption of their respective articles of produce. +</p> +<p> +§ When towns became enlarged, the same principle +of mutual interest led to the selection of particular +streets or quarters of the town by particular +trades. In many cities on the continent, the jewellers, +as well as some other trades, still occupy +entire streets by themselves. +</p> +<p> +The next step seems to have been to hold +a general exchange in a fixed spot at certain +periodic times. This was necessary for the merchants +and larger dealers, and for international +exchanges. In great cities this was again subdivided +into various branches of business, as⁠—The +Corn Exchange⁠—The Coal Exchange, &c. +</p> +<p> +§ At these marts a class of men called brokers +arose, whose business it was to sell on commission +for the producers, and to purchase on commission +for the merchants or other middle men. +</p> +<p> +The economy of time produced by this arrangement +<span id='page-75' class='pagenum'>75</span>is very great. Let us suppose an exchange +or bazaar attended by a hundred purchasers and +a hundred sellers. Each purchaser, in order to +become fully acquainted with the state of the +market, must ask at least two questions of each +seller⁠— +</p> +<p class='hang_indent'> +1st. What is the price?</p> +<p class='hang_indent'> +2d. What quantity have you for sale at that +price?</p> +<p> +This alone gives rise to <i>twenty thousand questions</i>. +If, on the other hand, a broker is employed, each +of the two hundred persons who constitute the +market, will have to answer those two questions +only to his own broker; consequently, there will +only be four hundred such questions. If there are +twenty brokers, these may meet together at the +market, and each stating his commissions both for +purchase and for sale, a list may be immediately +formed by which the state of the market as to supply +and demand becomes known, and in the event of +there being but little difference in the quality of the +articles, it becomes easy for the brokers to arrange +the requisite exchanges at prices which are equitable +for all parties. +</p> +<p> +§ Great, however, as this advantage is, it is small +compared with another which we shall now consider. +When a bargain is made directly by the two individuals +interested in it, there usually occurs on both +sides an attempt to appear more or less indifferent +<span id='page-76' class='pagenum'>76</span>about it, in order to secure advantageous terms. +Thus price is made to depend partly upon the +personal feelings and qualities of the parties, and +the less impulsive and more sagacious will gain +considerable advantage over the hasty and inexperienced. +A certain degree also of misrepresentation +often occurs, and the price demanded is frequently +greater than that which the seller is willing to take: +thus the quantity of time consumed by parties +themselves in bargaining, is always much greater +than that in which their brokers can do the business +for them on more advantageous terms. +</p> +<p> +Again: the broker has an interest in effecting +sales, because he is paid in proportion to their +amount. But he has no interest in favouring one +class of his customers more than another: his +profits depend entirely upon his knowledge, his +industry, and his integrity. The necessity of the +intervening broker arises from the imperfections of +mankind, and when rigidly honest his services are +invaluable. If one party is perfectly aware of all +circumstances relating to the state of the market, +he has no need of any broker, because he can +acquire no new information: on the other hand, +those who treat with him may as well save themselves +the expense of a broker, because nothing can +be communicated on the subject which is not +already known. +</p> +<p> +When these principles, which are found to prevail +<span id='page-77' class='pagenum'>77</span>in large transactions, are applied to the retail +concerns of everyday life, the intervention of the +broker is not required. This arises from the multitude +of the transactions, the smallness of the individual +amount of each, and the immense variety of +the articles of exchange. +</p> +<p> +§ Another class of middle-men now come into +existence, namely, Shopkeepers. The evils already +pointed out still exist. One of the questions, it is +true, need not be asked, for the quantity of an +article held by a retail dealer, is usually much larger +than the wants of any individual customer; but +the question of price still remains. The removal +of all these difficulties may be accomplished by the +adoption of one simple plan⁠—let the price be +affixed to each article. +</p> +<p> +Other advantages result from the publicity thus +given to price. Many who would not otherwise inquire +the price, thinking it might be above their +means, will now become purchasers. Others, not +themselves intending to purchase, may incidentally +cause their friends to purchase by quoting the prices +they have seen affixed to certain articles. Others +again, may be induced by the cheapness of an article +to purchase it for uses for which it was not originally +intended,⁠—as, for instance, a beautiful chintz for +papering a room. +</p> +<p> +§ In almost all works of industry, whatever +may be the kind of excellence of an article exhibited, +<span id='page-78' class='pagenum'>78</span>it is possible to produce one of greater +excellence. +</p> +<p> +Take for instance a sheet of window-glass; its +size might be adduced as the ground of excellence. +The beautiful process of “<i>flashing</i>” by which it is +made, is preceded by another in which the workman +blows a large globe of glass. The size of the expanded +flat circle of glass, called a “<i>table</i>,” depends +on the magnitude of this sphere, which again is +limited by the power of the workman’s lungs. But +when larger tables were wanted, an observant workman +found that if his mouth had been previously +washed out with water, a greater sphere was produced. +In fact, a small portion of the water, carried +over with his breath, became converted into steam +by the heat, and thus increased the pressure within. +This led to a new limit, and there can be no doubt +that by means of expensive mechanical contrivances, +still larger spheres might be blown. +</p> +<p> +§ Now the whole merit of any such new process, +in the eye of the manufacturer, would depend on +the <i>price</i> at which the produce could be sold. +</p> +<p> +The same principle prevails in almost all works +of the civil engineer. With the talent now existing +in that profession, scarcely any undertaking is impossible. +The real and most important limitation +is the <i>price</i> of execution. +</p> +<p> +§ In the fine arts also the ultimate object still is +the acquisition by the public of the productions +<span id='page-79' class='pagenum'>79</span>submitted to their examination. If, however, the +price is not stated, it may happen that a person of +moderate means, more capable of appreciating a +work of art than richer men, might be prevented +from acquiring it by a feeling of delicacy. For not +liking to ask the price, and thinking probably that +it is beyond his means, the object may be sold to a +richer competitor at a lower price than he would +himself willingly have given. +</p> +<p> +This consequence of the absence of price is injurious +both to art and to artists: it occasionally +removes from the field of competition the best +judges of real merit. It is true that in several +professions a certain delicacy respecting money +matters exists which is wanting in others. Medical +men and artists are peculiarly subject to its influence; +but it is not reported of any lawyer that he +ever refused a fee, and it is recorded of some Secretary +of the Admiralty that he claimed <i>a quarter +of a year’s war salary</i>, on account of the two days +interruption of peace by the combat of Algiers. +</p> +<p> +§ Another result of the prices not being marked +upon objects is, that the public are unable to form +any just estimate of their commercial value; consequently, +no proper public opinion arises to assist +the juries in their decisions. This is a matter of +considerable importance: the duty of a juror at an +exposition is quite different from that of a juror in +a legal question. It is the business of the Industrial +<span id='page-80' class='pagenum'>80</span>juror to avail himself of the knowledge and the +observations of all around him. Much of what he +thus hears he may be able himself to verify by +examination or experiment, and thus public opinion +will be more matured, and the decisions of the +juries have greater weight. +</p> +<p> +§ Many of the qualities of the articles exhibited +can only be ascertained by use, or even by their +destruction. In such cases a single sample would +often be purchased if it had its price affixed to it. +</p> +<p> +Another class, small indeed in number, but +important from its functions, suffers the greatest +inconvenience from the absence of price. Those +engaged in studying the commercial and economical +relations of various manufactures, either for the +gratification of their own tastes or for the instruction +of the public, are entirely deprived of the most +important element of their reasonings. +</p> +<p> +If <i>every article</i> had its price affixed, many relations +would strike the eye of an experienced observer +which might lead him to further inquiries, +and probably to the most interesting results. But +it is quite impossible for him to write to any considerable +portion of 15,000 expositors for their list +of prices, or even to go round and ask for it in the +building itself. +</p> +<p> +§ Price in many cases offers at once a verification +of the truth of other statements. Thus, to a person +conversant with the subjects, +</p> +<p> +<span id='page-81' class='pagenum'>81</span>The low <i>price</i> of an article might prove that it had +been manufactured in some mode entirely different +from that usually practised. This would lead to +an examination of it, in order to discover the improved +process. +</p> +<p> +The <i>price</i> of an article compared with its weight, +might prove that the metal of which it is made +<i>could not</i> be genuine. +</p> +<p> +The <i>price</i> of a woven fabric, added to a knowledge +of its breadth and substance, even without its +weight, might in many cases effectually disprove +the statement of its being entirely made of wool, or +hair, or flax, or silk, as the case might be. +</p> +<p> +The exchange of commodities between those to +whom such exchanges may be desirable, being the +great and ultimate object of the Exposition, every +circumstance that can give publicity to the things +exhibited, should be most carefully attended to. +The price in money is the <i>most important element</i> in +every bargain; to omit it, is not less absurd than to +represent a tragedy without its hero, or to paint a +portrait without a nose. +</p> +<p> +It commits a double error: for it withholds the +only test by which the comparative value of things +can be known, and it puts aside the greatest of all +interests, that of the consumer, in order to favour +a small and particular class⁠—the middle-men. +</p> +<p> +The composition of that Commission must be +most extraordinary, where an error so contrary to +<span id='page-82' class='pagenum'>82</span>the principles and so fatal to the objects of the +Exposition, could have been committed. It is not +too late to apply at least a partial remedy to the +evil, and it is scarcely credible that those with +whom it rests, can remain unconscious of the mistake +into which they have been led. +</p> +<p> +§ At the eighth meeting of the Commissioners, +on the 28th Feb. 1850, further conditions and +limitations were submitted to them by Col. Reid, +one of which was⁠— +</p> +<div class='margtb fontp9'> +<p> +“A price may be attached to the objects exhibited, and +the objects, if sold, may be marked; but no sales will be +permitted within the building.” +</p> +</div> +<p> +This judicious recommendation was, however, +not adopted, for on the 11th April, 1850, the following +rule was published⁠— +</p> +<div class='margtb fontp9'> +<p> +“The Exhibition being intended for the purposes of display +only, and not for those of sale.... +</p> +<p> +“For the same reason the Commissioners have decided that +the prices are not to be affixed to the articles exhibited.” +</p> +</div> +<p> +Several strong remonstrances were addressed to +the Commissioners against the rule forbidding the +affixing prices to the articles exhibited. Efforts +were made both in public and through private +representations to some of its individual members, +by persons competent to advise, and anxious for +the success of a great and meritorious undertaking. +</p> +<p> +<span id='page-83' class='pagenum'>83</span>In the report of the Leeds Committee to the +Commissioners the following passage occurs:⁠— +</p> +<div class='margtb fontp9'> +<p> +“They are, further, most strongly of opinion that the +statement of price is essential, <i>if the Exhibition is to be of any +real utility</i>. To the manufacturer or merchant price will be +the test of comparative value and excellence in the majority +of cases; and the inspection of particular fabrics, especially +the products of other districts or countries, for the purposes +of information or improvement, will be of no avail to them if +price as well as style and finish is not before them.” +</p> +</div> +<p> +From the secretary to the Hamburg Commission +a communication was received stating that⁠— +</p> +<div class='margtb fontp9'> +<p> +“In consequence of the decision of the Commissioners with +respect to the prohibition to attach prices, it is the opinion that +there will be an <i>incurable deficiency</i> in the Exhibition.” +</p> +</div> +<p> +From the Central Danish Commission a letter +was sent, stating that⁠— +</p> +<div class='margtb fontp9'> +<p> +“By reason of the regulation of Her Majesty’s Commissioners +that prices may not be attached to articles sent for +exhibition, and Danish goods being chiefly remarkable for +their cheapness, a space of about 450 square ft. will be sufficient +for Denmark.” +</p> +</div> +<p> +The Chevalier Bunsen transmitted a despatch from +the Prussian government, <i>objecting to the decision</i> +of the Commissioners which <i>prohibits the affixing of +prices</i> to articles exhibited. +</p> +<p> +§ On the 14th November, 1850, an answer to +this letter was approved, and ordered to be sent to +all foreign commissioners. +</p> +<p> +The following are extracts:⁠— +</p> +<div class='margtb fontp9'> +<p> +<span id='page-84' class='pagenum'>84</span>“The arguments advanced by you in favour of authorizing +the affixing of prices to the articles exhibited, have received +the maturest consideration of Her Majesty’s Commissioners, +who are fully sensible of the great importance of the +subject. +</p> +<p> +“At the same time, every wish is felt on their part, to give +to each exhibitor the <i>benefit</i> to be derived by him from the +knowledge on the part of the public, of the cheapness of the +articles exhibited by him. They feel, however, as they have +already intimated, that by allowing the affixing of the actual +prices to articles themselves, they should be making themselves +responsible for the accuracy of those prices in all instances, and +they would not consider themselves warranted in assuming this +responsibility in the case of an Exhibition of the productions +of all the nations in the world (however perfect may be the machinery +in an individual country, like Prussia, for ensuring that +accuracy, and for preventing the liability to deception). But +Her Majesty’s Commissioners authorize the attachment of a +notice to those Goods, of which the merit consists in the low +price at which they can be produced, to the effect that they +are <i>exhibited for cheapness</i>, and they have made it a condition +that all persons making this claim must send the prices in an +invoice to the Commissioners, who will instruct the juries to +make this an essential element in their determination of +their awards.” +</p> +</div> +<p> +The Decision No. 16 was then altered as +follows:⁠— +</p> +<div class='margtb fontp9'> +<p> +“Prices are not to be affixed to the articles exhibited, +although the articles may be marked as shown for economy of +production. But as the cost at which articles can be produced +will, in some cases, enter into the question of the +distribution of rewards, the Commissioners, or the persons +intrusted with the adjudication of the rewards, may have to +make inquiries, and possibly to take evidence, upon the subject; +still they do not consider it expedient to affix a note of +<span id='page-85' class='pagenum'>85</span>the price to the articles displayed. When the Exhibitor +considers the merit of his article to consist in its cheapness, +and founds a claim on this ground, he must state the price in +the invoice sent to the Commissioners.” +</p> +</div> +<p> +This rule is a model specimen of what very clever +men united in a large committee can assent to. +</p> +<p> +The first and last sentences of the oracular +writing pronounce that⁠— +</p> +<p> +Prices must not be affixed to any article exhibited +for the judgment of the public, <i>even though</i> +there should be <i>no other reason</i> for exhibiting it +than its price. +</p> +<p> +The intervening sentence reveals to us that even +Commissioners may in some cases be themselves +unable to judge without a knowledge of the price⁠—that +it may perchance be so important that they +must take evidence upon it. Yet, with a very +flattering deference to the sagacity of the public, +they seem to think <i>it</i> can, without that information, +form as good an opinion as their own. +</p> +<p> +It may be remarked that the permission to ask +of the attendant the price of an article, on which +much stress has been laid, depends on several contingencies, +namely:⁠—that every article has an attendant;⁠—that +he is at all times at his post;⁠—and +also that he <i>knows</i> its price. +</p> +<p> +It is admitted that the Commissioners wish “to +give each exhibitor the <i>benefit</i> to be derived by +him from the knowledge [of price] on the part of +the public,” and also that the public cannot judge +<span id='page-86' class='pagenum'>86</span>without that information, and yet, with singular +inconsistency, they forbid the simplest and most +natural mode of accomplishing this object, placing +in fact an impediment in the way of their own +wishes. +</p> +<p> +The only argument which is urged in favour of +this rule, occurs in the reply to the Prussian application, +in which it is stated, “after the maturest +consideration on the part of Her Majesty’s Commissioners,” +they feel “that by allowing the affixing +the actual price to the articles themselves, +they should be making themselves responsible for +the accuracy of those prices in all instances.” +This singular timidity in fact involves the Commissioners +in far larger responsibility, since according +to their own argument they admit that they are +“<i>responsible</i>” for any statement they “<i>allow</i>” the +exhibitors to make; it follows, therefore, that any +statement they <i>command</i> the exhibitors to attach to +the articles exposed must be still more firmly +<i>guaranteed</i> by the Commissioners. +</p> +<p> +But they have very rightly ordered that every +article shall have attached to it a statement of the +<i>reason</i> for which it is exhibited. Consequently <i>they +guarantee the statements made by exhibitors</i>. +</p> +<p> +If, therefore, a piece of calico is exhibited entirely +for the sake of the <i>permanence</i> of the beautiful +colour with which it is dyed, the beauty it is true +may be evident to the eye, but the merit will consist +<span id='page-87' class='pagenum'>87</span>wholly in the <i>permanence</i>. If this is stated by the +exhibitor, the Commissioners themselves are responsible +for its truth. +</p> +<p> +Again, some beautiful damasked fabric is exhibited; +the only merit consists in its being made +entirely of flax. This statement must be appended, +or there is no use in exhibiting it; but if stated, +the <i>Commissioners are responsible</i> that there is no +silk intermixed: multitudes of similar cases might +be adduced. +</p> +<p> +But the truth is, that no such responsibility as +that which they have assumed, ought to be placed +on the Commissioners; their duty is sufficiently +arduous, and their previous experience very limited. +A certain per centage of error and accident, will +necessarily occur, even to the most highly informed, +and if they industriously exercise the knowledge +they may acquire in carrying on this undertaking, +the public ought to be grateful for their labours⁠—to +assist them in carrying out their regulations, and +remonstrate strongly only when their rules violate +the very foundations of those principles on which the +whole advantage of the Exposition rests. +</p> +<p> +§ Nothing could have been more simple than to +have repudiated any such guarantee, and to have +left the public to trust to the integrity and honour +of the exhibitors, which, considering the danger and +facility of detection, would have been a sufficient +security. The Royal, and almost all other scientific +<span id='page-88' class='pagenum'>88</span>Societies, place at the head of each volume a +distinct declaration that their authors alone are +responsible, both for the facts as well as for the +reasonings contained in their respective memoirs. +</p> +<p> +§ If the alternative were proposed, Shall the rule +rigidly laid down be?⁠— +</p> +<p> +“No article shall have its price marked on +it”⁠—or, +</p> +<p> +“Every article must have its price marked upon +it,”⁠—the disadvantages would be far less under the +latter rule. The essential principle of the Exposition +being the increase of commerce and the exchange +of commodities, it might even be contended that +sales should be permitted on the premises. The +chief objection to this arises from the impediments +it might offer to the free access of visitors to the +examination of the articles exhibited. +</p> +<p> +Means, however, might be suggested by which +that objection would be considerably removed. It +might, for instance, be permitted to all those exhibitors +of articles of moderate size, that they +should bring in with them each morning a sufficient +number of such articles, done up in paper ready to +be delivered to the purchaser on his handing over +the money price. This would apply to a large +number of articles, as shawls, dresses, &c. +</p> +<p> +In other articles, sold by weight, packets might +be previously made up of various weights, as one +pound, three pounds, six pounds, &c. In those +<span id='page-89' class='pagenum'>89</span>sold by length, parcels of fixed numbers of yards +might be prepared. +</p> +<p> +If this system were still thought to be inconvenient +from causing crowds in particular spots, it +might be permitted to the attendants to take orders +for articles to be sent home in the evening, and +paid for either at the time or on delivery. +</p> +<p> +It is quite certain that under either of these conditions +a much larger quantity of merchandize +would be sold immediately. +</p> +<p> +Many would purchase on the spot who could +never return for that purpose, or who were on the +point of leaving London, and much trouble would +be saved to a large class of purchasers. +</p> +<p> +The effect of the purchases made in the earlier +days of the Exposition, would act as so many advertisements +to attract visitors on the succeeding +days; some articles thus purchased would probably +be sent into the country by friends, and +others be taken home by visitors, and many additional +country visitors would thus be attracted +before the end of the season. +</p> +<p> +Another and a very important advantage would +also accrue from such an arrangement. The manufacturers +acquire their knowledge of the demand +for their productions from the factors and agents; +these again from the shopkeepers who sell by retail +to the public. Under the proposed circumstances, +this knowledge would be acquired much more +<span id='page-90' class='pagenum'>90</span>rapidly, and in the course of the first two or three +weeks the opinion of the public would be known +upon all the articles of most popular demand. +</p> +<p> +§ Upon the whole, the best plan seems to be that +the rule should be⁠— +</p> +<p> +“Every article must have its price attached.” +</p> +<p> +The exception should be exemptions granted by +officers of the Commission, and the ground of those +exemptions should be stated on the respective +articles. +</p> +<p> +At the Exposition at Paris, in 1849, the general +rule was that upon each article its price should be +marked. Certain exceptions occurred, and in two +instances the writer of these pages wishing to purchase +specimens, although assisted most willingly +by M. Le Dieu, the indefatigable head of the +management always present on the spot, was unable, +after some correspondence and much inquiry, +to purchase or obtain samples of the objects he +desired. +</p> +<p> +§ Perhaps the best way of complying with the +rules of the Commissioners, and yet giving the +public what they tacitly admit the public will demand, +would be that the exhibitor should fix on +each of his articles, in a conspicuous manner, a +letter or a number,[<a href='#fn_9' id='fnb_9'>9</a>] and that he should have on the +<span id='page-91' class='pagenum'>91</span>printed bill or card of address all the corresponding +numbers or letters, and opposite to each the +price at which it was to be sold at his warehouse +or place of business. Each expositor might have a +quantity of these addresses hung up or placed upon +his stall, with an indication to the public that they +were at liberty to take away these cards or bills. +</p> +<p> +It may be worth while to make a few observations +on the reasons which probably influenced and +misled the Commission on so important a point. +</p> +<p> +The tradesmen of London had been unduly and +rather indelicately pressed to subscribe towards the +Exposition; many were compelled to subscribe +against their wishes. They saw few or none of the +advantages which would accrue to them from it, +and they believed, (erroneously,) that it would inundate +the country with foreign and cheaper articles +that would supplant their own trade. +</p> +<p> +It was thought that, when the public became +acquainted with the wholesale as well as with the +retail price of articles, such knowledge would lead +to a reduction of the retail profits. The public, +it was argued, would be reluctant to make a fair +allowance for the various items which contribute +to swell the amount of the difference between the +wholesale and retail price of commodities. +</p> +<p> +§ It may be useful then to state broadly the principle, +that it is greatly for the advantage of the +public, both as regards economy of time and of +<span id='page-92' class='pagenum'>92</span>money, that there should always exist a sufficient +number of middle-men of various orders. +</p> +<p> +The shopkeeper, who is the one in immediate +contact with the public, and therefore liable to +the greatest misrepresentation, has, amongst others, +the following expenses to add to the cost of +production, which must necessarily increase the +retail price:⁠— +</p> +<p> +1. Commission to broker or other middle-man. +</p> +<p> +2. Cost of carriage from manufactory to shop. +</p> +<p> +3. Rent of shop itself, and perhaps, also of a +warehouse. +</p> +<p> +4. Insurance of stock against fire. +</p> +<p> +5. Attendants to sell in shop. +</p> +<p> +6. Sending goods home to purchasers. +</p> +<p> +7. Expense of paper, string, &c. for packing +goods delivered. +</p> +<p> +8. Loss by plunder of servants. +</p> +<p> +9. Expense of taking stock to diminish this loss. +</p> +<p> +10. Goods soiled or injured by exposing to sale. +</p> +<p> +11. Goods going out of fashion, cheapened by +improved manufacture, or superseded by new inventions. +</p> +<p> +12. Giving long credit. +</p> +<p> +13. Bad debts. +</p> +<p> +14. Payment for his own personal services, as +retail trader. +</p> +<p> +15. Interest on capital employed. +</p> +<p> +§ Admitting, however, that these grounds fully +<span id='page-93' class='pagenum'>93</span>account for a large difference between the wholesale +and retail price, they will by no means justify +several practices which are too frequent at some +shops at the west end of the town. +</p> +<p> +Different prices for the very same article are +often demanded by retail tradesmen, according to +the supposed position of the purchaser. Fish, for +example, which varies much in price, and is at +times very cheap, will seldom be found charged in +the household bill much below the average price, +unless the housekeeper is honest and looks sharply +after the matter. Few circumstances more annoy +a customer or are more injurious to the tradesman +than this offence of having two prices. +</p> +<p> +When the same prices are charged equally to all +customers, it often happens that it is much higher in +the western than in less fashionable localities. This +may arise from a vicious system of giving credit, +and the extra price is necessary to compensate for +risk of loss, and of capital lying unproductive. The +effect, however, is injurious to the tradesman: +many of those who pay ready money and would +therefore be his best customers, desert the shop. +Those whose means are small, go to a greater +distance for the daily or weekly purchases; whilst +those possessed of larger incomes, purchase the +same articles, not only at a cheaper shop in the +city but in larger quantities, and therefore more +nearly at the wholesale price. +</p> +<p> +<span id='page-94' class='pagenum'>94</span>Our foreign visitors naturally ask how it happened +that in the country of Adam Smith so +strange a mistake could have been made: they +inquire why none of the eminent disciples of that +school were placed on the Commission? They will +learn with surprise that our Minister of Commerce +took, as befitted his office, an active part in it; +that the great economist, to whose profound views +and extensive experience in monetary affairs more +than one minister has been indebted, was also a +member; that even the apostle of <i>free trade</i> himself, +whose successful exertions have been crowned +with merited reward, sat on the same commission; +and yet that the talents, the knowledge, and the +eloquence of such men, failed to convince the understandings +of their colleagues, who, in violation +of the first principles of “<i>Free trade</i>,” deliberately +raised an obstacle against <i>competition</i>. +</p> +<p> +Since the first edition of this work was printed, +the Crystal Palace has been filled by the industry +and peopled by the nations of the earth. The +fears of the ignorant, the hopes of the selfish, the +vaticinations of the shallow, have proved alike +groundless. Opinions expressed by the few who +were competent to judge, which were then scouted +as the ravings of visionaries, have now become +realized as facts. +</p> +<p> +However great the admitted advantages resulting +from the Exposition have been, still it has failed +<span id='page-95' class='pagenum'>95</span>to produce anything like the information which it +was calculated to afford. Many of those who most +rejoice in its success regret that so much perseverance +and energy have not, owing to one fatal +error, been permitted to accomplish the full amount +of good which they so well deserved to have achieved. +</p> +<p> +The public have now had ample opportunity of +forming their own opinion upon the question of +<i>price</i>; and they are almost unanimous in their +decision that without having the <i>price</i> on the +articles they examine, the collection is of little +intrinsic use to them, although it is a very agreeable +and splendid show. +</p> +<p> +No attempt to answer the arguments on that +question contained in the first edition of this work +has yet reached me. An entirely different reason +has now been assigned for the omission of <i>price</i>. +</p> +<p> +It is asserted that the shopkeepers of London +persuaded the Commissioners that if <i>prices</i> were +permitted to be fixed upon articles, they, the +shopkeepers, would destroy the Exhibition, by not +exhibiting anything themselves, and by their determination +ruin the producer, if, by affixing prices +to his produce, he should expose the “<i>secrets of +trade</i>.” +</p> +<p> +One of the proverbs most frequently appealed to +is⁠—deprecation of <i>protection</i> by one’s <i>friends</i>: +few cases have ever occurred in which its application +is more necessary. +</p> +<p> +<span id='page-96' class='pagenum'>96</span>These friends thus maintain that the reason for +<i>forbidding prices</i> to be placed upon articles, stated +by the Commissioners to have been arrived at after +mature consideration, and <i>officially</i> communicated +by them to foreign governments,⁠—was not the <i>real +reason</i>. +</p> +<p> +The motive of the rule laid down by the Commission +seems to have been a conscientious wish +not to mislead the public, and was at most only an +error of judgment. +</p> +<p> +The <i>friends</i> of the Commission, however, have +imputed to them a line of conduct which, to use +the mildest form of expression, is highly undignified, +and have suggested that they were driven to the +adoption of the rule by fears which were absurd. +</p> +<p> +Some of the fashionable shopkeepers at the +West-end may have endeavoured to alarm their +too credulous customers by holding out such exaggerated +estimates of their own power; but the +mass of London tradesmen are a shrewder race, and +estimate more truly their own influence. They +well know, in the present state of rapid communication +throughout the land, that any such attempt must +necessarily fail. Imagine for a moment the present +race of butchers attempting to starve London by +combining to withhold meat. The utmost they +could accomplish, if so inclined, would be to put +their customers to some small and temporary inconvenience, +at the expense of certain ruin to themselves. +</p> +<p> +<span id='page-97' class='pagenum'>97</span>The practical effect of forbidding prices has been +very unfortunate. The great and meritorious +efforts by which the plan has been carried out, +have been shorn of much of their utility. A building +of half the size, containing only articles <i>each</i> +of which had attached to it a short and clear statement +of the grounds on which it was exhibited, +and the price at which it could be acquired, would +have conveyed far more instruction to the public, +and have been far more effective for the promotion +of commerce, thus fulfilling much more completely +the two great objects of the Exposition. +</p> +<p> +To reply that prices may be obtained on inquiry, +betrays a childish ignorance of the whole subject. +It is practically impossible to obtain the required +information; and those who have made the effort, +have found that even in the cases where an attendant +is present to explain the articles, he is often +entirely ignorant of their price. +</p> +<p> +The effect of the absence of price on visitors is +a source of painful annoyance to themselves, and of +loss to the manufacturers and shopkeepers, from +whom they would otherwise have purchased largely. +</p> +<p> +Foreigners are so sensible of this defect, that +they have in many instances printed priced catalogues +of their own articles. Their interpretation +of our refusal to allow prices to be affixed is, that +we are unable to compete with other nations in +economy of production. +</p> +<p> +<span id='page-98' class='pagenum'>98</span>The philosopher and the economist, by whose +researches and comparisons the public might have +been instructed, wander through the lofty avenues +and splendid galleries of the Crystal Palace, tantalized +by expectations, raised but to be disappointed. +They at last are compelled to abandon +their mission in hopeless despair, wilfully deprived, +by the managers of this industrial feast, of that +information on which all their conclusions must +ultimately rest. +</p> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_9'> +<p> +[<a href='#fnb_9'>9</a>] As by one of the rules each separate article exhibited +must have a number, the same numbers might be used in the +bills. +</p> +</div> +<div class="chapter"><span id='page-99' class='pagenum'>99</span><h2 id='tg_9'>CHAPTER IX.<br> +<span class='smaller'>PRIZES.</span> +</h2></div> +<p class='two_space'> +<span class="small-caps">The</span> great feature of the original plan of the +Exposition was to give large prizes. One, at least, +was to have been 5,000<i>l.</i>, and the whole amount of +them 20,000<i>l.</i></p> +<p> +The anticipation of these prizes gave hope and +industry to thousands: means were examined and +measures taken by many a workman, at the expense +of great personal sacrifices, to enable him to complete +a model of some favourite scheme, by which +he might hope to win one amongst the many pecuniary +prizes, and thus be repaid at least for a +portion of his efforts. +</p> +<p> +The announcement on the Continent of these +liberal arrangements was received with unbounded +astonishment and admiration. The magnitude of +the great prize seemed to foreigners incredible, and +the liberality of offering it to the competing world, +was altogether beyond their conception of the +character assigned to us as a nation. +</p> +<p> +It was certainly very unfortunate that such an +<span id='page-100' class='pagenum'>100</span>announcement should have been made and then +withdrawn. But as the question will probably +arise again, it may be useful for some future occasion +to inquire now into the principles on which +pecuniary prizes should be awarded. +</p> +<p> +Science, literature, and industrial art are in +some measure subject to the same laws in the +distribution of pecuniary rewards. It is desirable +that such prizes should be given to those objects +only which, possessing very considerable merit and +utility, are of such a nature as not to repay the first +inventors. +</p> +<p> +§ One effect of such rewards would be to increase +very much the number of minds engaged in making +inventions. This itself is a matter of more importance +than might at first be thought, as will be +shown on some future occasion in examining the +question of monopoly. +</p> +<p> +The inventor, the capitalist, and the manufacturer +of articles are usually distinct persons. Of these +the inventor is generally the least rewarded. The +capitalist and the manufacturer can almost always +make their own way to wealth, and if successful +their reward is usually large, and almost always +greater even than the highest prize which could be +offered by the managers of such an Exhibition as is +now contemplated. +</p> +<p> +If it were a condition for obtaining a prize that +no patent should be taken out, then the prize may +<span id='page-101' class='pagenum'>101</span>be considered as the purchase money of the patent +for the use of the public. If a patent is desired by +the inventor, a medal or an honorary prize might +be given, with the addition in certain cases of a +reward in money. +</p> +<p> +Perhaps an enumeration of some objects which +might become fit subjects for prizes, may best illustrate +these views. +</p> +<p> +§ One of the inventions most important to a class +of highly skilled workmen (engineers) would be +a small motive power,⁠—ranging perhaps from the +force of half a man, to that of two horses, which might +commence as well as cease its action at a moment’s +notice, require no expense of time for its management, +and be of moderate price both in original +cost and in daily expense. A small steam-engine +does not fulfil these conditions. In a town where +water is supplied at high-pressure, a cylinder and a +portion of apparatus similar to that of a high-pressure +engine, would fully answer the conditions, if +the water could be supplied at a moderate price. +Such a source of power would in many cases be invaluable +to men just rising from the class of journeyman +to that of master. It might also be of +great use to many small masters in various trades. +If the cost per day were even somewhat greater +than that of steam for an equal extent of power, +it would yet be on the whole much cheaper, +because it would <i>never consume power without doing</i> +<span id='page-102' class='pagenum'>102</span><i>work</i>. It might be applied to small planing and +drilling machines, to lathes, to grindstones, grinding +mills, mangling, and to a great variety of other +purposes. +</p> +<p> +§ In all large workshops a separate tool, or +rather machine, is used for each process, and this +contributes to the economy of the produce. But +many masters in a small way are unable to afford +such an expense, not having sufficient work for the +full employment of any one machine. +</p> +<p> +Of this class are many jobbing masters who live +by repairing machines. Such also are that class of +masters who make models of the inventions of +others and carry out for them their mechanical +speculations. To these two classes, that of amateur +engineers may be added. +</p> +<p> +The lathe with its sliding rest is the basis of +their stock. With this they can drill, and with the +addition of a few wheels can cut screws. The +further addition of a vertical slide will enable them +to plane small pieces of metal by means of facing +cutters on the mandril. By other additions the +teeth of wheels may also be cut, and in some rare +cases, a lathe may be converted into a small planing +machine. The loss of time in making the changes +necessary to enable the lathe to fulfil all these +different functions, necessarily confines its use to +the peculiar classes alluded to above, but to make +these changes is often less expensive than to be +<span id='page-103' class='pagenum'>103</span>obliged continually to send to larger workshops +where the heavier portion of their work can be +executed. It would certainly be desirable, if some +good plan cannot be devised for bringing the whole of +such operations within the reach of <i>one</i> machine of +moderate price, that at least a system should be +devised for combining them in <i>two</i> separate machines. +</p> +<p> +Some readers may possibly think such combinations +as have been mentioned, too minute and special +for the subject of a prize: but when it is considered +that they bear upon the interests of one of +the best classes of workmen, and how important it +is for the welfare of the community that skill, industry, +and intelligence should be assisted in their +efforts to rise in the social scale, these details will +be excused. +</p> +<p> +§ The improvements which have been made in +the economy of working voltaic batteries, lead to the +expectation that they may be employed as sources +of artificial light. Although the light thus obtained +is not yet sufficiently steady for general +use, it may possibly become available for light-houses. +</p> +<p> +Galvanic light offers some advantages for this +purpose on account of its intensity and of the +facility it affords for darkening and restoring the +light, by breaking and renewing the galvanic +circuit. +</p> +<p> +But it would be possible to adapt the same +<span id='page-104' class='pagenum'>104</span>principle of occultations to ordinary lighthouses. +It would only be necessary to apply mechanism +which should periodically pull down an opaque +shade over the glass cylinders of the argand burners. +This should be instantaneously thrown back by a +spring. A series of obscurations corresponding to +the digits of any number, and separated by any intervals, +might thus be continually repeated. +</p> +<p> +Ready means might thus be supplied of clearly +distinguishing one light-house from another. For +this purpose it would be necessary to denote the +light-houses on any coast by different numbers. +</p> +<p> +Any digit might be expressed by an equivalent +number of occultations and restorations of the light: +thus⁠— +</p> +<table class='avoid_break center fontp9'> +<tr> +<td class="align_c valign_t">1</td> +<td class="align_c valign_t pad_left">2</td> +<td class="align_c valign_t pad_left">3</td> +<td class="align_c valign_t pad_left"></td> +<td class="align_c valign_t pad_left">9</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_c valign_t">0.0</td> +<td class="align_c valign_t pad_left">0.0.0</td> +<td class="align_c valign_t pad_left">0.0.0.0,</td> +<td class="align_c valign_t pad_left">&c.,</td> +<td class="align_c valign_t pad_left">0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p> +Again, the character of the digit might be indicated +by occultations preceded and followed, by +shorter or longer intervals of light. +</p> +<p> +At the commencement, the first digit of any +number, might be distinguished by a previous +uniform continuance of the light during ten or +twenty seconds, whilst the separation of each digit +from the next in order might be denoted by a +short pause of two or three or more seconds. +</p> +<p> +Thus, if the number of a light-house were 253: +after a cessation of any obscuration during ten +<span id='page-105' class='pagenum'>105</span>seconds, two occultations should follow each other +at intervals of about a second. A pause should +then occur during three seconds, after which five +occultations should occur, at intervals of one +second, as before. Another pause of three seconds +must then happen, and be succeeded by three +other occultations occurring at intervals of one +second each; after which ten seconds must elapse +before the cycle thus described is repeated. +</p> +<p> +These might be thus represented:⁠— +</p> +<table class='avoid_break center fontp9'> +<tr class="x_small"> +<td colspan="6" class="align_c valign_t"></td> +<td colspan="11" class="align_c valign_t">2 hundreds.</td> +<td colspan="8" class="align_c valign_t">5 tens.</td> +<td colspan="12" class="align_c valign_t">3 units.</td> +<td colspan="6" class="align_c valign_t"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">·</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">·</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">·</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">·</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">·</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">·</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">·</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">·</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">·</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">·</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_r valign_t">\</td> +<td colspan="31" class='bot_line'></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">/</td> +<td colspan="10" class="align_r valign_t"></td> +</tr> +</table> +<p> +Thus, at about every half minute the number +of the lighthouse would be repeated. +</p> +<p> +In this manner any number under 1,000 may be +expressed in less than one minute; since the largest, +999, would require +</p> +<table class='avoid_break center fontp9'> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t"></td> +<td colspan="3" class="align_c valign_t">Seconds.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t">For each digit 9, or in all</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t pad_left"></td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">27</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t pad_left"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t">Two short pauses between the digits</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t pad_left"></td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">6</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t pad_left"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t">One long long pause at end of the number</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t pad_left"></td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">10</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t pad_left"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t"></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t pad_left"></td> +<td class='bot_line'></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t pad_left"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t"></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t pad_left"></td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">43</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t pad_left"></td> +</tr> +</table> +<p> +Every light-house, therefore, would be continually +repeating its own number. +</p> +<p> +It would contribute still more to prevent mistakes, +if the light-houses on a coast were not numbered +in succession; for should any mistake be made in +counting the obscurations, it would most probably +<span id='page-106' class='pagenum'>106</span>be detected if the digits of the numbers of the +light-houses on the same part of the coast were as +different as possible. +</p> +<table class='avoid_break center fontp9'> +<tr> +<td colspan="5" class="align_l valign_t">Lighthouse numbered in succession⁠—</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_r valign_t pad_left">234</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t pad_left">235</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t pad_left">236</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t pad_left">237</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t pad_left">238</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="5" class="align_l valign_t">Ditto irregularly⁠—</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_r valign_t pad_left">142</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t pad_left">324</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t pad_left">581</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t pad_left">787</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t pad_left">612</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p> +If a mistake of a single obscuration were made in +the units of the number 237, and it had been counted +236, this observation might, until repeated, mislead +the sailor, and induce him to suppose himself opposite +the preceding light-house. On the contrary, if the +irregular mode of numbering were adopted, the +mistake of 786 for 787 could not mislead, because +the seven in the hundreds place would point out +the error. It would, however, be better to have +the figure in the tens’ place also different in any +two light-houses so near that a possibility of mistake +is likely to occur. The general benefit which would +result to all maritime nations, renders the practical +application of these principles a peculiarly fit subject +for a prize. +</p> +<p> +Since the first edition of this work was published, +an occulting light has been exhibited for about +three weeks, representing during each night the +constant repetition of one of the following numbers, +136, 227, 354, 432. +</p> +<p> +As might easily have been anticipated, its effect +<span id='page-107' class='pagenum'>107</span>was quite satisfactory in determining those numbers. +At about a distance of a quarter of a mile, +its occultations were even more distinct than at +shorter distances. +</p> +<p> +Successive improvements have occurred, until it +now seems desirable to revise and simplify the light-houses +of the world, by making them speak one +universal language, intelligible even to the commonest +capacity. No time could be more favourable +than the present for establishing an international +system of signals, founded on numbers, +and adapted to the wants and convenience of all +nations. The following brief outline of such a +plan requires, therefore, no apology. +</p> +<p> +The present modes of identifying lighthouses +are by +</p> +<p class='hang_indent'> +1. The <i>colour</i> of the lights.</p> +<p class='hang_indent'> +2. The <i>number</i>, <i>distance</i>, and <i>relative position</i> of +the lights exhibited.</p> +<p class='hang_indent'> +3. The <i>variations</i> in colour or intensity, or in +the time during which the lights are partially +or totally obscured, compared with +that during which they are visible.</p> +<p class='hang_indent'> +4. By striking bells or gongs in foggy weather.</p> +<p> +There are around the coasts of Great Britain +about 290 light-houses and light-ships. They +exhibit nearly 390 lights. Of these, about one +hundred lights are coloured, chiefly red. Fifty-five +<span id='page-108' class='pagenum'>108</span>are revolving lights, varying in their periods from +five seconds to four minutes. In foggy weather +fifteen of these toll bells, and thirty-three strike +gongs. It is proposed to abolish all the revolving +lights, and to retain white light, to distinguish by +its occupations the number of the light-house which +it is destined to indicate. +</p> +<p> +With respect to those lighthouses which indicate +ports, next to the information as to the name of the +port, the most important question is the depth of +water at its entrance. This may be given by +allowing the occupations of the white light to +indicate the number of the port, after which a +glass of green or of any other colour being interposed, +the number of occultations mark the +number of feet of the depth of water at the +time. +</p> +<p> +A float in a well, to which the tide has access by +a small aperture, will serve the double purpose of +raising the weight that drives the mechanism for +occulting, and of prescribing, according to the +height of the tide in feet, the corresponding +number of occultations of the green light. +</p> +<p> +Thus a constant alternation will go on during +the whole night of repetitions of the <i>number</i> of the +port, by occultations of white light, and of the +number of feet which indicate the depth of water +at its entrance, by green light. +</p> +<p> +There are certain cases of obscuration of lights +<span id='page-109' class='pagenum'>109</span>by fog in which bells and gongs are continually +sounded. These convey information of danger, +but do not identify its position. The same +principle which gives numerical accuracy to light-houses, +and even the same mechanism, may be +made to operate during fogs with equal effect on +sounds. Thus, by striking the gong the requisite +number of times to indicate the hundreds, the +tens, and the units denoting the light, allowing, +of course, the usual pauses and the same long +intervals, the number of the light-house or light-ship +may be known as quickly and as certainly by +means of bells, or gongs, or other sounds, as by +the occultations of its light. +</p> +<p> +It may be worth examining what musical notes +are heard at the greatest distances through fogs, +and the sounds of what instruments penetrate +farthest amidst the roar of winds and waves. The +shrill whistle of the steam carriage should be tried +against the deep tones of the organ and the loud +noise of the trumpet. The most powerful sounds +produced by air require but little physical force +for their generation; and whenever the directions +in which it is necessary to give warning are known, +the sounds employed may be concentrated by reflectors, +in the same manner as light. +</p> +<p> +The depth of water at the entrance of harbours +may easily be indicated in the day-time by a tide-telegraph +governed by the same float which produces +<span id='page-110' class='pagenum'>110</span>the occultations during the night. Its form may be +as below, +</p> +<div class="image-center"> +<img src="images/telegraph.png" class="image_a" alt="The tide-telegraph."> +</div> +<p class='noindent'> +in which the arms projecting on the left side +indicate the tens; those on the right side the +units. The long arm for the fifth saves trouble +in counting. These arms must be movable on +centres within the mast, and must be governed by +cams connected with the float, so as to indicate at +any time the state of the tide. If it were found +necessary to distinguish light-houses during the +day, then signs expressing their permanent numbers +might be painted upon them, or fixed to masts +rising out of each. The right side of the telegraph +might, if required, be used as a day telegraph for +communicating with vessels.</p> +<p> +By means of such light-houses it would be easy +to convey telegraphic messages either to vessels in +distress, or for other purposes. It would simply +be required to use the light itself or a subsidiary +one to indicate a series of numbers corresponding +<span id='page-111' class='pagenum'>111</span>to those in some known Telegraphic Dictionary. +No danger of any mistake could arise during the +few minutes thus employed, because any other +vessel on counting the succession of obscurations +would not only perceive that the light-house was +telegraphing, but would also know the object of +the message. A small apparatus might easily be +contrived for the use of vessels, by which they +might ask any questions necessary for their safety. +Such means for ships sailing in company, or even +for fleets, might enable them to proceed on their +voyage during the night, and to communicate any +orders even with greater facility than in the day. +</p> +<p> +Sir David Brewster proposed in the <i>Edinburgh +Philosophical Transactions</i> a plan for distinguishing +light-houses by optical means. The light transmitted +through a thin film, when analysed by +a prism, appears either single, or subdivided into +two, three, four or more parts. Light-houses, therefore, +might thus be distinguished from one another +numerically. +</p> +<div class="chapter"><span id='page-112' class='pagenum'>112</span><h2 id='tg_10'>CHAPTER X.<br> +<span class='smaller'>JURIES, ETC.</span> +</h2></div> +<p class='two_space'> +<span class="small-caps">a</span> clear statement of the <i>principles</i> on which +each jury is to award prizes, should be placed +before them. These principles ought to be well +discussed, and in that discussion manufacturers +should be invited to take a part.</p> +<p> +The first object of the jury should be to lay +down rules by which these principles are to be +carried out. Each class of the subjects to be +rewarded will have its own rules. They will +generally be few in number, and capable of being +expressed in few words: some of these are suggested +below, but merely by way of example. +</p> +<p> +One of the most general rules will indicate +the means by which the jury can ascertain the fact, +that the material of the manufacture under consideration +is truly the substance it is represented +to be. +</p> +<p> +For instance: some woven fabric is examined, +professing to be made either entirely of wool, or +wholly of flax. It may be quite true that experienced +<span id='page-113' class='pagenum'>113</span>manufacturers and dealers, are able to +detect any adulteration of either material by admixture +with the other. But statements of facts +made on authority, never possess the same weight +with the public as those which are accompanied +by information enabling any individual among that +public to verify the fact for himself. +</p> +<p> +The form of the fibre as shown by the microscope +is one test. A more simple one is to burn some +fibres in the flame of a candle. Every fibre which, +when thus treated, produces the smell of burnt +feathers, is animal matter of some kind, as wool, +silk, horse-hair, &c. The burnt fibres of hemp, +flax, cotton, and other vegetable matters have a +totally different scent; a fact of which any one +may readily assure himself by making the experiment. +</p> +<p> +It may perhaps be necessary in some cases to +wash the fabric under examination, lest in what is +termed the “getting up for the market,” some +animal matter or size might mislead. But the jury +ought to be acquainted with all such difficulties, and +they should state the method they took for investigating +them. +</p> +<p> +The microscope is of great use in the detection +of adulterations in most vegetable substances. +</p> +<p> +§ Every object produced is subject to certain +defects, and possessed of certain excellences: these +should be clearly enumerated. Whenever such +<span id='page-114' class='pagenum'>114</span>statements are expressed by numbers, the information +will be more satisfactory. +</p> +<p> +Thus, in cutting tools, as applied to various +metals, it is very important that the angle at which +the tool is applied, should be stated: it is also +necessary to state the angle which the edge of the +tool receiving the shaving cut off, makes with the +surface cut. The velocity of the tool in cutting +should be stated, also the names of the fluids, if +any, used in cutting. +</p> +<p> +The durability of woven fabrics, as well as of +a great variety of other manufactured articles, +is a most essential quality, on which, combined +with the price, their chief value to the customer +depends. +</p> +<p> +It is very desirable that the jury should find +satisfactory means of testing this most important +character, which is not discernible, even by the +most curious and instructed spectator. +</p> +<p> +The knowledge of the weight required for tearing +asunder any woven fabric, as a ribbon, a stay-lace, +tape, &c., together with the breaking weight of +their individual threads, and the number of these +threads in an inch, may in some cases be very +valuable, especially in coarse articles, such as sailcloth, +sacking, &c. +</p> +<p> +In other cases, the articles may be submitted to +twenty or thirty washings and dryings, during +which it may repeatedly be examined. The greatest +<span id='page-115' class='pagenum'>115</span>change will most frequently occur on the first +washing, which removes the dressing. +</p> +<p> +§ In many articles the durability of different +parts varies considerably. In some cases one part +will wear out, if replaced, many times before the +remainder of the article is at all injured by use. +In all such cases the jury should adopt such rules +as the following:⁠— +</p> +<p> +Examine the durability of each part, and also +the difficulty and the expense of replacing it when +injured. +</p> +<p> +Examine also, for the same purpose, what parts +are most exposed to injury or destruction by +accident. +</p> +<p> +Examine also the <i>relative</i> expense of putting the +article in a working state when first purchased and +brought home. +</p> +<p> +These rules will be best understood by an illustration. +Let us suppose a jury to be examining the +relative merits of several cottage stoves for cooking. +Of course the first inquiry will be as to +which admits of the best performance of the operations +of⁠— +</p> +<table class='center'> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t">Boiling,</td> +<td class="align_l valign_t pad_lx">Baking,</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t">Stewing,</td> +<td class="align_l valign_t pad_lx">Supply of hot water,</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t">Roasting,</td> +<td class="align_l valign_t pad_lx">Ironing,</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t">Broiling,</td> +<td class="align_l valign_t pad_lx">&c.</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p> +The cost of the fuel must not only be given, +but also its weight, because the price of fuel varies +<span id='page-116' class='pagenum'>116</span>in different localities. The capability of using +different sorts of fuel in the several stoves, and the +amount of fuel so consumed for its equivalent of +coal, should also be stated. +</p> +<p> +These and other comparative inquiries having +been made, the durability of that part of the stove +which is subjected to the direct action of the burning +fuel, must be examined. It will be made either +of iron or of earthenware; and the relative merit of +the various stoves will, as far as this point is concerned, +consist in the facility and economy with which +such parts can be removed, and the corresponding +new parts be purchased and replaced in their proper +position. It is always desirable for the consumer +that the vendors of such articles should keep a stock +of the parts liable to wear out, and that the latter +should undertake to replace them at a fixed price. +</p> +<p> +Those parts of the stove which project so as to be +liable to accidental blows, and those which from their +more constant use are much exposed to accident, +as the hinges and the latches of doors, should then +be examined. These, if of cast-iron or other brittle +material, and constituting part of the substance of +the door, should be sufficiently strong to resist +fracture: if they are attached to it by rivets or +otherwise, they will be lighter and stronger when +made of wrought-iron. +</p> +<p> +The last inquiry is into the expense of fixing the +stove for use. It may be set in brickwork, within +<span id='page-117' class='pagenum'>117</span>the chimney, in which case it will require a bricklayer +and a large mass of materials in the shape of +bricks and mortar, and possibly of stone. Or it +may stand on its own base containing its own ash-pit, +and by means of a small iron pipe the smoke may +be conveyed into a flue. In this case almost any +workman with hammer and chisel and a small +quantity of mortar or cement, can fix it ready for +use. +</p> +<p> +Again, the stop-cock for the water-cistern may be +either hard-soldered, riveted, or screwed in. If the +latter, it can easily be unscrewed or reground when +necessary. The same remark applies to the leaden +supply-pipe; it may be connected by soldering, or +by a union joint. In the former case these parts +will require the aid not only of the tinman or coppersmith, +but also of the plumber. +</p> +<p> +§ The expense of repairing a machine does not in +all cases depend on the cost of the part replaced, or +even on the actual cost of replacing that part alone. +It often happened in the earlier days of locomotive +engines, that the expense of some small +reparation necessary to keep the machine in good +working order, did not amount to ten shillings; +whilst the expense of removing and replacing other +parts, without which the workman could not get at +the defective part, amounted to fifty or eighty shillings, +or even to a still larger sum. +</p> +<p> +Thus facility of getting at all the parts of an +<span id='page-118' class='pagenum'>118</span>engine for the purposes of repair, or even of examination, +is one of the advantages which the broad +possesses over the narrow gauge. +</p> +<p> +§ In many articles exposed to great or sudden +force, and to much wear and tear, it is very desirable +that if any breakage occur, it should happen +at that point where the consequences would be the +least dangerous to the persons using it, and the +reparation of it least expensive. +</p> +<p> +During a series of experiments made by the +author in 1839, on the Great Western Railway, it +was necessary, amongst a variety of other curves, to +cause a pen to draw upon long rolls of paper the +curve described by the centre of a carriage, projected +on the plane of the road. When everything +is in proper order, this line ought to be parallel to, +and in the middle between, the two rails. But it is +well known that instead of answering these conditions, +it often describes a <i>serpentine</i> curve, arising +from that snake-like motion of a train which the +carriages acquire by rolling alternately towards each +rail, until they are checked by the flanges pressing +against it. +</p> +<p> +To accomplish the drawing of the line above-mentioned, +it was necessary to have depending +from the carriage, a very stout jointed wooden arm, +terminating in an iron <i>shoe</i> with a steel projection. +This <i>shoe</i> was, by a powerful spring, pressed close +to the rail in the middle point between the two side +<span id='page-119' class='pagenum'>119</span>wheels of the carriage, and by a communication +with the pen the required curve was described. +</p> +<p> +But such an apparatus was exposed to very +rough work, and, in fact, was generally broken +three or four times during each experimental journey. +If the broken part had fallen between the +wheel and the rail, it might have caused a serious +accident. To prevent this the following precautions +were taken⁠— +</p> +<p> +The wooden arm was strengthened with thin +strips of iron, except at one part about an inch +long. At this part of the wood a small notch was +cut with a saw. The lower portion had a strong +iron eye fixed into it, which was connected loosely +to a hook by a rope passing through a hole in the +middle of the carriage. +</p> +<p> +Whenever the apparatus broke, it was always at +the notch. The position of the loose rope holding +the broken part was such, that the tendency was +immediately to drag it into the middle of the road +under the centre of the carriage. This at once removed +it from interference with the wheels. The +pen describing the curve soon gave notice by ceasing +to move laterally, that the arm was broken; +on which one of the assistants immediately took +hold of the loose rope, and pulling the broken +fragment close up to the bottom of the carriage, +prevented the possibility of any further danger. +</p> +<p> +§ If each jury were to explain concisely the +<span id='page-120' class='pagenum'>120</span>means employed by them to examine the qualities +of each class of objects submitted to them, much +valuable information would result. A collection of +these rules for the judgment or verification of +articles, if reduced into order, and published in a +small compass, by a competent person, at the close +of the Exposition, would be invaluable to the +public. The result would be beneficial to all <i>honest</i> +tradesmen, and injurious only to the <i>fraudulent</i>. +Such means when put into the hands of the public +would soon enable it to distinguish the genuine +from the sophisticated articles, and to select those +which in point of excellence and durability are best +suited to the means or wants of the purchaser.[<a href='#fn_10' id='fnb_10'>10</a>] +The increased knowledge of the public would be +felt by the retail dealers, and would make them +more anxious to obtain excellent and durable goods +from the manufacturer. +</p> +<p> +§ Several of the papers issued by the Commission +bear honourable testimony to the sagacity +of those who composed them. They treat the +persons addressed as reasoning men, explaining +to them the results contemplated: thus whilst +offering their own most strenuous exertions, they +admit that these would scarcely prove effective +without the co-operation of the public in a plan +devised for the common advantage of all. +</p> +<p> +<span id='page-121' class='pagenum'>121</span>In former days had there been water-fowl in our +parks, some such notice as this would have been +placarded:⁠— +</p> +<p> +“Whoever throws stones at, or frightens these +birds, shall be prosecuted with the utmost severity +of the law.” +</p> +<p> +In the present day we read the much more +effective address, +</p> +<p> +“These birds are recommended to the protection +of the public.” +</p> +<p> +However ragged the coat of the passer-by, his +feelings not his fears are addressed, and his pride +is gratified by being appointed as it were a temporary +trustee for the safety of his feathered friends. +The advantage of acting upon this principle is not +confined merely to its direct efficiency for its purpose. +A still more important benefit remains +latent, one which never ought to be lost sight of in +the enactment or the administration of laws. +</p> +<p> +<i>It enlists public opinion in favour of law and of +order.</i>[<a href='#fn_11' id='fnb_11'>11</a>] +</p> +<p> +<span id='page-122' class='pagenum'>122</span>Thus aiding the prevention, the detection, and +the punishment of offenders, it renders the interference +of the police far less necessary, and when +called for, more effective. +</p> +<p> +§ This principle might perhaps be applied with +advantage to the admission under regulations of +certain classes of <i>skilled</i> workmen by means of +tickets, for a limited number of days. +</p> +<p> +Most effective assistance might be rendered both +to the police and to the attendants at the Exposition +by the following plan:⁠—Allow a certain +<span id='page-123' class='pagenum'>123</span>number of persons, in whom the executive can +repose confidence,⁠—generally master manufacturers +or employers,⁠—the privilege of recommending a +small number of their best and most regular +workmen or assistants, to whom should be +granted tickets of admission, subject to the following +conditions:⁠— +</p> +<p> +1. Tickets of admission shall be granted for +periods of from three to any greater number of +days. Some tickets being for the first three days +of each week, or otherwise, as may be convenient. +</p> +<p> +2. They shall either be gratuitous or obtainable +by a small payment. +</p> +<p> +3. Each ticket-holder shall wear the ticket by a +string from the button of his coat, or as may be +arranged. +</p> +<p> +4. He shall, when required by the police or attendants, +assist in any duty they may desire for the +safety or general convenience of the expositors. +</p> +<p> +5. Whenever he observes any irregularity, or +has reason to believe that thieves or improper +persons have obtained admission, he is to inform +the nearest policeman. +</p> +<p> +6. Whenever he observes any machine or any +object exhibited, to be out of order, or in danger +of being injured, or its parts misplaced, he is to +communicate the fact to the nearest attendant, who +will refer him to the proper superintendent of that +department. He will explain the defect he has +<span id='page-124' class='pagenum'>124</span>pointed out, and if asked by the superintendent, he +is to put it in order, or suggest to him some other +person then present, who may be better able to +complete the reparation. +</p> +<p> +7. Each master should be required to pledge +his word that he will only recommend trustworthy +persons. Each workman admitted might simply +be required to give his word of honour that he +would assist. +</p> +<p> +These regulations ought to be printed and stuck +up in various parts of the building. +</p> +<p> +It would, indeed, be desirable to have a certain +number of boards placed in the most public parts +of the Exposition, on which should be fixed and +properly classified all rules, and other information +useful to the public. Also notices as to prices and +hours of visiting the Exposition might from time +to time be affixed. Each board ought also to have +a plan of the ground-floor and galleries of the +building, on which the names of the different subjects +and countries occupying the various parts, +might be readily ascertained by the visitors. +</p> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_10'> +<p> +[<a href='#fnb_10'>10</a>] Several valuable papers containing rules of this kind +have lately appeared in the <i>Lancet</i>. +</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_11'> +<p> +[<a href='#fnb_11'>11</a>] The ancient law of rendering the hundred responsible for +damages done by a mob, is founded on this principle. It is so +important, that the reader will, perhaps, pardon another illustration. +</p> +<p> +Amongst boys as amongst men, a degree of pugnacity exists, +to the annoyance of the more quiet portion. This was +checked at a certain school by giving full permission to the +boys to fight whenever they liked, and at the same time prescribing +certain simple rules for the combat, as follows:⁠— +</p> +<p class='hang_indent'> +1. When two boys wish to fight, they must inform the +chief usher of their wish.</p> +<p class='hang_indent'> +2. He must appoint a time for the combat, not sooner +than three, nor more than six hours, after the notice.</p> +<p class='hang_indent'> +3. At the appointed time, if the lads are still desirous of +the contest, the chief usher must take the pugnacious +ones to an enclosure, where they cannot be seen by +their comrades. He then desires them to fight +until they are tired, he standing by to see fair play.</p> +<p class='hang_indent'> +4. Any boy present or assisting at an illegal fight will be +punished.</p> +<p> +The consequence is that their honour or their ill-humour is +soon satisfied. No party is made, to back them; no friends +call out to them, “Give it him, Tom!” “At him, Jack!” +Their pugnacity is not, as it has been in some instances +at public schools, unnaturally excited by the stimulus either +of betting or of brandy. +</p> +<p> +After long experience, it was found that quarrels rarely +arrived at a fight. It was the <i>interest</i> of all the rest of the +school to make some just and amicable arrangement. +</p> +</div> +<div class="chapter"><span id='page-125' class='pagenum'>125</span><h2 id='tg_11'>CHAPTER XI.<br> +<span class='smaller'>ULTERIOR OBJECTS.</span> +</h2></div> +<p class='two_space'> +<span class="small-caps">Besides</span> those universal advantages which will +result, in a greater or less degree, to every nation +maintaining friendly intercourse with its neighbours, +there are others arising from the Exposition, which +may be secured by a little industry and small expense, +if timely thought is bestowed upon them.</p> +<p> +There are also opportunities for advancing several +kindred subjects to which it may be useful to +allude. +</p> +<p> +The most obvious is the facility it will afford of +making extensive collections of examples of the present +state of many industrial products.[<a href='#fn_12' id='fnb_12'>12</a>] All woven +manufactures, for example, might be arranged in +books. A small piece of each article being pasted +in, might be followed by a short statement of the +various facts relating to it⁠—as, for example, a piece +of plain cambric⁠— +</p> +<div class="avoid_break"> +<p class="align_c small one_space"> +<span id='page-126' class='pagenum'>126</span><span class="small-caps">Plain Cambric.</span> (Date.) +</p> +<div class="align_c small space_after"><div class="block_align_l">Woven in a ---- loom, at ---- by ----<br> +Number of threads in warp.<br> +Number of threads of weft, in ten inches length.<br> +Breadth of piece in inches.<br> +Length of piece in yards.<br> +Weight per square yard.<br> +Price per yard retail.<br> +Price per piece of ---- yards, as sold by the manufacturer.<br> +</div></div></div> +<p> +Coloured woven goods might be similarly arranged +as regards colour, and the note connected +with them ought to contain the name and locality +of the dyer, and also the nature of the dye used. +Such volumes would hereafter become highly instructive, +and save many costly experiments. But +it will be necessary to provide against, or to +allow for the fading of the colouring matter. This +could be done only by preserving some portion of +it unchanged by time or exposure. Woven fabrics +will not supply this test, but another department +of manufacture would, if properly treated, give by +the permanence of its colours, invaluable aid not +only to many arts, but also to the naturalist and +the man of science. +</p> +<p> +§ The enamel colours used on porcelain, have +the permanent character required. Different manufactories +excel in different colours. The first step +therefore would be to invite each manufacturer to +send tablets of porcelain of a given size, on which +are to be painted a number of small squares, containing +<span id='page-127' class='pagenum'>127</span>all the pure colours he employs. Besides +these squares, a certain number of other squares +should contain two or more combinations of these +colours, two by two, or in such proportions as are +usually employed. +</p> +<p> +The comparison of these tablets would indicate +where the purest and most useful porcelain colours +could be obtained. The next step would be that +a small committee of manufacturers and men of +science, should decide on the number of combinations +and shades of colour it might be desirable to +bring together as permanent and standard objects +of reference. +</p> +<p> +The different makers of porcelain should then +each receive an order for a certain number of +tablets containing those colours in which they +respectively excel. Each small square should be +numbered. A sufficient quantity of the proper +materials constituting each colour, should then be +mixed in the proper proportion, and applied at the +same time, to the same number on each tablet; +and these tablets should be exposed to the fire +under as nearly as possible the same circumstances +of heat, and for the same length of time. +</p> +<p> +Thus an extensive system of unchangeable +colours might be obtained, and if 500 sets were +made, they might be distributed in all the great cities +and universities of the world. It might perhaps +be found that certain colours were deficient, and +<span id='page-128' class='pagenum'>128</span>this would of course stimulate discovery by making +known the want. Thus, in the course of upwards +of twenty-five years, during which the author has +been collecting on a small scale, such tablets of +colours, he has been unable to meet with any specimen +of an enamel colour at all approaching to the +pure scarlet of the common geranium. +</p> +<p> +The utility of such sets of standard colours +would be very great, enabling all nations to speak +a language regarding colour at once accurate and +universal. It might serve as the starting point and +the test of many analogous collections of materials +tinted by colours of more transitory duration, +whose relative degree of fixity might thus be +measured: as silks, cottons, linens, woollens, leather, +paper, and many other materials. +</p> +<p> +There are two coloured substances which seem +to promise a higher degree of permanence than +those just mentioned⁠—sealing-wax and glass. For +these admit of the renewal of their surfaces by +grinding, in case atmospheric or external causes +should have altered or impaired the superficial +colour. +</p> +<p> +A collection of small squares of sealing-wax +would be cheaper, and might if duly verified by +comparison with the porcelain standard be in many +cases a useful instrument. Glass also might supply +a suit of transparent colours of great interest. A +complete collection of the enamel colours used for +<span id='page-129' class='pagenum'>129</span>the mosaic work made at Rome would also be +instructive. +</p> +<p> +§ Perhaps the most important advantage which +such an Exposition can confer, is to instruct the +consumer in the art of judging of the character of +the commodity he is about to purchase. Besides +the money we pay in return for the skill, labour, +and capital expended in producing each article we +purchase; a further, and often a very considerable +sum is paid in order to assure us that it possesses +those qualities which the vendor has asserted. +This is called the <i>cost of verification</i>; in some +cases, as in that of white sugar, it is very small, +for almost every one can see by its external character +the degree of goodness of that article. In +other cases nothing less than a whole life spent in +acquiring a knowledge of his subject, can be of any +avail, as <i>in the case of the purchase of a field</i>. +The verification of the fact that the vendor has +really the right to sell it, can, in many cases, be +arrived at only by a profound chancery-lawyer, and +sometimes requires an expense even beyond the +value of the field itself. +</p> +<p> +When the purchaser has been convinced that he +is no judge of the goodness of an article, he usually +buys it at some shop having the reputation of +selling only the best of the kind. In this case he +justly pays a higher price to the vendor, who ought +to be remunerated for his skill in selecting good +<span id='page-130' class='pagenum'>130</span>articles from the manufacturer or merchant, and +for his integrity in not taking advantage of the +ignorance of his customer. +</p> +<p> +It may be contended that it is cheaper for the +purchaser to pay for the use of the skill and integrity +of the vendor than to spend his own +time in acquiring the same skill; and in many +instances this is true. Still, however, the integrity +remains to be paid for, and if simple and ready +modes of verification were more generally known, +a very large portion of this loss of time would be +saved. +</p> +<p> +In all those articles which are easily verified the +retail price varies but little; whilst on those that +are difficult to verify, the price of the same article, +although apparently of the same quality, will be +found to vary considerably at different shops. +</p> +<p> +The duties of the various juries who will examine +and recommend the articles for which prizes are to +be awarded, will require much consideration. It +cannot be expected, even after long experience +through several successive expositions, that it would +be possible to form a jury which should satisfy +every exhibitor. Much, however, may be done, +even at the first, by a sincere desire to arrive at +just conclusions, and by an earnest endeavour to +inform the public of the principles, and to point out +the observations, which have led their judgment to +the decisions at which they may arrive. Each of the +<span id='page-131' class='pagenum'>131</span>purely mechanical arts is allied to one or more of +the sciences; almost all their various processes are +amenable to, and explicable by known laws; it is +possible for him who is a perfect master of his own +craft, so to explain them without technical terms, +and in the language of common sense, that most +persons of tolerably liberal education, and possessing +a fair average intellect, may not only understand +the effect produced, but admire the ingenuity +by which it was attained. +</p> +<p> +§ It is of great importance that an effort should +be made to remove that veil of mystery which unfortunately, +even in minds otherwise well instructed, +often shrouds the principles on which perfection in +manufactures, in science, and still more remarkably +in the fine arts, depends. These principles nevertheless +are founded immutably on the nature of the +material world around us, as well as upon our own +internal feelings. Those which regulate taste are as +general, although its rules are not so precise, as those +which relate to physics. Nor need it be dreaded +that a knowledge of the <i>grounds</i> of that admiration +which works of genius ever command from cultivated +minds, should diminish the pleasure derived +from their contemplation. +</p> +<p> +Show to the student some mechanism effecting +results apparently beyond the reach of the art, and +he becomes impressed with the immense distance +between his own intelligence and that which contrived +<span id='page-132' class='pagenum'>132</span>it. Explain to him the simple means and +the beautiful combinations by which it is effected, +you then raise him in his own estimation, and the studious +disciple thus instructed, will ultimately arrive +at the conclusion that the only distance which is +really <i>immense</i>, is that existing between the perfection +of the highest work of human skill and the +simplest of the productions of nature. +</p> +<p> +§ In questions relating to taste the subject matter +is so idealized, that the enthusiastic and the timid +equally dread its contact with the more sober +powers of reasoning, lest the process of analysis +should disenchant its visionary scenes, and dissolve +the unreal basis of their delight. Taste the most perfect, +without a knowledge of the principles on which +it rests, resembles the barren instinct of animals: +like them, it gathers but little improvement from +experience, and like them it perishes with the extinction +of the individual life; its labours leave no +inheritance to its race. +</p> +<p> +Taste united with an intimate knowledge of its +principles, and still more if conjoined with the +power of eliminating from the fleeting relations +amongst the objects of its attention, those resemblances +which, when sufficiently multiplied and +defined, lead up to the discovery of higher generalizations, +confers upon its enviable possessor a double +source of happiness; it adds the delight of an intellectual +triumph to those romantic feelings which are +<span id='page-133' class='pagenum'>133</span>excited by the beautiful, the lovely, or the sublime +in Nature, or which are suggested by the most +perfect representations of art. +</p> +<p> +The comprehension of the cause of our pleasure renders +us more acute to perceive those elements which +conduce to its existence, to trace their connexion, +to estimate their amount, to mould into form, and +to call up for the happiness of others and of ourselves, +their endless combinations. +</p> +<p> +There is, however, for that rare union of judgment, +imagination, and taste, which we call genius, +when each exists in due proportion and in rich +abundance, a yet higher object, a still nobler ambition. +To have given to mankind those models, +which, after twenty centuries, still rivet their attention, +commanding unbounded admiration and +defying rivalry, is indeed a splendid achievement, +justly repaid by the undying fame which +accompanies the names of those benefactors to +mankind. +</p> +<p> +But great as undoubtedly our gratitude ought to +be for such gifts, it is trifling compared with that +which civilized society would owe to him, who +should instruct us in the <i>principles</i> that guided the +intellect as well as the hands, of those by whom +such immortal works were executed. +</p> +<p> +In the fine arts, and in the arts of industry, as +well as in the pursuits of science, the highest +department of each is that of the discovery of +<span id='page-134' class='pagenum'>134</span>principles, and the invention of methods. To investigate +the laws by which human intellect picks +with caution its uncertain track through those +obscure and outlying regions of our knowledge +which separate the known and the certain from +the unknown;⁠—to teach us how to cast as it were +an intellectual and temporary connecting line across +that chasm, by which a new truth is separated from +the old⁠—confident that when arrested by that +isolated truth it will have fixed itself upon one solid +point, amidst a floating chaos of error,⁠—confident +also that, when once the fixity of that single point +has been assured, it is always <i>possible</i>, however +formidable the task, to link it by innumerable ties +to established knowledge, and thus to fill up the +intervening space even to the very boundary of its +enlarged domain:⁠—to achieve such a conquest in +any science surpasses all other discoveries, for it +supplies tools for the use of intellect, and enlarges +the limits and the powers of human reason. +</p> +<p> +§ One of the great advantages of the Exposition +will arise from the interchange of kindly feelings +between the inhabitants of foreign countries and our +own. The classes who visit us will consist neither +of the very elevated nor of the very low. They +will all of them, probably, possess more instruction +and information than the average of their class +amongst their countrymen: consequently they will +consist of persons the most likely to derive instruction +<span id='page-135' class='pagenum'>135</span>from their visit, and therefore to return home +with pleasing impressions. +</p> +<p> +It has been found on the continent that the +periodic unions of men of science have had an excellent +effect in removing jealousies and establishing +friendships. It has not unfrequently happened +that two philosophers have met in such societies, +and have entered into discussions which have enabled +each to appreciate more justly the talent of the +other, before one of them was aware that he +had formerly criticised a work of his new friend, in +terms which their present good understanding would +effectually prevent him from repeating. +</p> +<p> +The experience we have had of the visit of the +National Guard of Paris, strongly confirms this view. +It brought out the better feelings of our nature +towards our neighbours, and all classes took their +share in endeavouring to make those visits agreeable. +On their return home, the feeling excited by the +visit was conveyed far beyond the actual visitors; +and it has left on the population of Paris a permanent +advance in good will towards Englishmen. +</p> +<p> +§ Several objects may be suggested whose discussion +would be of the greatest importance for the +advancement of the industrial arts, but which are +not within the scope of the Exhibition. There are, +however, other places of meeting where some of +these might be discussed. The Society of Civil +Engineers might entertain some inquiries, whilst +<span id='page-136' class='pagenum'>136</span>the Statistical Society would be the most appropriate +place for others. +</p> +<p> +A few of these objects may be shortly alluded to. +</p> +<p> +§ The law of patents is, perhaps, one of the most +interesting as well as of the most difficult questions. +Amongst our visitors, doubtless, there will be several +who have studied the subject in their own country +and who might assist us by their information and +experience. +</p> +<p> +§ We have another law⁠—that of partnership⁠—which +presents greater obstacles to the advance of +the mechanical arts than even the defective state of +the patent law. In England, whoever enters into a +partnership, however small a share of the profits he is +to receive, yet his whole fortune becomes responsible +for any losses. In most other countries there are +a class of partnerships called anonymous, or <i>en commandite</i>, +in which persons willing to risk only +a limited sum are entirely relieved of all further +responsibility. +</p> +<p> +The effect of our English system is highly unfavourable +to inventors. It prevents in all but a few +cases a small capital from being raised by the joint +contributions of persons more immediately acquainted +with the character and prospects of the inventor, +and who are in that respect best fitted to measure +the chance of his success. +</p> +<p> +A far greater impediment, however, arises from +its entirely preventing a considerable quantity of +<span id='page-137' class='pagenum'>137</span>capital from being directed to inventions. Its +operation may be thus explained. +</p> +<p> +There exist in this country a great number +of persons of manufacturing and commercial habits, +whose knowledge of men is considerable, and whose +judgment of the capabilities of a proposed scheme +or invention, is cautious and judicious. +</p> +<p> +Persons of this description often possess capital, or +such credit as easily to command its use. If partnerships +could be entered into, in which the liability +was limited, many persons so circumstanced would +naturally use their skill and knowledge in selecting +a certain number of schemes, in each of which they +would embark a small sum. By thus spreading +the risks over an extensive field, the profits to the +capitalist would be much more certain: whilst many +an excellent invention now lost for want of capital +to carry it out, would thus enrich its inventor and +benefit the country. +</p> +<p> +§ Connected with the subject of patents is another, +which is of some consequence to the public. Many +of those capable of improving the arts by new inventions, +have no desire to secure their discoveries by +patent and thus to render them profitable to themselves, +but are willing to give the public the entire +advantage. +</p> +<p> +Now it is supposed that, if an inventor, under +the existing law, publishes the drawings of an +engine which has not actually been constructed, a +<span id='page-138' class='pagenum'>138</span>machine-maker might make the machine, take out +a patent for it, and supply the public to the exclusion +even of the inventor himself. +</p> +<p> +If the invention is a purely mechanical contrivance, +it is quite possible with mere drawings and +with the aid of the Mechanical Notation to demonstrate +the possibility of its construction and of all +its movements, with the same certainty as that with +which a proposition in Euclid is proved. +</p> +<p> +It seems then desirable, that some mode of +publication should be arranged by which the public +should really enjoy the gifts which science may +present without risking monopoly by an interloper. +</p> +<p> +$ The subject of co-operation is one of the greatest +importance, and like many other social questions +neither its principles nor its limits seem to be clearly +understood. It is of the utmost importance that +the masses should be enlightened on a subject so +exciting, and bearing so directly on their interests. +But until it has been further investigated, and +numerous instances having a practical connexion +with its principles have been collected, it is hopeless +to attempt a popular treatment of the subject. It +would be highly desirable that those of our foreign +visitors who have at all studied that most important +question, should communicate to us the results of +their experience. +</p> +<p> +§ The <i>Mechanical Notation</i> to which a slight allusion +has been made, is a system of signs by which +<span id='page-139' class='pagenum'>139</span>all machinery may be perfectly described even without +the necessity of any explanation in words. It forms +in fact an universal language, which will be, when +generally employed, capable of being read by every +people, just as the Arabic numerals are at present. +</p> +<p> +It has now been in use for more than twenty-five +years, during which time many improvements and +additions have been made. A considerable portion of +it was published in 1826.[<a href='#fn_13' id='fnb_13'>13</a>] Amongst the subsequent +additions there is one called the Mechanical Alphabet, +which consists of very simple but expressive +signs placed above those letters of the alphabet used +to express certain parts of machinery. Possibly from +100 to 200 of such signs may be required. Now +before any publication is made of those already used, +it is of the greatest importance that they should be +thoroughly revised, and that practical mechanicians +familiar with every branch of the art, should contribute +information respecting the requirements in their +different departments. Those also who are most experienced +in the art of mechanical drawing, ought to +confer together respecting the new rules according +to which all drawings should have letters attached +to the various parts of the machinery they represent. +</p> +<p> +The <i>universality of the language</i> is of such +importance, that it would be quite mischievous +hastily to publish to the world any other than +a well-considered system of signs. The Exposition +<span id='page-140' class='pagenum'>140</span>of 1851 furnishes an opportunity for such a revision. +</p> +<p> +§ Considerable discussion has arisen respecting +the ultimate fate of the Crystal Palace. Three questions +have been agitated:⁠— +</p> +<p> +1. Shall it be pulled down? +</p> +<p> +2. Shall it be removed to another locality? +</p> +<p> +3. To what uses can the building be applied if +it is retained? +</p> +<p> +Public opinion has undergone a great revolution +since the opening of the Exhibition; but however +strongly it may now be expressed, it ought not to +interfere with public faith. If, after all the protestations +and pledges of the Commission, that +the building was to be of temporary duration, it +should be permitted to remain permanently in its +present locality, little faith will be given in future +to the promises of public bodies. The pledge contained +in the document by which the Commission +was appointed, viz. that 20,000<i>l.</i> should be given +in prizes, has neither been redeemed nor forgotten; +and the treatment of the income-tax by the successive +political parties has added little to the respect with +which official promises are regarded. +</p> +<p> +If the country had originally maintained its undoubted +right to use its own parks for its own +purposes, the building might then have remained; +but the inhabitants of Belgravia, having raised a +violent opposition to the selection of that locality, +<span id='page-141' class='pagenum'>141</span>were only pacified on receiving the strongest assurances +that the building should be removed after +it had fulfilled its original purpose. In justice +therefore to them, it must be taken down. +</p> +<p> +The second question, Shall the Crystal Palace be +removed? is by no means decided by the answer +given to the first. It would be perfectly consistent +with good faith to remove it to any other part of +the park not contiguous to Belgrave Square. +</p> +<p> +The third question, therefore, To what uses can +the building be applied? must now be examined, +in order to arrive at a definitive decision upon the +second. +</p> +<p> +A wish seems to be very generally entertained +for the preservation of the building; and various +uses have been suggested to which it might be +advantageously applied. +</p> +<p> +Mr. Paxton wishes to convert it into a winter +garden. +</p> +<p> +M. Gambardella, in his highly interesting pamphlet, +“What shall we do with the Glass Palace?”[<a href='#fn_14' id='fnb_14'>14</a>] +has proposed to have within its walls alternately +exhibitions of painting and of sculpture. +</p> +<p> +Permanent galleries of the fine arts have also +been proposed. +</p> +<p> +Collections of the industrial arts, and models, +have also been suggested. +</p> +<p> +A portion of it might also be appropriated to the +<span id='page-142' class='pagenum'>142</span>building of several theatres for lectures, of various +sizes, capable of containing from 100 to 2,000 +persons. +</p> +<p> +The great principle to be borne in mind is, that, +whatever the future destination of the building, it +must be self-supporting. The best and most certain +test of its utility to the public is furnished by the +fact of their being willing to pay for the enjoyments +it affords them. +</p> +<p> +The plan of having a considerable portion of the +building devoted to a winter garden would supply +a great want in our wet and uncertain climate. +The temperature ought not to be high, so that +exercise might be taken under shelter. No dogs, +horses, or carriages ought to be admitted. +</p> +<p> +A large portion of those residing in the immediate +neighbourhood would subscribe, and also many +who possessed carriages. But the number of subscribers +would depend chiefly on the position chosen +for the building. In its <i>present</i> locality, the prejudices +of the wealthier class would be increased by the +injustice of retaining it in violation of the strongest +pledges, and it would probably have a very limited +number of subscribers. +</p> +<p> +Perhaps it might be desirable to add reading-rooms +for newspapers and for the periodical literature +of the day. Subscriptions to these might be +either for limited periods, or even for a single day. +A refreshment-room, also, would be required. +</p> +<p> +<span id='page-143' class='pagenum'>143</span>If, however, the building were removed to the +situation proposed in the seventh chapter of this +volume, it would be accessible to a much larger +number of subscribers. Its two ends being then +placed at a small distance from the two great +thoroughfares passing Hyde Park Corner and the +Marble Arch, a large number of its visitors would +arrive by the omnibuses which pass each of those +well-frequented localities. +</p> +<p> +Space might readily be found either for periodical +or permanent galleries of painting and of sculpture. +An objection has been made to the former, namely, +that the light in the glass palace is not fit for the +exhibition of paintings. It is singular that it should +not have occurred to such objectors that this is +almost the only building in which, from its very +nature, there exists the most unlimited control over +both the quantity and the direction of light that +may be required. +</p> +<p> +The profit to be derived from this part of the +establishment will, as in the former questions, depend +greatly on the situation of the building. +</p> +<p> +Another plan, mentioned in the first edition of +this work, was, to have collections of the produce +and manufactures exhibited on the present occasion. +Few applications of the building would be more appropriate, +and scarcely any could be more useful, +than this. Fortunately, the Executive Committee +have undertaken the task, and it cannot be doubted +<span id='page-144' class='pagenum'>144</span>that the exhibitors will willingly lighten their labour +by giving every assistance in their power. One or +two suggestions may here be offered, for the purpose +of impressing on the exhibitors at future Expositions +the great importance of attaching to each object a +brief and condensed account of facts connected with +it. In the article of raw materials there will not be +much difficulty, as there are many instances of excellence +in that department. The case of drugs from +Liverpool is a good illustration. Their price, however, +is omitted, because it was forbidden. In the permanent +collection, this most important element will, +of course, occupy its proper place. It might also +be useful to give the date of the first importation +of each drug, and the first application to its various +uses. The quantity, also, of the chemical element +on which its use is founded contained in a given +weight of the substance would, if known, be highly +interesting: as, for instance, the quantity of quinine +in a given weight of bark. +</p> +<p> +In making a collection of machines, there is some +fear of occupying a very large space without a corresponding +advantage. A lace frame, making in +one breadth of fifteen feet from sixty to a hundred +repetitions of the same lace, would, commercially +speaking, be the most advantageous; but such a +frame with only ten repetitions would be more +useful for instruction. The various self-acting mules, +also, would easily fill a large room. Perhaps the +<span id='page-145' class='pagenum'>145</span>collection might be confined to working models: +these might be made, from time to time, to replace +the larger machines, and funds for that purpose +might be derived from the payments of the visitors +both to the exhibition and to the lectures which +ought to be given to explain the collection. +</p> +<p> +In making a collection of specimens of manufactured +articles, as well as of produce, it would in +many cases add little to the expense if a sufficient +quantity were purchased to divide into many samples. +Thus, the collections of foreign countries and of our +own cities might be enriched by authentic specimens. +This view applies more particularly to collections +of woven fabrics. +</p> +<p> +A well authenticated collection of cotton, flax, +wool, and silk, in the raw state, through all their +successive stages of manufacture, up to the woven +fabrics of which they constitute the basis, if accompanied +by the prices of each at intervals of +ten years during the last century, would furnish +materials of the most valuable kind, and would +greatly aid the economist, the statesman, and the +philosopher, in discovering and putting to the +test the principles connected with their several +inquiries. +</p> +<p> +It is not necessary, or even desirable, that this +collection should consist of articles of fancy: it +ought to be composed of all those fabrics which, +although at first rare and costly, have ultimately +<span id='page-146' class='pagenum'>146</span>become objects of habitual consumption by large +classes of the community. +</p> +<p> +Another purpose of great importance to which a +portion of such a building might be applied, is the +construction of convenient theatres for the delivery +of lectures, and for the discussion of questions of +interest. The want of such buildings in the western +part of the metropolis has long been felt, and acts +injuriously on the progress of knowledge. +</p> +<p> +In the present state of society, oral statements of +the great principles which govern it, illustrated by +striking facts drawn with judgment from varied +sources, would, if delivered with ability and good +taste, attract large audiences. Even science itself +might be rendered popular by such means. Yet if any +highly gifted person, qualified for such a task, were +willing to devote to the subject the time necessary +to assure the success of his efforts, he would now be +stopped at the very threshold, for he could find no +convenient theatre in any part of the west of +London, which he could hire for the delivery of +such a course of lectures. +</p> +<p> +The only theatre capable of holding 1,000 +persons, is that of the Royal Institution in Albemarle +Street. Let us suppose the lecturer +capable of attracting 1,000 subscribers, each willing +to pay a sovereign for a short course of lectures. +How would the sum thus raised be divided? He +could lecture at that theatre only by the permission +<span id='page-147' class='pagenum'>147</span>of the Managers, who would scarcely pay him more +than 100<i>l.</i>[<a href='#fn_15' id='fnb_15'>15</a>] for the course. The 1,000<i>l.</i> therefore, +which the public would willingly pay for the +instruction they received would be thus divided:⁠— +</p> +<table class='avoid_break center fontp9'> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t">To the intellect which charmed them</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b"><i>£</i>100</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t">To the rent of the room in which they listened</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">900</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t"></td> +<td class='bot_line'></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t"></td> +<td class="align_r valign_b"><i>£</i>1,000</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t"></td> +<td class='bot_line'></td> +</tr> +</table> +<p> +If the 900<i>l.</i> were the remuneration of the creative +mind, and the 100<i>l.</i> were the payment for the use +of the room and the necessary attendants, the +information of several classes of society would be +far other than it now is, and the status of the +lecturer would be entirely altered. At present, +however great the talent of the instructor, his +position is not exactly that which the interests of +society demand. The term, <i>itinerant</i> lecturer, +has long been one of reproach, and even now it +is not thought quite dignified in a gentleman to +give a lecture <i>for money</i>. The reason is obvious: +nothing is thought respectable in England which +does not produce wealth. Any shrewd and unscrupulous +fellow, who swindles on a gigantic +scale, will, if he succeed, be immediately received +with welcome into what is called the best society. +Neither wit nor talent are necessary for his admission: +if, indeed, he be horridly vulgar, a few +<span id='page-148' class='pagenum'>148</span>additional hundreds of thousands will procure him +absolution in fashionable eyes, even for that most +deadly sin. +</p> +<p> +Enable the instructor to receive his due portion +of that reward which the public are willing to +pay, and he too will become rich, and therefore +eminently respectable. With this increased remuneration, +minds of a higher order will be attracted +to the study of the most difficult of arts,⁠—that of +teaching; and the time will arrive when accomplished, +enlightened, and independent men may earn +from five to ten thousand a-year without courting +a constituency for parliamentary influence, or a +minister for justice to merit he is incapable of +appreciating. +</p> +<p> +Such results, however, demand the use of convenient +theatres of various sizes, placed in situations +easily accessible. +</p> +<p> +It appears then that, on every ground which has +been considered, the utility of the Crystal Palace +will depend almost entirely on the situation chosen +for its ultimate position. +</p> +<p> +Looking at the question in a purely commercial +view, considering the difficulty of access from the +north to its present locality; contrasting it with the +facility of access from every quarter in the site proposed; +it is not too much to presume that its +revenue would be so greatly enlarged by the removal, +that it would justify an expenditure of forty +or even of fifty thousand pounds. +</p> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_12'> +<p> +[<a href='#fnb_12'>12</a>] The French chamber has devoted 50,000 francs to the +purchase of specimens.⁠—(<i>Illustrated News</i>, 2d. Feb. 1851.) +</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_13'> +<p> +[<a href='#fnb_13'>13</a>] Phil. Trans. 1826, p. 250. +</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_14'> +<p> +[<a href='#fnb_14'>14</a>] Published by Aylott and Jones, Paternoster Row. +</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_15'> +<p> +[<a href='#fnb_15'>15</a>] It is far from the author’s intention to reproach in the +slightest degree the Managers of that most valuable Institution. +Every member having a right to be present at every lecture, +it is not in their power to do otherwise. +</p> +</div> +<div class="chapter"><span id='page-149' class='pagenum'>149</span><h2 id='tg_12'>CHAPTER XII.<br> +<span class='smaller'>INTRIGUES OF SCIENCE.</span> +</h2></div> +<p class='two_space'> +<span class="small-caps">Several</span> causes have justly lowered the position +of science in England. The conduct of the Royal +Society, and of men of science themselves, has +equally contributed to this result. In a work +on the Decline of Science[<a href='#fn_16' id='fnb_16'>16</a>] in 1830, I exposed the +wretched mismanagement of the Royal Society, but +not until in conjunction with Wollaston and other +eminent men, I had found the inutility of every effort +we made to improve it from within. Our reform +bill stands recorded upon the minutes of the council, +with the signatures of Wollaston, of Young, of +Herschel, and of others whose names ought to have +commanded respect: but it was defeated by an ingenious +manœuvre.</p> +<p> +The facts stated in the work alluded to, have never +been disputed: one answer[<a href='#fn_17' id='fnb_17'>17</a>] only having, as far as +<span id='page-150' class='pagenum'>150</span>I am aware, ever been attempted to any part of that +volume. It appeared in the Annals of Philosophy, +and was first mentioned to me by the late Francis +Baily, F.R.S. Not having then seen it, I inquired +whether he thought any reply necessary; his answer +was, “<i>No: it is a full admission of the truth of +your statement.</i>” +</p> +<p> +§ In France the body who elect to offices in the +Institute, are men of the highest intellectual attainments, +whose suffrage it is an honour to receive, +and who, during the existence of the monarchy, +constituted one amongst the classes out of whom +Peers of France were selected. +</p> +<p> +In England, out of about 800 Fellows of the +Royal Society, the greater part of them know +nothing of science, and of course their votes swamp +those of the members most competent to pronounce +opinions. The new mode of admitting fellows of +the Royal Society, has had a good effect in improving +the qualification of those admitted; but unfortunately, +its operation is so slow that it will be +many years before the Society is relieved from its +incumbrances. +</p> +<p> +§ In the Academy of Sciences at Paris, the office +of Secretary is an object of ambition even to men of +the highest scientific attainments. It is usually +held by persons of the greatest eminence, who are +themselves at the same time carrying out original +inquiries on subjects connected with their official +<span id='page-151' class='pagenum'>151</span>duties. It is sufficient to cite the names of Delambre, +of Fourier, of Cuvier, and of Arago. +</p> +<p> +In England the Secretary of the Royal Society +of London occupies no such position. To some of +our most eminent men, it may, when young, have +been an object of ambition to hold it for a few years: +but considering the very moderate pay of 100<i>l.</i> +a-year, and how considerable a portion of time must +be occupied by its duties if conscientiously fulfilled, +it is rare that any man of original talent and independent +feeling will join in the intrigues by which +it is too frequently obtained. +</p> +<p> +In consequence of this state of things, the +officers of the Royal Society are most frequently +third or fourth-rate men, who not having sufficient +occupation in their own professions, seek the office +as a means of adding to their income. Or, they may +be, in some cases, military men, who being paid by +the public for other duties, are glad to get relieved +from them without the loss of their emoluments. +Persons holding offices in the Royal Society ought +by their scientific eminence to confer dignity on +their office: instead of acquiring a position in the +world by its acceptance. +</p> +<p> +§ Again, the justice of the decisions of the Council +in awarding their medals, has been publicly impeached. +A very few years since, a general meeting +of the Society was summoned on the requisition of +several of its members, to inquire into the circumstances +<span id='page-152' class='pagenum'>152</span>attending the award of certain Royal medals. +It was admitted by the President that there had +been considerable irregularities in some of the +awards, and the Council only escaped a vote of +censure in consequence of some little want of +management in those who proposed it. +</p> +<p> +During this discussion one of the Fellows of the +Royal Society got up, and remarked that although +this case was very bad, it became trifling when +compared with the circumstances attending the very +first award of the Royal medals; for on that occasion +the Council had wilfully violated the laws they +had themselves established for their distribution, +and that on his formally demonstrating the facts by +reference to their own minutes, they with singular +consistency refused to alter their unfair and unjust +decision. +</p> +<p> +§ Difficulties of another kind arise respecting +the Presidents of Societies. When the office of +President is really or practically a permanent one, +it is very difficult to carry on the business of the +Society if the President is a person of exalted rank, +or if he do not permanently reside in London. +</p> +<p> +In either case it usually happens that a secretary +or treasurer, or other officer who is resident, insensibly +becomes the means of communication with +the President, who is naturally anxious to be acquainted +with the feelings and wishes of the body +over which he presides. The most honest officer +<span id='page-153' class='pagenum'>153</span>can scarcely fail to have some little bias towards his +own opinions: he will naturally mix more with +those who approve of, than with those who differ +from them, and will consequently, although perhaps +unintentionally, communicate to the President a +one-sided view of his own, as the dominant opinion +of the Society. +</p> +<p> +The President, on the other hand, however really +anxious he may be to introduce any amendments +which he conceives advantageous for the Society, +will naturally doubt their policy if informed that +they are not in unison with the opinions of the +body. He will communicate with his treasurer, +secretary, or other officer, and almost always express +his concurrence in the course proposed to him as +being the most agreeable to the body at large. +</p> +<p> +The officer, receiving such a reply, will naturally +mention at the Council the opinions of the President. +He may even from good nature allow the +Council to think that the President himself <i>originated</i> +the views he only <i>adopted</i> because he believed +them to be those of the Society. +</p> +<p> +Under such circumstances, it is difficult to oppose +the expressed wishes of the absent President, and +strangely enough, without any intentional deceit, +President, Council, and Society are supposed to be +unanimous in doing what each by itself thinks +inexpedient. +</p> +<p> +§ It is true that by great kindness, good sense, +<span id='page-154' class='pagenum'>154</span>and decision of character, the Prince or absent +President may in some cases mitigate or prevent +these evils. Such cases, however, are the exception, +not the rule. +</p> +<p> +§ In a work containing views on the state of +science in England, foreigners at least will expect +that I should take some notice of my own calculating +engines. +</p> +<p> +I had hoped that the history of the transactions +between myself and the government respecting them, +as related in the eleventh chapter of the History of +the Royal Society by Mr. Weld, together with the +two criticisms on that work in the Athenæum,[<a href='#fn_18' id='fnb_18'>18</a>] +would have rendered any further explanation on +my part unnecessary. Many persons, however, +who admit these as fully explaining the part I was +compelled to take, have at the same time expressed +to me their doubts that some occult agency was at +work to prejudice the government, and have asked +who were its scientific advisers on such an important +subject, during the long period in which the +Difference Engine was in abeyance. +</p> +<p> +§ I have not been blind to the passions and interests +of men. My own pursuits were of such a +character that they interfered with those of none of +my colleagues in the paths of science; and perhaps +I may have trusted too much to this circumstance +as exempting me from rivalry and jealousy. +</p> +<p> +<span id='page-155' class='pagenum'>155</span>As a reformer both in science and in politics, I +knew that I should excite enmity in the minds of +some honest men, and also in those of many other +persons who dreaded inquiry into jobs not yet exposed. +When I published the Decline of Science, in +1830, I certainly was not aware how many would +include themselves in the latter class: but had I +foreseen it, I should not have altered my course. +To have met and to have defeated intrigue by +watchfulness, might not have been a difficult task, +but it would have required too great a sacrifice of +time devoted to far higher objects. It was, moreover, +an occupation for which I had little taste. +</p> +<p> +The time, however, has now arrived when, having +given up all expectation of constructing the Analytical +Engine from the drawings which I had caused +to be made at very great expense, I think it right +to state the result of my own observations, and +especially to point out the facts that have come to +light to confirm them. These, if they do not open +the eyes of some, who, having been themselves deceived, +have done me injustice, will at all events +be of use for the future, and may save the young +and inexperienced enthusiast of science from embarking +in undertakings, honourable to the country, +but ruinous to himself. +</p> +<p> +It has often been remarked, that an event in +itself trivial sometimes leads to results with which +it seems to have no conceivable connexion. +</p> +<p> +<span id='page-156' class='pagenum'>156</span>A beaver constructing his dwelling on the plateau +of the Andes, may have turned the course of a river, +which otherwise would shortly have joined the Pacific, +into a valley through which, after lengthened +wanderings, it now flows into the Atlantic Ocean. +</p> +<p> +So, by some strange combination of circumstances, +a quarrel in which I had no part, and +with whose origin I am unacquainted, seems to +have had an unanticipated effect in impeding the +construction of the Calculating Engines. +</p> +<p> +At the time of the foundation of the Astronomical +Society, Sir James South, whose observatory +and whose house were hospitably open to every +cultivator of astronomy, was on terms of intimate +friendship with almost all of those persons at that +period most eminent in science. It is sufficient to +mention the names of Wollaston and Davy, and to +add that when the late Mr. Fallows was appointed +Astronomer at the Cape, although previously a +stranger, he became for several months the guest +of Sir James South, who assisted him in acquiring +that practical knowledge of instruments so necessary +in his new avocation.[<a href='#fn_19' id='fnb_19'>19</a>] +</p> +<p> +§ In 1829 Sir James South was elected President +<span id='page-157' class='pagenum'>157</span>of the Astronomical Society. It now appears, however, +that previously to this appointment, <i>a party +had been formed</i> adverse to Sir J. South, which +party, with the view of thwarting him, placed in +the office of Secretary the Rev. Richard Sheepshanks, +Fellow of Trinity Coll., Cambridge.[<a href='#fn_20' id='fnb_20'>20</a>] +</p> +<p> +In March, 1831, the Board of Visitors of the +Royal Observatory of Greenwich, met at the Admiralty, +to consider the propriety of separating the +duties of Superintendent of the Nautical Almanac +from those of Astronomer Royal. The new arrangement +was advocated, amongst others, by Sir J. South, +and after some discussion, in which Capt. Beaufort +and myself took part, it was ultimately carried. As +we were leaving the meeting-room, Mr. Sheepshanks +addressing me said: “I am determined to +put down Sir James South, and if you and other +respectable men will give him your support, I +will put you down.” He at the same time told +me he “intended to put Captain Beaufort down.” +</p> +<p> +During the course of 1832, it was found that +the large equatorial mounting which had been contrived +and executed by Troughton, for his friend +Sir J. South’s twelve-inch object-glass, was an +entire failure. This produced at the time a difference +between two friends who esteemed each other +highly, and who had been for years united by +<span id='page-158' class='pagenum'>158</span>reciprocal acts of kindness in ties of “<i>very intimate</i>” +friendship. Well acquainted myself with +the character of the parties, and the circumstances +of the case, I have not the slightest doubt that this +unfortunate affair might easily, by the exertions of +judicious friends, have terminated in the entire +restoration of their former friendship. But this +was a course which the Rev. R. Sheepshanks took +effectual means to prevent. Having himself a +“<i>personal</i>” quarrel with Sir James South, he +“<i>offered</i>” his services to assist Messrs. Troughton +and Simms. He “<i>offered to go</i>” himself to examine +the instrument in Sir J. South’s observatory, +and “<i>got his friend, Professor Airy, to go with +him</i>” for the purpose of remedying the defects of +the Equatorial. +</p> +<p> +Notwithstanding he was told by Mr. Simms that +“<i>Sir J. South had declared that no person could +have been pitched upon more obnoxious than yourself</i>,” +he still persevered in obtruding himself +into Sir J. South’s observatory as the agent of +Troughton and Simms, until it was at last discovered +that no after contrivances or expense could +correct the errors of an instrument itself radically +defective in principle. +</p> +<p> +It may readily be supposed that the continuance +for months of these visits by Mr. Sheepshanks and +Professor Airy, and the <i>irritating correspondence</i> +consequent upon them, which, though <i>nominally</i> +<span id='page-159' class='pagenum'>159</span>that of Troughton and Simms, was really “<i>directed +by</i>” the Rev. R. Sheepshanks, destroyed all hope +of a reconciliation. The parties then had recourse +to the Court of King’s Bench, and it was curious +to observe the vigour and energy with which the +Rev. R. Sheepshanks applied himself to the exercise +of his earlier studies.[<a href='#fn_21' id='fnb_21'>21</a>] +</p> +<p> +Having <i>volunteered</i> his services to Messrs. +Troughton and Simms⁠—he “<i>wrote every letter</i>” +for them during the subsequent law-suit⁠—he acted +for them in all the various characters of “<i>friend</i>” +and “<i>adviser</i>”⁠—of “<i>workman</i>” and “<i>agent</i>”⁠—of +“<i>attorney</i>” and “<i>counsel</i>;”[<a href='#fn_22' id='fnb_22'>22</a>]⁠—he made an “<i>affidavit</i>” +in the case⁠—became a <i>witness</i> himself⁠—and +undertook to <i>intimidate witnesses</i> on the opposite +side. +</p> +<p> +This latter performance is fortunately rare in +England, and is so remarkable that it is necessary +to give some account of the proceedings. +</p> +<p> +Not wishing to become involved in so disagreeable +a case, I had refused to be a witness on the +part of Sir J. South. Having, however, had some +conversation on the subject with the late Lord +Abinger (then Mr. Scarlett), he represented to me +that my evidence was essential for the justice of the +<span id='page-160' class='pagenum'>160</span>case, and upon that ground I reluctantly waived my +objection to appear as a witness. +</p> +<p> +Having been examined in chief on the seventeenth +day of the Arbitration, I remained in the room a +few minutes after the Arbitrator had left it. +The Rev. R. Sheepshanks, the only other person +then present, addressing me said, “it was necessary +to <i>discredit me</i> because I had supported Sir J. +South.” He added that “he would, at a future +time, <i>attack me</i> publicly on <i>another subject</i>, on +account of the part I had taken in this matter.” +</p> +<p> +The remembrance of his former threats more +than four years before at the Visitation at the Admiralty, +added to the knowledge of the unremitting +perseverance with which he had carried on his hostility +to Sir J. South, satisfied me that it would be +unsafe for the cause of truth, and possibly injurious +to myself, if I were not to take measures for making +known the nature of the weapons which the Rev. +R. Sheepshanks was employing. As he had ventured, +<i>after</i> my having given evidence on oath, to +threaten me with injury, with the hope of inducing +me to modify that evidence on cross-examination, it +appeared to me probable that he might have been +tampering with the evidence of other witnesses in +the same cause, who from their position or circumstances +in life, might be compelled by the fear of +his vengeance to shape their evidence so as to adapt +it to his views. +</p> +<p> +<span id='page-161' class='pagenum'>161</span>The Rev. R. Sheepshanks discovered on reflection +no impropriety in this course of intimidating +witnesses, or of attacking those who could not be +induced to take up his own private quarrels. He +thus defended both. +</p> +<p> +“<i>I think it allowable to throw down the gauntlet +in this manner.</i>” +</p> +<p> +“<i>I have another ground of dispute with Captain +Beaufort, and certainly intend to put him down.</i>” +</p> +<p> +The gallant Admiral has survived many a dangerous +day, and needs not the pen of a friend to +protect his honest and well-earned fame. +</p> +<p> +The reader may perhaps be astonished at the +statement made in the preceding pages, and feel +disposed to consider it an <i>ex parte</i> statement. It +<i>is entirely</i> an <i>ex parte</i> statement: it is not necessary +for its support that the reader should give +credence even to that small part of it which appears +to rest on my own evidence before the Arbitrator. +<i>The whole of it is founded entirely on the testimony +of the</i> Rev. R. Sheepshanks <i>himself.</i> Every statement +of those which are marked as quotations was +either elicited from him on his cross-examination, +or in the few instances in which it came from +myself, its correctness was confirmed by his subsequent +admission or re-statement. After my statement, +and the Rev. R. Sheepshanks’ reply to it, +the Arbitrator addressing him said⁠— +</p> +<p> +“With respect to the matter of fact, you agree?” +</p> +<p> +<span id='page-162' class='pagenum'>162</span>Rev. R. Sheepshanks. “Yes, we agree as to the +matter of fact.” +</p> +<p> +Professor Airy, who was afterwards appointed +Astronomer Royal, had long before become as deeply +engaged as his friend Mr. Sheepshanks in this most +unfortunate quarrel. Years of aggravating delay and +discussion resulted from the procrastinated reference, +and at length one of the parties, Mr. Troughton, +being dead, a decision not satisfactory to either +was given in December 1838. But the inextinguishable +desire “to put down Sir James South” +survived the lawsuit which was only used as a +means, and reappeared from time to time through +the aid of the press, in forcible but somewhat +unmeasured charges and recriminations between +the Astronomer Royal, the Rev. R. Sheepshanks +and others on the one side, and the astronomer of +Campden Hill on the other. +</p> +<p> +It was a curious though a very painful study, to +observe from time to time the various consequences +of this feud. +</p> +<p> +Against those men of science who refused to +forsake their ancient social relations with Sir James +South, a system of disparagement was maintained +which could not fail in the course of time to produce +its effects. The avowed object of the party of which +the Rev. R. Sheepshanks was the organ, was, in his +own expressive words, to <i>discredit and put down every +respectable person</i> who supported Sir J. South. +</p> +<p> +<span id='page-163' class='pagenum'>163</span>It was melancholy to observe the gradual change +in the expression of opinions by some of those +qualified from their knowledge to guide the opinion +of the public. Intimidated at first into silence; the +uncontradicted assertions of those around them +then got possession of their minds, until at length, +without any new examination, they were flattered +into an acquiescence in, if not indeed into the +expression of, opinions entirely opposite to their +former ones. These new views were doubtless conveyed +by their flatterers to other ears, and thus the +process of “<i>discrediting every respectable person</i>” +opposed to them, was carried on under the authority +of honourable names. +</p> +<p> +One after another almost all Sir James South’s +old friends and acquaintance amongst <i>men of science +only, however</i>, were alienated from him. +</p> +<p> +One man was alarmed by the fear that some +inaccuracies in his astronomical publications should +be severely criticised. Of another it was hinted +that his mathematics were all wrong, and might be +shown up. +</p> +<p> +Those who were timid feared the anger of the +dominant party; those who were young might +have their prospects blighted by even appearing +in friendly relations with him who supported the +unequal conflict; those who were old loved +repose, and found it easiest to appear to side with +the most numerous party; whilst those who saw +<span id='page-164' class='pagenum'>164</span>through the whole of it, had better things wherewith +to occupy their minds, than to attend to such +affairs. +</p> +<p> +It is obvious to all who have observed society +that such a system of “<i>discrediting</i>” carried on for +a series of years, especially against one too much +occupied or too proud to expose it, must end in +establishing the set of opinions propagated by the +party. Honest and even tolerably well-informed +persons, will at length be misled, and be found to +adopt them. +</p> +<p> +Opinions thus propagated must have had their +influence widely spread, and unless those members +of the various administrations with whom decisions +relative to the Difference Engine rested, had been +either highly skilled in mathematical science, or +deeply read in human nature, it would have been +almost impossible for them not to have been +misled. +</p> +<p> +The former qualification is unnecessary; the +latter is indispensable for a statesman. Of the +<i>eight</i> Prime-ministers with whom I have had communications +relative to the Difference Engine, <i>one</i> +only personally examined it; doubtless not with +the view of criticising the mechanism, but of reading +the character of its author. Had my <i>official</i> +intercourse with that eminent man commenced +earlier or continued later, the fate of the Calculating +Engines would probably have been far different. +</p> +<p> +<span id='page-165' class='pagenum'>165</span>It is always difficult to trace intriguers up to a +direct intercourse with government. In the present +case, the vanity of some of them overcame their +judgment, and they gave themselves out as advisers +of the government on scientific subjects. To these +I shall not at present refer, but confine myself to +citing from official documents two cases of direct +communication with the government by persons +on whose judgment it appears to have relied. +</p> +<p> +The Whigs seemed to have had great confidence +in the devotion of the Rev. R. Sheepshanks to their +interests, since they took the extraordinary step of +appointing him, although a Clergyman, one of the +Boundary Commissioners under the Reform Bill, +and he is, I believe, at present one of the Standard +Measure Commission. +</p> +<p> +The Astronomer Royal, besides his situation at +Greenwich, has been a member of several Commissions:⁠— +</p> +<div class="align_c one_space space_after"><div class="block_align_l">The Tidal Harbour Commission.<br> +The Standard Measure Commission.<br> +The Harbour of Refuge Commission.<br> +The Railway Gauge Commission.<br> +</div></div><p> +The following are extracts from his Annual +Reports:⁠— +</p> +<div class='fontp9 margtb'> +<p> +“The Board of Admiralty, on my representation of the interruption +to our business caused by the rating of so many +Chronometers, and <i>by my own employment on public business +unconnected with the Observatory</i>, immediately sanctioned +<span id='page-166' class='pagenum'>166</span>the employment of an additional computer.”⁠—<i>Astron. Royal, +Rep. June 1841</i>, p. 7. +</p> +<p> +“On former occasions I have avowed without scruple that +I do not consider the Royal Observatory as a mere isolated +place for the conduct of Astronomical observations. I consider +it a part, perhaps the most important part, of the scientific +institutions of this country.”⁠—P. 18. +</p> +<p> +“In concluding this long report, I have been uniformly +supported by the <i>confidence of the government</i>.”⁠—<i>Astron. +Royal, Rep. June 1844</i>, p. 20. +</p> +</div> +<p> +The following extract of a letter from the Astronomer +Royal to the late Sir Robert Peel, shows +that his time was so occupied with the labours of +the Railway Gauge Commission, that he was +unable to draw up a memorial which he had himself +proposed, even though it related to an astronomical +subject⁠—our colonial observatories. +</p> +<div class='fontp9 margtb'> +<p> +* * * * “I have been so closely employed on +the papers of the Railway Gauge Commission, that it has been +impossible for me to draw up a memorial before the present +time. * * * * +</p> +<p> +“April 16th, 1846. +</p> +<p class=''> +To the Right Hon. Sir Robert Peel, Bart., &c.”</p> +<p> +“By the giving opinions on subjects of railways and <i>other +mechanical matters referred to me by Government</i>, it has +appeared that our energies are not wholly absorbed in the +mere Astronomy of the Observatory.”⁠—<i>Astron. Royal, Rep. +June 1846</i>, p. 10. +</p> +<p class="align_c one_space"> +(N.B. The italics do not occur in the original quotations.) +</p> +</div> +<p> +Now it is evident from these extracts from +Reports of the Astronomer Royal to the Board of +Visitors and from other facts, that he wishes himself +<span id='page-167' class='pagenum'>167</span>to be considered the general referee of Government +in all scientific questions. +</p> +<p> +The office of Astronomer Royal is one of great +importance: it requires the undivided energy and +talents of one person, and great as Mr. Airy’s +abilities undoubtedly are, yet it is highly injudicious +to divert them from their legitimate object,⁠—the +direction of the many arduous duties of the establishment +over which he presides. +</p> +<p> +During many years I have frequently found, in +my communications with members of Government +on subjects connected with the Calculating Engines, +difficulties on their part which remained entirely +unexplained;⁠—unseen obstacles which were never +alluded to, but whose existence could not be +doubted. +</p> +<p> +Although frequently warned by personal friends +that it was unwise to neglect such machinations as +those which I have, at length, been reluctantly +compelled to expose; yet I was unwilling for a +long time to believe that they were directed against +myself. +</p> +<p> +I have now traced the connexion of the Rev. +R. Sheepshanks, (who had avowed his determination +“<i>to discredit me</i>,” and also to “<i>attack me on another +subject at a future time</i>,”) through his friend the +Astronomer Royal, with the Government. According +to the Astronomer Royal’s own statement, he +was their adviser on all scientific subjects. The +<span id='page-168' class='pagenum'>168</span>Government had no other official adviser, and would +scarcely have ventured to decide upon points connected +with some of the most profound questions +of mathematics, on their own responsibility. +</p> +<p> +There are, I am aware, other channels than those +of official reports, by which the Government may +have been influenced. I do not, therefore, expect +to find any formal report denying the practical +utility of the Calculating Engines, or the possibility +of constructing them. +</p> +<p> +If there is any such, I claim as a matter of +justice, that it be published. The Difference +Engine and the Analytical Engine, are questions of +pure science. If the Astronomer Royal has maintained +that they are either useless or impracticable, +then the grounds of that opinion <i>must</i> have been +stated, and, if published, the solidity of those +grounds might be examined. +</p> +<p> +It now becomes necessary to take a very brief +review of the conduct of Government with respect +to the Difference Engine. Having contrived and +executed a small model of a Difference Engine, +I published a very short account of it in a letter +to Sir Humphry Davy, in the year 1822. At +the wish of the Government I undertook to construct +for them an engine on a much larger scale, +which should print its results. I continued to work +at this Engine until 1834, refusing in the mean +time other sources of profitable occupation, amongst +<span id='page-169' class='pagenum'>169</span>which was an office of about 2,500<i>l.</i> a-year. +Circumstances over which I had no control then +caused the work to be suspended. +</p> +<p> +After eight years of repeated applications, and +of the most harassing delay, at the end of 1842 +the Government arrived at the resolution of giving +up the completion of the Difference Engine, on the +alleged ground of its expense. +</p> +<p> +In the mean time, new views had opened out to +me the prospect of performing purely algebraic +operations by means of mechanism. To arrive at +so entirely unexpected a result I deemed worthy of +any sacrifice, and accordingly spared no expense in +procuring every subsidiary assistance which could +enable me to attain it. Each successive difficulty +was met by new contrivances, and at last I found +that I had surmounted all the great difficulties of +the question, and had made drawings of each distinct +department of the Analytical Engine. +</p> +<p> +Having expended upwards of 20,000<i>l.</i> on the +experiments and inquiries which had led me to +these results, it would not have been prudent to +attempt the <i>construction</i> of such an engine. I +thought, however, that there were several offices +in the appointment of Government for which I was +qualified, and to which, under the circumstances, +I had some claim. I hoped if I had obtained one +of these, by fulfilling its laborious duties for a few +years, and by allowing the whole salary to accumulate, +<span id='page-170' class='pagenum'>170</span>that I might then have been able to retire, and +adding the money thus earned to my own private +resources, that I might yet have enough of life and +energy left to <i>execute</i> the Analytical Engine, and +thus complete one of the great objects of my +ambition. +</p> +<p> +Having neither asked nor been offered any +acknowledgment for all the sacrifices I had made, +I felt that I had some just claims to one of these +appointments. Every application was unsuccessful; +whatever may have been the reasons, the conduct +of Government has been exactly that which might +have been expected had they been the <i>allies</i> or the +<i>dupes</i> of the party which thought it necessary, +from enmity to Sir James South, to “discredit” +the author of the Analytical Engine. +</p> +<p> +One only of the many reports which were circulated, +I thought it worth while to contradict, and +that cost me more trouble, and wasted more of my +time, than the refutation of the calumny was worth. +It was boldly and perseveringly stated that I had +received from the Government a large pecuniary +reward for my services. The fact was, not merely +that I never <i>did</i> receive any such reward, but that +I was almost constantly <i>advancing money</i> to pay +the engineer who was constructing the Engine for +the Government, before I had myself received the +amount of his bills from the Treasury. +</p> +<p> +On tracing up these rumours, they were usually +<span id='page-171' class='pagenum'>171</span>found to arise from a species of dishonesty very +difficult to convict. Thus one person circulated +them widely; when asked for the grounds of the +charge, he referred to certain Parliamentary Papers, +and affected to believe that the sums paid <i>for the +workmen</i> were paid to the <i>inventor</i>: of course <i>he</i> +could no longer safely propagate the falsehood. +Another then took up the tale, until he was met by +the same question, when <i>he</i> not only expressed his +delight at being informed of the truth, but half +convinced his indignant, though credulous auditor, +that <i>he</i> would assist in propagating the correction. +Thus the assertion was continually repeated, until +honourable and upright men, who had been deceived +and discovered the deception, were so +frequent in society, that it became dangerous to +the character of the traducers to continue the +circulation of the calumny. +</p> +<p> +Even since the first edition of this work has +appeared, one of these calumnies has been again +revived, in the statement that⁠— +</p> +<div class='fontp9 margtb'> +<p> +The reason why the Government gave up the construction +of the original Difference Engine was, that Mr. Babbage refused +to finish <i>it</i>, and wished them to take up the Difference +Engine No. 2. +</p> +</div> +<p> +An attempt has been made to prove its truth by +a quotation from this volume, in which the accuser, +mistaking dates, assigns the drawings of the Difference +Engine No. 2, which did not exist until 1847, +<span id='page-172' class='pagenum'>172</span>as the causes of the discontinuance of No. 1, which +was given up in 1843. This charge too is made in +the face of a distinct denial by Mr. Babbage that the +late Sir Robert Peel could have been influenced by +any such <i>supposed</i> wish, because he had in his possession +a written <i>disavowal</i> of it from Mr. B. himself; it +is also made in the teeth of the very words used by +the Chancellor of the Exchequer, who, in his letter +to Mr. B. regretting the necessity of giving it up, +assigns as its cause “<i>the expense</i>.” Both these +latter statements had been already published in +1848. +</p> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_16'> +<p> +[<a href='#fnb_16'>16</a>] Reflections on the Decline of Science in England, and on +some of its Causes. 1830. +</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_17'> +<p> +[<a href='#fnb_17'>17</a>] A small pamphlet, the production of an amiable and +excellent foreign philosopher, cannot be considered an answer: +since it did not <i>contradict</i> the facts, and only answered opinions +on science, which were <i>not</i> maintained in that book. +</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_18'> +<p> +[<a href='#fnb_18'>18</a>] Athenæum, 14 Oct. 1848, and 16 Dec. 1848. +</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_19'> +<p> +[<a href='#fnb_19'>19</a>] Sir James South, in conjunction with Sir John Herschel, +completed the examination of 380 double and triple stars; a +work for which the authors were awarded the great Astronomical +prize of the Institute of France in 1825, and the Medal +of the Astronomical Society of London in 1826. +</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_20'> +<p> +[<a href='#fnb_20'>20</a>] “When he [Sir J. S.] was elected President, I [Rev. R. S.] +was elected Secretary to keep him in order.” +</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_21'> +<p> +[<a href='#fnb_21'>21</a>] At an earlier period of his life, his studies were directed +towards the profession of the law. +</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_22'> +<p> +[<a href='#fnb_22'>22</a>] On the 19th July, 1836, at the 23d meeting under the +Arbitrator, the Rev. R. Sheepshanks <i>cross-examined</i> Mr. +Savage the Architect. +</p> +</div> +<div class="chapter"><span id='page-173' class='pagenum'>173</span><h2 id='tg_13'>CHAPTER XIII.<br> +<span class='smaller'>CALCULATING ENGINES.</span> +</h2></div> +<p class='two_space'> +<span class="small-caps">It</span> is not a bad definition of <i>man</i> to describe +him as a <i>tool-making animal</i>. His earliest contrivances +to support uncivilized life, were tools of the +simplest and rudest construction. His latest +achievements in the substitution of machinery, not +merely for the skill of the human hand, but for the +relief of the human intellect, are founded on the use +of tools of a still higher order.</p> +<p> +The successful construction of all machinery +depends on the perfection of the tools employed, +and whoever is a master in the art of tool-making +possesses the key to the construction of all machines. +</p> +<p> +The Crystal Palace, and all its splendid contents, +owe their existence to <i>tools</i> as the physical means:⁠—to +intellect as the guiding power, developed +equally on works of industry or on objects of taste. +</p> +<p> +The contrivance and the construction of tools, +must therefore ever stand at the head of the industrial +arts. +</p> +<p> +The next stage in the advancement of those arts +<span id='page-174' class='pagenum'>174</span>is equally necessary to the progress of each. It +is the art of drawing. Here, however, a divergence +commences: the drawings of the artist are +entirely different from those of the mechanician. +The drawings of the latter are Geometrical projections, +and are of vast importance in all mechanism. +The resources of mechanical drawing have not yet +been sufficiently explored: with the great advance +now making in machinery, it will become necessary +to assist its powers by practical yet philosophical +rules for expressing still more clearly by signs and +by the letters themselves the mutual relations of +the parts of a machine. +</p> +<p> +As we advance towards machinery for more complicated +objects, other demands arise, without satisfying +which our further course is absolutely stopped. +It becomes necessary to see at a glance, not only +every <i>successive</i> movement of each amongst thousands +of different parts, but also to scrutinize all +contemporaneous actions. This gave rise to the +Mechanical Notation, a language of signs, which, +although invented for one subject, is of so comprehensive +a nature as to be applicable to many. If +the whole of the facts relating to a naval or military +battle were known, the mechanical notation would +assist the description of it quite as much as it would +that of any complicated engine. +</p> +<p> +This brief sketch has been given partly with the +view of more distinctly directing attention to an +<span id='page-175' class='pagenum'>175</span>important point in which England excels all other +countries⁠—the art of <i>contriving and making tools</i>; +an art which has been continually forced upon my +own observation in the contrivance and construction +of the Calculating Engines. +</p> +<p> +When the first idea of inventing mechanical +means for the calculation of all classes of astronomical +and arithmetical tables, occurred to me, I +contented myself with making simple drawings, +and with forming a small model of a few parts. +But when I understood it to be the wish of the +Government that a large engine should be constructed, +a very serious question presented itself for +consideration:⁠— +</p> +<p> +Is the present state of the art of making +machinery sufficiently advanced to enable me to +execute the multiplied and highly complicated +movements required for the Difference Engine? +</p> +<p> +After examining all the resources of existing +workshops, I came to the conclusion that, in order +to succeed, it would become necessary to advance +the art of construction itself. I trusted with some +confidence that those studies which had enabled me +to contrive mechanism for new wants, would be +equally useful for the invention of new tools, or of +other methods of employing the old. +</p> +<p> +During the many years the construction of the +Difference Engine was carried on, the following +course was adopted. After each drawing had been +<span id='page-176' class='pagenum'>176</span>made, a new inquiry was instituted to determine +the mechanical means by which the several parts +were to be formed. Frequently sketches, or new +drawings, were made, for the purpose of constructing +the tools or mechanical arrangements thus +contrived. This process often elicited some simpler +mode of construction, and thus the original contrivances +were improved. In the mean time, many +workmen of the highest skill were constantly +employed in making the tools, and afterwards in +using them for the construction of parts of the +engine. The knowledge thus acquired by the +workmen, matured in many cases by their own +experience, and often perhaps improved by their +own sagacity, was thus in time disseminated widely +throughout other workshops. Several of the most +enlightened employers and constructors of machinery, +who have themselves contributed to its +advance, have expressed to me their opinion that if +the Calculating Engine itself had entirely failed, the +money expended by Government in the attempt to +make it, would be well repaid by the advancement it +had caused in the art of mechanical construction. +</p> +<p> +It is somewhat singular, that whilst I had anticipated +the difficulties of construction, I had not +foreseen a far greater difficulty, which, however, +was surmounted by the invention of the Mechanical +Notation. +</p> +<p> +The state of the <i>Difference Engine</i> at the time +<span id='page-177' class='pagenum'>177</span>it was abandoned by the Government, was as +follows: A considerable portion of it had been +made; a part (about sixteen figures) was put +together; and the drawings, the whole of which are +now in the Museum of King’s College at Somerset +House, were far advanced. Upon this engine the +Government expended about £17,000. +</p> +<p> +The drawings of the <i>Analytical Engine</i> have been +made entirely at <i>my own cost</i>: I instituted a long +series of experiments for the purpose of reducing +the expense of its construction to limits which +might be within the means I could myself afford to +supply. I am now resigned to the necessity of +abstaining from its construction, and feel indisposed +even to finish the drawings of one of its many +general plans. As a slight idea of the state of the +drawings may be interesting to some of my readers, +I shall refer to a few of the great divisions of the +subject. +</p> +<p> +<span class="small-caps">Arithmetical Addition.</span>⁠—About a dozen +plans of different mechanical movements have been +drawn. The last is of the very simplest order. +</p> +<p> +<span class="small-caps">Carriage of Tens.</span>⁠—A larger number of drawings +have been made of modes of carrying tens. +They form two classes, in one of which the carriage +takes place successively; in the other it occurs +simultaneously, as will be more fully explained at +the end of this chapter. +</p> +<p> +<span class="small-caps">Multiplying by Tens.</span>⁠—This is a very important +<span id='page-178' class='pagenum'>178</span>process, though not difficult to contrive. Three +modes are drawn; the difficulties are chiefly those of +construction, and the most recent experiments now +enable me to use the simplest form. +</p> +<p> +<span class="small-caps">Digit Counting Apparatus.</span>⁠—It is necessary +that the machine should count the digits of the +numbers it multiplies and divides, and that it should +combine these properly with the number of decimals +used. This is by no means so easy as +the former operation: two or three systems of contrivances +have been drawn. +</p> +<p> +<span class="small-caps">Counting Apparatus.</span>⁠—This is an apparatus of +a much more general order, for treating the indices +of functions and for the determination of the repetitions +and movements of the Jacquard cards, on which +the Algebraic developments of functions depend. +Two or three such mechanisms have been drawn. +</p> +<p> +<span class="small-caps">Selectors.</span>⁠—The object of the system of contrivances +thus named, is to choose in the operation +of Arithmetical division the proper multiple to be +subtracted; this is one of the most difficult parts +of the engine, and several different plans have been +drawn. The one at last adopted is, considering the +object, tolerably simple. Although division is an +inverse operation, it is possible to perform it entirely +by mechanism without any tentative process. +</p> +<p> +<span class="small-caps">Registering Apparatus.</span>⁠—This is necessary in +division to record the quotient as it arises. It is +simple, and different plans have been drawn. +</p> +<p> +<span id='page-179' class='pagenum'>179</span><span class="small-caps">Algebraic Signs.</span>⁠—The means of combining +these are very simple, and have been drawn. +</p> +<p> +<span class="small-caps">Passage through Zero and Infinity.</span>⁠—This +is one of the most important parts of the Engine, +since it may lead to a totally different action upon +the formulæ employed. The mechanism is much +simpler than might have been expected, and is +drawn and fully explained by notations. +</p> +<p> +<span class="small-caps">Barrels and Drums.</span>⁠—These are contrivances +for grouping together certain mechanical actions +often required; they are occasionally under the +direction of the cards; sometimes they guide themselves, +and sometimes their own guidance is interfered +with by the Zero Apparatus. +</p> +<p> +<span class="small-caps">Groupings.</span>⁠—These are drawings of several of +the contrivances before described, united together +in various forms. Many drawings of them exist. +</p> +<p> +<span class="small-caps">General Plans.</span>⁠—Drawings of all the parts +necessary for the Analytical Engine have been made +in many forms. No less than thirty different general +plans for connecting them together, have been +devised and partially drawn; one or two are far +advanced. No. 25 was lithographed at Paris in +1840. These have been superseded by simpler or +more powerful combinations, and the last and most +simple has only been sketched. +</p> +<p> +A large number of Mechanical Notations exist, +showing the movements of these several parts, +and also explaining the processes of arithmetic and +<span id='page-180' class='pagenum'>180</span>algebra to which they relate. One amongst them, +for the process of division, covers nearly thirty large +folio sheets. +</p> +<p> +About twenty years after I had commenced the +first Difference Engine, and after the greater part +of these drawings had been completed, I found +that almost every contrivance in it had been superseded +by new and more simple mechanism, which +the construction of the Analytical Engine had +rendered necessary. Under these circumstances +I made drawings of an entirely new Difference +Engine. The drawings, both for the calculating +and the printing parts, amounting in number to +twenty-four, are completed. They are accompanied +by the necessary mechanical notations, and by an +index of letters to the drawings; so that although +there is as yet no description in words, there is +effectively such a description by signs, that this +new Difference Engine might be constructed from +them. +</p> +<p> +Amongst the difficulties which surrounded the +idea of the construction of an Engine for developing +Analytical formulæ, there were some which seemed +insuperable if not impossible, not merely to the common +understandings of well-informed persons, but +even to the more practised intellect of some of the +greatest masters of that science which the machine +was intended to control. It still seemed, after much +discussion, at least highly doubtful whether such +<span id='page-181' class='pagenum'>181</span>formulæ could ever be brought within the grasp of +mechanism. +</p> +<p> +I have met in the course of my inquiries with +four cases of obstacles presenting the appearance +of impossibilities. As these form a very interesting +chapter in the history of the human mind, and are +on the one hand connected with some of the +simplest elements of mechanism, and on the other +with some of the highest principles of philosophy, +I shall endeavour to explain them in a short, and, +I hope, somewhat popular manner, to those who +have a very moderate share of mathematical knowledge. +Those of my readers to whom they may +not be sufficiently interesting, will, I hope, excuse +the interruption, and pass on to the succeeding +chapters. +</p> +<p> +§ The first difficulty arose at an early stage of the +Analytical Engine. The mechanism necessary to +add one number to another, if the carriage of the +tens be neglected, is very simple. Various modes had +been devised and drawings of about a dozen contrivances +for carrying the tens had been made. The +same general principle pervaded all of them. Each +figure wheel when receiving addition, in the act of +passing from nine to ten caused a lever to be put +aside. An axis with arms arranged spirally upon it +then revolved, and commencing with the lowest +figure replaced successively those levers which might +have been put aside during the addition. This +<span id='page-182' class='pagenum'>182</span>replacing action upon the levers caused unity to be +added to the figure wheel next above. The numerical +example below will illustrate the process. +</p> +<table class='avoid_break center fontp9'> +<tr> +<td class="align_r valign_t">5</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">9</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">7</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">,</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">9</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">9</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">9</td> +<td rowspan="2" class="align_l valign_m pad_lx">Numbers to be added.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_r valign_t">2</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">1</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">,</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">1</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="7" class='bot_line'></td> +<td class="align_l valign_t"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_r valign_t">7</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">9</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">8</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">,</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">9</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">9</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_l valign_t pad_lx">Sum without any carriage.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_r valign_t"></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t"></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t"></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t"></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t"></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">1</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t"></td> +<td class="align_l valign_t pad_lx">Puts aside lever acting on tens.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="7" class='bot_line'></td> +<td class="align_l valign_t"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_r valign_t">7</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">9</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">8</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">,</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">9</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_l valign_t pad_lx">First spiral arm adds tens and</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_r valign_t"></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t"></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t"></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t"></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">1</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t"></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t"></td> +<td class="align_l valign_t pad_lx">puts aside the next lever.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="7" class='bot_line'></td> +<td class="align_l valign_t"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_r valign_t">7</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">9</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">8</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">,</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_l valign_t pad_lx">Second spiral arm adds hundreds, and</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_r valign_t"></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t"></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">1</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t"></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t"></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t"></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t"></td> +<td class="align_l valign_t pad_lx">puts aside the next lever.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="7" class='bot_line'></td> +<td class="align_l valign_t"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_r valign_t">7</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">9</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">9</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">,</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +<td class="align_l valign_t pad_lx">Third spiral arm adds thousands.</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p> +Now there is in this mechanism a certain analogy +with the act of memory. The lever thrust aside +by the passage of the tens, is the equivalent of the +note of an event made in the memory, whilst the +spiral arm, acting at an after time upon the lever +put aside, in some measure resembles the endeavours +made to recollect a fact. +</p> +<p> +It will be observed that in these modes of +<i>carrying</i>, the action must be <i>successive</i>. Supposing +a number to consist of thirty places of figures, each +of which is a nine, then if any other number of +thirty figures be added to it, since the addition of +each figure to the corresponding one takes place at +the same time, the whole addition will only occupy +nine units of time. But since the number added +may be unity, the carriages may possibly amount +<span id='page-183' class='pagenum'>183</span>to twenty-nine. Consequently the time of making +the carriages may be more than three times as long +as that required for addition. +</p> +<p> +The time thus occupied was, it is true, very +considerably shortened in the Difference Engine: +but when the Analytical Engine was to be contrived, +it became essentially necessary to diminish +it still further. After much time fruitlessly expended +in many contrivances and drawings, a very +different principle, which seemed indeed at first to +be impossible, suggested itself. +</p> +<p> +It is evident that whenever a carriage is conveyed +to the figure above, if that figure happen to be a nine, +a new carriage must then take place, and so on as +far as the nines extend. Now the principle sought +to be expressed in mechanism amounted to this. +</p> +<p> +1st. That a lever should be put aside, as before, +on the passage of a figure-wheel from nine to ten. +</p> +<p> +2d. That the engine should then ascertain the +position of all those nines which by carriage would +ultimately become zero, and give notice of new +carriages; that, foreseeing those events, it should +anticipate the result by making all the carriages +simultaneously. +</p> +<p> +This was at last accomplished, and many different +mechanical contrivances fulfilling these conditions +were drawn. The former part of this mechanism +bears an analogy to memory, the latter to +foresight. The apparatus remembers as it were, +<span id='page-184' class='pagenum'>184</span>one set of events, the transits from nine to ten: +examines what nines are found in certain critical +places: then, in consequence of the concurrence of +these events, acts at once so as to anticipate other +actions that would have happened at a more distant +period, had less artificial means been used. +</p> +<p> +§ The second apparent impossibility seemed to +present far greater difficulty. Fortunately it was +not one of immediate <i>practical</i> importance, although +as a question of philosophical inquiry it possessed +the highest interest. I had frequently discussed +with Mrs. Somerville and my highly gifted +friend the late Professor M‘Cullagh of Dublin, +the question whether it was possible that we +should be able to treat algebraic formulæ by +means of machinery. The result of many inquiries +led to the conclusion, that if not really +impossible, it was almost hopeless. The first difficulty +was that of representing an indefinite number +in a machine of finite size. It was readily +admitted that if a machine afforded means of +operating on <i>all</i> numbers under twenty places of +figures, then that any number, or <i>an indefinite</i> +number, of less than twenty places or figures might +be represented by it. But such number will not +be really indefinite. It would be possible to make +a machine capable of operating upon numbers of +forty, sixty, or one hundred places of figures: still, +however, a limit must at last be reached, and the +<span id='page-185' class='pagenum'>185</span>numbers represented would not be really <i>indefinite</i>. +After lengthened consideration of this subject, the +solution of the difficulty was discovered; and it +presented the appearance of reasoning in a circle. +</p> +<p> +Algebraical operations in their most general form +cannot be carried on by machinery without the +capability of expressing <i>indefinite</i> constants. On +the other hand, the only way of arriving at the +expression of an indefinite constant, was through +the intervention of Algebra itself. +</p> +<p> +This is not a fit place to enter into the detail +of the means employed, further than to observe, +that it was found possible to evade the difficulty, +by connecting <i>indefinite</i> number with the <i>infinite in +time</i> instead of with the <i>infinite in space</i>. +</p> +<p> +The solution of this difficulty being found, and +the discovery of another principle having been made, +namely⁠—that <i>the nature of a function might be +indicated by its position</i>⁠—algebra, in all its most +abstract forms, was placed completely within the +reach of mechanism. +</p> +<p> +§ The third difficulty that presented itself was +one which I had long before anticipated. It +was proposed to me nearly at the same time by +three of the most eminent cultivators of analysis +then existing, M. Jacobi, M. Bessel, and Professor +M‘Cullagh, who were examining the drawings of +the Analytical Engine. The question they proposed +was this:⁠—How would the Analytical Engine be +<span id='page-186' class='pagenum'>186</span>able to treat calculations in which the use of tables +of logarithms, sines, &c. or any other tabular numbers +should be required? +</p> +<p> +My reply was, that as at the time logarithms +were invented, it became necessary to remodel the +whole of the formulæ of Trigonometry, in order to +adapt it to the new instrument of calculation: so +when the Analytical Engine is made, it will be +desirable to transform all formulæ containing tabular +numbers into others better adapted to the use +of such a machine. This, I replied, is the answer I +give to you as mathematicians; but I added, that +for others less skilled in our science, I had another +answer: namely⁠— +</p> +<p> +That the engine might be so arranged that wherever +tabular numbers of any kind, occurred in a formula +given it to compute, it would on arriving at +any required tabular number, as for instance, if it +required the logarithm of 1207, stop itself, and ring +a bell to call the attendant, who would find written +at a certain part of the machine “Wanted log. of +1207.” The attendant would then fetch from +tables previously computed by the engine, the logarithm +it required, and placing it in the proper +place, would lift a detent, permitting the engine to +continue its work. +</p> +<p> +The next step of the engine, on receiving the +tabular number (in this case the logarithm of 1207) +would be to <i>verify</i> the fact of its being really that +<span id='page-187' class='pagenum'>187</span>logarithm. In case no mistake had been made by +the attendant, the engine would use the given +tabular number, and go on with its work until +some other tabular number were required, when +the same process would be repeated. If, however, +any mistake had been made by the attendant, and +a wrong logarithm had been accidentally given to +the engine, it would have discovered the mistake, +and have rung a louder bell to call the attention of +its guide, who on looking at the proper place, +would see a plate above the logarithm he had just +put in with the word “<i>wrong</i>” engraven upon it. +</p> +<p> +By such means it would be perfectly possible to +make all calculations requiring tabular numbers, +without the chance of error. +</p> +<p> +Although such a plan does not seem absolutely +impossible, it has always excited, in those informed +of it for the first time, the greatest surprise. +How, it has been often asked, does it happen if the +engine knows when the <i>wrong</i> logarithm is offered +to it, that it does not also know the right one; and +if so, what is the necessity of having recourse to the +attendant to supply it? The solution of this difficulty +is accomplished by the very simplest means. +</p> +<p> +§ The fourth of the apparent impossibilities to +which I have referred, involves a condition of so +extraordinary a nature that even the most fastidious +inquirer into the powers of the Analytical Engine +could scarcely require it to fulfil. +</p> +<p> +<span id='page-188' class='pagenum'>188</span>Knowing the kind of objections that my countrymen +make to this invention, I proposed to +myself this inquiry:⁠— +</p> +<p> +Is it possible so to construct the Analytical +Engine, that after the cards representing the +formulæ and numbers are put into it, and the handle +is turned, the following condition shall be fulfilled? +</p> +<p> +The attendant shall stop the machine in the +middle of its work, whenever he chooses, and as +often as he pleases. At each stoppage he shall +examine all the figure wheels, and if he can, +without breaking the machine, move any of them +to other figures, he shall be at liberty to do so. +Thus he may from time to time, falsify as many +numbers as he pleases. Yet notwithstanding +this, the final calculation and all the intermediate +steps shall be entirely free from error. I +have succeeded in fulfilling this condition by means +of a principle in itself very simple. It may add +somewhat, though not very much, to the amount of +mechanism required; in many parts of the engine +the principle has been already carried out. I by +no means think such a plan <i>necessary</i>, although +wherever it can be accomplished without expense it +ought to be adopted. +</p> +<div class="chapter"><span id='page-189' class='pagenum'>189</span><h2 id='tg_14'>CHAPTER XIV.<br> +<span class='smaller'>POSITION OF SCIENCE.</span> +</h2></div> +<p class='two_space'> +<span class="small-caps">Science</span> in England is not a profession: its +cultivators are scarcely recognised even as a class. +Our language itself contains no <i>single</i> term by +which their occupation can be expressed. We +borrow a foreign word [<i>Savant</i>] from another +country whose high ambition it is to advance +science, and whose deeper policy, in accord with +more generous feelings, gives to the intellectual +labourer reward and honour, in return for services +which crown the nation with imperishable renown, +and ultimately enrich the human race.</p> +<p> +The first question which presents itself to a +government desirous of advancing science, is to +consider what departments of knowledge it is important +that it should reward. This is a point +upon which much misunderstanding prevails, and +with regard to which interested parties have studiously +endeavoured to delude the public. +</p> +<p> +As the fund which can be applied to this purpose +<span id='page-190' class='pagenum'>190</span>even by a generous nation, is moderate, the +first limitation of its application ought naturally to +be,⁠—to confine it to those discoveries which are +from their very nature not immediately capable of +becoming a source of profit. +</p> +<p> +One of the most common errors, is to reward +persons who have merely acquired an extensive +knowledge of various departments of science, but +who have neither extended its boundaries by new +methods, nor added new principles to its theories. +</p> +<p> +§ An analogous mistake often occurs to wealthy +and benevolent persons residing in the country, +who, finding in the son of their village blacksmith +or other artificer, some great aptitude for figures, +immediately conclude that if properly trained and +then sent to College, he will turn out a great +mathematician. Now although in very rare instances +such cases may have occurred, the general +result is quite different. The lad thus selected, +if as is usually the case he is somewhat above the +average intellect, will under such favourable circumstances +probably acquire a considerable knowledge +of science, and become a very respectable member +of society. But if the benevolent person who thus +totally changed the position in life of this young +man, had first made inquiries at our national schools, +he would probably have found several out of every +hundred scholars, capable under similar treatment of +acquiring a still larger amount of that knowledge. +</p> +<p> +<span id='page-191' class='pagenum'>191</span>§ With the increasing extension of science the +labour of some of its details becomes excessive, and +those who are able to afford the expense, gladly +employ computers to relieve them from the more +irksome portions of their toil. The reduction of +astronomical and meteorological observations are of +this kind. When once the formulæ to be used are +decided upon, and a skeleton form is ruled or printed +and a system of checks is devised, the remaining +work may be executed by persons of very moderate +attainments. This may be extended to the computation +of the orbits of planets, of comets, and of +double stars, and such assistance may usually be +had on very moderate terms. In more extensive +operations, the liability to error from the want +of sufficient checks, and the great tediousness and +even uncertainty of the result must remain, until +mechanism shall entirely relieve the mind from +these difficulties. +</p> +<p> +§ Let us now consider what is the present situation +of men of science in England. +</p> +<p> +The estimate which is formed of the social +position of any class of society, depends mainly +upon the answer to these two questions:⁠— +</p> +<p> +What are the salaries of the highest offices to +which the most successful may aspire? +</p> +<p> +What are the honorary distinctions which the +most eminent can attain? +</p> +<p> +Offices of a strictly scientific nature are few, and +<span id='page-192' class='pagenum'>192</span>their salaries are generally of small amount: +amongst these there are⁠— +</p> +<p> +A few of the professorships at our universities. +</p> +<p> +The Astronomer Royal. +</p> +<p> +The Astronomers of some of our Colonial Observatories. +</p> +<p> +The Master of Mechanics to the Queen. +</p> +<p> +The Conductor of the Nautical Almanac. +</p> +<p> +The Director of the Museum of Economical +Geology and of the Geological Survey. +</p> +<p> +Various officers of the same institution. +</p> +<p> +Some of the officers in the Natural History department +of the British Museum. +</p> +<p> +The most valuable of these, that of Astronomer +Royal, receives about 1,300<i>l.</i> a-year, including a +pension of 300<i>l.</i> +</p> +<p> +Thus there is amongst this class one solitary +prize of at the utmost 1,300<i>l.</i> a-year, and that is +confined to one department of science. +</p> +<p> +Offices for which men of science are at least as +fit as any other persons, are numerous, though they +are very rarely attained by those who pursue it. +</p> +<p class='two_space'> +It may, perhaps, have been expected that the +recent appointment of Sir John Herschel to the Mastership +of the Mint, should have been noticed in the +previous list. But until the motives which dictated +it are known, I have no observation to make, except +that it is gratifying to me to find that the great +<span id='page-193' class='pagenum'>193</span>principle of the “claims of science,” for which I +have all my life been contending, has been thus as +it were, unconsciously admitted by the minister: +and had the accident of birth placed me in his +position, the appointment would have been the same, +although the motives for it might have been different.</p> +<p> +Let us now turn to the <i>honorary distinctions</i> +which await science. During the eleven years of +the present reign, one solitary instance is to be +found of a baronetcy given for science, and that too +occurred only at a festival (the coronation) at which +baronetages and peerages were showered upon +those whose sole claim was founded on the mere +support of party. +</p> +<p> +During the same interval, about half a dozen of +those who cultivate science, have been knighted. +</p> +<p> +It appears then that the highest position a man +of science can attain, and that but very rarely, is a +baronetcy; that the highest salary is about 1,000<i>l.</i> +a-year. When this is compared with the most successful +prizes in the army, the navy, the church, or +the bar, it shows at once the inferior position occupied +by science. +</p> +<p> +Connected with the navy is an office which ought +to be held by a person eminently uniting science +with practical skill. The Surveyor-General of the +Navy has to decide upon questions of the greatest +difficulty. The mathematical theories and inquiries +on which the various qualities of sailing vessels and +<span id='page-194' class='pagenum'>194</span>steamers depend, are of the most complicated kind, +and are not even yet sufficiently advanced to serve +as secure and absolute guides. Yet without a knowledge +of their present state, and a power of advancing +those theories, it is hopeless to expect the +greatest and most valuable additions to the science +of naval architecture. This can only be accomplished +by one who combines a great facility in +applying such portions of them as admit of it, to +the practical facts which experience is continually +bringing to light. +</p> +<p> +The talent for commanding a fleet is by no +means rare: the most successful in that line may +attain fortune, the peerage, and a large pension. +The talent for investigating the laws regulating the +forms of ships, is of the very rarest order. Even if +its possessor should happen to be of the naval profession, +his greatest reward could only extend to +knighthood, and a thousand a-year during the tenure +of an office of great labour. Of course, naval men +having the requisite talents, would never turn them +into so unprofitable a direction: yet it would be +difficult to say how many millions of money have +been, and continue to be, uselessly expended for +want of that knowledge. +</p> +<p> +Amongst those situations in the appointment of +the government, there are many in which a knowledge +of various branches of science is highly useful. +A considerable number of these are filled by officers +of engineers, artillery, and other corps of the army +<span id='page-195' class='pagenum'>195</span>and of the navy. Thus those whose service is +already paid for by the country, are excused from +doing their ordinary duty, and are paid again for +doing another and perhaps a more agreeable duty. +</p> +<p> +Under the delusive plea that <i>military</i> and <i>civil</i> +engineering are the same science, military engineers +have been placed in situations for which they were +unfit, and civil engineers have been excluded, to +the injury of that profession, and to the much +greater damage of the country. The Ordnance +Magnetical Observatories will furnish an example +of the <i>economy</i> which, it is pretended, results from +such arrangements. +</p> +<p> +Some ten or twelve years ago, it was proposed by +Humboldt that various governments should establish +magnetical observatories at different points on +the earth’s surface, so chosen that by the united +information thus obtained, we might arrive at more +accurate and correct ideas of the state of the earth’s +magnetism. That plan has been pursued with +great advantage to science. A magnetical observatory +was built at Greenwich, and continuous observations +were made which have been reduced and +published annually under the direction of the +Astronomer Royal. The expense[<a href='#fn_23' id='fnb_23'>23</a>] of the Magnetic +and Meteoric Observatory, excluding that portion +of the Astronomer Royal’s salary which may be +<span id='page-196' class='pagenum'>196</span>considered due to his services in the direction of +this department, but <i>including the whole of the +making and recording the observations themselves</i>, +is 720<i>l.</i> annually. +</p> +<p> +There are other magnetical observatories in several +of our colonies in which observations are made. +These observations appear to be sent for reduction +to an establishment at Woolwich, under the superintendence +of Colonel Sabine. +</p> +<p> +Now the first and most obvious course would +have been to have employed an additional number +of computers at Greenwich, who should use the +same formulæ and methods of reduction. This +would ensure perfect uniformity, and would apparently +be the most economical plan. +</p> +<p> +The course that is actually pursued is to have +a separate establishment at Woolwich, with an +officer, and several non-commissioned officers on +extra pay, so that the account stands thus:⁠—[<a href='#fn_24' id='fnb_24'>24</a>] +</p> +<table class='avoid_break center fontp9'> +<tr> +<th class="align_l valign_t"></th> +<th class="align_r valign_b pad_left"><i>£</i></th> +<th class="align_r valign_b pad_left"><i>s.</i></th> +<th class="align_r valign_b pad_left"><i>d.</i></th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t">One officer, extra pay</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">182</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">10</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">0</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t">One non-commissioned officer, ditto</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">27</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">7</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">6</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t">Three non-commissioned officers, ditto</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">68</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">8</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">9</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t">Contingent, not exceeding</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">200</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">0</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t"></td> +<td colspan="3" class='bot_line'></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_c valign_t">Apparent expense</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b"><i>£</i>478</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">6</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">3</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p class='noindent'> +But to this must be added⁠—</p> +<table class='avoid_break center fontp9'> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t">The full pay of Lieut.-Colonel</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b pad_left">300</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b pad_left">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b pad_left">5</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t">His extra pay</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b pad_left">273</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b pad_left">15</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b pad_left">0</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t">Full pay of one officer, if a Captain</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b pad_left">192</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b pad_left">16</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b pad_left">3</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t">Ditto one non-commissioned ditto[<a href='#fn_25' id='fnb_25'>25</a>]</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b pad_left">20</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b pad_left">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b pad_left">0</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t">Ditto three ditto ditto</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b pad_left">50</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b pad_left">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b pad_left">0</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t"></td> +<td colspan="3" class='bot_line'></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_c valign_t">Real expense</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b"><i>£</i>1,314</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">17</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">11</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p> +<span id='page-197' class='pagenum'>197</span>In the estimate for civil service for 1850[<a href='#fn_26' id='fnb_26'>26</a>] the +following items occur:⁠— +</p> +<table class='avoid_break center fontp9'> +<tr> +<th class="align_l valign_t"></th> +<th class="align_r valign_t pad_left"><i>£</i></th> +<th class="align_r valign_t pad_left"><i>s.</i></th> +<th class="align_r valign_t pad_left"><i>d.</i></th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t justify">Extra pay to Colonel Sabine, Royal Artillery, for services in connexion with the Magnetic and Meteorological Observations, for ten years, from 7th May, 1839, to 7th May, 1849, at 15<i>s.</i> a-day</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">2,739</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">15</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">0</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t justify">Deduct 3<i>s.</i> 4<i>d.</i> per day granted him from 1st June, 1841, to 7th May, 1848, as compensation for loss of command pay</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">434</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">8</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">0</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t"></td> +<td colspan="3" class='bot_line'></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t"></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t"><i>£</i>2,305</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">7</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">0</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p> +This certainly requires an explanation. Here is +an officer not doing the services of his profession, +who it seems has been allowed a compensation for +what he <i>might</i> have received if he <i>had</i> rendered +those services: notwithstanding which, at the end +of ten years, he claims and is allowed the above sum +of £2,305 7<i>s.</i> for services the payment of which +it would seem by this account was never contemplated +during those ten years. +</p> +<p> +<span id='page-198' class='pagenum'>198</span>It is also to be remarked that Colonel Sabine +does not reside at Woolwich, where the only +effective portion of the work is carried on. +</p> +<p> +§ But to return to our argument: it is singular +that even the principles on which science ought +to be rewarded, are not entirely settled. +</p> +<p> +Should all equally great discoveries be rewarded +in the same way, without regard to the different +positions in society which the discoverers occupy? +If this principle were admitted, the rewards must +be very large, or there would be none for the +higher classes of society. +</p> +<p> +Of all steps in the social scale, that which first +elevates a man into the class of Gentlemen is by far +the greatest. In this country, where the differences +of rank are great, there is fortunately, until we +approach royalty, no absolute line of demarcation +between any classes, except the one alluded to; +even the peerage to a private gentleman is not so +great an advance. +</p> +<p> +It is without doubt very desirable that all classes +should contribute to the intellectual advancement of +the country. But unless different advantages are +proposed to different classes, it is not possible to +apply any general stimulus to all. +</p> +<p> +§ Those who maintain that science is its own +reward, cannot have remarked the vicious circle in +which they reason. The delight derived from discovery +<span id='page-199' class='pagenum'>199</span>is indeed a high intellectual reward, but the +force of this maxim is only known practically to +those who have already advanced in the career of +discovery: it can, therefore, never direct the inquirer +into that line. All men are subject to the same +feelings and passions. It is assuredly true that +men of wealth and rank will be happier if they +cultivate their faculties, and add to the amount of +human knowledge: but they cannot be aware of +this truth until they are considerably advanced, +consequently it cannot have induced them to commence +this cultivation. +</p> +<p> +§ But it is for the interest of those who are +the consumers of knowledge, that all other minds +should be induced to advance it: therefore it is +our interest to place even before the highest classes, +at the commencement of their career, motives for its +pursuit. Having raised such expectations, justice +requires us to fulfil them; nor can we regret that +the advantages derived from the course into which +we have invited them, should have proved beneficial +to them beyond even the limits of our prediction. +</p> +<p> +It is of the very nature of knowledge that the recondite +and apparently useless acquisition of to-day, +becomes part of the popular food of a succeeding +generation. Thus the nobleman who spends his +wealth in constructing unrivalled instruments, and +his nights in scrutinizing with them the remotest +boundaries of space into which human vision has +<span id='page-200' class='pagenum'>200</span>yet penetrated, is preparing a source of pleasure +and happiness for the descendants of those very +peasants whom his practical skill in engineering +has raised by his own instructions above the ranks +in which he originally found them. +</p> +<p> +§ Another question has been raised, but not yet +answered, respecting those pensions which have +been awarded for scientific discoveries. A certain +definite limit has been fixed by practice, which has +never yet been exceeded in pensions assigned to +science. The sum of three hundred a-year, the +maximum of reward to science, is almost the minimum +of reward for other services. +</p> +<p> +The most important question is, Whether these +pensions are given as the reward of scientific services +rendered to the country, or as charity to +enlightened and studious persons who happen to +be poor? In the one case, they are an honour +which a philosopher may be proud of receiving from +his country: in the other, they are no more than a +higher order of pauper relief, which an independent +gentleman can scarcely condescend to accept. +</p> +<p> +Another important question, though of a different +nature, also arises here. Are these pensions, thus +small in amount, fit to be offered to those who, in +order to arrive at their discoveries, have themselves +in some cases spent out of their own private fortune, +sums far larger than the fee simple of the +rewards thus offered to them. +</p> +<p> +<span id='page-201' class='pagenum'>201</span>Is it just that the <i>same rewards</i> should be given +to persons filling well-endowed scientific offices, +supplied with all the means of discovery which +the most perfect art can produce, as to other +philosophers, who, at the expense of their own +personal comfort and perhaps of the interests of +their family, have purchased the costly means by +which they have succeeded in <i>equally</i> improving +their several departments of science? +</p> +<p> +For the honour and the advancement of science, +it is necessary that these questions should be distinctly +answered. It is to be hoped that some +independent member of parliament will at last press +them in a manner which no ministerial shuffling +can evade. +</p> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_23'> +<p> +[<a href='#fnb_23'>23</a>] See App. to Rept. of Select Com. on Misc. Expenditure, +p. 222. +</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_24'> +<p> +[<a href='#fnb_24'>24</a>] See p. 221 App. to Rept. on Misc. Expenditure, p. 848 +(543) II. +</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_25'> +<p> +[<a href='#fnb_25'>25</a>] The pay of the non-commissioned officers has been +assumed as somewhat less by ten per cent. than their extra +pay. +</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_26'> +<p> +[<a href='#fnb_26'>26</a>] See p. 41, App. to Rept. on Misc. Expenditure, p. 848, +(268) IV. +</p> +</div> +<div class="chapter"><span id='page-202' class='pagenum'>202</span><h2 id='tg_15'>CHAPTER XV.<br> +<span class='smaller'>THE PRESS.</span> +</h2></div> +<p class='two_space'> +<span class="small-caps">Some</span> of the principles for the discovery of truth, +professed and acted upon by those who administer +the laws of England, and by those who practice +in its courts, are certainly repugnant to the first +impressions and feelings of honest men, if not +also to common sense. It is, therefore, absolutely +necessary, in order to remove these impressions, +to state the ground on which those principles +are defended. That ground may be shortly expressed +thus⁠—</p> +<p> +It has been found by long experience that it is +more for the advantage of truth and justice that +professional men should be stimulated by fees and +the hope of advancement, to put forward or conceal +every fact, to advance, withhold, or oppose every +inference and argument, <i>solely</i> as it may be of +advantage to the party by whom they are employed. +</p> +<p> +It is also stated that the public are aware of +this convention, and, therefore, are not deceived by +the speeches of the advocate. +</p> +<p> +<span id='page-203' class='pagenum'>203</span>Without asking whether the long experience +alluded to has ever been fortified by the trial and +the failure of an opposite course, it may be at once +stated that this mode of arriving at truth is contrary +to the result of long experience in matters of +science. In all discussions on those subjects, it is +found far more conducive to truth, if either party +in discussing a mooted point discover in his own +argument a flaw, unobserved by his opponent, that +he should immediately point it out, and that they +should both apply their minds to repair it, and if +unsuccessful, admit it. The same course is pursued +with regard to facts; every circumstance, however +apparently remote, is contributed by both inquirers +to the common stock, without the slightest care as +to its bearings on one or the other side of the +question. Facts thus conveyed for the first time +to the mind of one of the parties, often recall to his +memory analogous facts, and thus the materials +of reasoning or of induction become largely increased. +</p> +<p> +§ To this supposed legal principle, it may be +fairly objected that it is entirely a theoretical view. +To be convinced of this it is enough to appeal to +every man who has ever sat on a jury or heard one +addressed by counsel. He well knows that the very +first effort of the learned advocate is to attempt to +persuade the jury that he is no advocate at all. +This line is sustained throughout his address, and +<span id='page-204' class='pagenum'>204</span>his great object is to convince them that he himself +personally believes both the facts to which his +witnesses testify, and the inferences he adduces +from their evidence. The more skilful the advocate, +the more he endeavours to persuade the jury that +he is merely an impartial observer, assisting them +in arriving at a just conclusion. +</p> +<p> +The effects of long habit in thus mystifying less +practised reasoners, cannot fail to be injurious to +the moral character of the man. Take a case of +title to property, on which a barrister is consulted. +Suppose the holder has no right whatever to it, yet +will the barrister by every means his knowledge +and ingenuity can suggest, help his client to rob +some other person of his property. It is useless to +say that in such circumstances the attorney conceals +certain facts of his case, and does not put the +facts to the counsel in this plain way. On such +occasions the most skilful counsel are always employed, +and they are certainly competent, <i>if they +choose it</i>, to ascertain the real state of the case. In +criminal cases such attempts to mislead juries are +still more reprehensible. +</p> +<p> +§ If the principle now discussed is sound, it +is capable of application to another subject⁠—the +press. But strangely enough, lawyers, more than +any other class, abuse the press because it treats +its subject commercially, and refuse to admit that +rule in the case of editors of newspapers, which +<span id='page-205' class='pagenum'>205</span>they claim as a sanction for themselves. A little +examination, however, will show that the conduct +of the press is much more defensible than that of +the bar. +</p> +<p> +The public require a daily account of all facts connected +with politics and the institutions of the +country; it also demands analyses, discussions, and +opinions on the bearings of all such facts upon its +interests. As opinions amongst the public are +often much opposed to, or widely different from +each other, it is clear that this demand cannot be +satisfied without many newspapers. Now, looking +solely to the commercial profit arising from its sale, +it is tolerably certain that some one paper supported +by greater capital, and conducted with greater skill, +will endeavour to represent the opinions of the +largest class of those who purchase these sheets of +diurnal information. The first place being thus +occupied, other journals will arise to represent the +opinions of smaller, yet, perhaps, of powerful classes. +Thus the opinions of all parties, and, in some +measure, their relative strength, become known to +each other. This is an end much to be desired. +</p> +<p> +If the opinions of the public change, those +of the leading journal must of course follow, +even though they are directly opposed to those advocated +by it a few days before. Such a change +undoubtedly shocks the feelings of many who +remain constant to their own views, and cases often +<span id='page-206' class='pagenum'>206</span>occur in which these latter give up their usual paper. +It must, however, be admitted that there are few +political or economical questions on which one side +is morally right, the other morally wrong. That +a given man has or has not got possession of another +man’s estate, that a man has or has not committed +a murder or other crime, must, in most +cases, be well known to his counsel; if in either +case the wrong-doer escapes punishment, an injury +is done to society. But whether a given line of +policy or a given law, is more or less beneficial or +even injurious to the State, is generally dependent +on so many causes that very few are able to +foresee their consequences with tolerable certainty. +</p> +<p> +The most general and unsophisticated opinion is, +that no man is justified in advocating, even when +unpaid, doctrines in which he does not himself believe. +With respect to the press, it is possible +that the writer of the second article may be a +different individual from the person who wrote the +first article; but even were he the same person, the +bar at least have no right to find fault with +him. +</p> +<p> +§ The press then may advantageously be considered +as expressing the opinions of classes, not of +individuals. It has greatly improved in the last +quarter of a century, in consequence of the general +improvement of all classes. +</p> +<p> +There is now also fortunately established a certain +<span id='page-207' class='pagenum'>207</span>professional feeling amongst its members that reports +of speeches, or of facts, ought to be <i>rigidly exact</i>. +Abstracts of speeches will occasionally be coloured +not by additions, but by selections or omissions, +according to the side of the question advocated by +the writer. Yet even here the more popular papers +are careful to do justice to all parties. It is the +more important that this latter rule should be +admitted as a principle, because, from the great +length of the debates themselves, they are rarely +read by persons much occupied, except when questions +of great interest occur. +</p> +<p> +To such persons an <i>impartial</i> abstract is invaluable. +</p> +<p> +In the leading articles greater latitude is allowable. +These, if the theory which has been explained +is admitted, are avowedly the expressions +of the opinion of its customers. The power of the +press is undoubtedly great, yet it is bound by the +strongest ties of interest not to abuse that power. +It is clearly its interest to seem consistent, and +consequently to employ, at almost any expense, the +best means of ascertaining the opinions of the +country <i>before</i> they are publicly expressed. Having +attained this knowledge, it will get the credit of +appearing to lead public opinion. +</p> +<p> +Its powers of doing good when honestly conducted, +are yet larger than its powers of mischief. +Yet even here its power is of necessity limited. It +<span id='page-208' class='pagenum'>208</span>cannot advocate even the <i>best</i> course of policy on +any important subject unless it is tolerably certain +that it will succeed in convincing its customers that +it is <i>really</i> the best. It <i>ought</i> not to advocate that +best course, because the falling off of its subscribers +might then disable it from as effectually assisting +the <i>second best</i>. It, however, neither ought, nor is +it ultimately its interest, to conceal those opinions +from its subscribers. +</p> +<p> +The power it possesses, of exposing knaves and +swindlers, by means of its correspondents, and of +sending highly intelligent commissioners from time +to time to inquire personally into the situation of +various classes of the population, are of great value, +and could only be exercised by a wealthy as well +as by a powerful press. +</p> +<div class="chapter"><span id='page-209' class='pagenum'>209</span><h2 id='tg_16'>CHAPTER XVI.<br> +<span class='smaller'>PARTY.</span> +</h2></div> +<div class='fontp9 margtb'> +<p> +“Of all the tyrannies that molest this terrestrial scene +perhaps there is none so arbitrary, so extravagant, or so +grotesque as the tyranny of party. There is none that so +frequently subjects the wise to the caprices of the fool, and +the good to the designs of the knave.”⁠—<i>The Times, Dec. 1850.</i> +</p> +</div> +<p class='two_space'> +<span class="small-caps">There</span> are two great principles of government +which divide the opinions of mankind.</p> +<p> +1st. Unchangeableness; or, “Let things alone:”⁠—the +law of the Medes and Persians. +</p> +<p> +2d. Progress; or, the continual advancement +of mankind in the improvement of their Institutions. +</p> +<p> +No number of persons sufficiently extensive to +deserve the name of a class, have ever advocated +the principle of <i>Retrocession</i>. Some few enthusiasts +have indeed believed in a golden age, and +have advocated the pastoral, or even the hunting +life. These, however, were not persons capable of +collecting, examining, and weighing the evidence on +which alone an opinion on the comparative happiness +of people existing in a savage or in a civilized +state of life can justly be formed. +</p> +<p> +<span id='page-210' class='pagenum'>210</span>A larger number exist, the admirers of the past, +each perhaps the worshipper of his own peculiar +age. Had he lived in those times, enjoying only the +ordinary capacity he now possesses, but endowed +with all the increased knowledge of the present day, +he might then have attained a position more commensurate +with his wishes, though quite disproportioned +to the industry of his exertions or the calibre of +his intellect. +</p> +<p> +§ In our own country, “the wisdom of our ancestors” +is with some the hackneyed theme of +unbounded admiration. +</p> +<p> +Our ancestors were generally wise and sagacious +men: they applied their energies and their knowledge, +as far as it went, to their <i>existing</i> wants and +necessities. Those amongst them who deserved +that character, would, if questioned, have expressed +in language the precept to which their deeds conformed. +Availing themselves gratefully of all the +knowledge bequeathed to them by their predecessors, +they struggled to advance it for their own +and their children’s benefit, and thus they might +have counselled every generation to their latest +posterity:⁠— +</p> +<p> +“You have received from us, tested by many trials, +the treasured knowledge, gathered under difficulty +and danger, of our country’s experience. +</p> +<p> +“Let the great object of each generation be to +purify that body of knowledge from its partial +<span id='page-211' class='pagenum'>211</span>errors, to add to it the greatest amount of new +truths. +</p> +<p> +“Remember that accumulated knowledge, like +accumulated capital, increases at compound interest: +but it differs from the accumulation of +capital in this; that the increase of knowledge +produces a more rapid rate of progress, whilst the +accumulation of capital leads to a lower rate of +interest. Capital thus checks its own accumulation: +knowledge thus accelerates it own advance. +Each generation, therefore, to deserve comparison +with its predecessor, is bound to add much more +largely to the common stock than that which it +immediately succeeds.” +</p> +<p> +§ A question has not unfrequently been proposed +by those who apply their foresight to remote rather +than to immediate objects⁠— +</p> +<p> +“What will become of our posterity when our +coal-fields are exhausted?” +</p> +<p> +The best answer to this question is, that when +that distant day arrives, if our posterity, with the +accumulated knowledge of centuries, shall have +failed to find any substitute for coal in the many +other sources of heat which nature supplies, they +will then deserve to be frost-bitten. +</p> +<p> +§ It is remarkable that the great parties adopt +opposite principles in pursuance of the same line of +reasoning. +</p> +<p> +The advocates of things as they are, wish to stop +<span id='page-212' class='pagenum'>212</span>all change, in order to <i>prevent revolution</i>. Those +who inculcate continual progress, support it, because +it makes all changes gradual, and thus, in +their opinion, it <i>prevents revolution</i>. +</p> +<p> +It is by sudden changes in laws and institutions +that the greatest misery is inflicted on mankind. +Those gradual changes which are spread over a considerable +period are foreseen, and men make preparation +beforehand to accommodate themselves to +the new but expected circumstances. +</p> +<p> +If the changes effected by the Reform Bill, had been +spread over the ten preceding and ten subsequent +years, few will deny that it would have been a better +measure, and more effective for its purpose. The +experience derived from its earlier changes would +then have been available for its later uses. The pertinacity, +however, with which all reform was resisted, +led to such a state of affairs, that after the refusal to +transfer the franchise from East Retford, revolution +was averted only by vast and <i>immediate</i> concession. +</p> +<p> +§ The terms Tory and Whig had been the +watchwords of these two parties, until, at last, the +public lost all confidence in either. With the increasing +wealth of the country, and with the greater +application of observation, of reasoning, and of +science, to its many arts and manufactures, a vast +increase has been produced in the numbers, the +power, and the influence of the middle classes. +Many individuals who have raised themselves by +<span id='page-213' class='pagenum'>213</span>their intellect and industry into this class, have been +so fully impressed with the advantages of previous +training, that they have made efforts to give their +children an education more extensive and more +liberal than any which, until lately, our universities +had attempted to supply. +</p> +<p> +It is to the growth of this class, which includes +men possessing from 500<i>l.</i> to 5,000<i>l.</i> a-year, that +we are indebted for much of the strength which +public opinion now exerts upon the ministry of the +day. Notwithstanding the vast influence of wealth +and of rank throughout the country, there are still +amongst these middle classes, thousands whose +moderation renders them rich; who, therefore, can +afford to be honest, and whose approbation is +neither to be purchased by wealth, nor won by the +seductions of rank and of fashionable life. +</p> +<p> +Such men, on all public questions, influence +widely and justly the opinions of those around +them. There are such in the House of Commons; +and, with the extension of knowledge, many more +will be added to their number. +</p> +<p> +Thus the very weakness of an administration may +possibly become an advantage, since it thus becomes +impossible for government to carry any measure +entirely opposed to the calm good sense of the +people. This, however, admits of one excepted +case. If a party to advance its own interests will +pander to some strong passion, to some prejudice +<span id='page-214' class='pagenum'>214</span>of ignorance or of bigotry, it may for a time succeed, +though it will ultimately lose in character. +</p> +<p> +In the meantime, the people have found out that +Party is made use of only for the aggrandizement +of a few families; that it has degenerated into a +clique, banded together for mercenary purposes, +without enthusiasm or genius to compensate for its +meanness, and with little of talent to palliate its +want of integrity. +</p> +<p> +The reign of party, however, verges towards its +end; the supplies on which it feeds are sapped +by economical reform. That almost all places under +Government are greatly overpaid admits of no denial. +The demand for them is notoriously great, and it is +equally notorious that nothing but the strongest political +interest has any chance in the contest for them. +</p> +<p> +The government of England is nominally a +limited monarchy, but practically almost an oligarchy. +A large number of its appointments are +shared by a few families, into which some daring +and unscrupulous intruders occasionally force their +way, by opposition which it is easier to quell by +place than to answer by argument: or into which +less gifted and more cunning supporters sometimes +obtain an entrance by a judicious alliance. +</p> +<p> +§ It is strongly asserted that government cannot +go on without party. That those who maintain +this opinion are incapable of so conducting it, must +be at once admitted. +</p> +<p> +<span id='page-215' class='pagenum'>215</span>Without, however, entering into the debateable +question of the <i>limits</i> of party, it is sufficient +to state another principle, which no honest man +will deny, and then to leave to the advocates of +party to reconcile it with their doctrine. +</p> +<p> +<i>It is morally wrong to endeavour to convince any +one of the truth of an opinion in which the advocate +himself does not believe.</i> +</p> +<p> +If this principle were practically acted upon, +how much of the valuable time of both Houses of +Parliament would be saved! In looking over a +debate, or still better, a <i>division</i>, the private +opinions of many of the speakers are often well +known by their friends to be quite at variance with +the doctrines they advocated in their speeches. +The quasi-honesty of those who admit the truth in +private, is however venial, when compared with the +hypocrisy of those who are equally false on both +occasions. +</p> +<p> +Party, then, as it practically exists, is one of the +evils of the political state of England. +</p> +<p> +The remedy must come partly from the reduction +of temptation, by diminishing the salaries of all +those places and appointments for which there is +such immense competition; partly from the effect +of public opinion; and ultimately, to a far greater +extent, when any sincere desire exists to restrain it, +from improved methods of distributing patronage. +</p> +<p> +But one defect seems almost always to accompany +<span id='page-216' class='pagenum'>216</span>a high state of civilization, namely,⁠—a great +deficiency of moral courage in large classes of persons, +who from knowledge and position ought +rightly to contribute their share to the formation +and expression of public opinion. The first evil +which this produces, is an excessive zeal and energy +in a few of those who are most strongly convinced. +These bear the brunt of the attacks of all who +are interested in the support of abuses. If, unhappily, +they are not independent in fortune as +well as in spirit, these, the forlorn hope of reform, +are sure ultimately to be trampled upon and destroyed +by the jobbers⁠—they die with ruined +fortunes and broken hearts. +</p> +<p> +Many of those who shared their opinions, and +urged on their enthusiasm, but who warily abstained +from expressing their own thoughts <i>in public</i>, now +venture to avow those principles, to which opinion +has at length advanced: these reap the rewards +won by the energies and sacrifices of their martyred +friends. For such, the epithet the poet applied to +Bacon is not unfit: +</p> +<div class='fontp9 margtb'> +<p class="align_c one_space"> +⁠—“the wisest⁠—meanest of mankind.”⁠—<span class="small-caps">Pope.</span> +</p> +</div> +<p> +A very serious evil arises from this timidity in +expressing opinions. The whole state of society +presents a counterfeit surface,⁠—no man knows how +many or how few really share his opinions: its +whole fabric is in a state of unstable equilibrium; +<span id='page-217' class='pagenum'>217</span>it is liable at every moment to most unlooked-for +changes, from accidents apparently trivial. +</p> +<p> +The following is one amongst many examples +which might have been selected of the different +standard with which Party measures services rendered +to the public by those within and those +without its own limits. +</p> +<p> +In the year 1847, when some millions of English +money were sent over to save the people of Ireland +from perishing by famine, it became necessary to +organize a system of accounts and of regulations, +for the direction of those officers who were sent +over for the purpose of personally superintending +the distribution of this relief. +</p> +<p> +These arrangements were made by the Assistant +Secretary of the Treasury, Sir C. T----, K.C.B., +at extra hours; but it does not appear how many +months he was so employed. +</p> +<p> +The office at that time held by this gentleman, +was one for which he received a salary of £2,500 per +annum; and certainly this liberal salary ought to +have commanded the devotion of his whole time, if +necessary, to the public service. It would seem +that some application was made from the Treasury, +and that Lord John Russell acceded to it with unwonted +liberality. He gave the remuneration in a +manner thought unconstitutional by several eminent +members of the House of Commons, and to an +extent justly considered extravagant by the public. +</p> +<p> +<span id='page-218' class='pagenum'>218</span>The following extracts from Hansard will explain +the matter. +</p> +<div class='fontp9 margtb'> +<p> +“The Chancellor of the Exchequer.⁠—With regard to Sir +C. T----, the case was an exceptional one; but his services on +the extraordinary emergency alluded to were so very great +that it had been thought right to make a Treasury minute, +awarding him £2,500. The item would be found in the +‘Civil Contingencies’ laid before the House. +</p> +<p> +“Mr. Disraeli,⁠—while readily acknowledging the great +services rendered by this gentleman, could not forget that the +Order of the Bath had been conferred upon him⁠—a reward +bestowed upon him as for services which could not be paid by a +pecuniary grant. The vote of £2,500 was surely conceived in +rather bad taste; and a <i>preux chevalier</i> like Sir C. T----, +bearing his blushing honours, might well be supposed to recoil +from receiving an extra year’s salary. +</p> +<p> +“Mr. Gladstone⁠—condemned the conduct of Government +in this matter. It was their duty to have submitted a vote +to the House, not to have taken on themselves to reward a +public servant. If there was one rule connected with the +public service which more than any other ought to be scrupulously +observed, it was this, that the salary of a public officer, +more especially if he were of high rank, ought to cover all +the services he might be called upon to render. Any departure +from this rule must be dangerous. +</p> +<p> +“Lord John Russell said, that the Government thought the +services of Sir C. T---- were deserving of reward. +</p> +<p> +“Mr. Goulburn.⁠—According to all precedent, the House of +Commons ought to have fixed the amount of Sir C. T.’s remuneration. +</p> +<p> +“Lord John Russell.⁠—Sir C. T---- stated in his evidence +that he worked three hours before breakfast; that he then went +to the Treasury, where he worked all day; and that the pressure +upon him was such that he wondered that he had been +able to get through it alive.”⁠—<i>Hansard</i>, Vol. 101, p. 138, +1848. Supply, 14th Aug. 1848. +</p> +</div> +<p> +<span id='page-219' class='pagenum'>219</span>There appears to be some indistinctness as to +the fund out of which this 2,500<i>l.</i> was taken. +Compare Hansard with Questions 1693 and 1696 +of the Report on Miscellaneous Expenditure. +</p> +<p> +No mode of keeping accounts, however, will +alter the fact; that if the famine had not occurred, +neither would the 2,500<i>l.</i> have been required; +consequently, that sum was part of the whole +amount our humanity cost us. +</p> +<p> +The liberality of the Minister to the Assistant +Secretary of the Treasury, may be explained by +stating that he was the <i>brother-in-law</i> of a Cabinet +Minister. +</p> +<p> +There was another gentleman at least equal in +talent to the Assistant Secretary, whose services +were gratuitous, who, at the risk of his health, was +actively engaged on the spot in superintending the +distribution of the relief. To him the Government +thought it sufficient to give the Companionship of +the Bath, whilst the Assistant Secretary was made +a Commander of that Order. +</p> +<div class="chapter"><span id='page-220' class='pagenum'>220</span><h2 id='tg_17'>CHAPTER XVII.<br> +<span class='smaller'>REWARDS OF MERIT.</span> +</h2></div> +<p class='two_space'> +<span class="small-caps">The</span> personal distinctions in the gift of the +Government of this country consist of the following +five orders of knighthood:⁠—</p> +<table class='avoid_break center fontp9'> +<tr class="small"> +<th class="align_c valign_t">NAME.</th> +<th colspan="3" class="align_c valign_t">NO. OF MEMBERS.</th> +</tr> +<tr class="x_small"> +<td class="align_l valign_t"></td> +<td class="align_c valign_t">GRAND</td> +<td class="align_c valign_t">KNIGHT</td> +<td class="align_c valign_t">COMP.</td> +</tr> +<tr class="x_small"> +<td class="align_l valign_t"></td> +<td class="align_c valign_t">CROSS.</td> +<td class="align_c valign_t">COM.</td> +<td class="align_c valign_t"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t">The Garter</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b pad_lr">25</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b pad_lr"></td> +<td class="align_r valign_b pad_lr"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t">The Thistle</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b pad_lr">16</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b pad_lr"></td> +<td class="align_r valign_b pad_lr"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t">St. Patrick</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b pad_lr">16</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b pad_lr"></td> +<td class="align_r valign_b pad_lr"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t">The Bath Military</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b pad_lr">50</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b pad_lr">102</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b pad_lr">525</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t">The Bath Civil</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b pad_lr">25</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b pad_lr">50</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b pad_lr">200</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t">St. George and St. Michael</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b pad_lr">15</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b pad_lr">20</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b pad_lr">25</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t"></td> +<td colspan="3" class='bot_line'></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t"></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t pad_lr">147</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t pad_lr">172</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t pad_lr">750</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p> +Of these, the first three are restricted, with few +and rare exceptions, to persons of a certain rank⁠—including +earls, and those above them. The number +of these, with the addition of three sons for +each duke, and of the eldest sons of marquesses, +amounts to about four hundred and fifty. Amongst +this favoured class fifty-seven ribbons may be conferred; +so that about one-eighth of the class enjoy +the decoration. +</p> +<p> +<span id='page-221' class='pagenum'>221</span>These ribbons, although much sought after by +the class amongst which they are distributed, are +more correctly appreciated by the public at large. +</p> +<p> +With some illustrious and honourable exceptions, +they are usually given by those in power to their +party supporters. They have also occasionally been +employed by the minister of the day, as inducements +to persuade his friends to postpone inconvenient +questions, to the agitation of which they +had been publicly pledged. +</p> +<p> +An amusing and characteristic anecdote respecting +one of these Orders, the Garter, is related of a +late Premier. At a time when several of these +“baubles” had fallen vacant, and been judiciously +given away by the discreet minister, a friend asked +him, why he had not retained a Garter for himself? +to which he wittily replied, “Why, the fact is, I +don’t see the use of a man’s bribing himself.” +</p> +<p> +The order of St. Michael and St. George was +instituted for the Ionian Islands, and is usually +given, after a certain time of service, to the Lord +High Commissioner, to the Commanders-in-Chief +of the Mediterranean fleet, and to other persons +connected with the public service in those +quarters. +</p> +<p> +Thus England has, practically, only one order of +merit; and, singularly enough, with the exception +of a few civil crosses of the first-class almost invariably +given for diplomatic service, until lately, +<span id='page-222' class='pagenum'>222</span>that order was not accessible to any other than +military merit. +</p> +<p> +§ In countries, however, which we fondly flattered +ourselves were less advanced in civilization than our +own, the vulgar notion of paying homage to brute +force has long been superseded by a more just +appreciation of the elements of military glory. +Nations even the most ambitious of this species of +renown, have admitted that physical prowess, that +recklessness of personal danger, form but the smallest +amongst those qualities which contribute to military +success. +</p> +<p> +It is now felt and admitted, that it is the civil +capacity of the great commander which prepares the +way for his military triumphs; that his knowledge +of human nature enables him to select the fittest +agents, and to place them in the situations best +adapted to their powers; that his intimate acquaintance +with all the accessaries which contribute to the +health and comfort of his troops, enables him to +sustain their moral and physical energy. It has +been seen that he must have studied and properly +estimated the character of his foes as well as of his +allies, and have made himself acquainted with the +personal character of the chiefs of both; and still further, +that he must have scrutinized the secret motives +which regulated their respective governments. +</p> +<p> +When directly engaged in the operations of contending +armies occupying a wide extent of country, +<span id='page-223' class='pagenum'>223</span>he must be able, with rapid glance, to ascertain the +force it is possible to concentrate upon each of many +points in any given time, and the greater or less +chance of failing in the attempt. He must also +be able to foresee, with something more than conjecture, +what amount of the enemy’s force can be +brought to the same spot in the same and in +different times. With these elements he must +undertake one of the most difficult of mental tasks, +that of classifying and grouping the innumerable +combinations to which either party may have +recourse for purposes of attack or defence. Out of +the multitude of such combinations, which might +baffle by their simple enumeration the strongest +memory, throwing aside the less important, he must +be able to discover, to fix his attention, and to act +upon the most favourable. Finally, when the course +thus selected having been pursued, and perhaps +partially carried out, is found to be entirely deranged +by one of those many chances inseparable from +such operations, then, in the midst of action, he +must be able suddenly to organise a different +system of operations, new to all other minds, yet +possibly although unconsciously, anticipated by his +own. +</p> +<p> +The genius that can meet and overcome such +difficulties <i>must</i> be intellectual, and would, under +different circumstances, have been distinguished +in many a different career. +</p> +<p> +<span id='page-224' class='pagenum'>224</span>Nor even would it be very surprising that such +a commander, estimating justly the extent of his +own powers, and conscious of having planned the +best combinations of which his mind is capable, +should, having issued his orders, calmly lie down +on the eve of the approaching conflict, and find in +sleep that bodily restoration so indispensable to the +full exercise of his faculties in the mighty struggle +about to ensue. +</p> +<p> +§ It is not uninteresting to observe in society the +opinions of its different classes respecting honours +conferred on science. Military and naval men, +especially the most eminent, feel that genius is +limited by no profession, and themselves sympathizing +with it, would gladly hail as brothers in +the same distinction, the philosopher and the poet. +With lawyers the case is reversed; genius dwells +not in their courts: industry and acuteness, monopolised +by one absorbing professional subject, exclude +larger views; and ribbons not being amongst +the honoraria of their own profession, they reprobate +their application to science. To this there are, +however, some noble exceptions. Amongst the +brightest ornaments of their own profession, men +are to be found of larger experience and more +extended views than it often produces, who are +themselves qualified to have become discoverers +in other sciences. It is much to be regretted when +such powers are applied to the mere administration, +<span id='page-225' class='pagenum'>225</span>instead of to the reformation, of the laws of their +country. +</p> +<p> +It is difficult to pronounce on the opinion of +the ministers of our Church as a body: one +portion of them, by far the least informed, protests +against anything which can advance the honour +and the interests of science, because, in their +limited and mistaken view, science is adverse to +religion. This is not the place to argue that great +question. It is sufficient to remark, that the best-informed +and most enlightened men of all creeds +and pursuits, agree that truth can never damage +truth, and that every truth is allied indissolubly +by chains more or less circuitous with all other +truths; whilst error, at every step we make in its +diffusion, becomes not only wider apart and more +discordant from all truths, but has also the additional +chance of destruction from all rival errors. +</p> +<p> +All established religions are, and must be in +practice, political engines⁠—they have all a strong +tendency to self-aggrandisement. Our own is by no +means exempt from this very natural infirmity. +</p> +<p> +The Church has been reproached with endeavouring +to appropriate to itself all those professorships +in our Universities which are connected with science: +it is however certain that the larger portion of these +ill-remunerated offices have been filled by clergymen. +</p> +<p> +But a much graver charge attaches itself, if not +to our clergy, certainly to those who have the distribution +<span id='page-226' class='pagenum'>226</span>of ecclesiastical patronage. The richest +Church in the world maintains that its funds are +quite insufficient for the purposes of religion, and +that our working clergy are ill-paid, and church +accommodation insufficient. It calls therefore upon +the nation to endow it with larger funds, and yet, +while reluctant to sacrifice its own superfluities, it +approves of its rich sinecures being given to reward,⁠—not +the professional service of its indefatigable +parochial clergy, but those of its members +who, having devoted the greater part of their time +to scientific researches, have political or private +interest enough to obtain such advancement. +</p> +<p> +But this mode of rewarding merit is neither +creditable to the Church nor advantageous to science. +It tempts into the Church talents which some of its +distinguished members maintain to be naturally of +a disqualifying, if not of an antagonistic nature to +the pursuits of religion; whilst, on the other hand, +it makes a most unjust and arbitrary distinction +amongst men of science themselves. It precludes +those who cannot conscientiously subscribe to +Articles, at once conflicting and incomprehensible, +from the acquisition of that preferment and that +position in society, which thus in many cases, must +be conferred on less scrupulous, and certainly less +distinguished inquirers into the works of nature. +</p> +<p> +As the honorary distinctions of orders of knighthood +are not usually bestowed on the clerical +<span id='page-227' class='pagenum'>227</span>profession, its members generally profess to entertain +a great contempt for them, and pronounce +them unfit for the recognition of scientific merit. +</p> +<p> +The want of an order for the reward of civil +service, having been publicly commented upon, the +question was at last forced upon the attention of +the government. A plan was drawn up for the +reformation of the Order of the Bath, and amongst +the qualifications for its civil grades the word science +was for the first time introduced. The draft, however, +remained in the office, and the intention, if +such it were, of the Tories was not followed out. +</p> +<p> +On the advent of the Whigs to office, they seized +upon so plausible an opportunity for gaining +popularity, whilst in reality they were serving their +own purposes. They proceeded to reconstruct the +Order of the Bath, making two divisions, the Military +and the Civil, each of which consisted of three +classes. +</p> +<p> +On the 25th May, 1847, there appeared in the +Gazette letters patent under the great seal reconstituting +the Order of the Bath. It was announced +that it should consist of two divisions, the Military +and the Civil; each division comprising three +classes. This memorable document was accompanied +by certain regulations as to the number +of each class of the knights, followed by a new set +of thirty-seven statutes, which it declares “<i>shall +henceforth be inviolably observed and kept within</i> +<span id='page-228' class='pagenum'>228</span><i>the said Order</i>.” But throughout these “<i>inviolable</i>” +statutes, <i>scientific</i> merit is not even mentioned +as a qualification. +</p> +<p> +In the Civil branch of the Order the qualification +for the first class is prescribed by the eighth +statute, and the tenth and twelfth statutes distinctly +refer to the same. The only qualification +to be found in the statutes applicable to either of +the three civil classes, is when, referring to the first +class of the order, it is stated that⁠— +</p> +<p> +“No persons shall be nominated thereto, or to +either of the other two civil divisions of this +Order, who shall not <i>by their personal services to +our crown</i>, or <i>by the performance of public duties</i>, +have merited our royal favour.” +</p> +<p> +The first of these two qualifications includes the +services in the household of the Sovereign. Now +although it may be agreeable, and may even be +thought desirable, that the head of the State should +have means of occasionally conferring distinction +upon those of its subjects in personal attendance +upon it, who have undertaken and accomplished +duties beyond the immediate sphere of those for +which they are paid in money and by position, yet +such claims are personal, not national claims. The +lord-in-waiting who has been the agreeable cicerone +of some foreign prince, may well be contented +with the diamond ring, the costly <i>tabatière</i>, or the +flattering miniature, eclipsed only by the brilliants +<span id='page-229' class='pagenum'>229</span>surrounding it, which recall to his memory those +hours of idleness. If the prince be also a sovereign, +he may add to these gratifications, that of conferring +a ribbon as a further return for the <i>empressement</i> +with which the polished official has fulfilled the +duties of his office. Under such circumstances he +will easily acquire permission to wear that distinction +in his own country: a permission which would +be refused by government to the author of the most +splendid scientific discovery which might shed a +lustre over the age in which he lives. +</p> +<p> +If such decorations are desirable for such services, +let them be confined to one or to all of the +four other orders: but let one national order at least +be consecrated to real merit. +</p> +<p> +The only other class who are qualified by the +Statutes for the honours of the Bath, are “those +who by the performance of public duties have +merited our favour.” This may indeed include +every person who holds office, but it is clear that +the intention was to exclude everybody not already +receiving pay from the public. +</p> +<p> +It has been suggested that a different conclusion +may be inferred from the tenth paragraph of the +prefatory matter to these statutes, in which the +following words occur:⁠— +</p> +<p> +“To the due distribution of rewards amongst +such of our faithful subjects as are now or shall +hereafter become eminently distinguished by their +<span id='page-230' class='pagenum'>230</span>loyalty and merit in the military or civil service +of us, our heirs, and successors, or <i>shall otherwise +have merited our favour</i>.” +</p> +<p> +These latter words are certainly placed with some +skill, to furnish a loophole for escape, if public +opinion should scout the limited range to which the +gratitude of the country would thus be confined by +a party, who differ only from the Tories in affecting +an admiration for knowledge which they do not feel. +It must, however, be observed that this is a mere +statement, and that no such words occur in any +<i>statute</i>. Besides, those who maintain that the party +in power when these statutes were issued, intended +that science or any other kind of unpaid civil merit, +should be susceptible of reward by the Order of the +Bath, except it also received pay from the country, +must at the same time admit that during the four +years in which that party has distributed those +honours, England has not furnished one single +instance of any other than a paid official having +been thought sufficiently distinguished to deserve +the honour. +</p> +<p> +The public recollect with sufficient disgust the +professions of both parties respecting science and +literature, when the “pension list” was revised in +1838. The claims of science and of literature were +then with affected generosity put forward by party, +while the true object was to save for their own +advantage as large a pension list as they could. That +<span id='page-231' class='pagenum'>231</span>object once attained, a different view of those claims +was taken, as we see by its results, of which +a searching analysis must at no distant day be made. +</p> +<p> +The statements uttered in both Houses even +during the last session, by members of the present +administration, have been so <i>extraordinary</i>, that the +public are compelled to look beyond the plain +English meaning of words, and to withhold their +confidence until they have examined them with the +scrutiny of a casuist. It is not therefore surprising +that those who interpret statutes issued by such +parties, should suspect the existence of latent +meanings. +</p> +<p> +Dismissing this point, however, the obvious interpretation +of the <i>statutes</i> of the Bath is that no +one is qualified to become a member who has not +been actually in the <i>service</i> of the country, that is, +who has not already been paid for his labours. +</p> +<p> +The real intention of the concoctors of this scheme +is too evident to be concealed. They hoped, by +bestowing the Order in few and rare cases on some +public servants who had made exertions beyond those +of their class, or sacrifices beyond necessity, to get +credit for a generosity to which they are strangers, +whilst the real object was to secure for their own +party and supporters the largest possible share of +the patronage. +</p> +<p> +The advantages they promised themselves from +the present arrangement were these:⁠— +</p> +<p> +<span id='page-232' class='pagenum'>232</span>1st. By confining the Order of the Bath to +officials, they limited the number of competitors. +</p> +<p> +2d. They thus limited it to a class which contained +already a large proportion of their own +friends and of the friends of their opponents. +</p> +<p> +3d. This plan enabled them, by putting into +office their own connexions, persons perhaps of +very ordinary abilities, ultimately to push them into +the upper departments, and then on pretence of +extraordinary service to give them these honours. +</p> +<p> +4th. It enabled them also to make way for such +connexions, by tempting those above them, whether +friends or opponents, to retire on the receipt of one +or other of the decorations of the Bath. +</p> +<p> +It is not to be denied that such rewards, fairly +and judiciously given for <i>great</i> and <i>extraordinary</i> +services, might furnish fit motives for extraordinary +exertions. But if honours are to be given to every +chief of an office or head of a department, after +more or less service in proportion to the extent +of his political interest, or to every minister we +send abroad, without regard to the success of his +mission; and if promotion in the Order is to depend +on the time during which they have been members +of it, then the Bath will no longer be the reward +of great exertions or of brilliant talent, but of +seniority and routine. Its crimson ribbon will thus +cease to distinguish civil merit, and become the +appropriate reward of <i>red-tape</i> mediocrity. +</p> +<p> +<span id='page-233' class='pagenum'>233</span>It has been suggested that a new order of +knighthood should be created, for the purpose of +rewarding scientific and literary merit. This plan +is entirely inadmissible: there are already five +Orders of English Knights, and the new Order +would, as the most recent creation, be inferior in +rank to those now existing. It would, therefore, +necessarily fix science at a low point in the social +scale. +</p> +<p> +If it were adopted, the numerous members of the +Order of the Bath would then look down upon and +disparage the new Order; whilst, on the other +hand, if great discoveries in science were admitted +as claims to its honours, every member of the Order +of the Bath would be interested in defending his +scientific brethren. +</p> +<p> +§ Much discussion has lately arisen respecting +the payment of persons in the employment of +government. The economists have lately had a +committee of the House of Commons, in which +they have in some instances damaged a good cause +by want of information. Their enemies will doubtless +take advantage of their ignorance, and seem +not unwilling to have allowed them to fall into +these mistakes. +</p> +<p> +Those who contend that persons in office are +under-paid, generally maintain the doctrine that the +holder of every office ought to receive enough to +support him, without any assistance from private +<span id='page-234' class='pagenum'>234</span>fortune, in that position of society which others in +the same or similar offices occupy. +</p> +<p> +This may be true for some of the higher stations, +where great talents and industry are essential; but +these offices are the exceptions. To maintain this +doctrine is to assert, that the government must +pay such a salary to every employé as to be able +to choose out of the whole number of persons +existing in the country, those most capable of +filling that office. Now in every country where +capital has at all accumulated, there will always +be a sufficient number of persons, having some +amount of private fortune, who will be able and +willing to fill all the ordinary offices requiring no +very special talent, for a much smaller sum than +their average expenditure would require. This +more limited class is yet sufficiently large for the +government to select from. The competition of +capital with labour leads to this result. +</p> +<p> +The inducements to office under government +are many, in addition to that of its salary. +</p> +<p> +1st. The salary itself generally increases with the +time of service. +</p> +<p> +2d. There is usually a retiring pension after a +certain time of service, or in case of accidental +incapacity. +</p> +<p> +3d. There is the chance of promotion by political +interest, or perchance from skill and industry displayed +in office. +</p> +<p> +<span id='page-235' class='pagenum'>235</span>4th. Some incapable head of a department may +want a clever fellow to do the work for which he is +himself either too idle or too ignorant. +</p> +<p> +5th. There is the chance of being promoted, in +order to make a vacancy for some one below who +has more influence. +</p> +<p> +6th. Then there are the great prizes,⁠—few indeed, +but very great when occurring to those +without the accidents of birth or interest. It is +possible that a clerk commencing at a salary of 80<i>l.</i> +may ultimately attain a seat in the cabinet, and +then the peerage is open to him. +</p> +<p> +Admitting that there are several cases in which +offices are considerably underpaid, no answer has +yet been given to the great argument arising from +supply and demand. It is an admitted fact, that +for every office under government, and for every +grade in the army and navy, the number of fitting +candidates on each vacancy is very large, and the +political and family interest set at work to acquire +it, is very great. This can arise only from those +offices being overpaid, not by the actual money +payment, but by combining that form of remuneration +with position in society, and other advantages +to which they lead. If this be the case, it is quite +unnecessary to add any new inducement⁠—such as +the decoration of the Bath⁠—to those so circumstanced, +unless it be indeed for very extraordinary +services. +</p> +<p> +<span id='page-236' class='pagenum'>236</span>Another indication of over-payment is to be +found in the fact, that in several professions such +offices are matter of sale and purchase. They +are so avowedly both in the Church and in the +Army. +</p> +<p> +The Whigs, afraid of intellect when combined +with independence, have, during their temporary +and tolerated possession of office, confined the new +honours the country has to bestow, to those persons +only who can be influenced by the hope of promotion,⁠—namely, +to those already occupying office. +If a distinction is to be made amongst scientific +men, let us inquire whether those who fill the few +public situations reserved for science and paid by +the country, ought to be eligible rather than those +whose equally successful contributions to science +have been given without any such advantage. +</p> +<p> +To enable any individual in the present day to +enlarge the bounds of science by original discovery, +he must be content to sacrifice his whole time and +energies to that object. It is true that a considerable +or even a great knowledge of certain sciences, +and possibly the power of making some additions +to them, may co-exist in a few instances with the +qualifications necessary for other employments. +Such attainments are highly creditable to those +officials who so employ their leisure without neglecting +their official duties. But the more successful +their scientific discoveries, the greater must be the +<span id='page-237' class='pagenum'>237</span>regret that the whole power of such intelligence +cannot be directed to one subject. +</p> +<p> +The various sciences have, it is true, such relations +to each other, that few can be cultivated to +any great advantage without some acquaintance +with those sciences intimately connected with the +favourite pursuit. But if it is admitted that all +inquiries into Nature and her laws, are directly +beneficial to the arts and commerce of the country, +it is, in a national point of view, eminently +impolitic not to secure for science that division of +labour which so remarkably contributes to the progress +of all other subjects. +</p> +<p> +In addition to the unbounded occupation of time +and thought, necessary for the most effective employment +of mind in the path of original discovery, there +are far other requisites. In some sciences, many +laborious transcriptions, in others still more laborious +arithmetical computations, are required; in +others, abstruse and complicated although known +and regulated algebraical processes, must be gone +through; in others, drawings of the most complicated +description must be executed with almost overwhelming +labour; in others, extensive experiments +must be made. Again, in some, where mechanical +means must be contrived for new and intellectual +processes, it may be necessary even to invent +and make new tools for the purpose of bringing +mechanical art itself up to that degree of perfection +<span id='page-238' class='pagenum'>238</span>which science demands. Although the contriving +and directing mind engaged in researches +that require such aids, ought undoubtedly to be +united with a physical structure capable itself of +accomplishing each and all that such pursuits require, +yet it is often impossible that one human +frame, however hardy, can sustain that labour: +time itself would be wanting, limited as it ever +must be by the duration of one human life. +</p> +<p> +Yet if the powers of that mind and that frame +have been rightly cultivated, and if the want of +pecuniary means do not prevent their exercise, it is +quite possible, by proper aid, to concentrate in one +life the accumulated labour of many. Assistants of +various degrees of manual and mental skill may be +employed, the economical organization of their +labour may be arranged. The most perfect effect +of such an establishment can only be attained when +the presiding head is never employed except on +work for which money could procure no substitute, +and when each assistant is devoted to work +of the highest kind which he can successfully +execute. +</p> +<p> +He who directs a scientific establishment for the +Government, has all these means provided for him, +and is himself paid, though not always liberally, for +his own labours. <i>He</i> is to be deemed <i>qualified</i> for +the order of the Bath. +</p> +<p> +<i>He</i> who sacrifices profession and that position to +<span id='page-239' class='pagenum'>239</span>which its most successful members usually attain, +who spends a fortune in purchasing that assistance +which alone can render his power effective, and has +spent his life in cultivating highly that power for +the advancement of science, is deemed by his country, +however great his success, <i>disqualified</i> for the +Order of the Bath. +</p> +<p> +But it is not the sound and wholesome part of +the country⁠—it is not the people of England who +have arrived at this conclusion;⁠—it is the insolence +of power,⁠—it is the meanness of party,⁠—it is the +selfishness of a clique. +</p> +<p> +The spirit which dictated a limitation equally +opposed to every generous feeling and to every +statesman-like view, is consistent only with such +influences. When the ministry founded that new +source of patronage, it sought to acquire for itself +a kind of popularity amongst its adherents. Had +it admitted intellectual merit, it would have obtained +popularity for the Crown from an enlightened +nation. But the interests of party are transitory,⁠—those +of the sovereign permanent: it is the interest +of party to be ever jealous of the personal popularity +of the Crown. +</p> +<p> +In thus excluding from its honours one class of +the intelligence of the country, did it never occur to +the short-sighted minister who planned this arrangement, +that some portion of the talents thus insulted, +might be driven to other inquiries which it would +<span id='page-240' class='pagenum'>240</span>neither be easy to answer nor even expedient to +discuss? +</p> +<p> +A party which first refuses to science the means +of acquiring competence,⁠—then excludes it from +personal honours because it has already been denied +official position,⁠—and which refuses it hereditary +rank, because it has not devoted itself to the acquisition +of wealth, will naturally cause questions to +be raised as to the expediency of different forms of +government. +</p> +<p> +Of what class, it will naturally be asked, are the +persons who have made such laws? +</p> +<p> +Is the possession of hereditary rank at all necessary +for the government of the country? +</p> +<p> +At a distant period, and under a less complicated +form of society, the obvious disadvantages of appointing +a legislator for life from the accident of his +birth, instead of the fitness of his talents, might +have been tolerated under the influence of force. +It has since been consecrated by established usage, +and some of its evils mitigated by the continual +infusion of fresh blood into decaying stocks. But +at the present day, and amidst the multiplied +relations of highly civilized life, the question +whether an upper chamber ought to be hereditary, +or appointed only for life, is one upon which nations +as well as philosophers, avowedly disagree. +</p> +<p> +In a very few years this great question will +come to be more thoroughly investigated, and +<span id='page-241' class='pagenum'>241</span>those who now advocate the continuance of existing +institutions, will then have enough on their +hands, without rashly forcing, by injustice and +insult, both talent and interest into the ranks of +their opponents. +</p> +<p> +At present it is sufficient to call attention to a +statement often made, that a chamber of Peers for +life is incompatible with the existence of a limited +monarchy. This, like many other party dogmas, is +a mere gratuitous assertion, put forward to alarm +the timid who have experienced the advantages and +are anxious for the continuance of that form of +government. +</p> +<p> +Various opinions have been advanced, and are +current in society, concerning the proper reward +for those <i>whose science adds to the boundaries of +human knowledge</i>, and certain principles are held +by the occupiers of high political office, to which +it may be well to advert. +</p> +<p> +Some of these persons have themselves acquired +a smattering of one science, political economy, and +thus they reason:⁠—They are informed that it is a +highly agreeable occupation to make discoveries, +and although it is known that it costs years of +labour and study to acquire that power, yet it is +found that many persons are willing to indulge in +this luxury, and are generally disposed to publish +the results of their discoveries. Since, therefore, +the public can get the benefit of the knowledge for +<span id='page-242' class='pagenum'>242</span>nothing, it would be very extravagant in the +stewards of the public to pay anything for it. +</p> +<p> +But it seems not to have been observed by these +reasoners, that although all discoveries are of value +to the country, yet the time at which they become +practically useful occurs at very different, and often +at distant periods. It might also be suggested to +them, that the discoverers of the great principles +of nature are very rarely the persons most capable +of applying them to practice. It is also clear +that the acquisition of money was not one of their +objects in devoting themselves to such unprofitable +pursuits. +</p> +<p> +Under such circumstances, if the Government +neither encourage science by pecuniary nor by +honorary reward, it is most probable that the discoveries +which are made, will occur in its more +recondite recesses; and as the only recompense +obtained is the intellectual pleasure felt in the pursuit, +the greater part of the discoveries made will +be of the most abstract kind. +</p> +<p> +This tendency is still further increased by the +fact that the far larger number of those who cultivate +science, are precluded from competition by the +expense necessary for the pursuit of many of its +more practical branches. The most highly intellectual +and exciting,⁠—all the departments of the pure +mathematics, for example, attract by the comparative +economy of the expenditure they demand. +</p> +<p> +<span id='page-243' class='pagenum'>243</span>And yet it may happen that immense sums might +have been saved to the nation, if the efforts of +competent men had been applied to reform the +domestic economy or rather the domestic extravagance +of many of our public establishments, instead +of expending them more agreeably though less profitably, +on the interpretation of an almost impossible +cypher, or the still more interesting discovery of +relations amongst new orders of imaginary quantities. +</p> +<p> +How often has the question been asked by persons +seeking a profitable investment of their capital, +Will such a canal or railroad pay? This is really +an indefinite question, and admits of no one answer +applicable to all cases. It may, for example, in +some particular instance, be tolerably certain that +at the end of the first four years, if the shares are +sold, and the account closed, there will be an +entire loss of half the principal, and all interest +during that time. If the shares are not sold until +the end of eight years, they will produce a return +of the original capital, together with a profit of +five per cent. If, however, those shares were +retained until the end of twelve years, they might, +when sold, produce a return of the original capital, +together with a profit of ten per cent. during the +whole time. +</p> +<p> +Now, it is obvious that the answer to the question, +“Will that canal or railway pay?” must +<span id='page-244' class='pagenum'>244</span>depend on the capital possessed by the purchaser +and on the period of time during which he can afford +to abstain from its use. The purchaser who could +not abstain from the use of the interest of +his money for four years might be ruined, whilst +he who could abstain for twelve, might be greatly +enriched. But a wealthy country is generally better +able to abstain than any commercial firm, and the +investment in discoveries becoming productive at a +distant time, will be of far more advantage to a +nation than to individuals. +</p> +<p> +A certain number of persons maintain the +opinion, that if men of science became rich they +would become idle, and that it is expedient to +starve them into discovery. Such persons may +perhaps have been misled by arguing from a +supposed analogy with some other profession. But +the pleasure of science arises from the exertion, +not from the inactivity of the mind. +</p> +<p> +Others, and a very large number, hold that +science is of so sublime a nature, that it ought to be +above all sublunary rewards;⁠—they maintain that +it is beneath its dignity to wish for the wealth or +the honours awarded to success in other pursuits;⁠—that +ribbons and titles are quite unworthy of +the ambition of those who are searching into the +truths of nature. +</p> +<p> +When men state a principle, the best test of their +sincerity is to be found in their application of it. +<span id='page-245' class='pagenum'>245</span>We may ourselves utterly repudiate a principle, and +yet be unable to show that it is not sincerely +believed by those who assert its authority. Man +cannot dive into the mind of his fellow-man, and +witness the internal conviction he asserts; but he +can always examine the <i>fairness</i> with which he +applies that principle. +</p> +<p> +Now, if the lofty dignity of science is such that +it is, from its very nature, incompatible with +wealth⁠—if decorations and titles are entirely unworthy +of its legitimate ambition,⁠—then, as a +necessary consequence, all pursuits of a higher +order are still more absolutely excluded from such +vanities. +</p> +<p> +Is it consistent, therefore, with these opinions, to +maintain that the Ministers of a Christian Church, +who interpret to us the <i>word</i> of God, should receive +payment for their labour, rank for their exertions, +and, in some instances, even the very ribbons[<a href='#fn_27' id='fnb_27'>27</a>] so +<span id='page-246' class='pagenum'>246</span>contemned: whilst those who make us intimately +acquainted with the <i>works</i> of the Almighty, who +discover to us the laws which he has impressed on +matter, and thus add to the physical comfort, the +intellectual pleasure, and the religious feeling of +mankind, should be compelled to exercise those rare +endowments, only by the sacrifice of fortune and +the renunciation of all those enjoyments, rewards, +and honours, which the ministers even of the purest +creed receive without reproach? +</p> +<p> +But these are the opinions of the shallow and +the thoughtless. The pursuits of mind may modify, +they can never obliterate the instincts, the feelings, +or the passions of man. +</p> +<p> +The consciousness of power, and the conviction +of its successful exertion, exist undiminished by the +neglect or the ingratitude of the country he inhabits. +The certainty that a future age will repair the injustice +of the present, and the knowledge that the +more distant the day of reparation, the more he has +outstripped the efforts of his cotemporaries, may +well sustain him against the sneers of the ignorant, +or the jealousy of rivals. +</p> +<p> +It is possible that in some rare instance such a +man may feel personally little ambition to attain +what all others covet; still, however, he may be +<span id='page-247' class='pagenum'>247</span>bound by other ties which link him inseparably to +the present. +</p> +<p> +He may look with fond and affectionate gratitude +on her whose maternal care watched over the dangers +of his childhood; who trained his infant mind, +and with her own mild power, checking the rash +vigour of his youthful days, remained ever the +faithful and respected counsellor of his riper age. +To gladden the declining years of her who with +more than prophetic inspiration, foresaw as woman +only can, the distant fame of her beloved offspring, +he may well be forgiven the desire for some outward +mark of his country’s approbation. +</p> +<p> +If such a relative were wanting, there might yet +survive another parent whose less enthusiastic temperament +had ever repressed those fond anticipations +of maternal affection, but who now in the +ripeness of his honoured age, might be compelled, +with faltering accents, to admit that the voice +of the country confirmed the predictions of the +mother. +</p> +<p> +Perhaps another and yet dearer friend might exist, +the partner of his daily cares, the witness of his unceasing +toil; whose youthful mind, cultivated by his +skill, rewards with enduring affection those efforts +which called into existence her own latent and unsuspected +powers. When driven by exhausted means +and injured health almost to despair of the achievement +of his life’s great object⁠—when the brain +<span id='page-248' class='pagenum'>248</span>itself reels beneath the weight its own ambition +has imposed, and the world’s neglect aggravates +the throbbings of an overtasked frame, an angel +spirit sits beside his couch ministering with gentlest +skill to every wish, watching with anxious thought +till renovated nature shall admit of bolder counsels, +then points the way to hope, herself the guardian +of his deathless fame. +</p> +<p> +The fool may sneer, the worldly-wise may smile, +the heartless laugh,⁠—the saint may moralize, the +bigot preach: there dwells not within the deep +recesses of the human heart one sentiment more +powerful, more exalted, or more pure than these. +</p> +<p> +That man is not a statesman, who is unaware of +the strength of these powerful excitements to +human action. Cold and incapable of such sentiments +himself,⁠—no grasp of intellect enables him +to infer their existence, and thus to supply the +deficiencies of his own, by an insight into the hearts +of others. +</p> +<p> +That man is a fool, not a statesman, who knowing +their strength, hesitates to avail himself of it +for the benefit of his country and of mankind. +</p> +<p> +But if there should arise a man conscious of their +power, who yet should dare to use it for the purposes +of party, that man will combine in his character +the not incongruous mixture of statesman and of +knave. A statesman he may be, if he can penetrate +into the character of men, and can divine the action +<span id='page-249' class='pagenum'>249</span>of human motives upon the masses, as well as on +the individuals of his race. With such knowledge, +and with the talent that its possession implies, he +cannot be a fool; except indeed, in as far as he is +entitled to credit for that limited amount of folly +which is inseparably attached to him in his other +character of knave. It is <i>possible</i> that he may be +successful in his day; it is <i>certain</i> that he will +ultimately be found out and disgraced in the eyes +of posterity. His name may remain a beacon for a +time, until some greater or more recent knave +supersedes his example, and thus consigns him to +oblivion. +</p> +<p> +It is not then the gaudy ribbon, the brilliant star, +the titled name, that have intrinsic charms for him +who dedicates his genius to the search for truth. +How large a portion of his real greatness, even of his +most splendid discoveries, would he not willingly +sacrifice to confer on those he loves that exquisite +happiness, which arises only when hidden but long-cherished +convictions, entertained diffidently from +the consciousness of partial affection, receive at +length their final confirmation by that decision +which national acknowledgment can alone command! +</p> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_27'> +<p> +[<a href='#fnb_27'>27</a>] The following dignitaries of the Church wear decorations +of Orders of Knighthood. +</p> +<table class='center'> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t">Archbishop of Armagh.</td> +<td class="align_l valign_t pad_lx">Bishop of Oxford.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t">Archbishop of Dublin.</td> +<td class="align_l valign_t pad_lx">Dean of Westminster.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t">Dean of St. Patrick.</td> +<td class="align_l valign_t pad_lx"></td> +</tr> +</table> +<p> +The vestments of the Bishop of Oxford throw into the +shade those even of Roman Catholic prelates. +</p> +<p> +“The said prelate shall have and wear for his habit, a +mantle of crimson velvet, lined with white taffeta, richly +guarded with the Sovereign’s badges and cognizances, and +upon his right shoulder an escutcheon of the arms of the +Order, within a garter, and the lace of his mantle shall be +of blue silk, interwoven with gold.”⁠—<i>History of British +Orders of Knighthood, by Sir Harris Nicolas</i>, p. 430. +</p> +</div> +<div class="chapter"><span id='page-251' class='pagenum'>251</span><h2 id='tg_app'> +<b>Appendix.</b> +</h2></div> +<hr> +<p class="align_c large one_space"> +<span class='small'>THE</span><br> +ELEVENTH CHAPTER<br> +<span class='x_small'>OF THE</span><br> +<span class='title_size'>HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.</span> +</p> +<p class="align_c small two_space"> +BY +</p> +<p class="align_c"> +C. R. WELD, ESQ. +</p> +<p class="align_c x_small"> +ASSISTANT SECRETARY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY. +</p> +<hr> +<p class="align_c small one_space"> +REPRINTED WITH THE PERMISSION OF THE PROPRIETOR. +</p> +<p class="align_c break_before"> +<span id='page-253' class='pagenum'>253</span>EXTRACT FROM WELD’S +</p> +<p class="align_c large"> +HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY. +</p> +<hr> +<p class="align_c two_space"> +CHAPTER XI. +</p> +<p class='hang_indent small one_space'> +The Society receive a Letter from the Treasury respecting Mr. +Babbage’s Calculating Machine⁠—Letter from Mr. Babbage to +Sir H. Davy⁠—A Committee appointed to consider Mr. Babbage’s +Plan⁠—They Report in favour of it⁠—Mr. Babbage has an interview +with the Chancellor of the Exchequer⁠—Government advance +1,500<i>l</i>.⁠—Difference-Engine commenced⁠—Mr. Babbage gives all his +labour gratuitously⁠—Advice of the Society again requested⁠—Mr. +Babbage’s Statement⁠—Committee appointed to inspect the Engine⁠—Their +Report⁠—Heavy Expenses not met by the Treasury⁠—Meeting +of Mr. Babbage’s personal friends⁠—Their Report⁠—Duke +of Wellington inspects the Works⁠—His Grace recommends +the Treasury to make further Payments⁠—Letter from +Mr. Babbage to the Treasury⁠—Communication from the Treasury +to the Council⁠—Referred to a Committee⁠—Report of +Committee⁠—They recommend the Works to be removed to the +vicinity of Mr. Babbage’s Residence⁠—Government act on the +Recommendation⁠—Fire-proof Buildings erected⁠—Misunderstanding +with Mr. Clement⁠—Works stopped⁠—Mr. Babbage discovers +new principles which supersede those connected with the Difference-Engine⁠—He +requests an interview with Lord Melbourne⁠—Letter +to M. Quetelet explaining the principles of Analytical-Engine⁠—Mr. +Babbage visits Turin⁠—M. Menabrea’s account of the +Engine⁠—Translated with Notes by Lady Lovelace⁠—Mr. Babbage +applies to Government for their Determination⁠—Letter from the +Chancellor of the Exchequer⁠—Mr. Babbage’s Answer⁠—Government +resolve not to proceed with the Engine⁠—Mr. Babbage has an +interview with Sir R. Peel⁠—Difference-Engine placed in the +Museum of King’s College⁠—Present State of the Analytical-Engine.</p> +<hr> +<p class="align_c two_space"> +1820-25. +</p> +<p class='one_space'> +<span class="small-caps">On</span> the 1st April, 1823, a letter was received from +the Treasury, requesting the Council to take into +consideration a plan which had been submitted to +Government by Mr. Babbage, for “applying machinery +<span id='page-254' class='pagenum'>254</span>to the purposes of calculating and printing mathematical +tables;” and the Lords of the Treasury further desired +“to be favoured with the opinion of the Royal Society +on the merits and utility of this invention[<a href='#fn_28' id='fnb_28'>28</a>].”</p> +<p> +This is the earliest allusion to the celebrated Calculating +Engine of Mr. Babbage, in the records of the +Society[<a href='#fn_29' id='fnb_29'>29</a>]. But the invention had been brought before +them in the previous year by a letter from Mr. Babbage +to Sir H. Davy, dated July 3, 1822, in which he gives +some account of a small model of his engine for calculating +differences, which “produced figures at the rate +of 44 a minute, and performed with rapidity and precision +all those calculations for which it was designed[<a href='#fn_30' id='fnb_30'>30</a>].” +He then proceeds to enumerate various tables which +the machine was adapted to calculate, and concludes: +“I am aware that these statements may perhaps be +viewed as something more than Utopian, and that the +philosophers of Laputa may be called up to dispute my +<span id='page-255' class='pagenum'>255</span>claim to originality. Should such be the case, I hope +the resemblance will be found to adhere to the nature +of the subject, rather than to the manner in which it +has been treated. Conscious from my own experience +of the difficulty of convincing those who are but little +skilled in mathematical knowledge, of the possibility of +making a machine which shall perform calculations, I +was naturally anxious, in introducing it to the public, +to appeal to the testimony of one so distinguished in +the records of British science[<a href='#fn_31' id='fnb_31'>31</a>]. Induced by a conviction +of the great utility of such engines, to withdraw +for some time my attention from a subject on which it +has been engaged during several years, and which possesses +charms of a higher order, I have now arrived at +a point where success is no longer doubtful. It must, +however, be attained at a very considerable expense, +which would not probably be replaced by the works it +might produce for a long period of time, and which is +an undertaking I should feel unwilling to commence, as +altogether foreign to my habits and pursuits.” +</p> +<p> +The Council appointed a Committee to take Mr. +Babbage’s plan into consideration, which was composed +of the following gentlemen: Sir H. Davy, Mr. Brande, +Mr. Combe, Mr. Baily, Mr. (now Sir Mark Isambard) +Brunel, Major (now General) Colby, Mr. Davies Gilbert, +Mr. (now Sir John) Herschel, Captain Kater, +Mr. Pond (Astronomer-Royal), Dr. Wollaston, and +Dr. Young. On the 1st May, 1823, the Committee +reported: “That it appears that Mr. Babbage has displayed +great talents and ingenuity in the construction +of his machine for computation, which the Committee +think fully adequate to the attainment of the objects +<span id='page-256' class='pagenum'>256</span>proposed by the inventor, and that they consider Mr. +Babbage as highly deserving of public encouragement +in the prosecution of his arduous undertaking[<a href='#fn_32' id='fnb_32'>32</a>].” +</p> +<p> +This Report was transmitted to the Lords of the +Treasury, by whom it was, with Mr. Babbage’s letter +to Sir H. Davy, printed and laid before Parliament[<a href='#fn_33' id='fnb_33'>33</a>]. +</p> +<p> +In July, 1823, Mr. Babbage had an interview with +the Chancellor of the Exchequer, Mr. Robinson (now +Earl of Ripon), to ascertain if it were the wish of +Government that he should construct a large engine of +the kind, which would also print the results it calculated. +Unfortunately, no Minute of that conversation was +made at the time, nor was any sufficiently distinct understanding +arrived at, as it afterwards appeared that a +contrary impression was left on the mind of either +party[<a href='#fn_34' id='fnb_34'>34</a>]. Mr. Babbage’s conviction was, that whatever +might be the labour and difficulty of the undertaking, +the engine itself would, of course, become the property +of the Government, which had paid for its construction. +</p> +<p> +Soon after this interview with the Chancellor of the +Exchequer, a letter was sent from the Treasury to the +Royal Society, informing them that the Lords of the +Treasury “had directed the issue of 1,500<i>l.</i> to Mr. Babbage, +to enable him to bring his invention to perfection, +in the manner recommended.” +</p> +<p> +These words “<i>in the manner recommended</i>,” can refer +<span id='page-257' class='pagenum'>257</span>only to the previous recommendation by the Royal +Society; but it does not appear from their Report, that +any plan, terms, or conditions had been pointed out. +</p> +<p> +Towards the end of July, 1823, Mr. Babbage took +measures for the construction of the present Difference-Engine[<a href='#fn_35' id='fnb_35'>35</a>], +and it was regularly proceeded with for four +years. +</p> +<p> +And here it is right to state, that Mr. Babbage gave +his mental labour gratuitously, and that from first to +last he has not derived any emolument whatever from +Government[<a href='#fn_36' id='fnb_36'>36</a>]. Sectional, and other drawings, of the +most delicate nature had to be made; tools to be formed +expressly to meet mechanical difficulties; and workmen +to be educated in the practical knowledge necessary in +the construction of the machine. The mechanical department +was placed under the management of Mr. +Clement, a draughtsman of great ability, and a practical +mechanic of the highest order[<a href='#fn_37' id='fnb_37'>37</a>]. Money was advanced +from time to time by the Treasury, the accounts +furnished by the engineer undergoing the examination +of auditors[<a href='#fn_38' id='fnb_38'>38</a>], and passing through the hands of Mr. +<span id='page-258' class='pagenum'>258</span>Babbage. Thus years elapsed, and public attention +became at length directed to the fact, that a large sum +had been expended upon the construction of the engine, +which was not completed. Again the advice of the +Royal Society was solicited. +</p> +<p> +In December, 1828, Government begged the Council +“to institute such enquiries as would enable them to +report upon the state to which it (the machine) had +then arrived; and also whether the progress made in +its construction confirmed them in the opinion which +they had formerly expressed, that it would ultimately +prove adequate to the important object which it was +intended to attain.” +</p> +<p> +Accompanying this communication was a statement +from Mr. Babbage of the condition of the engine, in +which he says:⁠— +</p> +<div class='margtb fontp9'> +<p> +“The machine has required a longer time and greater +expense than was anticipated, and Mr. Babbage has already +expended about 6,000<i>l.</i> on this object. The work is now in +a state of considerable forwardness, numerous and large drawings +of it have been made, and much of the mechanism has +been executed, and many workmen are occupied daily in its +completion.” +</p> +</div> +<p> +A Committee was appointed by the Council, consisting +of Mr. Gilbert (President), Dr. Roget, Captain +Sabine, Sir John Herschel, Mr. Baily, Mr. Brunel, +Captain Kater, Mr. Donkin, Mr. Penn, Mr. Rennie, +Mr. Barton, and Mr. Warburton.[<a href='#fn_39' id='fnb_39'>39</a>] +</p> +<p> +They minutely inspected the drawings, tools, and +the parts of the engine then executed, and drew up a +report, “declining to consider the principle on which +the practicability of the machinery depends, and of the +<span id='page-259' class='pagenum'>259</span>public utility of the object which it proposes to attain; +because they considered the former fully admitted, and +the latter obvious to all who consider the immense +advantage of accurate numerical tables in all matters of +calculation, which it is professedly the object of the +engine to calculate and print with perfect accuracy.” +</p> +<p> +They further stated, that “the progress made was +as great as could be expected, considering the numerous +difficulties to be overcome; and lastly, that they had +no hesitation in giving it as their opinion, that the +engine was likely to fulfil the expectations entertained +of it by its inventor.” +</p> +<p> +The Council adopted the Report, expressing their +trust, that while Mr. Babbage’s mind was intently +occupied on an undertaking likely to do so much +honour to his country, he might be relieved as much +as possible from all other sources of anxiety. +</p> +<p> +It is clear that the Council of the Royal Society +regarded Mr. Babbage’s engine, as it then existed, in a +favourable light, and were sanguine respecting its +satisfactory completion. +</p> +<p> +Government acted on the foregoing Report; funds +were advanced, the machinery was declared national +property, and the works were continued. But there +was evidently a misgiving on the part of the Lords of +the Treasury, for the official payments soon failed to +meet the heavy and increasing expenses incurred by +Mr. Babbage. +</p> +<p> +Under these circumstances, by the advice of Mr. +Wolryche Whitmore (Mr. Babbage’s brother-in-law), +a meeting of Mr. Babbage’s personal friends was held +on the 12th of May, 1829. It consisted of:⁠— +</p> +<div class="align_c space_after one_space"><div class="block_align_l">The Duke of Somerset, F.R.S.,<br> +Lord Ashley, M.P.,<br> +Sir John Franklin, Capt. R.N., F.R.S.,<br> +<span id='page-260' class='pagenum'>260</span>Mr. Wolryche Whitmore, M.P.,<br> +Dr. Fitton, F.R.S.,<br> +Mr. Francis Baily, F.R.S.,<br> +Sir John Herschel, F.R.S.<br> +</div></div><p> +They drew up the annexed Report:⁠— +</p> +<div class='margtb fontp9'> +<p class='sig'> +“<i>May 12, 1829.</i></p> +<p> +“The attention of the undersigned personal friends of +Mr. Babbage having been called by him to the actual state +of his Machine for Calculating and Printing Mathematical +Tables; and to his relation to the Government on the one +hand, and to the Engineers and workmen employed by him +in its execution on the other, declare themselves satisfied, +from his statements and from the documents they have +perused, of the following facts. +</p> +<p> +“That Mr. Babbage was originally induced to take up the +work on its present extensive scale, by an understanding on +his part, that it was the wish of Government he should do so, +and by an advance of 1,500<i>l.</i> in the outset, with a full +impression on his mind that such further advances would be +made as the progress of the work should require, and as +should secure him from ultimate loss. +</p> +<p> +“That the public and scientific importance of the Engine +has been acknowledged, in a Report of a Committee of the +Royal Society, made at the time of its first receiving the +sanction of His Majesty’s Government, and that its actual +state of progress is such, as in the opinion of the most +eminent Engineers and other Members of the Royal Society, +as detailed in a further Report of a Committee of that body, +to warrant their impression of the moral certainty of its +success, should funds not be wanting for its completion. +</p> +<p> +“That it appears, that Mr. Babbage’s actual expenditure +has amounted to nearly 7,000<i>l.</i> and that the whole sum +advanced to him by the Government is 3,000<i>l.</i> +</p> +<p> +“That Mr. Babbage has devoted, from the commencement +of his arduous undertaking, the most assiduous and anxious +attention to the work in hand, to the injury of his health, +and the neglect and refusal of other profitable occupations. +</p> +<p> +“That a very huge expense still remains to be incurred, +to the probable amount of at least 4,000<i>l.</i>, as far as he can +<span id='page-261' class='pagenum'>261</span>foresee, before the Engine can be completed; but that Mr. +Babbage’s private fortune is not such as, in their opinion, to +justify the sacrifices he must make in completing it without +further and effectual assistance from Government; taking +into consideration not only his own interest, but that of his +family dependent on him. +</p> +<p> +“Under these circumstances, it is their opinion that a full +and speedy representation of the case ought to be made to +Government, and that in the most direct manner by a personal +application to his Grace the Duke of Wellington. +</p> +<p> +“And that in case of such application proving unsuccessful +in procuring effectual and adequate assistance, they must +regard Mr. Babbage as no longer called on⁠—considering the +pecuniary and personal sacrifices he will then have made; +considering the entire and <i>bonâ fide</i> expenditure of all that +he will have received from the public purse on the object of +its destination, and considering the moral certainty to which +it is at length by his exertions reduced⁠—as no longer called +on to go on with an undertaking which may prove the +destruction of his health, and the great injury, if not the +ruin of his fortune. +</p> +<p> +“That it is their opinion that Mr. W. Whitmore and +Mr. Herschel should request an interview with the Duke of +Wellington for the purpose of making this representation. +</p> +<table class='right'> +<tr> +<td class="align_r valign_t pad_lr">(Signed,)</td> +<td class="align_l valign_t pad_lr"><span class="small-caps">Somerset.</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_r valign_t pad_lr"></td> +<td class="align_l valign_t pad_lr"><span class="small-caps">Ashley.</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_r valign_t pad_lr"></td> +<td class="align_l valign_t pad_lr"><span class="small-caps">John Franklin.</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_r valign_t pad_lr"></td> +<td class="align_l valign_t pad_lr"><span class="small-caps">W. W. Whitmore.</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_r valign_t pad_lr"></td> +<td class="align_l valign_t pad_lr"><span class="small-caps">Wm. Henry Fitton.</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_r valign_t pad_lr"></td> +<td class="align_l valign_t pad_lr"><span class="small-caps">Francis Baily.</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_r valign_t pad_lr"></td> +<td class="align_l valign_t pad_lr"><span class="small-caps">J. F. W. Herschel.</span>”</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div> +<p> +In consequence of what passed at this interview, +which took place as suggested, the Duke of Wellington, +accompanied by the Chancellor of the Exchequer (Mr. +Goulburn) and Lord Ashley, inspected the <i>model</i> of +the engine, the drawings, and parts in progress. The +Duke recommended that a grant of 3,000<i>l.</i> should be +made towards the completion of the machine, which +was duly paid by the Treasury. +</p> +<p> +<span id='page-262' class='pagenum'>262</span>In the mean time, difficulties of another kind arose. +The engineer, who had constructed the Engine under +Mr. Babbage’s directions, had delivered his bills in +such a state, that it was impossible to judge how far +the charges were just and reasonable; and although +Mr. Babbage had paid several thousand pounds, there +yet remained a considerable balance, which could not +be liquidated until the accounts had been examined, +and the charges approved by professional engineers. +</p> +<p> +With a view of drawing attention to these charges, +Mr. Babbage addressed the following letter to the +Chancellor of the Exchequer:⁠— +</p> +<div class='margtb fontp9'> +<p class='sig'> +“<i>Dorset Street, 21 December, 1830.</i></p> +<p class=''> +“<span class="small-caps">My Lord</span>,</p> +<p class='indent_a'> +“I beg to call your Lordship’s attention to +the enclosed account[<a href='#fn_40' id='fnb_40'>40</a>] of the expenses of the Machine for +calculating and printing mathematical tables, by which it +appears that a sum of 592<i>l.</i> 4<i>s.</i> 8<i>d.</i> remained due to myself +upon the last account, and that a further sum of nearly 600<i>l.</i> +has since become due to Mr. Clement.</p> +<p> +“It is for the payment of this latter sum that I wish to +call your Lordship’s attention. Mr. Maudslay, one of the +engineers appointed by the Government to examine the bills +of Mr. Clement, having been unable from illness to attend, +his report has been delayed, and Mr. Clement informs me +that should the money remain unpaid much longer, he shall +<span id='page-263' class='pagenum'>263</span>be obliged, from want of funds, to discharge some of the +workmen; an event which I need not inform your Lordship +would be very prejudicial to the progress of the machine. +</p> +<p> +“Another point which I wish to submit to your attention, +when your Lordship shall have had leisure to examine personally +the present state of the works, is, that since it is +absolutely necessary to find additional room for the erection +of the machine, it becomes a matter of serious consideration +whether it would not contribute to the speedier completion of +the machine, and also to economy in expenditure, to remove +the works to the neighbourhood of my own residence. +</p> +<p class='right2'> +“I have, &c.</p> +<p class='sig'> +“<span class="small-caps">C. Babbage</span>.”</p> +</div> +<p> +The receipt of this letter caused the Treasury to +make the following communication to the Secretary of +the Royal Society:⁠— +</p> +<div class='margtb fontp9'> +<p class='sig'> +“<i>Treasury, 24 December, 1830.</i></p> +<p class=''> +“<span class="small-caps">Sir</span>,</p> +<p class='indent_b'> +“The Lords Commissioners of H. M. Treasury, +having had under their consideration a letter from Mr. +Babbage, containing an account of the expense which has +been incurred in the construction of the Machine for calculating +and printing mathematical tables, amounting to the sum +of 7,192<i>l.</i> 4<i>s.</i> 8<i>d.</i>, and requesting an advance of 600<i>l.</i> to +defray a part of that expense; I am commanded by their +Lordships to refer you to the Report of the Council of the +Royal Society dated 16th February, 1829, which entirely +satisfied their Lordships of the propriety of supporting Mr. +Babbage in the construction of this machine, and to state +that advances to the amount of 6,000<i>l.</i> have been made on +this account, and that directions have been given for a further +advance of 600<i>l.</i></p> +<p> +“I am also to acquaint you, that the Machine is the property +of Government, and consequently my Lords propose to +defray the further expense necessary for its completion. I am +further to request you will move the Council of the Royal +Society to cause the machine to be inspected, and to favour +my Lords with their opinion whether the work is proceeding +<span id='page-264' class='pagenum'>264</span>in a satisfactory manner, and without unnecessary expense, +and what further sum may probably be necessary for completing +it. +</p> +<p class='right2'> +“I am, &c.</p> +<p class='sig'> +“<span class="small-caps">J. Stewart</span>.”</p> +<p class=''> +“<i>The Secretary, Royal Society.</i>”</p> +</div> +<p> +The consideration of this letter was referred to the +same Committee which had previously been appointed +for a similar purpose, with the addition of Sir John +Lubbock and Mr. Troughton. +</p> +<p> +Again the Committee met[<a href='#fn_41' id='fnb_41'>41</a>] Mr. Babbage, at No. 21, +Prospect Place, Lambeth (where the construction of +the engine was carried on), and minutely inspected the +machinery and drawings. +</p> +<p> +Their Report embodied the whole facts of the case:⁠—the +workmanship of the various parts of the machine +was declared to have been executed with the greatest +possible degree of perfection, and the pains taken to +verify the charges on the part of the Government altogether +satisfactory. It was recommended that the +vacancy occasioned by the decease of Mr. Maudslay, +who had been appointed to inspect the accounts, should +be filled up by another engineer, conversant with the +execution of machinery, and the value thereof. With +respect to the suggested removal of the workshops +nearer to Mr. Babbage’s residence, the Committee gave +their entire concurrence, on the ground that greater +expedition would thereby be attained in carrying on +the work, and that it was highly essential to secure all +the machinery and drawings in fire-proof premises, +without delay. A plot of ground held on lease by +Mr. Babbage, adjacent to his garden at the back of his +<span id='page-265' class='pagenum'>265</span>house in Dorset Street, was recommended as a desirable +site for the contemplated erections, of which the plans +and estimates had been submitted to the Committee. +The framers of the Report stated in conclusion that:⁠— +</p> +<div class='margtb fontp9'> +<p> +“Such an arrangement would be eminently conducive to +the speedy and economical completion of the Machine, as well +as to the effectual working and employment of the same, after +it shall have been completed. +</p> +<p> +“That as to the sum which may be necessary for completing +the Engine, they attach hereto the estimate of Mr. +Brunel.”[<a href='#fn_42' id='fnb_42'>42</a>] +</p> +</div> +<p> +The Report, with Mr. Brunel’s estimate, were sent +to the Treasury on the 13th April, 1831: and having +been approved by a Committee of practical engineers +appointed by Government, the latter acted on the +recommendations which it contained. The piece of +ground adjoining Mr. Babbage’s garden was taken, and +a fire-proof building erected, designed to contain the +plans and drawings, and also the engine when completed. +But new and unforeseen difficulties arose. +When about 17,000<i>l.</i> had been expended, further +progress was arrested on account of a misunderstanding +<span id='page-266' class='pagenum'>266</span>with Mr. Clement, who made the most extravagant +demands as compensation for carrying on the construction +of the engine in the new buildings. These demands +could not be satisfied with proper regard to the justice +due to Government. Mr. Clement accordingly withdrew +from the undertaking, and carried with him all +the valuable tools that had been used in the work; a +proceeding the more unfortunate, as many of them had +been invented expressly to meet the unusual forms and +combinations arising out of the novel construction.[<a href='#fn_43' id='fnb_43'>43</a>] +</p> +<p> +An offer was made to surrender the tools, for a given +sum, which was declined, and the works came to a +stand-still. But other circumstances interposed to prevent +the completion of the original design. +</p> +<p> +During the suspension of the works, Mr. Babbage +had been deprived of the use of his own drawings. +Having in the meanwhile naturally speculated upon +the general principles on which machinery for calculation +might be constructed, <i>a principle of an entirely +new kind</i> occurred to him, the power of which over the +most complicated arithmetical operations seemed nearly +unbounded. This was the executing of analytical operations +by means of an analytical-engine. On re-examining +his drawings, when returned to him by the +engineer, the new principle appeared to be limited only +by the extent of the mechanism it might require. +The invention of simpler mechanical means for performing +the elementary operations of the engine, now +derived a far greater importance than it had hitherto +possessed; and should such simplifications be discovered, +<span id='page-267' class='pagenum'>267</span>it seemed difficult to anticipate, or even to over-estimate, +the vast results which might be attained. +</p> +<p> +These new views acquired additional importance +from their bearings upon the engine already partly +executed for the Government; for, if such simplifications +should be discovered, it might happen that +the Analytical-Engine would execute with greater +rapidity the calculations for which the Difference-Engine +was intended; or that the Difference-Engine +would itself be superseded by a far simpler mode of +construction. +</p> +<p> +Though these views might perhaps at that period have +appeared visionary, they have subsequently been completely +realized. To have allowed the construction of +the Difference-Engine to be resumed, while these new +conceptions were withheld from the Government, would +have been improper; yet the state of uncertainty in +which those views were then necessarily involved, rendered +any written communication respecting their probable +bearing on that engine, a task of very great +difficulty. It therefore appeared to Mr. Babbage, that +the most straightforward course was to ask for an interview +with the head of the Government, and to communicate +to him the exact state of the case. +</p> +<p> +On the 26th September, 1834, Mr. Babbage requested +an audience of Lord Melbourne, for the purpose of +placing these views before him; his Lordship acceded +to the request, but from some cause the interview was +postponed; and soon after, the ministry went out of +office, without the desired conference having taken +place. +</p> +<p> +The duration of the Duke of Wellington’s administration +was short; and no decision on the subject of +the <i>Difference</i>-Engine was obtained. +</p> +<p> +<span id='page-268' class='pagenum'>268</span>In May, 1835, Mr. Babbage announced in a letter[<a href='#fn_44' id='fnb_44'>44</a>] +to M. Quetelet, which was laid before the Academy of +Sciences at Brussels, that he had “for six months been +engaged in making the drawings of a new calculating +engine of <i>far greater power than the first</i>.” “I am +myself astonished,” says Mr. Babbage, “at the power +I have been enabled to give to this machine; a year +ago I should not have believed this result possible. +This machine is intended to contain a hundred variables, +or numbers susceptible of changing, and each of these +numbers may consist of twenty-five figures. The +greatest difficulties of the invention have already been +surmounted, and the plans will be finished in a few +months.” +</p> +<p> +Subsequently to the date of this letter, Mr. Babbage +visited Turin, where he explained to Baron Plana, +M. Menabrea, and several other distinguished philosophers +of that city, the mathematical principles of his +Analytical-Engine, and also the drawings and engravings +of the more curious mechanical contrivances, by which +those principles were to be carried into effect. M. +Menabrea, with Mr. Babbage’s consent, published the +information which he had received in the 41st volume +of the <i>Bibliothèque Universelle de Génève</i>. The article is +remarkable as giving the first account of the Analytical-Engine.[<a href='#fn_45' id='fnb_45'>45</a>] +An English translation, with copious original +<span id='page-269' class='pagenum'>269</span>notes, made by a lady of distinguished rank and +talent,[<a href='#fn_46' id='fnb_46'>46</a>] was published in the third volume of Taylor’s +<i>Scientific Memoirs</i>. +</p> +<p> +But it did not contain all the information respecting +the Difference-Engine that was desirable, and Mr. +Babbage was consequently led to communicate a short +article upon this subject to the <i>Philosophical Magazine</i>, +which is inserted in the 23rd volume[<a href='#fn_47' id='fnb_47'>47</a>]. The more +comprehensive statements and official documents which +Mr. Babbage has placed at my disposal renders it unnecessary +to do more than allude to that article. +</p> +<p> +For nine years, that is, from the year 1833, when the +construction of the Difference-Engine was suspended, +until 1842, no decision respecting the machine was +arrived at, although Mr. Babbage made several applications +to Government on the subject. +</p> +<p> +On the 21st October, 1838, he wrote to the Chancellor +of the Exchequer, stating that the question he +wished to have settled was:⁠—“Whether the Government +required him to superintend the completion of the +Difference-Engine, which had been suspended during +<span id='page-270' class='pagenum'>270</span>the last five years, according to the original plan and +principle, or whether they intended to discontinue it +altogether.” This letter produced no result. Time +wore on, and Sir Robert Peel became Prime Minister. +This was in 1841. Up to the termination of the +Parliamentary Session in 1842, Mr. Babbage had received +no other communication on the subject than a +note from Sir George Clerk (Secretary to the Treasury), +written in January of that year, stating that he feared +the pressing official duties of Sir Robert Peel would +prevent him turning his attention to the matter for +some days. +</p> +<p> +Having availed himself of several private channels +for recalling the question to Sir Robert Peel’s attention +without effect, Mr. Babbage, on the 8th of +October, 1842, again wrote to him, requesting an early +decision. +</p> +<p> +At last Mr. Babbage received the following letter:⁠— +</p> +<div class='margtb fontp9'> +<p class='sig'> +“<i>Downing Street, Nov. 3, 1842.</i></p> +<p class=''> +“<span class="small-caps">My dear Sir</span>,</p> +<p class='indent_large'> +“The Solicitor-General has informed me +that you are most anxious to have an early and decided +answer as to the determination of the Government with +respect to the completion of your Calculating Engine. I +accordingly took the earliest opportunity of communicating +with Sir R. Peel on the subject.</p> +<p> +“We both regret the necessity of abandoning the completion +of a Machine on which so much scientific ingenuity and +labour have been bestowed. But on the other hand, the +expense which would be necessary in order to render it either +satisfactory to yourself, or generally useful, appears on the +lowest calculation so far to exceed what we should be justified +in incurring, that we consider ourselves as having no other +alternative. +</p> +<p> +“We trust that by withdrawing all claim on the part of +the Government to the Machine as at present constructed, and +<span id='page-271' class='pagenum'>271</span>by placing it at your entire disposal, we may, to a degree, +assist your future exertions in the cause of science. +</p> +<p class='right3'> +“I am, &c.</p> +<p class='sig'> +“<span class="small-caps">Henry Goulburn.</span></p> +<p class='noindent'> +“<i>Charles Babbage, Esq.</i>”</p> +<p class='one_space'> +“P.S. Sir R. Peel begs me to add, that as I have undertaken +to express to you our joint opinion on this matter, +he trusts you will excuse his not separately replying to the +letter, which you addressed to him on the subject a short +time since.”</p> +</div> +<p> +To this letter Mr. Babbage replied as follows:⁠— +</p> +<div class='margtb fontp9'> +<p class='sig'> +“<i>Dorset Street, Nov. 6, 1842.</i></p> +<p class=''> +“<span class="small-caps">My dear Sir</span>,</p> +<p class='indent_large'> +“I beg to acknowledge the receipt of +your letter of the 3rd of Nov., containing your own and Sir +Robert Peel’s decision respecting the Engine for calculating +and printing mathematical tables by means of Differences, +the construction of which has been suspended about eight +years.</p> +<p> +“You inform me that both regret the necessity of abandoning +the completion of the Engine, but that not feeling justified +in incurring the large expense which it may probably +require, you have no other alternative. +</p> +<p> +“You also offer, on the part of Government, to withdraw +all claim in the Machine as at present constructed, and to +place it at my entire disposal, with the view of assisting my +future exertions in the cause of science. +</p> +<p> +“The drawings and the parts of the Machine already +executed are, as you are aware, the absolute property of +Government, and I have no claim whatever to them. +</p> +<p> +“Whilst I thank you for the feeling which that offer +manifests, I must, under all the circumstances, decline accepting +it. +</p> +<p class='right2'> +“I am, &c.</p> +<p class='sig'> +“<span class="small-caps">C. Babbage</span>.”</p> +</div> +<p> +Mr. Babbage had an interview with Sir R. Peel +subsequently to the date of the foregoing letter: the +<span id='page-272' class='pagenum'>272</span>result was, however, entirely unsatisfactory; and thus, +with the communication from the then Chancellor of +the Exchequer, terminated an engagement which had +existed upwards of twenty years, during which period +it is due to Mr. Babbage to state, that he refused more +than one highly desirable and profitable situation,[<a href='#fn_48' id='fnb_48'>48</a>] in +order that he might give his whole time and thoughts to +the fulfilment of the contract, which he considered himself +to have entered into with the Government. +</p> +<p> +With respect to the Difference-Engine little remains +to be added. In 1843, an application was made to +Government, by the Trustees of King’s College, London, +to allow the Engine, as it existed, to be removed +to the museum of that institution. The request was +complied with; and the Engine, enclosed within a glass +case, now stands nearly in the centre of the Museum. +It is capable of calculating to five figures, and two +orders of differences, and performs the work with absolute +precision; but no portion whatever of printing +machinery, which was one of the great objects in the +construction of the Engine, exists. All the drawings +of the machinery and other contrivances are also in +King’s College. +</p> +<p> +Before closing this Chapter, it will not be out of +place to put upon record the state of the Analytical-Engine +at this period (1848). +</p> +<p> +Mechanical Notations have been made, both of the +actions of detached parts, and of the general action of +the whole, which cover about four or five hundred large +folio sheets of paper. +</p> +<p> +The original rough sketches are contained in about +<span id='page-273' class='pagenum'>273</span>five volumes. There are upwards of one hundred large +drawings. No part of the construction of the Analytical-Engine +has yet been commenced. A long series of +experiments have, however, been made upon the art of +shaping metals; and the tools to be employed for that +purpose have been discussed, and many drawings of +them prepared. The great object of these inquiries +and experiments is, on the one hand, by simplifying the +construction as much as possible, and on the other, by +contriving new and cheaper means of execution, ultimately +to reduce the expense within those limits which +a private individual may command. +</p> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_28'> +<p> +[<a href='#fnb_28'>28</a>] In the following account of the Difference and Analytical Engines, +besides the MS. documents in the Archives of the Royal Society, I have +derived very valuable information from an unpublished statement +drawn up by Mr. Babbage, which he has been so kind as to place in my +hands. The original documents which are in Mr. Babbage’s possession, +and which are referred to, I have myself examined. +</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_29'> +<p> +[<a href='#fnb_29'>29</a>] The idea of a Calculating Engine is not new. The celebrated +Pascal constructed a machine for executing the ordinary operations of +arithmetic, a description of which will be found in the <i>Encycl. Méthod.</i>, +and in the Works of Pascal, Tom. <span class="small-caps">iv.</span> p. 7, Paris, 1819. In his <i>Pensées</i> +he says, alluding to this Engine: “<i>La machine arithmétique fait des +effets qui approchent plus de la pensée que tout ce que font les animaux; +mais elle ne fait rien qui puisse faire dire qu’elle a de la volonté comme +les animaux.</i>” Subsequently, Leibnitz invented a machine by which, +says Mr. De Morgan, “arithmetic computations could be made.” +Polenus, a learned and ingenious Italian, invented a machine by which +multiplication was performed⁠—and mechanical contrivances for performing +particular arithmetical processes were made about a century +ago, but they were merely modifications of Pascal’s. These Engines +were very different to Mr. Babbage’s Difference-Engine. +</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_30'> +<p> +[<a href='#fnb_30'>30</a>] This letter was printed and published in July, 1822. +</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_31'> +<p> +[<a href='#fnb_31'>31</a>] Sir H. Davy had witnessed and expressed his admiration of the +performances of the Engine. +</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_32'> +<p> +[<a href='#fnb_32'>32</a>] I am informed upon good authority, that Dr. Young differed in +opinion from his colleagues. Without doubting that an engine could +be made, he conceived that it would be far more useful to invest the +probable cost of constructing such a calculating machine as was proposed, +in the funds, and apply the dividends to paying calculators. +</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_33'> +<p> +[<a href='#fnb_33'>33</a>] Parliamentary Paper, No. 370, 1823. +</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_34'> +<p> +[<a href='#fnb_34'>34</a>] Mr. Babbage very justly observes, that had the mutual relations of +the two parties, and the details of the plans then adopted, been clearly +defined, there is little doubt but that the Difference-Engine would long +since have existed. +</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_35'> +<p> +[<a href='#fnb_35'>35</a>] It will be desirable to distinguish between, +</p> +<p class='hang_indent'> +1. The small <i>Model</i> of the Original or Difference-Engine.</p> +<p class='hang_indent'> +2. The Difference-Engine itself, belonging to the Government, a +part only of which has been put together.</p> +<p class='hang_indent'> +3. The designs for another Engine called the Analytical-Engine.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_36'> +<p> +[<a href='#fnb_36'>36</a>] Sir R. Peel distinctly admitted this in the House of Commons in +March, 1843. +</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_37'> +<p> +[<a href='#fnb_37'>37</a>] A curious anecdote is related illustrative of the great perfection to +which Mr. Clement was in the habit of bringing machinery. He +received an order from America to construct a large screw in the <i>best +possible manner</i>, and he accordingly made one with the greatest mathematical +accuracy. But his bill amounted to some hundreds of pounds, +which completely staggered the American, who never calculated upon +paying more than 20<i>l.</i> at the utmost for the screw. The matter was +referred to arbitrators, who gave an opinion in favour of Mr. Clement. +</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_38'> +<p> +[<a href='#fnb_38'>38</a>] They were Messrs. Brunel, Donkin, and Field. +</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_39'> +<p> +[<a href='#fnb_39'>39</a>] Colonel Sabine informs me, that Dr. Whewell was afterwards added +to the Committee. +</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_40'> +<p>[<a href='#fnb_40'>40</a>]</p> +<table class='avoid_break center'> +<tr> +<th class="align_l valign_t"></th> +<th class="align_r valign_b">£</th> +<th class="align_r valign_b"><i>s.</i></th> +<th class="align_r valign_b"><i>d.</i></th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t">Expense to end of 1824</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">600</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">0</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t">Expense to end of 1827</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">521</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">16</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">9</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t">Mr. Clement’s Bills to June, 1827</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">4,775</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">15</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">3</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t">Ditto, 9th May, 1829</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">730</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">12</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">8</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t"></td> +<td colspan="3" class='bot_line'></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t"></td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">6,628</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">4</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">8</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t">Deduct old tools sold</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">36</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">0</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t"></td> +<td colspan="3" class='bot_line'></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t"></td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">6,592</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">4</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">8</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t">Mr. Clement’s Bill to December, 1830, <i>about</i></td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">600</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">0</td> +<td class="align_r valign_b">0</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t"></td> +<td colspan="3" class='bot_line'></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t"></td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">7,192</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">4</td> +<td class="align_r valign_t">8</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="align_l valign_t"></td> +<td colspan="3" class='bot_line'></td> +</tr> +</table> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_41'> +<p> +[<a href='#fnb_41'>41</a>] I have a letter of Sir J. Herschel’s before me, expressing his regret +at being unable to attend on this occasion, but that his faith in the +engine and its inventor remained unshaken. +</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_42'> +<p> +[<a href='#fnb_42'>42</a>] Mr. Brunel’s estimate appears in the following letter to Mr. +Warburton:⁠— +</p> +<div class='margtb'> +<p class='sig'> +“<i>Feb. 28, 1831.</i></p> +<p class=''> +“<span class="small-caps">Dear Sir</span>,</p> +<p class='indent_a'> +“Having taken in consideration the erection of the +proposed shops, the removal of the machinery, the accommodation for +it, and also for the maker; having also taken into consideration the +further completion of the drawings, and the ultimate accomplishment +of the Engine until it is capable of producing plates for printing; +though I feel confident that the sum of 8,000<i>l.</i> will be ample to realize +the objects that are contemplated, I should nevertheless recommend +that the Government be advised to provide for the sum of 12,000<i>l.</i> by +way of estimate, and that the yearly sum required, exclusive of the +sum requisite for the buildings and removal (say 2,000<i>l.</i>), will not +exceed from 2,000<i>l.</i> to 2,500<i>l.</i></p> +<p class='right2'> +“I am, &c.</p> +<p class='sig'> +“<span class="small-caps">M. I. Brunel</span>.”</p> +<p class=''> +“<i>Henry Warburton, Esq.</i>”</p> +</div> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_43'> +<p> +[<a href='#fnb_43'>43</a>] This Mr. Clement had a legal right to do. Startling as it may +appear to the unprofessional reader, it is nevertheless the fact, that +engineers and mechanics possess the right of property to all tools that +they have constructed, although the cost of construction has been +defrayed by their employers. +</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_44'> +<p> +[<a href='#fnb_44'>44</a>] Mr. Babbage informs me, that this letter was intended only as a +private communication. +</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_45'> +<p> +[<a href='#fnb_45'>45</a>] In the <i>Ninth Bridgewater Treatise</i>, Mr. Babbage has employed +various arguments deduced from the Analytical-Engine, which afford +some idea of its powers. See second edition. In 1838, several copies of +plans of this new engine, engraved on wood, were circulated amongst +Mr. Babbage’s friends at the Meeting of the British Association at +Newcastle. +</p> +<p> +In 1840, Mr. Babbage had one of his general plans of the Analytical-Engine +lithographed at Paris. +</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_46'> +<p> +[<a href='#fnb_46'>46</a>] I am authorized by Lord Lovelace to say, that the translator is +Lady Lovelace. +</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_47'> +<p> +[<a href='#fnb_47'>47</a>] “The Difference-Engine could only tabulate, and was incapable by +its nature of developing; the Analytical-Engine was intended to either +tabulate or develop. The Difference-Engine is the embodying of one +particular and very limited set of operations, the Analytical-Engine, the +embodying of the science of operations. The distinctive characteristic +of the Analytical-Engine, is the introduction into it of the principle +which Jacquard devised for regulating by means of punched cards the +most complicated patterns in the fabrication of brocaded stuffs. +Nothing of the sort exists in the Difference-Engine. We may say most +aptly, that the Analytical-Engine weaves <i>Algebraical patterns</i>, just as +the Jacquard loom weaves flowers and leaves!”⁠—Note to translation of +Menabrea’s Memoir. The 59th volume of the <i>Edinburgh Review</i> contains +an able and elaborate article upon the Difference-Engine, written +by Dr. Lardner. +</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_48'> +<p> +[<a href='#fnb_48'>48</a>] Mr. Babbage has shown me letters by which it appears that he +declined offices of great emolument, the acceptance of which would have +interfered with his labours upon the Difference-Engine. +</p> +</div> +<p class='break_before'> +<span id='page-275' class='pagenum'>275</span><span class="small-caps">The</span> annexed Review of the Eleventh Chapter of +<span class="small-caps">Mr. Weld’s History of the Royal Society</span>, by Professor +<span class="small-caps">De Morgan</span>, has been reprinted with his permission, +and that of the Editor, <i>verbatim</i>, from the +Athenæum of October 14th, 1848.</p> +<p> +Three Notes at the foot of the pages have been +added for the purpose of explanation. +</p> +<p> +These are followed by the remarks upon them, +reprinted from the “<i>Athenæum</i>” of 16th December, 1848. +</p> +<p class="align_c break_before"> +<span id='page-277' class='pagenum'>277</span><span class="small-caps">Professor De Morgan’s Review</span> <i>of</i> <span class="small-caps">Weld’s</span><br> +<span class="small-caps">History</span> <i>of the</i> <span class="small-caps">Royal Society</span>. +</p> +<hr> +<p class="align_c one_space"> +THE ATHENÆUM.<br> +<span class='fontp9'><i>LONDON, SATURDAY, OCTOBER 14, 1848.</i></span> +</p> +<hr> +<p class="align_c four_space"> +MR. BABBAGE’S CALCULATING MACHINE. +</p> +<p class='two_space'> +<span class="small-caps">In</span> our review of Mr. Weld’s “History of the Royal +Society,” [<i>ante</i>, p. 621,] we noted that one chapter was +devoted to the history of the celebrated undertaking +above named. This chapter is taken from materials +furnished by Mr. Babbage himself, all the documents +having undergone the inspection of Mr. Weld. Of +recent publications on the subject it may be well to +note⁠—1. A short account of the transactions with the +Government, communicated by Mr. Babbage to the +<i>Philosophical Magazine</i> for September, 1843. 2. A +sketch of the <i>Analytical Engine</i> (on which Mr. Babbage +is now at work, that commenced by the Government +being the <i>Difference Engine</i>) written in Italian by +Menabrea, and translated, with notes (and a list of all +previous publications), by the Countess of Lovelace +(August 1843). The statements put forward by Mr. +Babbage have thus been in substance before the public +for five years, without contradiction: for though the +account (No. 1) was not signed, it was stated to be +<i>from authority</i>, allowed to pass as such by the Editors +<span id='page-278' class='pagenum'>278</span>of the magazine, and generally understood to emanate +from Mr. Babbage. We are then bound to take this +first statement as admitted by Government, more especially +after the publication by Mr. Weld, avowedly +made from the documents furnished by Mr. Babbage +himself: and assuredly we understand Mr. Weld as +conceiving himself to be distinctly informed by Mr. +Babbage, that <i>all</i> documents of any importance had +been communicated.</p> +<p> +The heads of the public history of the <i>Difference +Engine</i> are as follows:⁠—In April, 1823, the Government +requested the opinion of the Royal Society on +Mr. Babbage’s plan for “applying machinery to the +purposes of calculating and printing mathematical +tables.” The Royal Society reported favourably, that +the machine was “fully adequate to the objects proposed,”⁠—and +this report was laid before Parliament. +In July, Mr. Babbage had an interview with the Chancellor +of the Exchequer (Earl of Ripon) to ascertain +if Government would wish him to construct for <i>printing</i> +as well as <i>calculating</i>. There is no minute of this conversation, +and the parties have different memories upon +it. But soon after, the Treasury informs the Royal +Society that 1,500<i>l.</i> was to be issued to Mr. Babbage +“to enable him to bring his invention to perfection, in +the manner recommended.” Mr. Weld remarks that +no plan had been pointed out; but it must be noticed +that the original application was for an opinion upon +<i>calculating and printing</i>, that the opinion spoke of the +<i>full adequacy</i> of the plan for <i>the objects proposed</i>, and +that the final determination of the Government was +to proceed <i>as recommended</i>. Unless there were a previous +understanding that all documents should either speak +with the verbal completeness of an indictment or be +wholly void, it is clear that the Government determined +<span id='page-279' class='pagenum'>279</span>to assist Mr. Babbage in realizing the full invention, +and told him so.[<a href='#fn_49' id='fnb_49'>49</a>] +</p> +<p> +The work went on for four years, under advances of +money from time to time: the funds were applied by +Mr. Babbage, and the accounts were audited by Messrs. +Brunel, Donkin, and Field. We suppose that Government +did not exceed the proposed advance of 1,500<i>l.</i>; +but this is not expressly stated. In December, 1828, +Government applied again to the Royal Society to +report upon the state, progress, and prospects of the +machine. Mr. Babbage at the same time stated that +he had expended 6,000<i>l.</i>⁠—meaning, we suppose, 4,500<i>l.</i> +over and above the Government advance. A Committee, +consisting of Messrs. Gilbert, Roget, Sabine, +Herschel, Baily, Brunel (the elder), Kater, Donkin, +Penn, Rennie, Barton, Warburton, declined to report +on practicability or utility, considering both as fully +established, and reported that, the difficulties considered, +the progress was as great as could be expected, +and that the engine was likely to fulfil the expectations +of its inventor. On this report the Government made +further advances, and the machine was declared national +property. But the official payments soon failed: and +Mr. Babbage called a meeting of private friends, in +May 1829, who, on the representation that he had then +advanced 4,000<i>l.</i> himself, in addition to the Government +advance of 3,000<i>l.</i>, advised him strongly not to +proceed without adequate help from the Government. +<span id='page-280' class='pagenum'>280</span>On this representation, the Duke of Wellington, Mr. +Goulburn, and Lord Ashley inspected what there was +to show, and the Treasury advanced 3,000<i>l.</i> more. In +December 1830, nearly 600<i>l.</i> was still due to Mr. +Babbage, “upon the last account,” and that sum to the +superintendent, Mr. Clement. The Treasury gave +directions for the advance of 600<i>l.</i> to pay Mr. Clement, +and desired a fresh inspection and opinion from the +Royal Society. The Committee above named (with +the addition of Sir J. Lubbock and Mr. Troughton) +reported (April 1831) as favourably as before on every +point, and recommended attention to Mr. Babbage’s +suggestion that the workshops should be removed to the +neighbourhood of his residence. With regard to probable +expense, they subjoined Mr. Brunel’s estimate +that 8,000<i>l.</i> additional would be sufficient; but recommending +that the Government be advised to provide +for 12,000<i>l.</i> by way of estimate. A piece of ground +adjoining Mr. Babbage’s garden was taken, and a fire-proof +building was erected. When about 17,000<i>l.</i> had +been expended altogether, further progress was arrested +by the extravagant demands made by Mr. Clement, as +compensation for carrying on the construction in the +new buildings. These were out of the question: and +Mr. Clement withdrew, taking with him all the tools +which had been used, many of which had been invented +for the occasion. For it is the law that engineers and +mechanics possess the right of property in all tools they +have constructed, even though the cost of construction +may have been defrayed by their employers. A special +agreement ought, the reader will say, to have been +made as to these tools; but whether the neglect is to +be charged on Mr. Babbage, or on the Government, +those must say who feel able. As it very seldom +happens that the employer furnishes tools, it is easy to +<span id='page-281' class='pagenum'>281</span>see how the necessity for a special agreement may have +escaped the notice of all parties. +</p> +<p> +So far all is intelligible enough, and no blame +attaches to either side, at least that we can venture to +impute. But now the question divides in a curious +way. While the works were suspended, Mr. Babbage +reconsidered the whole question, and invented what he +calls the <i>Analytical Engine</i>,⁠—which we will take, on his +word and Menabrea’s publication, derived from his +communications, to be immensely superior to the <i>Difference +Engine</i>. To resume the latter, while Government +was unacquainted with these new and more simple +conceptions, would have been improper; to write on +unfinished speculations would have been difficult. Mr. +Babbage therefore (September 1834) requested a personal +interview with Lord Melbourne; which was +agreed to,⁠—but before it took place the ministry was +dissolved. From this time until 1842 Mr. Babbage +made applications to the various administrations, which +remained unanswered; until at last, in November, 1842, +a letter from Mr. Goulburn, in answer to a new application, +informed Mr. Babbage that the Government +intended to discontinue the project on the ground of +expense. +</p> +<p> +In the meanwhile Mr. Babbage incurred severe censure +in scientific circles, as being himself the cause of +the delay. It was asserted that he had compromised +the Royal Society, which had so strongly recommended +his project to the Government. It was pretty generally +believed that the delay arose from his determination +that the Government should take up the new engine +and abandon the old one. +</p> +<p> +But, until the statement made by him shall be proved +either false or defective, it must stand that the Government +never returned any answer to the question⁠—Shall +<span id='page-282' class='pagenum'>282</span>the new engine be constructed, or shall the old one be +proceeded with? We are of opinion that they ought +to have required him to proceed with the old one. +They ought to have said⁠—The public can only judge +by results: how well satisfied soever men of science +may be that the new machine is immeasurably superior +to the old one, society at large will never comprehend +the abandonment of a scheme on which so much has +been expended; they will say⁠—What if, in constructing +No. 2, No. 3 should be discovered, as much superior to +No. 2 as No. 2 is to No. 1! And if Mr. Babbage had +declined to proceed with his first project, when thus +urged, it is our opinion that he would have richly +deserved a very harsh censure. And of this we are +sure, that if Government had allowed him to finish the +first machine, and he had done so with success, the +House of Commons would willingly have granted money +for the second,⁠—aye, and for the third and fourth, if he +had invented them. But the Government itself prevented +the matter from coming to any such issue. It +is possible that Sir R. Peel and Mr. Goulburn allowed +Mr. Babbage’s well-known wish[<a href='#fn_50' id='fnb_50'>50</a>] to abandon the first +plan in favour of the new one to influence their decision. +It may be that they were startled at finding that +17,000<i>l.</i> expended upon one project was only the +precursor of another. If so, we think they put themselves +in the wrong by not fastening on Mr. Babbage +the alternative of either proceeding with the existing +construction, or taking the entire responsibility +of refusal upon himself. As the matter now stands, +and unless Mr. Babbage can be refuted, the answer to +the question why he did not proceed is, that during the +<span id='page-283' class='pagenum'>283</span>eight years in which he had to bear the blame of the +delay he could not procure even the attention of the +Government, much less any decision on the course to +be taken. +</p> +<p> +It is generally understood that Mr. Babbage is +determined to proceed with the <i>Analytical Engine</i>, +gradually, and at his own expense; and that the drawings +are in a state of great forwardness. According to +Mr. Babbage himself, many experiments have been +made with the object “on the one hand, by simplifying +the construction as much as possible, and on the +other, by contriving new and cheaper means of execution, +ultimately to reduce the expense within those +limits which a private individual may command.” +</p> +<p> +In looking at all the circumstances of this statement, +we regret its divided responsibility. Mr. Weld has +seen Mr. Babbage’s documents. Should he have made +an insufficient selection, who is to blame? Mr. Weld +says, “I have derived very valuable information from +an unpublished statement drawn up by Mr. Babbage, +which he has been so kind as to place in my hands. +The original documents, which are in Mr. Babbage’s +possession, and which are referred to, I have myself +examined.” From all this we should conclude that if +Mr. Weld had omitted anything material, or fallen into +any misconception, Mr. Babbage would before this have +set it right. But it would be more satisfactory if we +had Mr. Babbage’s own acceptance of the statement +thus made, as being that on which he is content to rest +his case; at least until some specific counter-statement +should demand more detail of explanation. Continued +silence will be tantamount to such acceptance. +</p> +<p> +There is also one piece of information which must +be drawn out before the case can be finally adjudicated. +We stand thus:⁠—Scientific rumour states that Mr. +<span id='page-284' class='pagenum'>284</span>Babbage compelled the Government to give him up by +demanding permission to abandon the <i>Difference Engine</i> +and substitute the <i>Analytical Engine</i>. To this, in the +formal point of view, Mr. Babbage has fully answered, +by showing that the Government never communicated +to him that it was their pleasure he should proceed on +the plan originally contemplated. The question now +remains⁠—Did Mr. Babbage, or did he not, in the +several unanswered applications which he made to the +Ministry, press the claims of the new machine and the +abandonment of the old? If so, did he do it in such +a manner as to give to understand, or make apparent, +that he would not consent to recommence operations at +the point of relinquishment? The “several applications” +which were made from 1833 to 1838 are not +particularized, much less described as to contents. But, +in October 1838, Mr. Babbage wrote to the Chancellor +of the Exchequer, stating, to use Mr. Weld’s words, +that “the question he wished to have settled” was, +whether the Government required him to superintend +the completion of the <i>Difference Engine</i> according to +the original plan and principle, or whether they intended +to discontinue it altogether. Now the words <i>quoted</i> are +very like the idiom a person would employ who had in +his mind that up to that time some other question had +been among those proposed for discussion. And it is +worthy of note that all the communications are undescribed +until we come to the one of October 1838; +which shows that then at least, whether before or not, +Mr. Babbage had put the question on the right issue. +Of what tenor, then, were the undescribed applications?[<a href='#fn_51' id='fnb_51'>51</a>] +If of the same as that of October 1838, Mr. +Babbage stands quite clear; but if they were such as +<span id='page-285' class='pagenum'>285</span>fairly to give rise to the rumour above mentioned, then +it must be said, that though <i>he</i> had every disposition to +get wrong, Government always prevented him by blocking +his path with an error of its own. But in any case +it is to be remembered, that for the last four years of +unanswered application Mr. Babbage stood upon the +right ground; and also that the rumoured <i>refusal</i> to +proceed never was made. +</p> +<p> +The public, we think, has a right to explanation +from the Government, and to further explanation from +Mr. Babbage. Sir R. Peel turned it off with a joke +in the House of Commons. He recommended that +the machine should be set to calculate the time at +which it would be of use. He ought rather to have +advised that it should be set to compute the number of +applications which might remain unanswered before a +Minister, if the subject were not one which might affect +his parliamentary power. If it had done this, it would +have shown that its usefulness had commenced. +</p> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_49'> +<p> +[<a href='#fnb_49'>49</a>] By the words “<i>no plan</i>,” the reviewer here evidently refers to the +<i>mechanical and mathematical plan</i>, on the fitness of which the Royal +Society had already, as he observes, made a report. Mr. Weld, on the +other hand, refers to the <i>mutual relations</i> of the two parties, Mr. Babbage +and the Chancellor of the Exchequer, relative to the expenses and +even to the ownership of the <i>Difference-Engine</i>, as appears by the footnote +<a href='#fn_34'>(34)</a> at <a href='#page-256'>page 256</a>. +</p> +<p class='sig'> +C. B.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_50'> +<p> +[<a href='#fnb_50'>50</a>] It is scarcely possible that this <i>supposed</i> wish could have influenced +Sir Robert Peel, because he had before him a written disavowal of it +from Mr. Babbage himself. +</p> +<p class='sig'> +C. B.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_51'> +<p> +[<a href='#fnb_51'>51</a>] The two following will sufficiently explain them:⁠—On the 23d +December, 1834, Mr. Babbage addressed a statement to the Duke of +Wellington, pointing out the only plans which, in his opinion, could be +pursued for terminating the questions relative to the <i>Difference Engine</i>, +namely: +</p> +<p> +<i>First</i>, the Government might desire Mr. Babbage to continue the +construction of the Engine in the hands of the person who has hitherto +been employed in making it. +</p> +<p> +<i>Secondly</i>, the Government might wish to know whether any other +person could be substituted for the engineer at present employed to +continue the construction; a course which was possible. +</p> +<p> +<i>Thirdly</i>, the Government might (although he did not presume that +they would) substitute some person to superintend the completion of +the Engine instead of Mr. Babbage himself. +</p> +<p> +<i>Fourthly</i>, the Government might be disposed to give up the undertaking +entirely. +</p> +<p> +A letter to Sir R. Peel from Mr. Babbage, dated 7th April, 1835, and +enclosing the above plans, concludes thus:⁠— +</p> +<p> +“The delays and difficulties of years will, I hope, excuse my expressing +a wish that I may at length be relieved from them by an early +decision of the Government on the question.” +</p> +<p class='sig'> +C. B.</p> +</div> +<p class="align_c break_before"> +<span id='page-286' class='pagenum'>286</span><i>From the</i> <span class="small-caps">Athenæum</span> <i>of</i> <span class="small-caps">Saturday, Dec.</span> <i>16th, 1848</i>. +</p> +<hr> +<p class='two_space'> +<span class="small-caps">Mr. Babbage</span> has reprinted, for private circulation, +Mr. Weld’s chapter on his <i>Calculating Machine</i>, and has +appended to it our review[<a href='#fn_52' id='fnb_52'>52</a>] of that chapter [see <i>ante</i>, p. +1029] with three short foot-notes. The first of these +is on a point immaterial to the issue; the second and +third contain distinct statements of fact from Mr. +Babbage, in reference to our comments upon his proceedings +and those of the Government. Our readers +will remember that from September 1834 to November +1842, Mr. Babbage could not procure the attention of +the Government to the state of the engine, on which +17,000<i>l.</i> had been spent; and that, about the beginning +of that period, Mr. Babbage had invented the new +engine, which he called the <i>Analytical Engine</i>. And +further, they will remember that all notion of the +possibility of blame having been justly incurred by +Mr. Babbage rested, in our comment, upon the hypothesis +that he had put his wish to abandon the <i>Difference +Engine</i> and substitute the <i>Analytical Engine</i> before +the Government in such a form as to give them a right +to suppose that he was unwilling to proceed with the +former. On our remark that it is possible that Sir R. +Peel and Mr. Goulburn allowed his well-known wish +to influence their decision, Mr. Babbage observes:⁠—“It +is scarcely possible that this <i>supposed</i> wish could +<span id='page-287' class='pagenum'>287</span>have influenced Sir Robert Peel, because he had +before him a written disavowal of it from Mr. Babbage +himself.”</p> +<p> +Again, of the first half of the period of unanswered +application Mr. Weld gives no account, as to the tenor +of the applications therein made to the Government: +though he shows by documents that during the second +half Mr. Babbage, to repeat our own phrase, “stood +upon the right ground.” And thereupon we expressed +our opinion that the public had a right to explanation +from the Government, and to further explanation from +Mr. Babbage. This further explanation Mr. Babbage +now gives, in the following words; among which we +insert some bracketed comments:⁠— +</p> +<p> +“The two following [applications made to the Government] +will sufficiently explain them [the undescribed +applications of the first half of the period of unanswered +application]:⁠—On the 23rd December, 1834, +Mr. Babbage addressed a statement to the Duke of +Wellington, pointing out the only [the reader will +remark this word <i>only</i>] plans which in his opinion +could be pursued for terminating the questions relative +to the <i>Difference Engine</i>, namely⁠—<i>First</i>, the +Government might desire Mr. Babbage to continue +the construction of the engine in the hands of the +person who has hitherto been employed in making it. +<i>Secondly</i>, the Government might wish to know whether +any other person could be substituted for the engineer +at present employed to continue the construction⁠—a +course which was possible. <i>Thirdly</i>, the Government +might (although he did not presume that they would) +substitute some person to superintend the completion +of the engine instead of Mr. Babbage himself. <i>Fourthly</i>, +the Government might be disposed to give up the +undertaking entirely.” A letter to Sir Robert Peel +<span id='page-288' class='pagenum'>288</span>from Mr. Babbage, dated the 7th of April, 1835, and +enclosing the above plans, concludes thus: “The delays +and difficulties of years will, I hope, excuse my expressing +a wish that I may at length be relieved from +them by an early decision of the Government on the +question.” +</p> +<p> +From the above it appears that at the end of 1834, +Mr. Babbage⁠—though then so full of the <i>new</i> engine, +that in September he had asked an audience of Lord +Melbourne, to communicate the exact state of the case, +and to request, of course, his consideration of the question +whether the new engine should or should not take +the place of the old one⁠—began his applications to the +Government with distinct reference to the <i>old</i> engine, +and to the question of its completion or abandonment. +Certainly the first of the two applications was not well +timed, for it was made when the Duke of Wellington +held all the seals, and a Government courier was hunting +Sir Robert Peel all over Italy, to tell him to come +home quick and be Prime Minister. But it was +repeated to Sir Robert Peel in the April following, +when the latter was also in official possession of the +previous letter. +</p> +<p> +Mr. Babbage having thus filled up the only <i>lacuna</i> +which the public press has brought to his notice, we +can but repeat that those who would impute to him the +blame of the failure of Government to complete his +Calculating Machine must begin by proving his statement +to be false or defective. In 1835 he complains <i>to</i> +the Government of “delays and difficulties,” which he +implies to be mainly caused <i>by</i> the Government, and +he gets no answer whatever to repeated applications, +until 1843. Those who have propagated the rumours +that his conduct was the cause of the delay, and that +he compromised his friends in the Royal Society, who +<span id='page-289' class='pagenum'>289</span>had aided in bringing him under the notice of the +Government, are bound to abstain in future, or to show +cause. +</p> +<p> +We end by a quotation from Mr. Weld, which we +abstained from giving so long as we supposed that the +discontinuance of the Calculating Machine might be, in +any degree, Mr. Babbage’s fault. “Mr. Babbage has +shown me letters, by which it appears that he declined +offices of great emolument, the acceptance of which +would have interfered with his labours upon the +<i>Difference Engine</i>.” +</p> +<div class='footnote' id='fn_52'> +<p> +[<a href='#fnb_52'>52</a>] We said in that review that Menabrea’s Memoir was in Italian:⁠—we +should have said French. +</p> +</div> +<p class="align_c one_space"> +THE END. +</p> +<div class='box fontp9'> +<p class="align_c space_after"> +Transcriber’s Notes. +</p> +<p> +New original cover art included with this eBook is granted to the public domain. +</p> +<p> +Some words are inconsistently hyphenated such as “light-house”, “lighthouse” and “astronomer-royal”, “astronomer royal”. These have been left as originally printed. +</p> +<p> +The footnotes have been renumbered throughout the book and moved to the ends of the chapters. +</p> +<p> +The <a href='#tg_app'>Appendix</a> consists of extracts from other publications. The footnotes have been renumbered but there remain references to page numbers in the original publications. +</p> +<p> +Some small changes have been made as follows: +</p> +<p> +A closing quotation mark at the end of the first sentence of <a href='#fn_47'>footnote 47</a> has been removed since all of this text is taken from the note cited. +</p> +<p> +In order to obtain the correct alignment of text: +</p> +<p> +On <a href='#page-126'>page 126</a> the dashes serving to indicate repeated text have been replaced by duplicated text. +</p> +<p> +In the table in <a href='#fn_40'>footnote 40</a> the ditto marks have been replaced by duplicated text. +</p> +<p> +In the table on <a href='#page-220'>page 220</a> “The Bath” has been repeated instead of being bracketed to “Military” and “Civil”. +</p> +</div> + +<div style='text-align:center'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 76507 ***</div> +</body> +</html> + diff --git a/76507-h/images/cover.jpg b/76507-h/images/cover.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..5b0332a --- /dev/null +++ b/76507-h/images/cover.jpg diff --git a/76507-h/images/telegraph.png b/76507-h/images/telegraph.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..2197b5a --- /dev/null +++ b/76507-h/images/telegraph.png diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. 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