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+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 76489 ***
+
+
+
+  TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE
+
+  Italic text is denoted by _underscores_.
+
+  Footnote anchors are denoted by [number], and the footnotes have been
+  placed at the end of the paragraph. Some minor changes to the text are
+  noted at the end of the book.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: ST. TROPHYME AT ARLES.]
+
+
+
+
+                             A SHORT HISTORY
+
+                                    OF
+
+                               ARCHITECTURE
+
+                                    BY
+                          ARTHUR LYMAN TUCKERMAN
+
+                    _WITH ILLUSTRATIONS BY THE AUTHOR_
+
+                              [Illustration]
+
+                                 NEW YORK
+                         CHARLES SCRIBNER’S SONS
+                                   1897
+
+
+
+
+                           COPYRIGHT, 1887, BY
+                         CHARLES SCRIBNER’S SONS
+
+                                  TROW’S
+                    PRINTING AND BOOKBINDING COMPANY,
+                                NEW YORK.
+
+                                   “To build, to build!
+                 That is the noblest art of all the arts.
+                 Painting and Sculpture are but images,
+                 Are merely shadows cast by outward things
+                 On stone or canvas, having in themselves
+                 No separate existence. Architecture,
+                 Existing in itself, and not in seeming
+                 A something it is not, surpasses them
+                 As substance shadow.”
+                                         —LONGFELLOW, in _Michael Angelo_.
+
+
+
+
+                                PREFACE.
+
+
+I have written this short history of architecture to meet the
+requirements of those who wish to become acquainted with the main facts
+without having to read voluminous works, many of which are addressed, not
+to the student, but to the connoisseur, who is presumed at the start to
+have a knowledge of the subject sufficient to enable him to comprehend
+critical and theoretical essays.
+
+The plan I have adopted has been to trace the origin of each style, its
+characteristic points and its connection with those which preceded and
+succeeded it, without introducing technical terms or any but the most
+important dates.
+
+There is a temptation to enter into the social and political histories
+of each building race, but brevity forbids this, as well as any of the
+gushing descriptions usually found in modern handbooks on art.
+
+I imagine that very few people have the time to read lengthy treatises on
+architecture, but that there are many who would be glad to know the chief
+historical facts, were these to be presented within a small
+compass. I hope, therefore, that this volume may be of interest to the
+general reader and may find its way to schools other than those which
+make art matters their specialty, for it seems to me that if the average
+schoolboy were taught as much about the history of the most useful and
+beautiful of the creations of the people of each age, as about the manner
+and quantity of warfare and slaughter in which they indulged, he would
+obtain as valuable a quality of information.
+
+  ART SCHOOLS OF THE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM.
+               March, 1887
+
+
+
+
+                             LIST OF PLATES.
+
+
+    ST. TROPHYME AT ARLES,                                 _Frontispiece_.
+
+                                                               FACING PAGE
+
+    THE GREEK ORDERS,                                                   56
+
+    PLAN OF THE TEMPLE OF THESEUS AT ATHENS,                            62
+
+    THE ROMAN ORDERS,                                                   70
+
+    PALACE OF DIOCLETIAN AT SPALATRO,                                   73
+
+    PLAN OF THE PANTHEON AT ROME,                                       74
+
+    PLAN OF THE BATHS OF AGRIPPA,                                       75
+
+    PLAN OF THE TEMPLE OF THE SUN AT BAALBEK,                           76
+
+    PLAN OF THE OLD BASILICA OF ST. PAUL’S BEYOND THE WALLS,            89
+
+    ST. VITALE, OF RAVENNA,                                             92
+
+    THE TEMPLE OF MINERVA MEDICA,                                       93
+
+    THE TEMPLE OF VESTA, SOMETIMES CALLED THE TEMPLE OF HERCULES,       94
+
+    THE BAPTISTERY OF CONSTANTINE,                                      94
+
+    THE PENDENTIVE SYSTEM IN BYZANTINE DOMES,                           97
+
+    CHURCH OF SERGIUS AND BACCHUS AT CONSTANTINOPLE,                    98
+
+    PLAN OF ST. SOPHIA, CONSTANTINOPLE,                                 99
+
+    ROMANESQUE CONSTRUCTION,                                           121
+
+    COMPARATIVE SERIES, SHOWING GREEK, ROMAN, ROMANESQUE, AND GOTHIC
+    METHODS OF SUPPORT,                                                124
+
+    PLAN OF STRASBOURG CATHEDRAL,                                      128
+
+    CHEVET OF NOTRE DAME DU PORT AT CLERMONT,                          130
+
+    PLAN OF RHEIMS CATHEDRAL,                                          134
+
+    PLAN OF AN ENGLISH CATHEDRAL,                                      136
+
+    PLAN OF ST. PETER’S AS ORIGINALLY DESIGNED BY MICHAEL
+    ANGELO,                                                            155
+
+    PLAN OF CHURCH OF THE HOTEL DES INVALIDES AT PARIS,                160
+
+
+
+
+                                CONTENTS.
+
+
+                                                                      PAGE
+
+  INTRODUCTION,                                                          1
+
+  I.—CELTIC OR DRUIDICAL REMAINS,                                        5
+
+  II.—THE MONUMENTS OF EGYPT,                                           10
+
+  III.—ASIATIC ARCHITECTURE,                                            30
+
+  IV.—GREECE,                                                           52
+
+  V.—ETRURIA AND ROME,                                                  68
+
+  VI.—THE EARLY CHRISTIAN STYLE,                                        88
+
+  VII.—THE BYZANTINE STYLE,                                             95
+
+  VIII.—MAHOMETAN ARCHITECTURE,                                        105
+
+  IX.—THE ROMANESQUE STYLE,                                            115
+
+  X.—GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE,                                              132
+
+  XI.—THE RENAISSANCE,                                                 151
+
+  XII.—CONCLUSION,                                                     162
+
+
+
+
+                                 A SHORT
+
+                        HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
+
+
+
+
+                              INTRODUCTION.
+
+
+Architecture is an art combining the qualities of utility and beauty. Its
+object is, and has been from its origin, to satisfy both the necessities
+and tastes of the various building races.
+
+For this purpose the two distinct, and yet closely related, sciences of
+construction and decoration have been employed, and the history of the
+progress which has been made in each, goes hand in hand with the history
+of each age and each race.
+
+The requirements of the inhabitants of every country have always been
+defined by its character and climate, and, in order to satisfy these
+requirements, the art has adapted itself to them and grown up and
+expanded in the different fields in which it has been directed.
+
+It is customary to explain the origin of the art of building somewhat as
+follows: The first impulse of the barbarian, in whatever
+part of the globe he may be born, is to seek a shelter from the varying
+temperature of night and day. If he lives in the mountains, he chooses
+the caves and clefts in the rocks for his habitation; if on the plain,
+he follows the example of the animals and hollows out a retreat in the
+ground where he may seek warmth and protection. Where the soil is rocky,
+he gathers branches and moss, and piles them in such a manner as to form
+a rude dwelling. Soon after, he perceives the inconvenience of these
+untrimmed boughs, and remedies the discomfort by driving four straight
+posts into the ground, and roofing them over with cross-pieces, inclined
+so as to shed the rain.
+
+This is the first semblance of a thoughtful construction, and the
+improvements upon it gradually develop into the more studied forms of
+architecture.
+
+When the first requisite of shelter has been obtained, the early builder
+cuts off the rough edges and carves upon the posts rude emblems of the
+natural objects he sees about him, and in doing this takes the first step
+in design and decoration.
+
+When wood is not abundant, he seeks a similar result in stone, and
+the treatment of each material gives rise to distinct principles of
+construction.
+
+The Greeks, who had marble-quarries of easy access, bridged over their
+posts or columns with straight lintels, capable of supporting the weight
+of the roof without danger of fracture. The Romans, who found their
+travertine difficult to handle, built their baths and palaces of brick,
+and, in seeking to connect their pillars and piers, adopted the round
+arch as a means of effecting this end, and this round arch was the main
+principle of Roman architecture. When, in due time, the pointed arch was
+found to combine great strength and beauty, this new method of building
+became the leading principle of Gothic art. So, according to each
+necessity, the different styles of architecture arose.
+
+When civilization increases the requirements of man, it is no longer
+possible to begin a rude construction, and alter it afterward to suit
+these needs; therefore it becomes necessary to consider beforehand all
+the elements required, and, in order to facilitate this consideration,
+drawing comes in as a simple means of placing before one all that enters
+into the proposed building.
+
+Therefore, in the study of architecture four divisions of the art must
+be considered, namely: The construction of buildings with various
+materials, the appropriate proportions of the same, their representation
+by draughtsmanship and their history in various times and among various
+peoples.
+
+It will be readily understood that each of these divisions embraces a
+wide scope individually, and yet no one can be separated from the others
+without affecting the result as a whole.
+
+It is proposed, therefore, to review briefly the history of this art, and
+the causes which have affected it, in order that, knowing the reasons
+which led to the formation of each style, the student may
+follow its study with the practical understanding and logical inference
+which lead to the best results.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The question of which country furnished the first or earliest period of
+approach to civilization in the building of monuments or habitations has
+been, and is likely to be, an open one for some time to come.
+
+Speculative discussion on this point can serve no end of importance to
+architects; it interests more especially the historian and antiquarian.
+Consequently we will, for the sake of convenience, glance over the
+periods of architecture in the following order:
+
+   1. Celtic or Druidical remains.
+   2. The Monuments of Egypt.
+   3. Asiatic architecture.
+   4. Greece.
+   5. Etruria and Rome.
+   6. The Early Christian style.
+   7. The Byzantine style.
+   8. Mahometan architecture.
+   9. The Romanesque style.
+  10. Gothic architecture.
+  11. The Renaissance.
+
+
+
+
+                                   I.
+
+                      CELTIC OR DRUIDICAL REMAINS.
+
+
+The Celtic race has left enduring marks of its power in the numerous
+monuments which are found in various parts of Great Britain, France,
+Germany, and Spain, and scattered through adjacent countries.
+
+These consist of collections of huge uncarved boulders, arranged in
+geometrical lines, and often found in the centre of vast plains, far
+removed from quarry or mountain-side.
+
+The more common forms are called “menhirs or peulvans,” signifying in
+Celtic “long stones.” These are either found separately or ranged in long
+parallel lines.
+
+The most remarkable examples are at Carnac, in Brittany, where there are
+twelve hundred of these huge stones, varying from three to eighteen feet
+in height, ranged in eleven rows, leading to a semicircular enclosure.
+
+What purpose they served, and whether of a religious or civil character,
+has not been conclusively determined. Some consider that they
+served to mark the burial-spot of the Druids; others that
+they were landmarks or emblems of victory.
+
+To another class belong the so-called Rocking Stones, which consist
+of two immense blocks of rock, placed one upon the other, and either
+balanced so exactly that the slightest touch will suffice to shake them,
+or pivoted so as to revolve. There are examples at Tenanville, near
+Cherbourg, in the north of France, and in Sussex, England. One of these,
+called the “Great upon Little,” is estimated to weigh a million pounds.
+
+Batissier considers them to have been erected by the priests, either to
+strike terror and wonder into the hearts of the people, whom they sought
+to hold in subjection, or as emblems of the world suspended in the air.
+We know that they have existed from remote ages, as mention is made of
+their antiquity by Pliny and Ptolemy.
+
+Trilitha, or lichavens, are formed with three stones, two vertical
+and one horizontal resting upon the others, in the shape of a rude
+gateway. This is what they were probably intended for, though it has
+been suggested that they were used for altars. Similar to these are the
+dolmens, or table-stones, consisting of one large flat boulder supported
+by several smaller ones. Their upper surfaces, as a rule, have channels
+cut in them, which are generally believed to have been receptacles for
+the blood of victims sacrificed upon them, and some are even hollowed
+out in the shape of the human body.
+
+The Merchants’ Tables, at Lochmariaker, are the most noted among the many
+that still exist.
+
+From fragments of skeletons usually found in the vicinity of dolmens, it
+has been imagined that either the priests or their human offerings were
+buried there as upon consecrated ground.
+
+There are several instances where these dolmens form covered ways
+or avenues, being placed one beside another in continuous line, and
+generally surrounded by a plantation of trees. They are frequently
+divided by blocks of stone into several compartments, and, like the
+tumuli or barrows, were probably used as places of interment for the dead.
+
+The most interesting, perhaps, of any of these groups of stones are the
+“cromlechs”: enclosures formed of numerous boulders, arranged either in
+elliptic rows or in concentric circles, with a large monolith in the
+central point. Each circle is composed of a definite number of “menhirs,”
+and the whole is usually surrounded by a ditch.
+
+It is supposed that each stone represented a minor deity, and the central
+one the chief of the gods. Their purpose apparently was to mark the place
+of large assemblies, called together for the administration of civil,
+military, and religious rites.
+
+The cromlech of Stonehenge in Wiltshire is the most celebrated and one of
+the largest known. The country folk call it the Cor-Gaur,
+or dance of giants, and attribute its formation to the magic of the
+famous enchanter, Merlin. It is composed of two circular and two elliptic
+enclosures, the one within the other, and is several hundred feet in
+circumference.
+
+In none of these Celtic monuments is there anything which may be called
+strictly architectural, but some of them illustrate a principle of
+building which is of importance to note. To place a row of stones in
+upright positions denotes no special phase of intelligent thought,
+beyond a desire to permanently mark some interesting locality, but when
+the ancient race which raised these massive rocks conceived the idea
+of supporting one block upon a number of smaller ones, it had reached
+a first principle of construction, destined to be employed for many
+centuries afterward in some of the finest buildings. After the trilithon
+came the table-stones, and from these it was but a step to the covered
+alleys, which were in themselves a first conception of a rude habitation,
+walled in and roofed over. There can be nothing more elementary than
+this, and no simpler constructional expedient, in whatever country it
+may first have been evolved. We do not know the precise date of Celtic
+monuments, nor is it probable that they are as ancient as the Egyptian
+pyramids, but as in any case they illustrate the transition from brutal
+ignorance to an era of thought, we may place them at the commencement of
+our chronological list. In the various themes and discussions advanced
+by archæologists, and the strange legends and tales of the peasantry
+with regard to them, we have no concern. It is sufficient for us to know
+that they exist and afford us an insight into the dawning efforts of a
+barbaric people to progress in the art which we propose to study.
+
+
+
+
+                                   II.
+
+                         THE MONUMENTS OF EGYPT.
+
+
+The history of Egypt is divided into five periods, from the earliest ages
+down to its conquest by the Romans at the beginning of the Christian era.
+The first period comprises the first fourteen dynasties of ancient kings,
+among whom the most important are: Menes, founder of Memphis, Shoofoo
+or Cheops, Shafra or Chephren, and Mycerinus, builders of the pyramids
+of Gizeh, and the two Theban monarchs, Osirtasen I. and Amenemha III.,
+by whom the tombs at Beni Hassan, the Labyrinth and Lake Moeris were
+constructed. According to Bunsen these fourteen dynasties date from 3623
+to 2547 B.C.
+
+The second period is marked by the invasion of the Hyksos, or Shepherd
+Kings, of whom there were three dynasties. They remained in power until
+1625 B.C. and were a warlike and destructive race, leaving no permanent
+traces of their occupation.
+
+The third period is the most brilliant in Egyptian history, extending
+from 1625 to 525 B.C., and comprising nine dynasties of great conquerors
+and builders. The best known of these are: Amosis, Thothmes III., Sethi
+I., Rameses II. (the Great), called also Sesostris, and Rameses III.
+Under these kings the great temples of Luxor, Abydus, and Karnak were
+erected and the arts were assiduously cultivated.
+
+The Persians under Cambyses occupied the country in the year 525 B.C.
+They were expelled a century later, but were again victorious in 340
+B.C., and remained in possession until the conquest of Alexander the
+Great in 332. This fourth period was as unproductive in works of art as
+had been that of the Hyksos dominion.
+
+After Alexander, the Ptolemys ruled until the close of the first century
+before Christ. Their government promoted the cultivation of the arts and
+industries and formed the fifth and last period in the history of ancient
+Egypt as an independent state.
+
+Of these five epochs there are, therefore, only three—namely, the first,
+third, and fifth—during which architecture flourished, and these three in
+reality form but one long period in the history of an art which remained
+almost unaltered, scarcely either improving or receding, from the
+remotest times to its last day.
+
+Our knowledge of ancient Egypt has been chiefly derived from
+bass-reliefs, mural paintings and hieroglyphics. The latter were
+unintelligible until the discovery of the Rosetta stone by the French
+consul Champollion, in 1798. This was part of a stone tablet bearing
+three inscriptions, one in hieroglyphics, one in the Cursive letters used
+by the lower classes, and the third in Greek. By means of this the old
+alphabet was reconstructed and all the ancient inscriptions deciphered.
+
+
+                                _TOMBS_.
+
+The most important monuments of the first period are the pyramids, the
+oldest of which were built between three and four thousand years before
+Christ.
+
+There remain about a hundred of these in the vicinity of the ancient
+city of Memphis, extending over a considerable extent of country, and
+others are found in Thebes and at Meroë in Ethiopia. There have been
+many theories advanced upon the subject of their origin and purpose, and
+many arguments set forth seeking to prove that they were observatories,
+temples, granaries, meteorological monuments, or tombs. Nearly all modern
+authorities agree upon the last as the most probable solution of the
+problem, not only from the sarcophagi and mummies found within many of
+them, and from inscriptions relating events in the lives of important
+personages which adorn the walls of some of their inner chambers, but
+from the fact that these buildings are never found beyond the confines of
+cemeteries.
+
+In erecting these monuments, the Egyptians usually selected a site upon
+a rocky plateau, on which a space equal to the superficial area required
+for the base was made level, a mound being left in the centre which was
+bonded in with the masonry. Below this platform a sepulchral chamber and
+connecting passage were hollowed in the rock. The pyramid was built over
+this chamber and contained one or more additional apartments, reached
+from the outside by narrow and inclined corridors. It was generally
+constructed with blocks of limestone, in successive steps receding at
+an angle varying from forty-five to seventy degrees. The outside was
+afterward cased with slabs of polished syenite, upon which inscriptions
+were engraved or painted. The interior chambers and corridors were
+likewise lined with polished granite, sometimes so mathematically jointed
+that a needle could not be pushed between the stones. Ceilings were
+formed by inclined slabs resting against each other or the walls were
+corbelled inward until they met.
+
+The entrances to the passages were invariably closed and concealed, and
+portcullises of heavy granite blocks, sliding in grooves, were placed
+at intervals along the corridors, the more effectually to preserve the
+sepulchre from violation. Nearly all have, nevertheless, been entered
+and rifled, so that but little is left to aid the archæologist in his
+researches. Fragmentary inscriptions and local observations compared
+with the accounts given by Greek and Latin authors have, however,
+resulted in the piecing together of what may be presumed to be an
+accurate history of the pyramid-builders. The three largest pyramids
+are situated at Gizeh, a small village near Cairo, and are respectively
+those of Cheops, known also as Suphis or Shoofoo, Chephren or Shafra,
+and Mycerinus.
+
+The following table shows the dimensions given by two of the best
+authorities:
+
+                       SIDE OF BASE.     PERPENDICULAR HEIGHT.
+
+                    Sir G.    Col. H.     Sir G.    Col. H.
+                  Wilkinson.    Vyse.   Wilkinson.   Vyse.
+        Cheops       756′      764′       480′ 9″    480′ 9″
+        Chephren               707′ 9″    453′       454′ 3″
+        Mycerinus              364′ 6″               208′
+
+All of these are oriented and the entrances are all on the North sides.
+This is a rule applicable to all the pyramids except that of Sakkarah,
+which is placed without reference to the points of the compass and was
+probably erected at a much later date.
+
+The first or Great Pyramid contains one subterranean chamber, reached by
+a passage some three hundred feet long, and two other apartments above
+the level of the ground, the one above the other, called the King’s and
+Queen’s sepulchres. The entrance to the connecting corridors is placed 45
+feet above the ground and 23 feet away from the true centre in order to
+deceive explorers. The Queen’s Chamber is about 18 feet square by 20 feet
+in height, and is placed directly under the apex of the pyramid. It is 67
+feet above the ground, and 71 feet below the King’s Chamber. The passage
+leading to the latter is 28 feet high, formed by corbelled walls. This
+chamber is roofed by a flat ceiling and measures 34 feet in length by
+17 in breadth, and is 19 feet high. The walls and ceiling are built of
+finely polished granite, and the apartment contains a sarcophagus of
+the same material. The weight of the superincumbent masonry is relieved
+by five other compartments placed over the chamber, four of which are
+covered by flat slabs, and the fifth by inclined stones resting against
+each other. It was in this highest compartment that some hieroglyphics
+scrawled in red ochre on the walls were discovered, by means of which the
+name Shoofoo became known. Herodotus says that one hundred thousand men
+were employed during twenty years in building the Great Pyramid, after
+they had devoted ten years, previous to its erection, to the construction
+of a causeway to the Nile, over which the stone was carried, which had
+been brought down the river from the Arabian hills.
+
+Diodorus asserts that the number of workmen employed was upward of three
+hundred and sixty thousand.
+
+The second pyramid contains two chambers, the most important of which is
+on the ground level, partly sunk in the rock. Its dimensions are 46 feet
+long by 16 in width, and 22 feet high. Within it a granite sarcophagus
+was found, containing the bones of an ox. This discovery gave rise to
+much speculation, as to whether the pyramids were not originally intended
+for the sepulchres of the animal deities worshipped by the
+Egyptians, the bull Apis in particular. The third pyramid was covered by
+a casing of polished red granite, formed of blocks with bevelled edges.
+There are several chambers inside, one of which contained a mummy and
+case, now transferred to the British Museum.
+
+Near the pyramid of Cheops, on the same plateau, is the Sphinx. This
+great statue, with a human head and the body of a lion, is carved in the
+natural rock, deficiencies being made up by added masonry. Its dimensions
+are colossal, the body being 140 feet long, and the face 30 feet high
+by 14 feet in breadth. This mysterious creation was intended as the
+representation of a god, and as such had sacrifices offered before it,
+as the altars and temples erected beneath it attest. From inscriptions
+upon a stone found near by, it is known that the Sphinx was called
+Hor-em-khoo, “The Sun in his Resting-place.” The head was originally
+surmounted by a royal helmet, the face had a beard, fragments of which
+have been unearthed, and it is otherwise badly mutilated. This fanciful
+creature has doubtless much affinity with the winged bulls and lions of
+the Assyrian epoch.
+
+The Egyptians also buried their dead in smaller tombs, in subterranean
+vaults, and in catacombs excavated in the rock of mountainous regions.
+A great number of these smaller tombs were built in the vicinity of
+ancient Memphis and are now commonly called “mastabahs.” In arrangement
+they were nearly all similar, the sepulchre consisting of three parts: a
+temple overground, a pit or well, and a subterranean chamber. The temple
+was in the shape of a frustum of a pyramid, the walls inclining inward
+at an angle of seventy degrees. It contained one or several apartments,
+used as places of assembly for the relatives and friends of the deceased,
+who came at stated intervals to hold services and to bring offerings
+of a suitable character. A list of these occasions was placed over the
+entrance, and on a second tablet or stella, inside, the name, titles, and
+virtues of the dead were recorded. The walls were brilliantly painted,
+domestic and religious scenes being the usual subjects depicted. The
+well-opening was usually concealed and filled with masonry. Its sides
+were formed of slabs of granite down to rock level and then excavated in
+the rock, sometimes thirty or forty yards below the surface. From the
+bottom of the pit a doorway, usually walled up, opened into a chamber
+containing a stone sarcophagus, in which the mummy was placed.
+
+The finest excavated grottos are found at Beni Hassan and in the
+neighborhood of Thebes. Those at Beni Hassan follow the type of the
+“mastabah,” having the assembly hall, the well, and the chamber beneath,
+all being hollowed out of the rock. The sides are decorated with columns,
+architraves, and cornices, in imitation of constructive architecture, and
+the ceilings are cut out to represent vaults, the uncarved
+surfaces being adorned with paintings and hieroglyphics. The columns are
+especially interesting, as having evidently furnished the Greeks with
+the model for their Doric temples, and the order has in consequence been
+called the proto-doric. They have a diameter of five feet and are sixteen
+feet high; the shaft has sixteen sides with flutings and is surmounted by
+a tile or abacus. Besides these, there are other columns with capitals
+in the form of a lotus or papyrus bud, which are more commonly found in
+Egyptian temples.
+
+The tombs of the kings at Thebes are arranged on a different principle;
+they consist of long sloping corridors opening into chambers and halls,
+and penetrating in a continuous line into the mountain rock. There are
+several groups, the most important of which is situated in the valley of
+Biban-el-Molook, or the “Gates of the Kings.” The tomb of Sethi I., the
+father of Rameses II., discovered by the explorer Belzoni in the earlier
+part of the century, is the finest example, the sculpture and paintings
+which it contains being very remarkable for their execution and of great
+historical interest, as they illustrate very completely the manners and
+customs of the ancient Egyptians. Every effort had evidently been made to
+conceal the tomb, for not only was the entrance closed and covered with
+loose rock, but the first chamber, reached by a succession of passages
+and steep staircases, had been walled up and the four sides painted, so
+as to have the appearance of being the limit of the extent
+of the tomb. The hollow sound, caused by hammering on the walls at one
+point, led the explorer to continue his efforts, which were rewarded by
+the discovery of several more halls and chambers, terminating in a great
+vaulted chamber, thirty feet long, containing an alabaster sarcophagus.
+It has been conjectured that many of these excavated grottos were
+occupied as residences by the kings and great personages of the empire
+during their lifetime, and converted into sepulchres after death. The
+custom of relatives meeting at intervals in an assembly hall connected
+with the tomb does not seem to have prevailed here as at Memphis, but it
+is not improbable that the great Theban temples were used, if indeed they
+were not erected for this purpose.
+
+The great mass of the people were not honoured by such magnificent tombs,
+but were buried in subterranean vaults in the necropolis (Greek, “city of
+the dead”) attached to each great town. The largest are those of Saïs,
+Sakkarah near Memphis, Thebes, and Abydus. These underground galleries
+were reached by deep wells, and often contained several stories of small
+chambers in which the embalmed bodies were placed, together with vases,
+statuettes, and other votive offerings. There were also cemeteries in
+which the animals worshipped by the Egyptians were buried, containing
+thousands of embalmed birds and reptiles, particularly the ibis and
+crocodile. The Apis mausoleum at Sakkarah, where the sacred
+bulls were interred, is one of the most important, the chambers and
+galleries being excavated in the rock and covering an immense area. The
+mausoleum was connected with the Serapeum, a temple above ground, where
+the living bull was worshipped as a deity.
+
+
+                               _TEMPLES._
+
+There are two classes of Egyptian temples—those hollowed out of the
+mountain rock, commonly called speos, and those built upon the open
+plain and distinguished by the term “hypæthral” (Greek, “under air”).
+The most important of the latter are the temples of Sethi I., at
+Abydus; Amun re, at Kooneh; the great and small temples of Medeenet
+Haboo, erected by Rameses III. and Thothmes II.; the Rameseum or
+Memnonium, of Rameses II.; Luxor and Karnak, at Thebes; and the temples
+of Denderah, Edfou, and Philæ, built by the Ptolemys. All of these
+are similar in general plan, consisting of a greater or less number
+of courts, halls, and sanctuaries, which in each case are placed “en
+suite,” that is, one opening into the other in a continuous line, the
+larger apartments being in about the centre of this line and gradually
+diminishing in size, the last chamber being the smallest. As the main
+characteristics of the largest temples apply in a modified form to
+the smallest, a description of a complete temple would seem to be
+the best way of explaining the usual arrangements. A wall of crude
+brick usually enclosed the whole structure, which was surrounded by a
+sacred grove, or temenos. This wall was entered by an outer gate, or
+pylon, built in the shape of a frustum of a pyramid, and surmounted by
+a coved cornice, the doorway having perpendicular or slanting jambs.
+From this an avenue, or dromos, bordered with sphinxes with human or
+rams’ heads, led up to the propylæa, or towers. The latter resembled
+the outer pylons, but were on a larger scale, containing staircases
+leading to upper terraces. They were spaced a short distance apart to
+admit of a passage between them, which was entered through a second
+gateway similar to the first. The sides of these buildings were usually
+elaborately painted, and rings were inserted in the masonry to hold
+the poles upon which the royal banners were hoisted. This second
+entrance was often flanked by two obelisks—long tapering monoliths with
+pyramidal summits, covered with hieroglyphic inscriptions recounting
+the dedication of the temple by the king to his favorite divinity.
+These obelisks were sometimes ninety feet high, and mounted upon
+square blocks. They were not always of equal size, probably owing to
+the difficulty of obtaining single stones of such enormous length. It
+is of interest to note that their sides were made slightly convex in
+order to prevent their appearing concave, which would be the effect
+had they been left quite flat. A second set of towers, or propylæa,
+with staircases, came next, with a court or area intervening. On each
+side of this court a colonnade was generally placed; and sometimes
+before the entrance to the towers two colossal statues of the king,
+represented seated, with his hands resting upon his knees in the
+conventional attitude of repose. The most famous are those known
+as the Colossi of Memnon, which stand on the plain of Thebes. They
+were probably in the court of the temple of Amunoph III., of which
+scarcely any vestige now remains. They are fifty feet high, mounted
+upon pedestals. One of them is called the Vocal Memnon, as, in ancient
+times, it gave forth sounds at the break of day—a phenomenon more
+easily explained as a trick of the priests, than by natural causes.
+
+Beyond this court there was usually an inner vestibule, with columns
+forming porticos on the four sides; those opposite the entrance being
+connected by stone screens, reaching half-way up, forming a shaded
+anteroom, or pronaos, to the great hall of assembly, which was the next
+apartment.
+
+The shafts and capitals of the columns varied in different buildings.
+The plain cylinder, carrying an inverted bell decorated with palm or
+other smaller leaves, or a capital in the shape of the lotus flower were
+the commonest forms. A column, representing the stems of water-plants
+bound together with rings, and swelling out at the top in the place of
+the capital, was also often employed. Besides these, statues of kings,
+or shafts surmounted by the heads of Isis or Osiris, were
+used as supports. The architrave, or beam, did not rest directly upon the
+capital, but upon an intermediate block. This block, when on the heads of
+deities, was in the shape of a miniature pylon. The cornices were formed
+of a deep cove and fillet decorated with winged asps.
+
+Some idea of the size of these inner vestibules, or peristyles, may be
+formed from the dimensions of that in the great temple of Medeenet Haboo,
+which measures 123 by 133 feet, and has a height of 39 feet 4 inches.
+Each of the porticos of the East and West sides is supported by five
+columns; those on the North and South by eight Osiride pillars, having a
+circumference of 23 feet and a height of 24 feet.
+
+The great hall of assembly, which adjoined the vestibule, was generally
+the finest portion of the temple. The architraves supporting the roof
+rested upon a great number of lofty columns, which in the centre rose
+to a greater height, in order to obtain a clerestory, by which the
+hall was lighted. The largest of these is in the temple of Karnak,
+measuring 170 by 329 feet. The central avenue consists of twelve
+columns, 62 feet high by 11 feet 6 inches in diameter. Besides these
+there are one hundred and twenty-two others, 42 feet 6 inches in height
+and 28 feet in circumference. The lintel over the doorway by which it
+is entered measured 40 feet in length. The sanctuary was contiguous
+to the great hall, and terminated the suite. This consisted of a
+chamber, either occupying the whole of the rear space, or
+isolated by corridors on each side, with smaller sanctuaries opposite.
+In many of these, altars and statues have been found, some of the former
+formed of a single block, hollowed at the top and pierced through from
+top to bottom, so that sacrifices placed upon them could be consumed
+apparently without ignition, by means of fires kindled in subterranean
+vaults.
+
+In connection with the halls in the temple of Abydus and elsewhere
+there were a number of vaulted chambers; the vault not being formed of
+a series of true arches, that is, with joints radiating to a common
+centre, but consisting of stone beams placed one beside the other, and
+hollowed out on the under side. The arch, however, was not unknown to
+the Egyptians—there are stone vaulted tombs at Sakkarah of the time of
+Psammetichus (650 B.C.), and crude brick arches have been found at Thebes
+dating as far back as the period of the eighth dynasty (2925 B.C.?). The
+antiquity of the arch has been the subject of much debate, owing chiefly
+to the fact that the Greeks made no use of it; recent explorations have,
+however, shown that this constructive expedient was known both in Egypt
+and Assyria many years before it was adopted by the Etruscans, to whom
+its invention was long attributed.
+
+The exterior walls of all temples were built on a batter, sloping inward
+at an angle of about seventy degrees and with scarcely any openings.
+The inside walls were perpendicular, and decorated with bass-reliefs and
+paintings. These were often of a most elaborate character, and it is from
+them that so much has been learned concerning the ancient history of the
+country.
+
+The rock-cut temples of Nubia are laid out on much the same plan. They
+usually consist of a pronaos, naos, and sanctuary, forming a suite, with
+an entrance marked by colossal statuary hewn out of the side of the
+cliff. Some have a dromos of sphinxes, propylæa, and a peristyle court of
+masonry preceding the excavated portions. The temple of Wady Sabooah is
+the best example of the latter. Of the former none can compare with the
+Great and Small temples of Aboo Simbel, or Ipsambool, which are of the
+time of Rameses the Great.
+
+The smaller of the two is dedicated to the goddess Athor, the Venus of
+the Egyptians. The exterior is ornamented with six statues of deities
+recessed in the rock, each measuring thirty-five feet in height. In the
+interior there is a first hall, supported by square pillars, opening into
+a corridor, flanked by smaller halls, leading to the sanctuary.
+
+The front of the Great temple is adorned with four statues of the king
+seated upon his throne, each sixty feet high. In the great hall there
+are eight Osiride pillars, upward of thirty feet in height. The sides
+of the speos are carved with bass-reliefs, representing the conquests
+of Rameses the Great. There are some sixteen smaller chambers, the
+suite terminating in the sanctuary, which contains an altar and four
+statues—the three deities, Amun re, Phre, and Phtah, with the king
+seated in their company.
+
+Under the headings tombs and temples are comprised the chief
+architectural works of the Egyptians. Besides these there were one or two
+gigantic constructions, famous in antiquity, but which have now almost
+disappeared. Of these, the Labyrinth and the Lake Moeris were the most
+important. The former appears to have been an immense structure, half
+palace, half tomb, built by Amenemha III., of the twelfth dynasty. It was
+built on three sides of an open square, measuring about five hundred feet
+on the side, consisting of numerous chambers and courts, in two stories,
+one above and the other below the level of the ground. At the open end
+was placed a large pyramid, of which the ruins still remain. Herodotus
+admired the Labyrinth more than any other of the Egyptian buildings,
+declaring it to surpass the pyramids in labour and expense. Near by was
+the artificial Lake Moeris, formed to retain the Nile waters during
+the inundation, for the purpose of irrigating the country surrounding
+Memphis, during the dry season. It covered an immense area; tradition
+says 450 miles in circumference. The banks were fortified with massive
+masonry, and the waters distributed by means of locks and sluices.
+
+The Egyptians appear as a civilized nation, having a scientific,
+artistic, and political knowledge of no mean order, at a
+time when the greater part of the world’s inhabitants were but a step
+removed from the level of ignorant savages, and when, according to a
+generally accepted chronology, the world itself had existed but a few
+hundred years. The construction of the Pyramids reveals a building
+capacity which has rarely been rivalled, requiring not only immense
+mechanical power, but an accuracy of judgment and calculation in the
+adjustment of blocks of granite weighing many tons, not simply piled one
+above the other, but perfectly jointed and polished, and so disposed that
+passages and chambers were roofed over and their ceilings relieved from
+superincumbent weight by ingeniously contrived compartments, one above
+the other, and closed by sliding doors of monolithic stones, the handling
+of which could only have been successful by people well versed in the
+theories of equilibrium and support; and yet all this was done at a date
+which the best authorities agree in saying could not have been later
+than three thousand years before Christ. Their temples show an equally
+advanced erudition, and the paintings and hieroglyphics with which the
+walls of these buildings are adorned give a faithful representation of
+the customs of a people acquainted with the minor arts and sciences and
+the appliances requisite for agriculture.
+
+The admiration with which we may regard the excellence of so ancient an
+art is tempered when we find that it contained no element of progress.
+The monuments of the eighteenth dynasty, though numerous
+and imposing, scarcely differ from those of the preceding period, and
+even in the days of the Ptolemys, who encouraged the native art, there
+was nothing attempted but a repetition of the old methods. From beginning
+to end the arts were so fettered by conventionality and dogmatic laws,
+opposed to originality or change, that the only improvements made were in
+mere mechanical execution.
+
+A great prevailing thought seems to have actuated this people,—that of
+death and eternity. Their aim in erecting their buildings was to render
+them quasi-eternal, and by embalming the bodies of the dead they even
+sought to perpetuate the semblance of life. Their kings at the beginning
+of their reigns commenced the construction of their own sepulchres,
+employing hundreds of workmen and immense expenditure of the national
+funds for the purpose, and countless thousands passed their lives in
+hollowing temples in the mountain rock and in carrying huge blocks
+from great distances for the building of the pylons and hypostylic
+halls of the Nile, in which durability and massiveness were considered
+all-important.
+
+Egyptian architecture, simply from the enormous scale of everything
+it produced, was always dignified and it had also the merit of severe
+simplicity; but mere size can scarcely be rated as an artistic quality
+of a high order, and on that account it cannot compare favourably with
+the art of the Greeks, who were probably inspired by what
+they saw in Egypt, but who, in their own work, succeeded in combining
+the qualities of majesty and beauty without resorting to the use of
+extraordinary materials.
+
+
+
+
+                                  III.
+
+                          ASIATIC ARCHITECTURE.
+
+
+It would, perhaps, be reasonable to suppose that in India, where the
+Aryan race had its origin, the earliest traces of dawning art would be
+found. It has, however, been fairly well established that all remnants
+of very ancient art, which may have existed there in former times, have
+now virtually disappeared, and that at present there are no remains in
+Hindostan of a remoter antiquity than the second or third century before
+the Christian era.
+
+The architecture of India loses much of its interest for us from the fact
+of its having had no influence upon the origin or development of the
+European styles of building, which, starting in Egypt and Assyria, formed
+a continuous chain, each linked with its predecessor and successor down
+to modern times.
+
+The Indians were, in fact, never a migratory or colonizing race of
+people, and their architecture was a distinctly native production,
+executed in accordance with the rules laid down by the priests in their
+sacred books, having no affinity with the constructive principles of the
+Western world and showing no trace of the arts practised by
+Western nations, except in the slight resemblance of a few mouldings and
+fragments of sculpture.
+
+The chief structures of the country are temples, pagodas, and dagobas,
+which are found in many different parts of the peninsular and adjacent
+islands, resembling each other in general style, but with some local
+peculiarities which have caused them to be usually classified in certain
+comprehensive divisions, of which the following are the most important:
+
+The Buddhist style, including the stambhas or lats, a species of
+commemorative pillar, the stupas or topes, of which the best examples are
+found at Sarnath and Manikyala, and the viharas of Bengal.
+
+The Dravidian style, exemplified in the temples of Chidambaram, Tanjore,
+Combaconum, and Madura, and the rock-cut temples of Mahavellipore, and
+those known as the Kylas at Ellora.
+
+The Indo-Aryan, or Northern, comprising the temples of Kanaruc,
+Bhuwaneswur, Jajepur, and Cuttack, in the province of Orissa.
+
+The stupas, or dagobas, were a form of structure specially erected for
+the purposes of Buddhist worship. They were sometimes built in the
+shape of a square tower upon rising ground, of which that at Sarnath,
+north of Benares, is the best known. The more important, however, are
+cylindrical and surmounted by a semicircular dome. These are usually
+erected on artificial mounds or tumuli, and are constructed either with
+jointed stones or with rough blocks bedded in cement. The interiors are
+of solid masonry, with the exception of a small square chamber, used as
+a repository for sacred emblems, the walls of which are continued up to
+the top of the dome. The stupa at Manikyala, is of great size, being
+upward of eighty feet in height, and measuring some three hundred feet in
+circumference. The base of the building is in the form of a cylinder, six
+or seven feet high, supporting an attic decorated with pilasters; above
+this the walls recede, and are capped by a hemispherical dome. There are
+a great number of dagobas in Ceylon, in the mountainous districts. They
+are usually placed in a walled enclosure, and surrounded by commemorative
+pillars. Smaller constructions of the same description are found in the
+interior of some of the temples, being placed where the baldachins, or
+altars, would be placed in Christian edifices.
+
+The rock temples of India are of two classes, the one consisting of
+grottos hollowed in the mountain side, and the other of a series of
+monolithic buildings cut bodily out of the solid rock, and detached from
+the surrounding hill plateaus by wide excavated areas.
+
+The former, resembling the speos of Egypt, consists of long galleries,
+divided into aisles by piers of the natural rock left at regular
+intervals to sustain the superincumbent mass. A recess or sanctuary is
+placed at one extremity, containing the statue of the divinity to whom
+the temple is dedicated. In some cases the interior is terminated by a
+semicircular apse with a hemispherical vault, and the entrance preceded
+by a vestibule containing votive figures, the whole forming a plan very
+similar to that of the Latin basilicas, which will be described in a
+subsequent chapter. The grottos are frequently excavated in several
+stories and connected by corridors and ramps.
+
+The walls or sides are ornamented with rude sculptures, representing
+various forms of animal life and monstrous creations of native fancy. The
+piers or pillars are generally either square or octagonal, decorated with
+mouldings and flutings, and having well defined capitals and bases. The
+capitals usually support a stone beam or bracket, evidently in imitation
+of those used in wooden construction, in which a similar expedient would
+be employed to distribute the sustaining power over a wider surface
+than that directly above the column or post. This imitation of wooden
+forms, which we have already noticed in Egypt, is found universally in
+all ancient constructions showing that in nearly every country wooden
+architecture was employed before stone.
+
+The group known as the Kylas of Ellora, is the finest example of the
+temples fashioned both inside and outside from the solid rock.
+
+The whole edifice is monolithic and situated in an oblong court formed by
+a trench excavated “vivo saxo” on the four sides. The exterior surfaces
+are richly carved, and the piers shaped to represent elephants, lions,
+and fantastic creatures supporting the superstructure on their backs.
+The court is entered from a monumental porch, the upper story of which
+is connected with a small chapel by a bridge. This chapel is flanked by
+two colossal elephants, and by two columns or towers standing isolated
+on either side. A second bridge leads from this to the hall of Shiva,
+the chief room in the suite, which is divided by sixteen columns, with
+corresponding pilasters on the walls. At the farther extremity is the
+sanctuary containing the statue of the presiding divinity. Beyond this
+are open terraces, surrounded by chapels. The great hall is connected
+laterally with subterranean chambers in the surrounding cliffs, reached
+also from excavated corridors which follow the perimeter of the court,
+the mass above being sustained by square piers spaced at short distances
+apart.
+
+The inside walls are decorated with bass-reliefs and the ceilings
+ornamented with stucco relievos, which were originally brilliantly
+painted. The height of the hall of Shiva is about fifty feet, the
+hillside opposite to it being about ninety feet high.
+
+These temples may be said to be the most remarkable and unique
+architectural productions to be found anywhere. They are examples of
+long-continued perseverance and patience, and can only be the result
+of a preconceived design which must have been thoroughly studied in
+all its elaborate detail before the first stroke was given toward
+its realization. The unity of conception and execution exhibited in
+such works is truly wonderful, and it is not astonishing that the
+superstitious natives should attribute their creation to Visvakarma,
+the heavenly architect. On the other hand, there are but few practical
+lessons to be learned from their examination. Such methods are not
+possible in our day, nor if so, would they be desirable. Architecture
+of this kind is scarcely more than wholesale sculpture, and as such can
+in no sense compare favourably with the grace of form and scientific
+construction which we see in the works of Greek and Gothic artists.
+
+The Pagodas are the most important of the buildings constructed with
+jointed materials. They consist of vast enclosures containing numerous
+religious and domestic edifices. There are often double or triple
+series of enclosing walls of great height and thickness. The sides are
+usually placed so as to face the points of the compass and each contains
+a monumental entrance, richly sculptured, and adorned with bands of
+embossed copper.
+
+The chief buildings within are the temple proper, or vimana, and a
+number of hypostylic halls with small sanctuaries dedicated to different
+divinities.
+
+The form of the vimana differs in the North and South of India. In both
+cases it is pyramidal, but while in the Southern temples the plan is
+rectangular and the elevations marked by a series of horizontal stories
+and mouldings, in the North the exterior surfaces are convex and the
+outlines curved, showing vertical instead of horizontal divisions. The
+lower story, containing the idol, is usually a hollow cube of granite,
+and serves as a base to the pyramid above, which is most frequently built
+of brick with stucco facing.
+
+The halls are composed of a great number of columns of varied design,
+placed in parallel rows. The ceilings are formed by stone beams or slabs
+resting upon the columns. The central aisle is frequently wider than the
+others and is roofed over by a corbelled vault.
+
+A tank of sacred water surrounded by an open colonnade is not uncommonly
+placed within the enclosure, the waters being used by the infirm for the
+healing properties which they are supposed to contain.
+
+The pagodas of Tanjore, Combaconum, and Madura are among the finest and
+most celebrated. They were built between the fifth and eleventh centuries
+of the Christian era, and should hardly, therefore, be described among
+the ancient buildings of the world, were it not that they are linked in
+with the chain of the older Indian art too closely to be separated from
+it.
+
+In the period corresponding to the Middle Ages of Europe, Mahometan
+architecture was introduced in India and many beautiful buildings were
+erected in a new style blending the foreign art with the native ideas
+and taste, but offering a marked contrast to that which preceded it.
+Although China was one of the oldest of civilized countries it contains
+but few monuments of great antiquity. The temples and palaces, being
+built of wood, were exposed to fire and decay, and were often pulled down
+and rebuilt. With the exception of the great wall and of the numerous
+bridges crossing rivers or arms of the sea, there are no important stone
+constructions to be found there.
+
+The latter are formed of huge granite piers, spanned by massive stone
+lintels, requiring the united labour of thousands of men to convey them
+from the quarries to their destination and to set them in place. In the
+mountains the ravines are bridged by iron chains suspended from cliff to
+cliff.
+
+The great wall was built as a frontier protection, and extended the
+entire length of the boundaries of the country. It has always been kept
+in repair, although obviously absurd as a fortification in modern times.
+It is of great thickness, and upward of twenty feet in height. The
+foundations are of stone, and the upper part of brick with stone facing,
+the joints of which are extremely accurate. At short intervals there are
+towers, placed so that the middle distance between any two is within
+arrow-shot.
+
+Chinese wooden buildings are all much alike, whether temples or palaces.
+As a rule, they have but one or two stories; they are surrounded by
+porticos, consisting of wooden columns mounted on stone bases, without
+capitals, which are replaced by a species of bracket. The roofs
+project considerably, and their angles are turned up, this form being
+undoubtedly borrowed from the old tent habitations, which were composed
+of hides stretched tightly on bamboos. The tiles with which they are
+covered are semicylindrical in shape and are enamelled with bright colour.
+
+The celebrated taas, or Buddhist towers, are of similar construction.
+They are generally octagonal, and from six to ten stories high. Each
+story is set back from the one below, and has a balcony and projecting
+roof, with bells hung in the angles. The walls are covered with tiles or
+paintings. A high staff is placed on the top and connected with angles of
+the roof by chains.
+
+The tower of Nankin, known as the Porcelain Tower, was the most famous.
+It was erected in 1431, and but recently destroyed.
+
+The Chinese have always excelled in artificial or landscape gardening. In
+this work they build airy bridges, with open-work balustrades, pavilions
+highly ornamented and enriched with painting and gilding, and boundary
+walls with circular openings, disclosing vistas of great beauty.
+
+Their commemorative gateways are of interest, as they have a central
+opening and a smaller one on each side, like the Roman triumphal arches;
+the heads are square, however, with brackets in the corners. The upper
+parts are ornamented with figures in relief and inscriptions recording
+the virtues of persons to whose memory they are dedicated.
+Although communication existed between China and the countries bordering
+upon the Mediterranean from remote ages, Chinese architecture, like
+the Indian, was without influence upon that of Europe. It is only in
+Western Asia that the first forms of building are discernible, which
+were subsequently imitated or followed in European constructions. The
+most important of these are situated in Mesopotamia, the fertile region
+comprised between the Tigris and the Euphrates.
+
+The political histories of Assyria, Babylon, and Persia are generally
+treated separately, but the architecture of each belongs to one style,
+which may be called the Assyrian, for its distinguishing characteristics
+remain the same in all the great cities which were in turn the capitals
+of reconstructed kingdoms and empires.
+
+It may be considered in four chronological divisions: In ancient Babylon,
+from 2234 B.C. to 1520 B.C., at Wurka and Mugheyr; in Nineveh, from
+the fourteenth to the seventh century B.C., at Nimrod, Khorsabad, and
+Koyoundjik; in the second Babylon, during the seventh century and after
+the capture of the latter by Cyrus in the year 538 B.C., in Persia, at
+Persepolis, Passargadæ, and Susa. A renaissance of the art may be traced
+in Sassanian buildings erected eight centuries later.
+
+The citadels, palaces, and other important structures of these cities
+were usually built upon artificial mounds or terraces, strengthened by
+massive walls. The materials used were bituminous bricks,
+cemented with bitumen, slabs of gypsum anchored with copper nails and
+bands, and timber for roofs and columns. Stone and gypsum or alabaster
+were employed in Nineveh and in the cities of Persia. In Babylon the
+only available material was bituminous clay, and consequently all the
+buildings there were built of brick. At the present day nothing remains
+of these but irregular mounds, from which but little can be gathered
+toward an understanding of what their appearance was when entire.
+
+Wood was probably used to a great extent, and was naturally most easily
+destroyed by the fire of invading armies. The roofs, formed of thick
+layers of earth carried on beams, in falling in, buried the lower
+portions of buildings, and it is probably due to this fact that the
+bass-reliefs have been preserved.
+
+The surfaces of the bricks were frequently enamelled in colours, and the
+wood-work was probably brilliantly painted, as traces of pigments have
+been found upon the more durable materials.
+
+But little was known of Assyrian art prior to 1843, when the excavations
+of Botta, the French consul at Mosul, followed soon after by those
+conducted by Layard, brought to light many ruined buildings, in which
+bass-reliefs, inscribed stones and metals, and other important relics
+were found, enabling historians to form a consecutive account of the
+government, warfare, and arts practised by a people whose
+cities have lain buried and whose very name has almost been forgotten for
+over two thousand years.
+
+The explorations were made in Nimrod, Koyoundjik, and Khorsabad. The
+palace of Asshur-bani-pal, erected at Nimrod, in the ninth century B.C.,
+is situated upon a terrace, or platform, approached by a wide staircase,
+and preceded by two gates decorated with winged bulls.
+
+These winged bulls, or lions, were placed as the guardian deities, at
+the portals of all the great Assyrian palaces, after the manner of
+the Egyptian sphinxes, not standing isolated like these, however, but
+built into the masonry, one side or the front and one side only, being
+carved. The head was human, with long beard and hair, and surmounted by a
+helmet, the wings large and proportioned to the body. As Sir Henry Layard
+remarks, it would have been difficult to find more fitting symbols to
+express at once the wisdom, power, and ubiquity of a supreme being.
+
+The chief apartments of the palace are a large assembly hall, 152
+feet in length by 30 feet in width, and a number of smaller chambers
+and banqueting-halls, ranged around an open court. The walls of the
+great hall were decorated with bass-reliefs, representing triumphal
+processions, carved upon slabs of gypsum eight feet in height.
+
+The palace of Esarhaddon, erected in the seventh century, on the same
+terrace, contains a large hall, 165 by 62 feet, divided in
+its length by a wall, surmounted by a gallery of columns. One of the only
+well-preserved ramps which has been discovered was that leading to this
+palace.
+
+At Koyoundjik, opposite Mosul, the palace of Sennacherib was found at
+the Southwest corner of a mound a mile and a half in circumference. It
+contained a vast number of courts and halls, decorated with bass-reliefs
+and winged bulls, and two colossal statues.
+
+The palace of Sargon at Khorsabad, erected in the year 704 B.C., is among
+the best preserved. Like the others it is placed upon an artificial
+terrace, enclosed by a wall a mile long on each side. It was defended by
+a citadel of eight towers with doors flanked by winged bulls. The palace
+was reached by a long, narrow passage leading to a court and entered
+through three great gates. The bulls of the central portal were 19 feet
+high. On each side were two bulls, 13 feet high, with the figure of a
+giant strangling a lion between them.
+
+The halls and chambers were grouped around two great courts measuring
+about 350 by 200 feet. The hareem formed a separate set of buildings, as
+did also the stables and outhouses. The walls were of great thickness,
+evidently for coolness. They were decorated with slabs of alabaster,
+enamelled tiles, and designs painted on stucco.
+
+There has been much speculation on the method of roofing these rooms,
+some believing that circular vaults were employed and others that wooden
+beams, supported on wooden columns, similar to the stone ones found in
+Persian palaces, were used for this purpose. The latter theory seems the
+more probable, as the local manner of building is the same as this at
+the present day. No traces of columns remain, however, and the spans are
+in many cases too great to be roofed by single pieces of timber. One of
+the most interesting discoveries made at Khorsabad was the gate of the
+city, the jambs supporting a semicircular arch over a span of eighteen
+feet. The gate was a double one having two separate passages, one for
+vehicles and the other for pedestrians: the marks of chariot-wheels still
+remaining in the pavement of the former. The sides were ornamented with
+winged bulls, and the archivolts of the arches were decorated with blue
+and yellow designs in enamelled tiles.
+
+It had been long supposed that the Etruscans were the first to make use
+of the true semicircular arch (_i.e._, formed of wedge-shaped stones or
+bricks, with joints radiating to a common centre), but this discovery,
+and the finding of pointed arches in the sewers of Babylon, by Layard,
+places the date when both these expedients were known, at a much remoter
+period, though even these are probably much later than the examples found
+in Egypt.
+
+No complete example of a Chaldean temple has been found, but there are
+several the lower stories of which are sufficiently well preserved to
+give an accurate idea of their size and details, and in the
+tomb of Cyrus at Passagardæ, in Persia, we have probably a model on a
+small scale of one of these buildings when entire. This tomb consists of
+a platform of six steps, eighteen feet high, surmounted by a rectangular
+chamber. The latter has a doorway and a ridged roof abutting against
+pediments.
+
+It has been surmised that all the temples were like this, consisting of a
+chamber or cella built on the summit of a several-storied structure, each
+story being either concentric and reached by a ramp winding around the
+four sides or placed farther to one side than that immediately below it
+and approached by straight flights of stairs.
+
+The oldest is probably that at Wurka, dating as far back as 2000 B.C.,
+known as the Bowariyeh. There are the remains of two stories, the lower
+occupying about 200 square feet. It is probable that a third story or a
+cella was placed above these, but nothing positive can be said on the
+subject, owing to the extremely ruinous condition of the building. The
+temple of Birs Nimroud, probably identical with the tower of Babel, is in
+a more satisfactory condition, the upper story having been preserved by
+a process of vitrification. The lowest story occupies a square measuring
+272 feet on the side, each of the upper ones, of which it is supposed
+there were originally six, being 42 feet less.
+
+For the materials used in its construction we have the scriptural
+authority: “Go to, let us make brick and burn them thoroughly. And they
+had brick for stone, and slime had they for mortar” (Gen. xi.); slime
+being probably bitumen.
+
+M. Place discovered the remains of a tower at Khorsabad, with a winding
+ramp, which he thinks was originally seven stories in height. The walls
+were strengthened with buttresses and decorated with sunken panels,
+and from traces of colour found upon them it has been supposed that
+each floor was painted in a different hue. The area covered by the base
+is about one hundred and fifty square feet, and the total height was
+probably one hundred and thirty-five feet.
+
+The ruins of Persepolis are the best preserved of the ancient Persian
+buildings, those at Susa and Passagardæ being in too bad a condition to
+offer much that is interesting.
+
+They are situated in the plain of Mardacht, upon a terrace partly formed
+of masonry, and partly cut in the rock of the adjoining range of hills.
+The wall is composed of huge blocks of stone fitted together without
+mortar, but with the finest of joints. The terrace is reached by a
+splendid double flight of steps, upward of twenty feet in width, and on
+a grade easy enough to permit of the passage of long processions without
+interruption. At the head of the stairs is a propylæum, or outer gate,
+flanked by colossal human-headed bulls. Beyond this, a second staircase,
+ornamented with a triple row of bass-reliefs, gives access
+to the Chehil Minar, or great hall of Xerxes.
+
+This building occupies a rectangle about three hundred and fifty feet
+long by three hundred in width. It consists chiefly of a central hall and
+three lateral porticos, the roofs of which were sustained by 72 columns,
+36 in the hall and 12 in each of the porches.
+
+Thirteen of these are still standing, and the position of all the others
+is well defined by broken bases or shafts. They are of two different
+kinds, the one having a capital composed of double-headed bulls, and the
+other a capital with volutes, not placed horizontally as we see them in
+classical columns, but vertically and resting on a complicated series of
+mouldings. These last may have been also surmounted by the double-headed
+bulls, as without such an addition the columns are shorter than the
+others, which measure 67 feet 4 inches. The beams which they sustained,
+rested upon the body of the bull between the two heads.
+
+The shafts of the columns at Persepolis are fluted and taper upward from
+the bases, which are elaborately ornamented with mouldings.
+
+It is probable that the Greek Ionic capital was derived directly from the
+Persian voluted model, as the order originated in the Greek colony in
+Asia Minor.
+
+The Chehil Minar is the finest building on the platform, the other halls
+of Darius and Xerxes being smaller, and though a hall containing 100
+columns has been found, it is inferior in height, the total altitude not
+exceeding twenty-five feet.
+
+The hall of Darius contained sixteen columns, forming a square, preceded
+by a portico with eight more. The walls have long since disappeared, but
+the façade of the building is reproduced upon the face of the rock-cut
+tomb of Darius in the neighbouring hill called Naksh-i-Rustam, so that a
+restoration of the structure as it originally appeared is easily made.
+
+This tomb shows the four front columns of the porch with double-headed
+capitals, sustaining an entablature, above this is placed an attic
+decorated with bass-reliefs and a figure is represented standing on the
+top in the act of sacrificing on an altar.
+
+The stone buildings of Persia are generally supposed to be reproductions
+of the wooden constructions of Assyria, as the character of the art is
+similar in both, the bass-reliefs and winged bulls of Persepolis being
+practically identical with those of Nineveh.
+
+We find no traces of Assyrian art for several centuries after the
+erection of the buildings just described, though it is probable that it
+had influence in all Eastern edifices erected during the interval, not
+only in Asia, but in Greece and later in Byzance. There was evidently
+a revival of Assyrian taste during the dynasty of Sassanian kings who
+reigned between the third and seventh centuries of our era. The remnants
+of their palaces are found at Firouzabad, Al Hadhr, Serbistan, Ctesiphon,
+and Mashita, where we find large halls vaulted and domed and ornamented
+in a manner directly traceable to the ancient buildings in Assyria. The
+chief peculiarity of these structures lies in the use of the horseshoe or
+elliptical arch, which is found nowhere else. The porch of the Tak-Kesra
+at Ctesiphon consists of a great elliptical tunnel-vault, 115 feet deep,
+85 feet high, over a span of 72 feet.
+
+There is more or less Roman influence in the details of the Sassanian
+palaces, but it is not altogether certain whether the knowledge of
+domical construction which they exhibit was derived from, or was not
+itself parent to, Byzantine art.
+
+Comparatively little is known concerning this Assyrian style, but it
+contains interesting elements, and it may be that its constructive forms
+are susceptible of a greater development in our own time.
+
+Asia Minor, Palestine, and Cyprus are fields covered with the evidences
+of the glory of past ages, but the ruin and desolation everywhere is
+complete. The case of the temple of Jerusalem, where not one stone
+remains upon another, applies in most instances in places which have
+formerly been great cities, filled with magnificent buildings which were
+their pride in the day of their prosperity.
+
+The temple of Solomon was situated upon Mount Moriah, and was built to
+accommodate the Levites, to offer a place of assembly for
+the people, and as a temple for the worship of the priests. The two
+sanctuaries were richly decorated with polished cedar and gold, with
+columns and cornices of bronze, and divided by linen curtains embroidered
+with purple and scarlet.
+
+The peculiar formation of the hill upon which it was built, required
+immense walls of the most substantial character to be raised from the
+valley below to enlarge its summit, so as to afford sufficient space for
+the erection of the various courts. “It was built of stone, made ready
+before it was brought thither; so that there was neither hammer, nor axe,
+nor any tool of iron heard in the house while it was in building” (2
+Kings vi., 7).
+
+The temple itself is supposed to have been 60 cubits long, the porch
+20 cubits, the Holy place 20 cubits; the width was 20 cubits and the
+height 30 cubits. The porch, however, was 120 cubits high. (The cubit is
+estimated to equal from 10 to 20 inches.)
+
+The temple underwent several profanations, and at last was utterly
+destroyed in the reign of Jedekiah by Nebuchadnezzar, 580 B.C. After
+laying in ruins 42 years, the foundation of the second temple was laid
+by Zerubbabel and in breadth and height was double that of Solomon’s.
+This second temple was plundered and profaned by Antiochus Epiphanes,
+and afterward rebuilt by Herod. It was considerably larger than its
+predecessor and was made of marble and of the most costly
+workmanship. It became the admiration and envy of the world, but, as our
+Lord predicted (Mark xiii., 2), it was completely demolished by Titus,
+A.D. 70.
+
+Many restorations of the temples of the Greek colonists in Ionia
+have been attempted, but they are based on historical descriptions,
+inscriptions on coins, and other uncertain records, and are too
+conjectural to be accepted as accurate. There are, in fact, but few
+architectural remains sufficiently well preserved to be of interest to
+the architect, excepting the temples at Baalbek and Palmyra which are of
+the Roman period.
+
+There are several groups of tombs, the most important being in Lycia.
+
+These are of interest, as they illustrate more completely the transition
+between wooden and stone building than any other examples. There are
+two kinds, the one consisting of sarcophagi standing isolated, and the
+other of excavations in the mountain-sides. The former are composed of
+a stylobate or pedestal, serving as a base to a coffer ornamented with
+uprights and cross-pieces and panelled doors imitating exactly a wooden
+original. The roofs are curved, having in section the form of a pointed
+arch, being probably the earliest instances of its employment as a
+decorative feature.
+
+The tombs cut in the face of the rock are of a similar description,
+having the same carpentry framework. The upper parts are terminated by a
+low pediment or by a row of stone logs supporting a horizontal moulding.
+
+Later on during the Greek occupation, these wooden forms were abandoned
+and replaced by porticos of the Ionic order.
+
+In various parts of Asia Minor, there are remains of tombs similar to
+these erected by the Pelasgi and Etruscans, which will be described in
+another chapter.
+
+
+
+
+                                   IV.
+
+                                 GREECE.
+
+
+The oldest architectural works in Greece are those erected by the
+Cyclopes or Pelasgi, a race who came originally from Lycia, and moved
+gradually Westward, peopling successively the islands of the Grecian
+Archipelago, the Peloponnesus, Sicily, and Italy. At Tiryns and Mycenæ,
+in the province of Argolis, are to be seen the most remarkable remains
+of the buildings of this people, which were always grouped together in
+walled cities, serving as strongholds to protect the inhabitants of the
+province from the wild tribes with whom they came in contact. These
+cities were generally placed upon a rocky eminence, difficult of access
+and commanding a view of the surrounding country.
+
+There are remains of high walls at Tiryns built of huge stones
+extracted from a neighbouring quarry and put together without cement
+or mortar, the interstices being filled with smaller stones. From the
+fallen blocks lying scattered at their base it is estimated that they
+originally measured sixty feet in height. At intervals these walls are
+pierced by triangular doors and windows, the sides of which are curved,
+forming arches obtained by corbelled or overlapping instead of wedged
+stones. These Cyclopean constructions date from the seventeenth century
+before Christ.
+
+The Acropolis of Mycenæ is entered by a doorway formed of two vertical
+monoliths of great size supporting a lintel, and called the Gate of the
+Lions, from the carving above, representing two rampant lions separated
+by an engaged column.
+
+This city was surrounded by high fortified walls, and contained a place
+of assembly for the people and rude habitations, the remains of which are
+still visible. There is also still to be seen a conical or bee-hive-like
+structure, commonly called the Treasury of Atreus. This cone is formed
+by overlapping stones, curving gradually until they meet at the top of
+the vault, which is capped by a large block. The doorway by which it is
+entered is composed of slanting jambs of stone, sustaining a massive
+lintel. This lintel is relieved from direct weight above by a triangular
+opening, obtained by a similar process of corbelling. The Cyclopean
+remains are of interest to architects chiefly on account of this system
+of corbelled vaulting employed in their construction, which would never
+have been adopted had their builders been acquainted with the voussoir
+principle.
+
+Dr. Schliemann has recently excavated the Acropolis of Mycenæ, and found
+there many interesting objects of gold and pottery. Bronze nails with
+flat heads have also been found within the Treasury of Atreus, which
+were evidently used to attach copper plates with which the interior was
+lined. Pausanias speaks of a similar treasury belonging to King Minyas,
+at Orchomenos, and other remains of the same description have been
+discovered in different parts of the Morea, bearing a resemblance to the
+ruined cities of Etruria.
+
+In fact, the various tumuli found in Western Europe, Sardinia, Sicily,
+Greece, and Asia are all of the same type, and were a form commonly
+adopted by the ancient nations.
+
+When we come to the epoch preceding Roman architecture, we will examine
+the character of Etruscan buildings, which were similar in many respects
+to the works of the Pelasgi; at present the subject of most interest is
+that of the great century of Greek art, for it marks the transition from
+Crude Art, to which belongs all that has preceded, to Fine Art, in which
+the Greeks excelled.
+
+Greek buildings were erected according to the rules of three systems
+or orders, of the origin and character of which Vitruvius gives the
+following account, which, if not strictly accurate, is at least as
+reasonable as some of the versions which have been advanced. “Dorus, King
+of the Peloponnesus, having had a temple erected to Juno, in Argos, it
+was built by chance in the manner which we call Doric; afterward, in
+several other towns, other temples were built in this same order, having
+no established rule for the proportions of their architecture. About the
+same period the Athenians established several colonies in Asia Minor
+under the guidance of Ion, and they called the country which he occupied
+Ionia. These colonists built Doric temples there at first, of which the
+chief was that of Apollo, but as they did not know what proportion to
+give to the columns, they sought the means of making them at once strong
+enough to sustain the building, and of rendering them at the same time
+agreeable to the eye. For this they took the measure of a man’s foot as
+the sixth part of his height, and on this measure formed their column,
+giving it six diameters.[1]
+
+[1] We have already seen that there are columns at Beni Hassan, in Egypt,
+resembling so closely the Greek Doric, that it is reasonable to suppose
+that the Greeks borrowed their conception of the order from the Egyptians
+and refined it.
+
+“Some time afterward, wishing to build a temple to Diana, they
+endeavoured to find a new method, equally beautiful and more appropriate
+to their purpose. They imitated the delicacy of a woman’s form; they
+heightened the columns, gave them a base like the twisted cords which
+bind a sandal; they carved volutes in the capital to represent that
+portion of the hair which falls to the right and left of the head;
+they put circles and rings on the columns to imitate the rest of the
+hair which is braided and caught up on the back of women’s heads; and
+by flutings they imitated the folds of the dress. And this
+order, invented by the Ionians, took the name of Ionic.
+
+“The Corinthian column represents the delicacy of a young girl, at
+the age when the figure is slender and best suited to the display of
+ornaments which may add to her natural beauty. The invention of its
+capital is due to the following incident: A young girl of Corinth, who
+was about to marry, having died, her nurse placed some little vases which
+she had been fond of during her life, in a basket on her tomb, and,
+in order that the weather should not spoil them, she placed a tile on
+the basket. This, having been laid accidentally over an acanthus-root,
+it came to pass, when the leaves began to grow, that the stems of the
+plant crept up the sides of the basket and, meeting the corners of the
+tile, were forced to curve downward, and to take the form of volutes.
+Callimachus, a sculptor and architect, struck by the harmonious result,
+imitated it in the capitals of columns which he subsequently made in
+Corinth, establishing on this model the proportions of the Corinthian
+order.”
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  DORIC.      IONIC.      CORINTHIAN.
+
+THE GREEK ORDERS.]
+
+At this stage it is necessary to explain briefly that an order consists
+of a column, the pedestal upon which it stands, and the entablature, or
+top member, which it supports. The column is subdivided into the capital,
+or head; the shaft, or body; and the base, or foot. The entablature
+has likewise three divisions: the architrave, or beam sustained by the
+columns; the frieze, or space occupied by the cross-beams; and the
+cornice, or line of stone marking the extremity of the rafters. These
+were originally made of wood and subsequently imitated in stone.[2]
+
+[2] Viollet le Duc maintained that the Greek buildings were in no sense
+an imitation of wooden constructions, but gave no very satisfactory
+explanation of the origin of their component parts. It is perhaps best
+to conclude that they were adaptations of pre-existing edifices to new
+materials.
+
+The Greek Doric column had no base and rested upon a series of steps in
+place of the pedestal. The ends of the cross-beams were marked upon the
+frieze by a projection, upon which were cut three grooves into which
+the rain-water ran and fell in drops to the ground. These drops were
+represented in stone underneath, completing an ornament which was called
+a triglyph (meaning in Greek, three grooves). The spaces intervening
+between the triglyphs were called metopes. The inclination of the sides
+of the roof formed the lines of the triangular termination which we call
+the pediment.
+
+The Greeks employed three methods in their Doric, namely, the hexametric,
+heptametric, and octometric, that is, a proportion of six, seven, and
+eight diameters to the height.
+
+We have seen what were the component parts of the Ionic and Corinthian
+orders in the quotation from Vitruvius.
+
+In Greek temples the shafts of the columns not only tapered considerably,
+but the vertical lines of an entire building inclined to imaginary
+points determined by the intersection of lines following
+the inclination of the end columns. The mass was thus in the form of
+the frustum of a pyramid, being intentionally so designed to bind the
+parts of the building together in a manner to withstand effectually the
+oscillation caused by earthquakes, which occur frequently in this region.
+
+The city of Athens contained numerous examples of each of these orders,
+and a brief account of the buildings of that city will be the best means
+of showing their principal characteristics.
+
+The city proper, in which were the chief temples, was built upon a
+rocky hill rising from the valley of the Illysus, lying between the
+mountain-chains of Pentelicus and Hymettus, and situated about five miles
+from the port of Phalerum, on the Gulf of Ægina. This Acropolis (rock
+city) is approached by a broad flight of stairs leading to the Propylæum,
+or outer gate, with high pedestals on each side which were formerly
+surmounted by equestrian statues.
+
+The Propylæum is composed of a porch of six Doric columns, giving
+access to a large vestibule flanked by two outer halls. This vestibule
+is divided by a flight of steps, placed between six Ionic columns on
+pedestals, supporting nine marble beams or architraves which carry the
+weight of the roof.
+
+Beyond is a second porch, opening on the plateau of the Acropolis by
+means of five doors of different proportions. The lintel of the central
+or largest door measures 23 feet, while the architraves are
+17 feet in length and of single stones.
+
+The Athenians prided themselves greatly upon the vestibule of the
+Propylæum, and believed Pericles, by whose direction the building was
+erected, to have been divinely inspired. The details and proportions
+of the two orders here combined are of great beauty, and show the most
+refined study. From the farther porch, the Parthenon (meaning in Greek,
+virgin), or temple of Minerva, is seen to the right, exhibiting a fine
+perspective view of its North and West elevations.
+
+The temple is raised upon a platform surrounded by steps, and is
+rectangular in form, composed of a cella, or oblong room, surrounded by
+an open portico. It measures 228 by 101 feet, having eight Doric columns
+on the front and seventeen on the flank, inclusive of the corner ones.
+
+Ictinus and Callicrates were the architects, under the general
+supervision of Phidias, who designed the gold and ivory figure of Minerva
+within.
+
+The Doric is of the hexametric order, having an approximate proportion of
+six diameters of the column to its height.
+
+The pediments of the Parthenon were decorated with rich carvings in
+high relief, representing, in the one, the presentation of Minerva to
+the assembled gods by her father Jupiter, and in the other, the contest
+of Minerva and Neptune for the naming of the city. In the metopes were
+depicted the battles of the Athenians with the Centaurs, and scenes in
+the lives of Perseus, Theseus, and Hercules, in the admirable sculpture
+of Phidias.
+
+The building stood almost intact from the fifth century before Christ
+to the seventeenth century of our era, when it suffered greatly from
+Venetian artillery, and in modern times its richest sculpture was torn
+from it under the Turkish régime, by order of Lord Elgin, who obtained
+permission from the authorities to remove it to the British Museum. One
+of the ships containing the marbles was sunk off Cape Matapan. Even in
+its ruined condition the Parthenon stands to-day a great example of the
+finest architecture the world has known.
+
+On the plateau of the Acropolis are the three contiguous temples of
+Pandrosus, Erictheus, and Minerva Polias, and the temple of the Wingless
+Victory (Niké Apteros), of the Ionic order.
+
+The temple of Pandrosus is virtually a porch attached to the larger
+temple of Erictheus. It is composed of six female figures or caryatides
+upon a high base, supporting an entablature without frieze. These figures
+are of exceeding grace and beauty, and are models of the sculptor’s art.
+The single cella was probably divided into three, to which access was had
+separately by the several porches. The ceilings of these temples are flat
+and decorated with sunken panels, ornamented with egg and dart moulds.
+According to Diodorus Sicculus, the temple of Erictheus was
+erected in his honour by the Athenians, in gratitude for his having
+instructed them in the worship of Ceres, Goddess of Agriculture. While
+Pausanias states that it contained the miraculous spring created by
+Neptune, who shared in its dedication.
+
+There are three windows in the wall of the cella—unusual features in
+Greek architecture—and the levels of the temples are different, evidently
+so arranged, with a view to distinguish them the more completely.
+
+The temple of the Wingless Victory is supposed to have been erected
+where Ægeus fell from the wall upon seeing the black sails of his son’s
+ship returning after his victory over the Minotaur. Others again assert
+that it was built without reference to site and so-called because the
+Athenians considered victory would never leave them, and consequently
+needed no wings. The temple is composed of a cella and two porches of
+four columns each, supporting a beautifully decorated entablature.
+
+At the base of the Acropolis stood the resident portion of the city,
+containing also other temples and public buildings, which are still
+standing. The most important are the temple of Theseus, the Tower of the
+Winds, the theatre of Bacchus, and the monument of Lysicrates. Besides
+these there are many Roman buildings, but they belong to a subsequent
+period. Plutarch says that the Athenians under Cimon erected the temple
+of Theseus on his return from Crete, and that it is of older construction
+than the temple of Minerva. It has six columns in the front and thirteen
+in flank, supporting marble beams the extremities of which rest on the
+inner wall and correspond on the other with the triglyphs on the outer
+face. The metopes had carvings representing the exploits of Theseus. The
+temple stands at the base of the Acropolis to the North; it is similar
+to the Parthenon in many respects, being of the same Doric order, though
+less rich in sculpture. It is the best preserved of all the monuments,
+having suffered but little during the twenty-two centuries it has existed.
+
+The Tower of the Winds, erected by Adronichus Cyrrhastes, is an octagonal
+structure surmounted by a frieze, upon which the eight winds of heaven
+are carved in allegorical figures. The roof is a pyramid of marble slabs
+and was at one time surmounted by a bronze triton holding a switch, which
+answered the purpose of a vane, but has since disappeared. The building
+was used as a water-clock.
+
+[Illustration: PLAN OF THE TEMPLE OF THESEUS AT ATHENS.]
+
+The choragic monument of Lysicrates, commonly called the Lantern of
+Demosthenes, is a circular structure of the Corinthian order. The spaces
+intervening between its six columns are closed by panels of a single
+stone upon which trivets are carved. The stone roof is decorated with
+scales and surmounted by a finial of delicate workmanship. On this was
+placed the tripod of the choir which had been successful in the Olympian
+contest of the year 375 B.C., according to inscription.
+
+There are other Corinthian buildings scattered throughout Greece, but
+this is generally taken to be the best example and its proportions
+followed. The carvings of the frieze depict the exploits of Hercules, who
+is represented clothed in the traditional lion’s skin.
+
+On the opposite slope of the hill are the ruined chairs and benches of
+the theatre of Bacchus, fronting an open stage. In building a theatre,
+the Northern slope of a hillside was generally selected for the site,
+in order to avoid the direct solar rays. Seats were provided for the
+audience by cutting circular tiers in the rock and a marble stage,
+profusely ornamented, was erected facing them. The stage was raised in
+order that the orchestra might not interfere with the view of the actors,
+and a portico adjoining it, served as a promenade during the intervals in
+the performance.
+
+The stadium, or circus, of Athens was formed in this way, taking in plan
+the shape of a horseshoe. It was here that the public games and races
+took place, the upper or circular end being occupied by the seats of the
+judges. It belongs, however, to a later period, having been constructed
+in the time of the Roman Emperor Hadrian. A few years ago the King of
+Greece caused the stadium to be excavated, and several marble chairs and
+seats were discovered.
+
+Each city of importance possessed a Palæstra, or gymnasium, in which
+were rooms for bathing in hot or cold water, for the wrestlers to anoint
+themselves with oil and fine dust, and a school for young lads. The
+building was enclosed by a portico and surrounded by pleasure-grounds in
+which the public exercises took place.
+
+The private dwellings were of one story in height, surmounted by
+terraces and divided by courts. The women’s apartments were separated
+from the men’s, and the larger houses contained banqueting-halls with
+accommodation for musicians and singers. The furniture consisted of
+tables in wood and choice stone, vases, candelabra, tripods in bronze,
+and rich Oriental carpets.
+
+Externally the houses were painted brilliantly and decorated with
+wreaths, garlands, and arms. Outside the entrance door stood the statue
+of the god of the household—Jupiter, Minerva, or Mercury.
+
+The richer citizens preferred country villas to city residences, which
+they surrounded with ornamental gardens and woods. The groves of the
+Academy where Plato held his school in the shade of the olives, outside
+the city gates, are probably the most celebrated of the latter.
+
+The dead were buried in necropoli without the city, and their place
+of interment marked by tombs in the form of pyramids or
+funeral pyres, or more simply by a stella, or upright tablet, inscribed
+with the name and virtues of the deceased, and upon which were carved
+scenes in his life. In the colonies in Asia Minor the system of
+excavating chambers in the rock was adopted, the entrance to them being
+marked by Ionic columns supporting entablatures and pediments.
+
+The public buildings of Athens were built of white marble from the island
+of Paros and the mountain quarries of Pentelicus, resembling in its
+fracture the purest loaf-sugar. The sun and rain have stained them to a
+tawny red during the many ages which have passed over them, and nearly
+all trace of the various dyes, with which they are supposed to have been
+coloured, has disappeared to-day.
+
+The Greeks built their walls of bonded masonry, the vertical joints
+coming in the centres of the stones above and below, and they were
+frequently additionally strengthened by metal anchors. In walls of
+unusual thickness it was customary to construct the inside and outside
+faces first and fill the intervening spaces with loose stones and mortar,
+with an occasional through stone to connect the parts and bind them
+together.
+
+The joints were sometimes emphasized by grooves, but this ornament was
+used more frequently in Roman work.
+
+Until its introduction by the Romans the arch was rarely, if ever,
+employed, and the limit of inter-columniation was restricted by the
+necessity of finding stones of sufficient length to form the architraves.
+
+The roofs were generally of wood, covered with terra-cotta tiles or sheet
+metal, and left open at intervals for the admission of light. This is,
+however, a disputed point, as the wood, being perishable, has left no
+positive proofs of the method employed. It appears that an awning or sail
+was stretched over these openings when services were being held. It is
+probable that in many instances there was no light admitted, except that
+from the entrance door. The effect of a religious ceremony performed in
+the temples by the artificial light of torches, with the flickering fires
+from the tripods and votive stands reflected upon the ivory and gold
+of the statues, and the smoke wreathing weirdly above the heads of the
+assembled multitude, must have been infinitely more impressive than if
+lit by the colder light of day.
+
+The Greek colonists carried the principles of their architecture with
+them, leaving monuments of their genius wherever they established
+themselves. Of the temple of Diana, at Ephesus, nothing but a few fluted
+drums and scattered fragments remain to-day. It was the most magnificent
+temple of the Ionic order, erected with lavish expenditure, and decorated
+within with panels of cedar wood. It was burned and pillaged by the
+Persians.
+
+At Agrigentum, in Sicily, and Pæstum, in Southern Italy, there are
+several Doric temples of massive proportions. Of these the temples of
+Concord, Jupiter, and Neptune are the most notable. The columns are
+shorter and their capitals broader than the Athenian type, and in one
+instance there are two orders superposed, within the cella, to support
+the roof.
+
+The Greeks erected buildings in many parts of Southern Europe, in Asia
+Minor, and in Egypt, and in later times, even under the Roman conquest,
+they remained the masters of the arts, teaching their principles and
+supervising the erection of the monuments of Rome. The race was, indeed,
+peculiarly endowed with a genius for creating the beautiful, for though
+we have but scant information on the subject of Greek painting, we have
+preserved to us examples of sculpture which have never been surpassed or
+even equalled, and in architecture, though many more elaborate buildings
+have since been erected, nothing has ever been produced worthy of
+comparison with the harmonious proportions and majestic simplicity of the
+temples of Attica.
+
+
+
+
+                                   V.
+
+                            ETRURIA AND ROME.
+
+
+Etruria was peopled, from remote ages, by the indigenous inhabitants, and
+by colonizing races from Asia and Greece.
+
+To the latter may be attributed the chief architectural works of the
+country; the ancient Etruscan walled cities resembling, in their general
+construction, those of Tiryns and Mycenæ.
+
+Judging from the remains found upon the soil at the present day, the
+Etruscans used their knowledge of the laws of building principally in the
+erection of tombs. Of temples there now remain no traces; but, according
+to Vitruvius, they were composed, as a rule, of the rectangular chamber,
+or cella, of the Greeks, which was divided into three parts, and preceded
+by a porch of Tuscan columns. The origin of the latter he describes as
+follows:
+
+“The Greek colonists, having brought to Etruria, the Tuscany of to-day,
+their acquaintance with the proportions of the Doric order, which was the
+only one as yet used in Greece, they employed this order there during a
+long period, in the same manner as in the country where it originated;
+but finally they changed it in several respects; they lengthened the
+column, and added a base to it; they altered the capital, simplified the
+entablature, and, thus changed, it was adopted by the Romans, under the
+name of the Tuscan order.”
+
+Etruscan tombs varied with the nature of the districts in which they were
+erected. In the flat portions of the country they consisted usually of an
+earthen cone raised upon a circular foundation of masonry, with one or
+more chambers within for the reception of the dead. The largest of these
+tumuli was that called the Cucumella, at Vulci.
+
+In the mountains, where material was abundant, it was customary to bury
+the dead in a square stone chamber, surmounted by a pyramidal roof, and
+entered by a doorway ornamented with the Greek architrave. There are
+several examples of these at Castel d’Asso.
+
+A third form of sepulchre was the hypogee, or underground tomb, the
+entrance to which was marked by a colonnade of the Tuscan order,
+carved in the face of the rock; the interior apartment being usually
+rectangular, and reached by a staircase. The walls were decorated with
+paintings, and the tomb filled with vases, tripods, arms, and other
+votive offerings. The body was generally either placed in a stone
+sarcophagus or laid upon a bronze bed. The ceilings in the older tombs
+were either flat, being cut in the natural rock, with piers left as
+supports, and ornamented with sunken panels, or constructed
+of inclined slabs, resting against and sustaining each other.
+
+The corbelled vaults, similar to those of Mycenæ, were employed for
+a considerable number of these buildings, but were subsequently
+relinquished for vaults of voussoirs, or wedge-shaped stones. The
+invention of the semicircular vault, the joints of which converge to a
+common centre, was long attributed to the Etruscans, but we have seen
+that recent discoveries have shown that it was already in use in Egypt
+and Assyria many centuries before.
+
+This principle, however, was the chief feature of Etruscan architecture,
+and its great legacy to succeeding styles.
+
+Etruria as well as Greece sent artists to Rome, and the conjunction of
+the methods used in the two countries produced Roman art.
+
+“The Romans took from the Etruscans the semicircular arch, formed of
+jointed stones; from the populations of the Campagna they obtained
+the general arrangement of sacred edifices, the Greek orders, the
+distribution and decoration of private dwellings. They drew thus from two
+different sources, and endeavoured to unite two principles diametrically
+opposed to one another—the principle of the Greek lintel and the Etruscan
+arch. In doing this they show clearly that their ideas upon the arts were
+but little better than those of pirates, whose acts are actuated by pride
+rather than by taste, and who adorn themselves in spoils of distinctly
+different origin, the mingling of which produces unseemly contrasts.”[3]
+
+[3] Entretiens sur l’Architecture.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  COLUMN.      ENTABLATURE.
+
+  PEDESTAL.  BASE.   SHAFT.   CAPITAL ARCHITRAVE FRIEZE.   CORNICE.
+
+  WASH.
+  OVOLO.
+  ASTRAGAL.
+  CORONA.
+  ASTRAGAL.
+  CYMA REVERSA.
+  TENIA.
+  FACIA.
+  ABACUS.
+  OVOLO.
+  NECK.
+  ASTRAGAL.
+  FILLET.
+  TORUS.
+  PLINTH.
+  TUSCAN.      DORIC.
+
+THE ROMAN ORDERS.]
+
+Illustration:
+
+  IONIC.      CORINTHIAN.
+
+THE ROMAN ORDERS.]
+
+[Illustration: COMPOSITE.]
+
+
+In fact, the Greek orders, modified to suit the taste of the Romans, and
+combined with the Etruscan arch and vault, formed the basis of all Roman
+architecture. The scale of their buildings, however, was vastly greater
+than that of those upon which they were modelled. The colonnades of their
+palaces and the arcades of their aqueducts were to be measured by the
+mile, the vaults of their baths were of prodigious span, and, in general
+size and number, the edifices erected by the Romans exceeded anything
+which had come before them.
+
+The Roman orders were five in number, namely, the Tuscan, Doric, Ionic,
+Corinthian, and Composite.
+
+The Tuscan we have already examined. The Doric was somewhat more
+elaborate, having additional mouldings in the capital and base, and
+the triglyph ornament in the frieze. The Ionic and Corinthian were but
+modifications of the corresponding Greek orders. The Composite was of the
+same proportion as the Corinthian, the capital being a combination of the
+Ionic and Corinthian.
+
+The Corinthian order was the most generally used, its rich character
+suiting the ostentatious ideas of the Romans. The superposition of
+columns was a common method of indicating different stories, and
+different orders were often employed where different-sized
+columns occurred in the same building.
+
+In plan the Roman buildings were rectangular, polygonal, and circular, or
+combinations of these geometrical forms. The materials used were local
+stone, imported marbles and alabaster, and bricks, which were flatter and
+longer than the form employed at the present day. The Romans excelled in
+their mortars and cements, which were of a strength sufficient to make
+their walls virtually of one mass.
+
+In bonding their stone they employed various methods, including those of
+the Greeks. Of these, a favourite one was the building of exterior faces
+only, and filling up the intervening space with broken stone and mortar.
+In order to produce the greatest effect at the least cost, in the use
+of marble, they resorted to panelling the external surfaces only with
+thin slabs. Interiors were lined with stucco and frequently ornamented
+with paintings, and the floors inlaid with mosaic. Roman mouldings were
+sections of the sphere, differing from the Greek, which were hyperbolas
+or parabolas.
+
+The chief constructions of the Romans were houses, temples, palaces,
+amphitheatres, theatres, aqueducts, sewers, baths, triumphal arches,
+tombs and commemorative structures, camps, bridges, and basilicas.
+
+[Illustration: PALACE OF DIOCLETIAN AT SPALATRO.
+
+(_From Durand._)]
+
+In, and in close proximity to, the Forum Romanum, or Campo Vaccino, are
+admirable examples of nearly all these different buildings. The level of
+the ancient market-place is several feet below that of the streets
+of modern Rome, but in the excavated portions are to be seen the old
+pavements of irregular stone slabs, laid upon concrete foundations and
+worn with the wheels of chariots.
+
+Many ruined temples, the arches of Septimius Severus, of Titus and
+Constantine, the palace of the Cæsars, the Colosseum, and the Baths of
+Constantine are collected here within a stone’s throw. By taking up each
+class of buildings separately, however, we will get a better idea of the
+nature of Roman architecture than by a description of isolated buildings.
+
+Roman houses resembled in a measure the Greek, the different apartments
+being grouped around inner courts. The rooms consisted of halls,
+vestibules, banqueting-rooms, and sleeping-chambers, the women not being
+separated from the men, as was the case in Greece. The courts were
+surrounded by colonnades and in the centre a well was usually placed, to
+receive the water from the roofs. Many of the houses were several stories
+in height, but a limit to their altitude was fixed by decree.
+
+The excavations in Pompeii have uncovered many interesting specimens of
+private dwellings, richly decorated with several paintings and having
+elaborate mosaic patterns on their floors.
+
+In the city of Rome the palace of the Cæsars was the most notable example
+of domestic architecture, but at the present day it is difficult to
+discern among the débris and fallen walls what its original
+plan may have been. Some paintings in the so-called house of Livia, upon
+the plateau of the palace, however, show that the artists of the period
+had attained a high degree of merit.
+
+[Illustration: PLAN OF THE PANTHEON AT ROME]
+
+Roman temples consisted generally of a cella or rectangular apartment,
+preceded by a porch, the whole being raised on a platform, reached by
+stairs and enclosed by a colonnade below. Occasionally there was a double
+cella, with separate entrances and porches, as in that of Venus and
+Rome; and there are two remaining examples of circular temples—that of
+Vesta, on the Tiber, in Rome, and of the Sybil, at Tivoli—while still
+another type, that of the Pantheon of Agrippa, had a circular cella and a
+rectangular porch.
+
+The Corinthian order was the most frequently employed, that of the temple
+of Jupiter Stator being the richest, while those of the Pantheon, the
+Maison Carrée, at Nîmes, and of the temple of Antonine and Faustina are
+admirable specimens.
+
+This last is one of the best preserved temples, being very nearly entire
+at the present time; its frieze is of the most refined workmanship,
+representing allegorical animals, plants, etc.
+
+The temple of Fortuna Virilis is a good example of the Ionic order, but
+this order was never a favourite with the Romans.
+
+[Illustration: PLAN OF THE BATHS OF AGRIPPA CONNECTING WITH THE PANTHEON,
+ACCORDING TO PALLADIO.
+
+(_From Durand_)]
+
+A debased form of Ionic is that of the temple of Concord, or Vespasian,
+where the capital is altered to a considerable extent and a rope
+moulding added. A remarkable constructional feature of this temple is the
+relieving arch of brick, concealed behind the frieze, to diminish the
+weight on the lintel below.
+
+The great drum of the Pantheon, enclosed by a circular vault, is one of
+the earliest examples of domical architecture. A notable feature in it
+is the absence of the keystone, which is replaced here by an open ring,
+leaving an aperture for the entrance of light. The walls are pierced with
+niches and relieved by immense arches. The pediment of the porch is one
+of the most perfect remaining; in height its proportion exceeds that of
+Greek temples.
+
+The temple of Diana, at Nîmes, is a remarkable structure, having three
+aisles, the central one being decorated with niches and columns, which
+support an entablature and a ribbed vault.
+
+The ruined temples of Baalbek and of Jupiter Olympius, at Athens, are
+among the most colossal of this class of building. The Corinthian columns
+of the latter measure upward of sixty feet, and their capitals are of
+singularly fine workmanship.
+
+The Emperor Hadrian embellished Athens with numerous and splendid
+buildings, which to-day have assumed the colour and ruined appearance of
+the older constructions of the time of Pericles.
+
+Of the temple of Jupiter Olympius there are scarcely more than a dozen
+columns standing of the original one hundred and twenty. The Turks
+ground up many of them to make lime for their mortar.
+
+The Romans took their conception of the theatre from the Greeks. The
+building was composed of two parts, the one devoted to the stage and its
+accessories, and the other to the accommodation of the audience. The
+stage was usually in the form of a rectangle, the longer side of which
+formed the diameter of the semicircle, which was the plan of the second
+part. The latter was composed of concentric seats in successive steps,
+to which access was had by stairs radiating from the centre and leading
+to an upper surrounding gallery. At the foot of these steps a space was
+reserved called the orchestra (Greek, “dancing place”), usually occupied
+by the senators. The stage, which was decorated with columns and niches,
+was raised above the orchestra, and was connected with the actors’ rooms.
+The wall at the back of the stage was carried up to the level of the
+circular enclosing wall, and treated with superposed orders. The theatre
+of Marcellus, in Rome, and those of Herculaneum, Arles, and Orange are
+among the best examples.
+
+The most celebrated amphitheatre (amphi theatron, Greek, “double
+theatre”) is that commonly known as the Colosseum, or Flavian
+Amphitheatre. It is composed of the arena or oval space, occupied by the
+combatants, and of the “visorium,” formed by concentric seats placed in
+tiers, one above the other.
+
+
+[Illustration: PLAN OF THE TEMPLE OF THE SUN AT BAALBEK.]
+
+It was capable of seating eighty thousand spectators, and upon its
+arena four thousand gladiators have fought at a time. It was here that
+before commencing their combats they came to the foot of the emperor’s
+throne, saluting him with the celebrated cry, “Morituri te salutamus.”
+
+The substructure of the building consists of vaulted passages,
+communicating with the visorium by numerous staircases, and with the
+exterior by the doors called “vomitoria.” The arena was surrounded by a
+ditch of running water, and under it were chambers in which prisoners and
+animals were confined.
+
+The visorium was divided according to the rank of its occupants. The
+upper classes occupied the “podium” or lower gallery, which extended on
+either side of the emperor’s throne, at the extremity of the longer axis
+of the building. For protection from the elements during performances an
+immense sail was stretched over the building from posts inserted in stone
+brackets at the top of the exterior wall.
+
+The heights of the three lower stories of the Colosseum are marked
+externally by arcades and superposed orders with engaged columns, Doric,
+Ionic, and Corinthian, and the fourth and upper one by Corinthian
+pilasters. The entablatures of each order are carried around the entire
+circumference of the building.
+
+Architects generally criticise this construction adversely, for “if,
+on the one hand, the engaged columns might be supposed to serve as
+buttresses and thus become a useful decoration, it must
+be admitted, on the other, that the projecting entablatures carried
+from column to column do more harm than good as regards the solidity of
+the building. [The architrave having no longer the force of the Greek
+lintel, being composed of several blocks supported by the arch below.]
+The Romans, however, did not always falsely apply the true principles of
+architecture. In the arena of Nîmes, for instance, the two superposed
+orders which serve as buttresses between the arcades of the two stories
+on the exterior of that building, are real buttresses. The lower order
+is composed of projecting piers, the upper order of engaged columns; the
+cornices follow the contour of each pilaster or column and do not form
+those projecting belts which are placed so clumsily and uselessly around
+such buildings as the theatre of Marcellus and the Colosseum of Rome.”[4]
+
+[4] Viollet le Duc.
+
+This amphitheatre was commenced by Vespasian and continued under Titus,
+who dedicated it in the year 80 A.D. In the ninth century it was half
+destroyed, and subsequently became a quarry, from which materials were
+extracted for the construction of the Farnese palace and other buildings.
+
+A large part, however, is standing to-day, having been rescued from total
+destruction by order of Pope Benoit XIV.
+
+There are celebrated remains of amphitheatres at Verona, Pola, Capua,
+Arles, and Nîmes. Circuses and Naumachias belong to the same class of
+buildings, the one serving for chariot and other races, and the other
+for naval combats. The arena in each was oval in plan and from it rose
+the successive tiers of broad steps upon which the seats were ranged.
+At the top a portico decorated with statues enclosed the whole building.
+
+The Circus Maximus was the most important of these, containing numerous
+splendid statues and obelisks, and covering a vast area.
+
+The aqueducts of ancient Rome stretched for miles across the Campagna.
+The channel in which the water flowed was supported by one or more
+arcades, superposed according to the height required. These arcades
+consisted of round brick arches carried on substantial piers, and were
+placed where possible upon the highest elevations of the country they
+traversed. At intervals wide basins were provided for the collection of
+sediment, and reservoirs received the water at their termination. From
+the latter pipes supplied the baths and private dwellings.
+
+In France the famous Pont du Gard is a portion of an immense Roman
+aqueduct formed of three rows of arcades, which supplied the city of
+Nîmes.
+
+Bridges were constructed on the same principle; the arches increasing
+their span according to the depth of the piers upon which they rested,
+being generally of two stories, the upper one having double the number of
+piers.
+
+The Roman bridges and aqueducts in Spain are among the most
+justly celebrated, notably those of Segovia, Tarragona, and Alcantara.
+Bridging rivers by boats was a common method in use by the Roman armies
+under Julius Cæsar. We have also an account of a wooden bridge over the
+Danube, constructed by Trajan.
+
+Under every street in Rome there ran vaulted sewers conducting all
+impurities into the main artery, called the Cloaca Maxima, which in turn
+discharged its contents into the Tiber. This sewer is one of the oldest
+examples of the use of voussoirs, dating from the reign of Tarquinius
+Priscus. It is covered by a triple vault, sustaining the street above.
+
+Agrippa conducted the waters of several streams into the sewers and
+appointed inspectors to keep them in repair and good order.
+
+In the building of the baths of Rome, Agrippa, Nero, Vespasian,
+Caracalla, Titus, Diocletian, and Constantine vied with each other in
+the production of the most magnificent structures. They are to-day in a
+hopelessly ruined condition, but from the numerous fragments of carved
+marble and panelled stucco lying on their sites, and from the rich
+paintings and mosaics of the baths of Titus and Caracalla, it is not
+difficult to form an idea of their original splendour.
+
+It is not a little significant of what their rich decoration must
+have been to note that such marvels of statuary as the Laocoon, the
+Farnese Bull, and the Gladiators have been discovered within them.
+Besides the necessary administrative rooms, these buildings
+generally contained a frigidarium or cold bath, a tepidarium or warm
+bath, and a sudatorium, circular in form and covered in by a dome. The
+walls, built of brick, were pierced with niches and supported high cross
+and barrel vaults of immense span. It has been conjectured that the
+Pantheon was the entrance hall of the baths of Agrippa, the porch having
+been added at a later period when the building was converted into a
+temple.
+
+The chief commemorative structures were triumphal arches and votive
+columns. The former were of two kinds, having either one main arched
+opening, or a large central arch for vehicles and two lower ones on
+either side for foot passengers. The arch of Titus in Rome is an
+example of the first, its main arch being flanked by composite columns,
+supporting a richly carved entablature, which is in turn surmounted by
+an attic, inscribed with the dedication to the conqueror by the Senate
+and Roman people. The bassi relievi employed in its decoration represent
+the sacking of Jerusalem by Titus; a specially notable feature among
+the spoils depicted being the golden candelabra with the seven sockets,
+mentioned in Scripture history.
+
+The arches of Constantine and Septimius Severus are of the second
+category. They are covered with rich sculpture and are of very beautiful
+proportion. Famous arches are those of Orange in the south of France,
+Beneventum, Ancona, Rimini, Pola, and Athens. Everywhere,
+in fact, where a victory was to be commemorated, or the termination of a
+great military road to be marked, it was customary to erect an arch.
+
+Another method of paying homage to great men was to erect columns
+surmounted by their statues. The columns of Trajan and Antoninus in
+Rome are especially remarkable. The former is the higher and of the
+best workmanship. The pedestal upon which it rests is ornamented with
+elaborate carvings representing the arms of conquered nations, and is
+enriched at the four upper corners of its cornice by imperial eagles with
+garlands suspended between them. A wreath replaces the torus or round
+mould at the base of the column, and around the shaft is wound a ribbon
+of sculpture, representing a triumphal procession, which terminates
+at the capital. Isolated columns were also often employed for the
+inscription of legal notices, as boundary-marks, or for marking military
+limits.
+
+The gates at the entrances of the principal cities were similar to the
+triumphal arches. There are two especially fine examples in France, those
+of Autun and Treves. In these the attic story is replaced by a gallery
+connecting the two flanking wings, which are several stories in height,
+and contain chambers which it is commonly supposed were used as courts of
+justice.
+
+Roman camps were regulated and arranged with military
+precision, and were of two descriptions. The one, erected for temporary
+use, was defended by a rude palisade of branches and a ditch, the other,
+the “castra hiberna,” or winter quarters, was generally a permanent
+structure, built of brick, containing within a square enclosure the
+barracks, workshops, hospitals, and other necessary buildings. This
+enclosure was divided by cross-roads, passing through gates in the outer
+wall. The gate facing the enemy was called the porta prætoria, hence
+prætorian camp.
+
+Necrological monuments were built in various forms, from the simple
+tablet to the immense mausoleums of the emperors. Just without the walls
+of Rome are still to be seen the remains of the sepulchre of Caius
+Sestius, a large pyramid containing a chamber several feet above the
+ground level. Farther out, on the Appian Way, is the tomb of Cæcilia
+Metella, a cylindrical structure upon a square base, of considerable
+magnitude. The exterior is simple, the only decoration being a series of
+ox-skulls in the frieze. This building was probably originally surmounted
+by an earthen cone, after the manner of the Etruscan tombs.
+
+The tomb of Augustus was constructed in a similar manner but on a larger
+scale. The entrance was preceded by a porch and the exterior walls
+contained niches. The conical mound above was planted with trees and
+shrubbery.
+
+The Scipios were buried in stone sarcophagi in a subterranean
+chamber, which has been but recently discovered.
+
+A curious monument was that of the Horatii, consisting of a rectangular
+block of masonry, containing the sepulchre, surmounted by four stone
+cones, grouped around a fifth and higher one. These probably had a
+symbolical meaning, as a similar structure, called the tomb of Porsenna,
+is said to have existed in Etruria.
+
+By far the most magnificent building of the kind was the Mausoleum, or
+Mole of Hadrian, the ruins of which now go by the name of the Castel St.
+Angelo. The tomb rose conspicuously on the banks above the Tiber, on
+a square foundation; its two upper stories were circular in plan, and
+decorated with colonnades and statuary, and the whole was capped by an
+immense roof, terminated by a pineapple of bronze.
+
+The tombs of St. Helena and St. Costanza were circular structures similar
+to that of Cæcilia Metella, the cone of earth, however, being replaced by
+a dome. The interior of the tomb of St. Costanza was divided by columns
+which sustained a vault connecting with the outer wall.
+
+The practice of burning bodies and preserving their ashes gave rise also
+to the building of columbariums, rectangular structures containing in
+their walls receptacles for funereal urns.
+
+In the valley of Jerusalem the hypogee was the form of sepulchre commonly
+adopted, its entrance being decorated with a colonnade of
+one of the Roman orders.
+
+Basilicas were the law courts of the Roman people and places of assembly
+for the transaction of their daily affairs. On the exterior, these
+buildings were surrounded by numerous courts and porticos, where the
+merchants assembled daily to discuss their affairs or to await the result
+of the trials conducted within. In the interior they contained a large
+hall or nave flanked by side aisles, preceding a transept or further room
+which was terminated by a semicircular apse. This apse was occupied by
+the magistrate while presiding in the cases submitted to his decision.
+
+The ruins of the basilicas of Titus and Maxentius remain, at the present
+day, in sufficient preservation to show that in the one a flat ceiling
+of timber was employed, and in the other a system of intersecting vaults
+similar in construction to those of the baths of Caracalla. There are
+traces of several ancient buildings of this kind, but it is supposed that
+many were pulled down by the Christians, who erected churches on their
+sites, using the old basilica as their model.
+
+The plan was, in reality, but an improvement on that of the Roman temple,
+the side aisles and transepts being naturally developed additions to the
+older cella to which the apse had been added previously in many examples.
+
+The great administrative power governing the erection of
+the buildings of Rome was one of the most remarkable features connected
+with them. Architecture with the Romans was a means to an end, this
+end being the construction of edifices suiting their requirements and
+their desire for display. No scope was allowed for individual talent or
+ingenuity, unless employed in the carrying out of a distinct programme,
+laid down by those in power; each building forming part of a great
+scheme, prevailing throughout the conquered world.
+
+In Greece architectural works were produced in the different cities and
+states under the guidance of independent artists, with the co-operation
+of their fellow-citizens who were eager to attain the true principles
+of art; in Rome and the Roman world, art was entirely subservient to a
+system of politics which ran through all departments.
+
+The vast wealth which flowed into the capital from tributary provinces
+was the great mainstay which permitted the execution of so many vast
+and expensive structures, forming a collection never surpassed. Roman
+art corresponded with the national character, for it was coarse and
+ostentatious, but at the same time vast and strong. The population
+of Athens delighted in intellectual pursuits, in philosophy, in art;
+it crowded the seats on the slope of the Acropolis to enjoy the wit
+and satire of Æschylus and Sophocles, and the palæstra to witness the
+development of bodily grace and dexterity, while the Romans flocked to
+the Colosseum for the enjoyment of scenes of blood and carnage, to gaze
+upon the slaughter of captives and the anguish of animals. The force of
+their government, nevertheless, was unquestionable; their patriotism,
+unlike that of the Greeks, was unaffected by civic jealousies or party
+feeling; they trod rough-shod upon the nations, but they planted
+everywhere the imprint of their heroic civilization and made their
+capital the centre of the world, and left to it, for all ages, the proud
+appellation of the Eternal City.
+
+
+
+
+                                   VI.
+
+                       THE EARLY CHRISTIAN STYLE.
+
+
+After the conversion of the Emperor Constantine to Christianity, in
+the fourth century, the Christians who, as a persecuted sect had
+hitherto held their religious observances in hiding, in the catacombs
+of Rome, adopted the basilica as the most convenient form of building
+for the purposes of their worship. The bishop occupied a throne in the
+apse, surrounded by the presbyters or fathers of the church, and the
+congregation of the faithful filled the central nave.
+
+For several centuries this plan was but little changed, the only notable
+additions to it being the continuation of the transept beyond the line
+of the walls of the nave, thus making it cruciform; the occasional
+substitution of double aisles, making five divisions in the body of the
+church, instead of the original three, and the addition of a tower or
+belfry.
+
+All subsequent churches, whether Romanesque, Gothic, or Renaissance were
+constructed on but slight modifications of this original plan, which, in
+fact, was itself evolved from that of the Roman temple.
+
+Illustration: PLAN OF THE OLD BASILICA OF ST. PAUL’S BEYOND THE WALLS.
+
+  A - Apse
+  T - Transept
+  N - Nave
+  X - Narthex]
+
+The first basilicas erected
+for Christian worship had double aisles; this form was, however, soon
+discontinued, probably owing to the difficulty of observing the offices
+of the clergy from the outer aisle. Of these St. Peter’s, St. Paul’s
+beyond the walls, and St. John Lateran were the finest examples. The
+first-named was built upon the site of the present cathedral, and was
+removed in the sixteenth century to make room for it. Its dimensions
+were of notable size, being about 380 feet long by 212 feet in width.
+It was preceded by an atrium, or open court, surrounded by a colonnade,
+in which the Christians met to transact their affairs. The basilica of
+St. Paul’s was destroyed by fire in the early part of this century, and
+a new structure resembling the old was erected in its place on a scale
+of great magnificence. The columns of its Corinthian colonnade and the
+floor are of polished marble and the wooden roof lavishly ornamented with
+carving and gilding. The transept is enriched with mosaics, and contains
+a baldachin over the altar, in which malachite and other choice stones
+have been used unsparingly.
+
+A typical basilica was generally arranged as follows: The atrium or
+quadrangular open court, surrounded by porticos, preceded the main
+building, or was replaced by a porch composed of columns sustaining a low
+roof which was called the narthex. Within, the structure was divided into
+a nave, side aisles, transept, and apse. The nave (derived from “navis,”
+a vessel, symbolical of that of St. Peter) was loftier than
+the adjoining aisles, the upper wall being usually panelled with pictures
+and pierced at the top by a range of windows, from which the Gothic
+clerestory was derived later on. In one or two instances where the side
+aisles had a second story or upper gallery for the women, the panels and
+windows were placed in the outer wall.
+
+The interior lines of columns were usually of the Ionic or Corinthian
+orders, having been taken from older buildings, but if new they were of
+stouter proportions than the Classical models. These columns supported
+either a continuous architrave or circular arches.
+
+Wooden doors, often covered by chased bronze, were hung in the main
+entrance and the wall above was usually pierced by a round window or
+bull’s-eye, afterward developed into the rose window. At the other end of
+the nave a wide arched opening, called the triumphal arch, connected it
+with the transept.
+
+An enclosure, separated from the body of the church by a balustrade, at
+the upper end of the nave, contained the seats of the choristers and the
+reading-desks.
+
+The altar was placed in the transept and was frequently surmounted by a
+baldachin composed of four or six columns supporting a light dome. Behind
+the altar in the centre of the apse was the throne (cathedra) occupied
+by the bishop (episcopus), being raised by steps from the semicircular
+stone seats (exedra) used by the presbyters, which were
+covered with carpets. The walls of the transept and apse were inlaid
+with mosaic inscriptions and pictures, in which the head of our Saviour,
+the figures of saints and holy emblems were the chief subjects. Deep
+blue, purple, and green were the prevailing colours and the letters
+were of gold. The floors were decorated with mosaic patterns. The roofs
+were either flat with sunken panels framed with mouldings and gilded
+ornaments, or else showed the open trussed wood-work, though the latter
+was the exception. Externally there was no attempt at enrichment, the
+exterior generally offering a great contrast to the lavish internal
+decorations.
+
+At the present day nearly all the basilicas have undergone
+transformation, the old roofs have been replaced, the walls covered with
+a modern adornment of pilasters and gaudy paintings, the colonnades have
+been broken through to allow of entrances to side-chapels, or disfigured
+by the heterogeneous decoration of the eighteenth century, and the
+exteriors treated with renaissance façades.
+
+Nevertheless the general plan and arrangements have remained
+substantially the same, and we have very interesting specimens of this
+class of building in St. Maria Maggiore, St. Agnese, San Clemente, and
+others, in Rome, San Appolinare, in Ravenna, the basilicas at Torcello,
+in the Venetian lagoons, and later examples in St. Ambrogio, of Milan,
+and St. Maria Sopra Minerva, in Rome. The basilica at Torcello was
+built mainly from fragments of an older church upon the mainland at
+Altino. The bishop’s throne is one of the most interesting and best
+preserved examples we have.
+
+The Greek name for this, cathedra, was the origin of our term cathedral,
+applied to churches containing the bishop’s seat, there being no
+architectural distinction between the buildings.
+
+From the tombs of the Romans the Christians derived their conception of
+the edifices which they used as baptisteries. Their exterior walls were
+either polygonal or circular, and of severe simplicity. The interiors
+were generally divided by a row of columns sustaining a round vault,
+and forming a circular enclosure in which the font was placed. A wall,
+carried on these columns, contained windows, and served as a lantern to
+light the building. This wall occasionally supported a dome. San Stephano
+Rotondo, in Rome; St. Angeli, in Perugia, and St. Vitale, in Ravenna, are
+the best examples among the many found in Italy.
+
+San Stephano has a double range of interior columns, taken from Roman
+temples, the one supporting an entablature, and the other a series of
+arches. The church has been much modified by successive alterations,
+and the interior is ornamented with curious paintings, representing the
+sufferings of the martyrs.
+
+The baptistery of St. Angeli is smaller, but has preserved its
+original form in a greater degree.
+
+[Illustration: ST. VITALE, OF RAVENNA.]
+
+[Illustration: THE TEMPLE OF MINERVA MEDICA.]
+
+St. Vitale is a type of structure much copied in subsequent buildings.
+It is itself modelled on the so-called temple of Minerva Medica,
+differing only in having an octagon instead of a decagon plan. Of this
+Fergusson gives the following account:
+
+“It certainly belongs to the best days of the Roman empire, if, indeed,
+it be not a Christian building, which I am very much inclined to believe
+it is, for on comparing it with the baptistery of Constantine and the
+tomb of St. Contanza, it shows a considerable advance in construction
+on both of these buildings, and a greater similarity to San Vitale, at
+Ravenna, and other buildings of that time, than to anything else now
+found in Rome.
+
+It has a dome eighty feet in diameter, resting on a decagon of singularly
+light and elegant construction. Nine of the compartments contain niches,
+which give great room on the floor, as well as variety and lightness to
+the general design. Above this is a clerestory of ten well-proportioned
+windows, which give light to the building; perhaps not in so effective a
+manner as the one eye of the Pantheon, though by a far more convenient
+arrangement, to protect from the elements a people who did not possess
+glass.
+
+“So far as I know, all domed buildings erected by the Romans up to the
+time of Constantine, and, indeed, long afterward, were circular in the
+interior, though they were sometimes octagonal externally. This, however,
+is a polygon both internally and on the outside, and the
+mode in which the dome is placed on the polygon shows the first rudiments
+of the pendentive system, which was afterward carried to such perfection
+by the Byzantine architects, but is nowhere else to be found in Rome. It
+probably was for the purpose of somewhat diminishing the difficulties of
+this construction that the architect adopted a figure with ten instead of
+eight sides.”
+
+The plans of the temple of Vesta and of the baptistery of Constantine
+have been placed here next to one another in order to show the
+transposition of the columns from the exterior to the interior, which is
+the chief distinction between the Roman circular buildings and Christian
+baptisteries.
+
+[Illustration: THE TEMPLE OF VESTA, SOMETIMES CALLED THE TEMPLE OF
+HERCULES.]
+
+[Illustration: THE BAPTISTERY OF CONSTANTINE.]
+
+
+
+
+                                  VII.
+
+                          THE BYZANTINE STYLE.
+
+
+Constantine and his mother St. Helena built churches in Bethlehem,
+Jerusalem, and Antioch, and embellished Constantinople with numerous
+splendid edifices. The Eastern basilicas preserved the same character
+in their construction as those of Italy, but their component parts were
+more homogeneous, the materials being specially prepared, instead of
+being borrowed from ancient buildings. The first vigour of emancipated
+Christianity found vent not only in the erection of edifices devoted to
+its religious observances, but in the infliction of irreparable injury
+upon the pagan monuments of Greece and Rome. Constantine brought many
+fragments of these Classical buildings to the new capital, but they have
+been destroyed, together with the palaces, churches, and baths which he
+built there, in successive invasions, by fire, or by earthquakes.
+
+In Thessalonica there are two good examples of early basilicas—the old
+mosque and the five-aisled church of St. Demetrius; and in Northern Syria
+there are many admirable specimens. Of these the churches
+at Rouheilia, Kalb-Louzeh, and Tourmanim deserve special mention.
+
+The latter is a particularly successful building, designed in the new
+style growing out of the older Roman one, and is a model structure, being
+constructed exactly in accordance with the requirements of the early
+Church.
+
+In plan, the Syrian conventual buildings depart but slightly from that
+of the basilicas of Rome, but in their interior treatment they show
+a gradual secession from the rules which govern Classical buildings,
+retaining only their useful and discarding their merely ornamental
+features.
+
+When the seat of the empire had been transferred to Byzance, the
+Christians carried with them the principles of the arch and the vault and
+combined them in a new form of structure. This construction, differing
+from that employed in Rome, combined with Eastern or late Greek forms of
+ornament, produced a new style called the Byzantine.
+
+The distinctive feature of this method of construction was the placing of
+the circular dome, not upon a cylindrical drum, as had been done by the
+Romans in the Pantheon and other buildings, but upon four walls, square
+in plan, surmounted by semicircular arches, with the intervening spaces
+occupied by pendentives. To each side of this central square was joined
+a nave of the same length, forming thus in plan a Greek cross, that is,
+one having each arm equally long. These naves were usually short, more
+frequently semicircular than rectangular, and often terminated by an apse.
+
+[Illustration: THE PENDENTIVE SYSTEM IN BYZANTINE DOMES.]
+
+We have seen, in the baptistery of St. Vitale, at Ravenna (in which Greek
+artists were undoubtedly employed), a tendency to reduce the number of
+sides of polygonal buildings supporting circular domes; the architects of
+Byzance were therefore merely taking another step in the same direction
+when they placed the dome upon a quadrilateral substructure.
+
+To comprehend the pendentive, let us take a circle and inscribe within
+it a square; at the four angles of the square we will place solid
+piers of masonry and connect them with semicircular arches. Let us
+now suppose that a hemispherical dome had been built upon this circle
+as plan, and we will see that the planes of the arches and the plane
+passing at the level of the top of the keystones of the arches, in
+intersecting this dome, would leave but four triangular portions of
+it. These triangular portions are called pendentives, and are the only
+portions of the original hemisphere which are actually built. As this
+hemisphere would have been necessarily constructed of materials the
+joints of which would have radiated from the centre of the sphere, so
+also do the joints of the pendentives radiate from this same centre,
+which is identical with the centre of the original circle. The plane
+passing at the level of the top of the keystones in intersecting the
+hemisphere describes another circle, upon which the actual dome is
+placed. The question has not been established satisfactorily whether
+the Byzantine architects really understood the pendentive, as in many
+instances they resorted to less scientific methods of filling in the
+vacant spaces between the arches and the upper dome, but the only
+logical method of constructing it is that which has just been described.
+
+In building domes, it was not uncommon in the East to replace stonework
+by light terra-cotta pipes, fitting into each other, giving great
+lightness and comparative strength.
+
+Justinian gave a marked impetus to architectural work and to the building
+of religious edifices in particular. He commissioned Anthemius of
+Thralles, and Isidor of Miletus, to execute the plans for the new church
+of St. Sophia, upon the site of an older building of Constantine, also
+dedicated to the “Holy Wisdom,” which had been burnt during an emeute
+soon after it had been repaired by Theodosius.
+
+Justinian had already built the church of Sergius and Bacchus in
+Constantinople, on a plan nearly identical with that of St. Vitale, at
+Ravenna, with the exception that the whole structure was externally in
+the form of a square, enclosing the octagon supporting the dome. This
+served as a stepping-stone to the conception of the larger church, which
+became the type of all subsequent Byzantine constructions.
+
+
+[Illustration: CHURCH OF SERGIUS AND BACCHUS AT CONSTANTINOPLE.]
+
+[Illustration: PLAN OF ST. SOPHIA, CONSTANTINOPLE.]
+
+By comparing the plans of the Pantheon, the temple of Minerva Medica,
+the baptistery of Constantine, St. Vitale, at Ravenna, and the
+church of Sergius and Bacchus, in the order in which they are enumerated,
+with that of St. Sophia, the sequence and continuous progress of
+domical construction is at once apparent, and such comparison explains
+the successive steps in a more satisfactory manner than a folio of
+description.
+
+“The church of St. Sophia,” says M. Texier, “is built on a square plan,
+251 feet long by 186 feet wide. In the centre of this square rises
+the dome, the diameter of which, measuring 108 feet, determines the
+width of the nave. The dome is supported by four great arches and four
+pendentives. Two hemispheric vaults abut against the two arches, which
+are perpendicular to the axis of the nave, giving it an oval appearance.
+Each of these hemispheres is itself pierced by two smaller hemispheres
+carried on columns. This superposition of domes, whose points of abutment
+are not visible, gives to the whole structure a lightness difficult to
+realize.”
+
+The church is built upon a foundation of béton twenty feet deep. It
+is preceded by an atrium surrounded by a portico of the Ionic order.
+The nave is entered by a double narthex, or porch, extending along the
+whole width of the West front. The interior, both floor and walls, was
+formerly adorned with rich marbles, and paintings upon a ground of
+gold. The dome was built of light bricks faced with hard cement and
+mosaic, and was lighted by forty windows. Originally a painting of the
+Holy Father was placed in the centre of the dome, and four cherubim in
+the pendentives. The latter are still to be discerned under the coat of
+whitewash with which the Turks have hidden the original magnificence of
+the interior.
+
+The apse, lighted by three windows, contained the throne and seat of
+the Church fathers. The columns supporting the great arches and the
+galleries, originally occupied by the women, are of rare marble, eight of
+them having, it is said, formed part of the temple of Diana at Ephesus,
+being brought, together with the spoils of many Eastern and Western
+buildings, to adorn the great edifice. The foliage of their capitals is
+fine and sharp and intricately interlaced, having no resemblance to the
+Classic models beyond a debased form of the volute which terminates their
+upper corners. This style of ornament is a distinguishing feature of the
+Byzantine style, and reappears in many examples both in the East and West.
+
+The church, commenced in the year 532, took sixteen years to build,
+during which time incredible sums were expended upon it. When completed,
+the appearance it presented was most magnificent, resulting not only from
+the rich marbles, wood-work, paintings, and mosaics with which it was
+decorated, but also from the countless candelabras, curtains, precious
+vases, and golden vessels with which it was furnished.
+After the capture of Constantinople by Mahomet II., in the year 1453, St.
+Sophia was converted into a mosque, and suffered greatly at the hands of
+the Turks. It is only within recent years that any attempt at preserving
+its original splendour has been made.
+
+The architectural principles upon which St. Sophia was constructed were
+reproduced in all Byzantine buildings in Italy and France as well as in
+the Orient. In Turkey, indeed, the edifices subsequently erected are
+almost counterparts of the original structure, the mosque of Suleiman
+and that of Achmet, built as late as 1610, embodying almost identical
+features of construction.
+
+In Athens there are two or three small Byzantine churches, which, though
+differing greatly in point of size, are founded upon the plan of the
+mother church; and in Asia Minor generally and Armenia especially, there
+are a great number; notably the churches of Daghour and Pitzounda and the
+cathedral of Anim.
+
+The decoration of some of the latter differs from the usual Byzantine
+methods in the frequent revival of Classic forms, and in the use of thin
+pilasters, carrying blind arches on the exterior.
+
+This feature reappears in the buildings of Italy, influenced by the
+style, particularly at Pisa.
+
+In some later buildings a new manner of obtaining light was introduced,
+by raising the dome upon a cylindrical drum, supported by the four arches
+and pendentives of the older system. St. Nicodemus, of Athens, is one
+of the best examples of this.
+
+When the body of St. Mark was brought to Venice, having been stolen from
+Constantinople by means of a clever trick about the year 831, the Doge
+Partecipazio ordered a church to be built to his memory. The greater
+part of this building as it stands to-day dates, however, from the
+tenth century. It resembles St. Sophia in a great degree, the frequent
+intercourse of the Venetian maritime population with the Orient having
+enabled them to study the principles of Byzantine art, and to bring
+spoils from the buildings of the East to their native city.
+
+St. Mark’s has also much affinity with the church of Mone-tes-Koras,
+in Armenia, the principal façade, with its five large bays decorated
+with columns and arches framing the five doors which give access to the
+church, being identical in general conception.
+
+The interior of the building has the form of the Greek cross, the
+four arms of which and also the central compartment formed by their
+intersection, are roofed by domes supported on arches and pendentives.
+The style of ornament is very similar to that of its prototype, with its
+rich gold mosaics, frescos, and inlaid marble, some of the details being
+essentially Oriental in character.
+
+The constructors of the pendentives in St. Mark’s do not seem to have
+properly understood that they formed part of a sphere to
+the centre of which their joints should have converged, but filled up
+the spaces between the supporting arches by a series of small superposed
+arches.
+
+The influence of this Byzantine construction extended into Aquitania,
+in the South of France. At the close of the tenth century a number of
+churches were erected there, with the dome as a prominent feature. St.
+Front, of Perigueux, was built upon a plan closely resembling that of St.
+Mark’s in Venice, and very nearly upon a similar scale of dimensions. The
+architects of the church, however, seem to have distrusted the strength
+of the semicircular arch, and resorted to the ogival[5] or pointed form
+as a means of securing greater supporting power, although this arch had
+not as yet been adopted in France.
+
+[5] From augere, to strengthen.
+
+They, too, failed completely to grasp the principle of the pendentive, as
+those of St. Front are formed of corbelled stones with horizontal beds,
+instead of voussoirs converging to the centre of the hemisphere of which
+they should form part.
+
+Besides St. Front, the churches of Fontevrault, Souliac, Angoulême, and
+others in Aquitania were built with similar characteristics, though in
+plan they adopted the Latin instead of the Greek cross. The abbey church
+of Fontevrault is perhaps the most successful of these, the four domes
+of its nave producing a very pleasing effect. The greater
+number of these buildings were erected during the eleventh and twelfth
+centuries, in an imported fashion, rather than in a style destined to be
+engrafted upon French national architecture.
+
+All of them show the want of a clear comprehension of the principles
+involved, and are evidently foreign to the taste of the people.
+
+The introduction of this style in France, offers a parallel case to the
+introduction of Gothic architecture in Italy, a century or two later, for
+in neither case were the styles in accordance with native inspiration.
+
+
+
+
+                                  VIII.
+
+                         MAHOMETAN ARCHITECTURE.
+
+
+The year 622 of our era is a remarkable one in historical annals, being
+the date of the flight of Mahomet, the Hegira from which all events are
+computed by followers of his religion. Within a marvellously short period
+the new faith spread from the confines of Arabia, throughout Asia Minor
+and Persia and all along the North coast of Africa to Spain, propagated
+everywhere by the force of the victorious sword, until, scarcely a
+century later, we find its promoters bearing the crescent against
+Charlemagne, under the shadow of the Pyrenees.
+
+As a political and theological narrative the history of the rise of
+the faith of Islam, is a wonderfully interesting one, and to us it is
+important as it explains the reason for the geographical position of so
+many buildings, erected in accordance with the requirements of the new
+religion, and therefore having a great similarity in all countries where
+it prevailed.
+
+The Kaabah, or “square house,” built by Mahomet at Mecca upon the
+site of a temple which tradition says was founded by Abraham, appears
+to have been the earliest Mahometan mosque. Mahomet had already
+erected a building at Medina, but this seems to have been
+not so much a house of prayer as a dwelling-place for his family. The
+Kaabah has less importance as an architectural production than as the
+centre of the wheel of Mahometanism, the faithful being directed to turn
+their faces toward it when praying, and to regard it as the ultimate goal
+of their wanderings.
+
+The original structure was built by foreign workmen, and had no great
+pretensions, but subsequently it was surrounded by a colonnaded court,
+and by later additions was very considerably enlarged. Although the Koran
+decrees that all good Mussulmen should make a pilgrimage to Mecca, it
+does not uphold the Kaabah as a model to be followed in the erection of
+other mosques nor give any specific directions of the manner in which
+they should be built. It was therefore natural when the peace, following
+their rapid conquests, permitted the Mahometans to turn their thoughts to
+the erection of religious edifices, suitable for the observances of their
+worship, that they should borrow inspiration from the surrounding nations.
+
+The style they eventually evolved was drawn from Byzantine, Sassanian,
+Greek, and Roman sources, and became native by adaptation.
+
+In Turkey, Asia Minor, and Persia we find Mahometan mosques closely
+resembling Christian and Byzantine churches, many domed edifices being
+copied from St. Sophia and differing only in point of decoration,
+while the atrium or courtyard preceding the entrance to
+Christian buildings furnished the type for the wide colonnaded courts,
+with porticos roofed with a succession of hemispherical or bulbous domes,
+which became so common in Arabian buildings.
+
+The mosques of Omar, at Jerusalem, on the site of the temple of Solomon,
+of Wallid, at Damascus, Al-Azhar, Athar-en-Neby, Ibn Touloun, and Hassan,
+in Cairo, are notable edifices, in which the columns are either taken
+or copied from Greek and Roman temples, and in which the pointed arches
+seem to have been suggested by the hyperbolic arches of certain ancient
+Sassanian structures, such as the palace of Coroes, the Takt Kesra in the
+ruins of Ctesiphon, on the Tigris, and the buildings of Firouzabad and
+Sarbistan, which were mentioned in connection with Persian art.
+
+One of the earliest examples of the use of the pointed arch is in the
+Nilometer, erected on the Rodah, or Isle of Gardens, at Cairo, by Wallid,
+in the eighth century.
+
+This is a matter worthy of note, as showing conclusively that the Gothic
+arch was no invention of the thirteenth century, in Europe, but merely
+the adoption of a form used five centuries before in Egypt, and probably
+universally known, if indeed it had ever been lost sight of, since the
+days of the prosperity of Babylon.
+
+Of the early mosques the most important are those of Omar and
+Abd-el-Malek at Jerusalem and of Wallid at Damascus. The
+mosque of Omar was but a simple vaulted chamber, oriented in order to
+enable the faithful to turn in the direction of Mecca while praying.
+That of Abd-el-Malek, called the Aksah, adjoins it and is an extensive
+structure. It is chiefly remarkable for its general resemblance to the
+basilica in its division into aisles. The columns forming these carry
+pointed arches, built over connecting beams. It is not improbable that
+this design was inspired by the order of the church of the Dome of the
+Rock, adjoining it, built by Constantine, where the columns support
+circular arches, over a continuous entablature.
+
+Wallid, Caliph of Damascus, erected a mosque on the site of the old
+church of St. John the Baptist, and employed labour and material in its
+construction furnished by Justinian, Emperor of Byzance.
+
+The mosques of Cairo resemble each other in a great degree. They have
+usually a first court, giving access to apartments for the accommodation
+of strangers, with baths, and stables for their camels, connected with
+a second and larger quadrangular court, having a fountain in the centre
+and porticos on three sides. The fourth side, facing the entrance, has a
+series of aisles roofed in and forming the sanctuary, with recesses in
+the rear wall, where the prayers are offered. Reading-desks, provided
+with copies of the Koran, and hanging lamps form the chief furniture.
+
+The minarets, one or more of which are usually erected at
+the angles of the building, are special features. These tall, graceful
+towers, from whose summits a crier calls the people to prayers five times
+daily, serve a purpose similar to that of the belfries and campaniles
+of Europe. The diameter of most of them is small in proportion to the
+height, giving them a slender and beautiful aspect, very distinct from
+another class of towers, of which the Giralda at Seville is the best
+known, which were conceived in the same spirit of massiveness in which
+the campanile in the square before St. Mark’s in Venice was built. They
+are ascended by spiral staircases placed either within or without, and
+have projecting balconies at various stages.
+
+The building materials employed by the Arabs were chiefly stone of
+different colours, combined in bands and patterns, and brick covered
+with stucco. Enamelled tiles and multicoloured marbles were used both
+externally and internally, while within, carved wood, gilding, painting,
+and plaster were lavishly employed.
+
+Of the forms of decoration, the chief were elaborate gold inscriptions in
+Arabic characters, floral and geometric designs in interlaced patterns
+of the most intricate combinations, coloured with all the profusion
+suggested by the Oriental love of brilliancy and with the exquisite
+harmony which we see in Persian and Indian fabrics.
+
+A favourite form of decoration was that formed by a multiplication of
+minute pendentives, called the honeycomb ornament, the whole surface,
+as well as the dome above, being covered with an agglomeration of
+minute niches, the effect of which is frequently compared to that of
+stalactites. This form of ornament was much used, particularly in the
+mosques and palaces of Spain.
+
+In Cairo domestic architecture has a distinctive character of its own.
+The houses have reception-rooms on the ground floor, furnished with the
+divans, carpets, and lamps usual in Oriental manner of life, while the
+upper floors, occupied by the women, have projecting balconies of lattice
+wood-work, which permit them to see without being seen, and form an
+agreeable and picturesque feature on the exterior.
+
+The richness and the progress of Arabic art at a period when architecture
+had sunk to the lowest ebb throughout Europe, is due in great measure
+to the establishment of the learned academies of Damascus, Bagdad, and
+other principal cities, and to the revival of Classic learning by the
+translation of the works of Greek authors.
+
+In Spain, where the Moorish and Christian populations were thrown in
+constant contact with one another, the difference of religious opinion
+maintained a wide gulf between them, and while the Christians struggled
+with the difficulties of the Romanesque revival, their opponents attained
+a brilliant era in art, as a result of their superior industry and
+civilization.
+
+One of the oldest Arabian buildings in Spain is the great
+mosque at Cordova. Here, as in the East, we find Corinthian and Composite
+columns, taken from Roman buildings on the soil, forming integral parts
+of the new structure, but the Classical principles of building are in no
+sense adhered to. The entablature is replaced by cinque-foiled arches
+with voussoirs of alternate stone and brick; a second order of columns is
+superposed directly upon the capitals of the first, carrying horseshoe
+arches, and between the two arcades an intermediary series of trefoiled
+arches is placed, springing from the keystone of the lower arches and
+divided at the centre by the upper ones.
+
+The general plan of the building consists of the usual series of aisles,
+of which there are nineteen, with divisional walls. The sanctuary has a
+vault with intersecting ribs, surmounted by a small dome and enriched
+by profuse ornament, and is the object of much just admiration for its
+beauty.
+
+The chapel of Villa Viciosa, a later structure, has a series of arcades
+similar to those before the sanctuary, differing only in the arrangement
+of the intermediary arches, which are carried up to the level of the
+upper arches from a horizontal course, and are cinque-foiled instead of
+trefoiled, both on the extrados and intrados.
+
+The mosque was begun by Abd-el-Rhaman, in the eighth century, and
+successively added to during the four centuries following. It
+covers a very large superficial area, upwards of one hundred and
+sixty thousand square feet, and surpasses, in this respect,
+most European buildings. Its chief defects are the want of height, which
+does not exceed thirty feet, and the monotony of the aisles, which are
+nearly all precisely alike.
+
+At Toledo there are several Moorish buildings of merit, the principal
+one of which is the mosque called, at present, the church of “Cristo de
+la Luz.” It is similar to the sanctuary of Cordova in general aspect,
+but is a marvel of intricate and minute workmanship. The whole area
+which it occupies does not exceed four hundred superficial feet, but the
+proportions are so nicely balanced that it appears much larger. There
+are four columns carrying horseshoe arches, above which comes a second
+arcade, and each division is roofed in by a vault of intersecting ribs.
+These vaults are formed of wood, overlaid with plaster, and have no
+pretension to scientific construction. Indeed, in none of the Arabian
+buildings in Spain do we find anything of the kind attempted, the
+decorative features being always the most prominent.
+
+In the tower of Seville a species of vault was formed by thickening
+the walls gradually as they rose from the ground until they met; this,
+however, was nothing more than extensive corbelling, and, consequently,
+very inferior to Roman and Byzantine methods.
+
+The Alcázar, at Seville, and the Palace of the Alhambra, at Granada, are
+the richest examples of Moorish architecture, and show in
+their design and ornament the most fertile expression of the brilliant
+imagination with which this warm-blooded people imbued all its creations.
+
+The Court of the Lions in the latter, a rectangular enclosure, surrounded
+by arcades, with projecting domed pavilions at the upper and lower ends,
+is generally held to be the finest production of the later period of the
+style.
+
+The same materials are used here as in the other buildings—plaster shaped
+in the most exquisite forms and coloured brilliantly, tiles ornamented
+with patterns and devices of the most elaborate character, and wooden
+ceilings carved and richly painted. All these are handled with such
+correct taste that their brilliancy never degenerates into gaudiness.
+
+A splendid fountain in the centre of the court, the lower bowl of which
+is supported upon the backs of lions, explains the name given to this
+celebrated structure.
+
+The mosque of Cordova is superior, in respect to materials, to the other
+remaining Moorish buildings in Spain, in which plaster is used to excess.
+It is vain, however, to look in any of them for any distinct or novel
+constructional departure. The lintel and arch in Greece and Rome, the
+dome carried on pendentives in Byzance, were features giving character to
+each style, but the art of the Mahometan architects differed only in form
+and colour from its predecessors. The horseshoe arch with one and two
+centres, that is both round and pointed, was used by them
+almost exclusively, but it cannot rank as a constructional invention, for
+the real arch starts only at the level of the centres, and the remaining
+lower portion is a mere corbelling to obtain a form pleasing to the eye.
+
+Any new method of construction always affected the surrounding parts, and
+often altered the whole design of a building. It is obvious, therefore,
+that a mere change in the appearance of an arch such as this, which
+affects nothing connected with it, cannot be said to have created any new
+era in the progress of building.
+
+We hear the question frequently asked why a modern and new style is not
+developed in our times, and the answer architects make is illustrated
+by just this case, that is, that no new style can be evolved without a
+new constructive principle. As yet none such has been forthcoming, the
+only novel method of construction lately introduced being the employment
+of iron girders and posts, which, from an artistic point of view, can
+scarcely be considered an improvement upon the use of what are called the
+natural building materials.
+
+
+
+
+                                   IX.
+
+                          THE ROMANESQUE STYLE.
+
+
+Some late historians have departed from the previously generally accepted
+nomenclature of architectural styles, in designating under the general
+term of Christian architecture all buildings erected between the tenth
+and sixteenth centuries in Western Europe.
+
+As, however, Christian building in Europe began with the conversion of
+Constantine, this chronology is hardly satisfactory, and as the customary
+division of Gothic from the styles preceding it, is on many grounds a
+convenient one, it is preferable to adopt the conventional names, and to
+distinguish under the title of “Romanesque” the outgrowth of the debased
+form of Roman architecture which, influenced by Byzantine and Arabic art,
+formed a distinct method of building throughout the West for nearly two
+centuries after the year 1000 A.D., giving it the alternative name of
+“Norman” in Normandy and England.
+
+Previous to this date the long continuance of war and barbaric incursions
+seem to have prevented the erection of any stable edifices; fire and the
+poverty of the material with which they were constructed
+having caused the destruction of the few of which an account has been
+preserved.
+
+Many churches subsequently built, however, were erected upon the sites of
+these older ones and have fragments of the older buildings incorporated
+in them. Of such are the churches of St. Germain des Prés, in Paris, and
+Notre Dame du Port, at Clermont.
+
+Under Charlemagne, a revival of art was attempted, the chief building
+constructed by him being a reproduction of St. Vitale, of Ravenna,
+in which he employed sculpture and ornament torn from the original
+structure, and fragments from the edifices of ancient Rome; but this
+effort soon died away, and the period intervening between the eighth and
+tenth centuries was totally lacking in any architectural production of
+merit.
+
+As the Roman principles of architecture had been taken Eastward and
+gradually transformed into a new style at Byzance, so also in the
+West they had been the forerunners of another method of building, but
+proportionately different in accordance with the character, customs, and
+race of the Western populations.
+
+The basilica formed, as it had in the East, the model upon which all
+church architecture was designed, the nave, transept, aisles, and
+apse being all retained in this new class of buildings, but many of
+the building methods were new, and the details of their
+decoration differed considerably from the precise proportions and Classic
+graces of the buildings of Rome. The result exhibits a curious contrast
+between the barbaric ornament and the scientific construction, which
+advanced throughout the style in the genuine efforts which were made to
+progress in the art of building.
+
+Starting thus at the decadence of Classic art, with a Classical building
+as the original type for their churches, the Romanesque architects
+took up each of the parts combining in its formation, and sought to
+improve or elaborate each, in pursuance of certain ends, arising from
+local necessities. There is virtually no point where Romanesque ends
+and Gothic commences, to give due reason for the conventional divisions
+of historians, for the one style melts into the other in the continual
+progress in the study of the principles of construction which was
+steadily effected throughout both styles.
+
+They differ chiefly in that, during the two centuries prior to the
+thirteenth century, the pointed arch was rarely used, and that the
+influence of the Classic decadence is more apparent in the buildings
+of the earlier period. After this, the pointed arch became universal,
+and the whole style becoming entirely distinct from its derivation, the
+ornament and detail, quite unlike anything which had come before, it may
+be said that a new style had been created.
+
+This new style, which has been called Gothic, continued
+to be developed until the fifteenth century, when its principles became
+exaggerated, and it died out at the extreme point to which they could be
+pushed.
+
+It has been customary to call the buildings of the eleventh and twelfth
+centuries, built in the transition of Roman to Gothic art, Romanesque;
+but the pointed arch was used in both styles, though, as stated above,
+less frequently in the earlier one; and it should not, therefore, be
+taken as the distinguishing characteristic of Gothic architecture.
+
+The chief points wherein the Romanesque churches, which were the only
+buildings of importance constructed at that period, differed from the
+basilicas were in the methods of vaulting and their consequent effects
+upon the whole structure, the elaboration of the apse, and the system
+of connected supports employed. The main characteristics of the style
+were the same in all Western countries, and these being known, it is not
+difficult to distinguish the slight differences arising from local causes.
+
+In the old basilicas the aisles, whether of one or two stories, were
+lighted by windows in the lateral walls, while the nave borrowed light
+from them, and also received it directly from a clerestory rising above
+the roof of the galleries. As we have seen, these buildings were usually
+covered by wooden roofs, tunnel-vaults or a series of intersecting
+vaults thrown across the square formed by two of the columns of the
+nave, equidistant from each other and from corresponding
+pilasters in the side walls, being only occasionally used in the aisles.
+
+The Western architects of the tenth century continued to build their
+churches in this manner, and we have a splendid example of a timber
+roof of this kind, as late even as the twelfth century, in Peterborough
+Cathedral; but at an early period they sought to replace these perishable
+roofs by stone vaults. They found the construction of the semi-dome of
+the apse and the vaulting of the side aisles, either by a continuous
+tunnel-vault, by a series of semicircular vaults perpendicular to
+the lateral walls, or by intersecting vaults upon a square plan,
+comparatively easy; but the vaulting of the nave was a much more
+difficult matter.
+
+The circular tunnel-vault would have been the simplest known method of
+accomplishing this, but the pressure of a circular vault placed over the
+nave would have tended to push outward the walls upon which it rested,
+and this pressure being continuous, it was obviously of no avail to place
+buttresses at any separate point, and to place a great number, side by
+side, all along the vault, or, in other words, to greatly thicken the
+supporting wall, was to take up too much valuable ground space.
+
+In St. Front and kindred structures we have seen the problem solved in
+one way by the introduction of Byzantine domes; but these churches were
+confined to a province of Southern France, and had but little influence
+in other districts. In St. Etienne de Nevers, St. Sernin de Toulouse,
+and in Notre Dame du Port at Clermont in Auvergne, and others, this
+difficulty is partially overcome by the building of a half vault over
+the upper galleries connecting the tunnel-vault of the nave with the
+outer main walls, and taking the strain continuously, the thickness
+of the outer wall not being considered of consequence. This system
+permitted the placing of roofing-tiles directly upon the extrados
+of the vaults, and the entire suppression of wooden rafters, which
+was advantageous in diminishing the risk of fire, although the pitch
+was scarcely sufficient to prevent leakage. The great disadvantage,
+however, was that the nave had only borrowed light, and in large
+churches it was inconveniently dark.
+
+Another method adopted was that of suppressing the upper gallery, and
+bringing the arches of the aisles up to the level of the springing of
+the main vault, so that the summits of the side vaults and the walls
+erected between them, which were at right angles to the nave, served to
+counteract the strain of the upper vault. We have examples of this in
+the cathedral of Limoges and at Fontenay, but it is open to the same
+objection, that of darkening the nave.
+
+Still another system consisted in binding the vault over the nave by ribs
+or arches thrown across to opposite piers, which were strengthened by
+buttresses. These buttresses, however, were built upon the top of the
+arches, thrown across the aisles, and did more harm than good.
+
+[Illustration: ELEVATION.
+
+ROMANESQUE CONSTRUCTION]
+
+[Illustration: SECTION.]
+
+There is an example of unusual construction at Tournus, in Burgundy,
+where the difficulty is effectually surmounted by the building of a
+number of arches at right angles to the axis of the nave, between each
+set of piers; but the effect is far from satisfactory.
+
+Finally at Vezelay, in France, the tunnel-vault was abandoned and
+diagonal intersecting vaults were thrown across the nave, framed in
+between semicircular arch ribs carried upon piers spaced at equal
+intervals, the weight being thus wholly transferred to the four points at
+the angles of each compartment. It was found, however, that these piers
+needed strengthening, as the strain upon them was excessive, and it was
+thus that external buttresses were resorted to, which were connected with
+the piers by arches, called flying buttresses, bridging the side aisles
+and conveying the pressure to the outer wall. A weight was placed over
+each buttress, generally taking the form of a pinnacle, which stiffened
+it and counteracted the pressure of the arch.
+
+An illustration of this mode of construction has been attempted in the
+accompanying drawing, which does not represent any special building, but
+in which the chief characteristics of the style at this juncture have
+been introduced.
+
+The distance across the nave being usually greater than that between
+the columns dividing it from the aisles, the rectangular
+compartments of the vault were consequently no longer square, but oblong,
+so that while the arches crossing the nave at right angles were still
+semicircular those between the pillars were pointed.
+
+The transition from this, in the thirteenth century, to the definite
+adoption of the pointed vault was consequently but a step.
+
+We see, thus, that a continual progress was made in vaulting throughout
+the style, and the principle of concentrating weight upon isolated points
+was evolved in order to vault the nave and at the same time give direct
+light to it. In effecting this result, however, the original aim had
+been lost sight of—namely, that of avoiding the use of wooden roofs;
+for when the Romanesque architects abandoned tunnel-vaulting they had
+to surmount their more complicated intersecting vaults by wooden roofs,
+the perishable nature of which caused the ruin of many of the finest
+buildings. Nor was the external appearance of these roofs any improvement
+upon those of St. Etienne and St. Sernin, for it is a question whether
+any more monumental roof has been conceived than that which is formed by
+the natural outside surface of stone vaults.
+
+In the old basilicas, columns taken from or modelled upon those of the
+temples and palaces of Rome had sufficed to support the light brick wall,
+carried upon an architrave or arches, which enclosed the nave. When the
+Western architects resumed the building of churches, after an interval
+of war and trouble which had proved fatal to architectural progress,
+brick was little used and the formation of light masonry and good mortar
+were lost arts. The slender Classic column was consequently insufficient
+to carry the load of a heavy stone wall and had, necessarily, to be
+replaced by a more solid pier.
+
+These piers assumed various forms in the tentative efforts made to
+construct them of the dimensions calculated to occupy the least amount of
+floor space; some were square, others circular or formed of a number of
+small columns grouped together, but for a long time no very satisfactory
+shape was found which avoided a clumsy adjustment of the superstructure.
+
+It came to be gradually recognized that the form of the pier should be
+subservient to, and made to correspond with, the arches and the column
+receiving the arch rib of the vault above, which it had to sustain. This
+was effected at first by a square pier, with rectangular projections on
+each side, forming abutments for the reception of the constructional
+arrangement above. Subsequently these were replaced by pilasters and
+engaged columns on each face, three of which supported the rear and side
+arches of the nave, the fourth being continued up to the springing of the
+vault, and redeemed from exaggerated effect by bands or string-courses.
+There are good examples in France at Vezelay, Beaune and Langres and
+Autun. In England the contemporary architects usually employed square or
+circular masses of solid masonry, carrying a heavy abacus, these pillars
+being sometimes ornamented with a fluting, as in the crypt at Canterbury,
+or with zigzag patterns, as at Waltham Abbey, Durham, and Lindisfarne.
+
+The capitals of Romanesque columns are especially interesting, for they
+became constructively useful instead of simply ornamental, as were those
+used in the Roman orders. The section of the arch rib being square and
+the column round, it was necessary to afford support to the overlapping
+corners, the whole surface of the projecting tile or abacus being
+occupied by the upper masonry, instead of the line of the shaft being
+continued up, as had been done in Rome. The capital was therefore made to
+spread outward from the shaft in order to corbel the superstructure.
+
+[Illustration: COMPARATIVE SERIES, SHOWING GREEK, ROMAN, ROMANESQUE, AND
+GOTHIC METHODS OF SUPPORT.
+
+1. Greek Lintel.
+
+2. Roman Arch, showing False Lintel. 3. Vault Springing from Entablature.
+4. Arch Springing 5. Romanesque Column, with Arches Springing from Outer
+Edge of the Capital. 6. Romanesque Pier. 7. Gothic Pier.]
+
+A simple form of this is found in many German, Italian, and English
+examples, the upper part of the capital being a cube and the lower a
+hemisphere. The early examples generally imitate those of the Corinthian
+order in a rude fashion corresponding with the poverty of talent of
+the period. The capitals of the twelfth century are better carved and
+better suited to the services they have to perform. Figures representing
+biblical subjects are introduced in some and in others strange animals
+and conventional foliage, sometimes arranged as the acanthus leaf had
+been in the Roman models. The proportions of the Classic column
+were also departed from, the capital often being a quarter or a sixth
+of the whole column; its height being regulated by the size of the beds
+of stone, which were generally low. In Germany, however, the older
+proportions were more closely adhered to. The quality of the stone
+determined in a great measure the depth of the carving, the harder kinds
+having less depth of incision and the style of ornament applied to them
+resembling the Byzantine.
+
+In France the Romanesque column has usually a third of the diameter of
+its shaft engaged in a pier or wall, though isolated ones are used in the
+triforiums, towers, and porches; in England the latter are common, and
+recessed columns, that is to say, placed in an angle of masonry, are also
+frequently seen.
+
+The bases of Romanesque columns, at first simple round and hollow moulds,
+gradually became more elaborate, until they resembled the attic base.
+Occasionally they were decorated with foliage or animals, and there are
+instances where both capital and base are similar. The introduction of
+an angle ornament, connecting the torus or round mould with the corners
+of the plinth beneath, is especially noticeable; this was effective in
+preventing the angles from being broken by thickening the stone at the
+weakest points, and in later examples added to the beauty of the base.
+
+The arches of the period were usually semicircular and
+employed either separately or with a second and broader one, their
+contour being frequently marked by a few simple mouldings of degenerate
+classic origin.
+
+Two or three arches supported by detached columns, and comprised within
+a larger one, were frequently placed in the triforiums; when three
+were used the central one was usually higher than the others. Besides
+mouldings: billets, zigzags, stars, and similar simple ornaments were
+employed in their decoration. Where Arabic taste exercised its influence,
+it is not uncommon to find alternate voussoirs of different-coloured
+stones, and variegated bands in the piers.
+
+The Italians were especially fond of this treatment and it is seen in
+the exteriors and interiors of many of their buildings. To them is also
+due the introduction of blind arcades, the columns of which were either
+engaged in the wall or separated from it by an intervening gallery. The
+façade of the cathedral at Pisa is perhaps the most beautiful example of
+this.
+
+In the West, arcades of this kind became a frequent method of decorating
+blank walls, and there are instances where a second series of arches
+intersect the first, resulting in a number of pointed arches formed by
+the crossing of the circular ones; from this an ingenious but unfounded
+theory has been deducted purporting to explain the origin of Gothic
+architecture.
+
+The doors and porches of the Romanesque period are among
+the most beautiful to be found in any style. Starting in the earlier
+examples with a simple, round-arched opening, the number of mouldings in
+the arch became richer and of greater number, and, as the style advanced,
+recessed and supported by columns. These mouldings were decorated with
+the zigzag, billet, and kindred ornaments, many of which were probably
+copied from the decoration of the old basilica of St. Paul’s without the
+walls of Rome.
+
+As the jambs of the doorways were generally built on an angle, the
+contiguous shafts and arches sometimes gave the effect of an arched
+passage in perspective. Such effects were frequently intentional in the
+churches in Southern France, for we find that the walls of the nave and
+vault of Notre Dame de Poitiers, and of other buildings, were purposely
+made to converge in order to give the appearance of greater length.
+
+It was not uncommon to give the doors square heads, supported by
+corbels and occasionally by a central shaft; in these cases the arch
+above relieved the lintel from the weight of the superstructure, and
+gave the character of the style to the whole. The tympanum, thus
+enclosed, offered a ground for rich sculpture, which was availed of
+to the fullest extent. The outer door of a porch was usually richer
+in design than the inner one; in England there are many examples of
+shallow porches with single deeply recessed doors. In Provence there
+are many beautiful examples, foremost amongst which must be mentioned
+the porch of St. Trophyme, at Arles (see frontispiece). Romanesque
+windows were but modifications of the doors; often having recessed
+shafts at their sides and being frequently divided by a central column.
+
+The bull’s-eye, or round window, of the early Christian basilicas
+continued to be used, but it had not as yet the richness of tracery which
+it attained in the Gothic period.
+
+Classical features of design still retained their hold upon many
+details, notably in the cornices, where the modillions or brackets of
+the Corinthian order were frequently employed, and but slightly altered
+in form, although of native composition. The corona of the cornice also
+differed but little from the Roman models, and was occasionally supported
+directly by engaged columns replacing buttresses, chiefly on the exterior
+of apsidal chapels.
+
+In the early Christian churches the apse had consisted of a central
+semicircular termination to the building, flanked occasionally by two
+smaller semicircular recesses containing altars. In the baptisteries
+and Byzantine churches these had been multiplied, and had come to
+be customary features in every new building. In England, the Norman
+architects generally ended their churches rectangularly, without even
+the original single apse, though there are a few examples in which it
+is used, as at Newhaven, Sussex. In Germany it was frequently the
+custom to affix apses to three sides of the square tower placed at the
+intersection of the nave and transept, and the result was generally
+satisfactory, as may be seen in St. Martin’s of Cologne, and in the
+Apostles’ Church in the same city.
+
+[Illustration: PLAN OF STRASBOURG CATHEDRAL (Compare with Basilica, page
+89.)]
+
+In France the plan resolved itself into an open semicircular colonnade
+with a passage intervening between it and the outer wall which followed
+the outline of a series of small apses. These formed an harmonious
+cluster, and became a type which was matured in the thirteenth and
+fourteenth centuries. Those belonging to the Romanesque period, however,
+had a distinct and constructively excellent character which has rarely
+been subsequently surpassed. Among the best are those of Notre Dame du
+Port at Clermont, St. Etienne de Nevers, and St. Sernin at Toulouse.
+
+In France towers were generally placed at the West end of the church,
+while in England and Germany the usual way was to build them at the
+junction of the nave and transept; in Italy they were often detached
+from the main structure. They were characterized by simple solidity; the
+openings being few and the detail bold; the angles were strengthened by
+stout piers; the roofs were either of timber or stone, according to the
+nature of the materials in the localities in which they were erected, and
+they were usually lighted by the round-arched double window. This round
+arch, ornamented with a few simple mouldings and reposing
+upon short sturdy columns, forms a constantly recurring feature in the
+composition of the several parts of Romanesque buildings.
+
+The corridors which surrounded the square courtyards adjoining churches,
+and connected them with the dormitories, refectories, and other
+apartments of the clergy, are called cloisters. They differed but little
+from the Roman “impluvium” and the “atrium” of the basilica, the changes
+consisting chiefly in the addition of raised sills separating them from
+the court, and in their being usually vaulted instead of carrying timber
+roofs. The series of arcades forming them were treated in many ways,
+and the detail admitted of much elaboration and variety, as may be seen
+in the many remarkable examples throughout Europe. The cloisters of St.
+Paul’s, at Rome, and the atrium of St. Ambrogio, at Milan, form very
+interesting historical links between the Roman and Romanesque styles and
+are very beautiful specimens of their kind.
+
+It had been the custom during the struggling period of the early Church
+to bury the bodies of saints in subterranean chambers called crypts, a
+word derived from the Greek verb “to hide”; subsequently these became
+component parts of all churches, serving as places of interment and for
+the occasional celebration of masses. Their masonry was necessarily of
+the massive character required for the foundation of the piers of the
+church above, consisting generally in a grouping of columns sustaining
+a heavy vault.
+
+
+[Illustration: CHEVET OF NOTRE DAME DU PORT AT CLERMONT.
+
+(_From Chapuy._)]
+
+The crypt of St. Eutrope, at Saintes in France, may be mentioned as one
+of the best examples, the pillars being richly carved, and the ribs of
+the vault of great boldness and strength.
+
+In Germany the crypt is often raised sufficiently above the level of the
+ground to obtain light from windows, as at Spires, and this is sometimes
+carried to such an extreme that the church becomes double, that is, of
+two stories, as at Schwartz Rheindorf.
+
+In England, Canterbury Cathedral possesses perhaps the best example, the
+crypt being very large and its details varied. Some of the capitals of
+the columns remain half finished, the work upon them having been arrested
+by a conflagration in the twelfth century.
+
+
+
+
+                                   X.
+
+                          GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE.
+
+
+Briefly recapitulating the preceding chapters: We have seen that the
+Greek temple, composed of a cella, or oblong room, surrounded by a
+colonnade, was copied by the Romans with but few alterations, the
+only one of importance being the addition of a semicircular recess to
+the rear wall. The columns of the colonnade having been transposed
+from the outside to the interior, dividing the room in three parts,
+longitudinally; a cross wall having been introduced dividing it
+transversely, and the apse retained, the building became a basilica.
+By extending the transept and nave the plan became cruciform and
+symbolically the most suitable for that of a Christian church.
+
+The Western architects, desiring to replace the wooden roofs by stone
+vaults, found it convenient to substitute for columns carrying arches,
+piers with engaged shafts connecting directly with the superstructure.
+
+After various attempts to obtain direct light for the central division or
+nave, rendered difficult by the necessity of counteracting the continuous
+thrust of the barrel vault thrown across it, this vault was
+finally abandoned and replaced by intersecting vaults, which conveyed the
+thrust diagonally upon equidistant piers. To avoid increasing the size
+of the latter to an inconvenient extent, an expedient was resorted to
+which consisted in propping them from the exterior by flying buttresses
+thrown from them to outside piers across the roof of the aisles. The
+result of the width of the nave being usually greater than the distance
+between piers was that, while the diagonal ribs of the vault remained
+semicircular, their lateral intersection produced pointed arches.
+
+This form of construction was developed during the middle and latter
+half of the twelfth century. The pointed arch had been used occasionally
+before by the Romanesque architects; it had been used frequently by
+the Arabs, as far back as the eighth century, and had been known and
+employed long before the Christian era in the sewers of Babylon. It was,
+therefore, not a new invention, but a known method adopted in a fresh
+departure in constructive architecture; for the circular arches being
+abandoned and definitely replaced by the pointed arch the succeeding
+architecture became pointed or Gothic.
+
+This is the condensed history of the derivation of the style as generally
+accepted at the present day, though the subject has given rise to much
+controversy.
+
+The concentration of the weight of the vault upon the piers, instead of
+upon a continuous wall, was more or less the key to the
+whole scheme of Gothic construction; for the main principle remained
+the same throughout its many and varied examples. The idea was improved
+upon gradually and finally pushed to exaggeration; the decoration of
+the component parts of a building increased as the style advanced and
+they were reduced to just the sizes needed for stability, but their
+construction remained almost unaltered throughout.
+
+We have followed the steps by which the form given to Christian churches
+emanated from the early basilicas; this form of building, that is, its
+plan and divisions into nave, aisles, transept, choir, apse, etc., had
+become traditional and was generally accepted in all the best examples.
+
+[Illustration: PLAN OF RHEIMS CATHEDRAL.]
+
+The problem of accommodating large assemblies in the manner best suited
+to enable them to concentrate their sight and hearing upon a given
+point has been solved in various ways, perhaps most successfully in our
+modern opera-houses, but this problem was not one with which the Gothic
+architects endeavoured to grapple; their attention was devoted to the
+improvement and embellishment of the typical plan of structure, which
+custom and dogma had prescribed as the most suitable and in accordance
+with the needs of the liturgy. The plan was more or less elastic, and
+differed without material distinction in the different countries of
+Western Europe. These differences are easily noted by comparing the
+appended plans; the one, that of Rheims Cathedral, showing perhaps
+the most perfect arrangement of any in France, and the other, that of a
+typical English cathedral. The latter does not represent any particular
+structure, but is a composition including all the usual divisions and
+connecting buildings, taken from an old copy of Rickman.
+
+   _a_, _a_,       Towers at West end.
+   _b_, _b_,       Porches.
+   _c_,            The nave.
+   _d_, _d_,       Side aisles of the nave.
+   _e_,            The cloisters.
+   _f_,            Library.
+   _g_,            North transept.
+   _h_,            South transept.
+   _i_, _i_,       Side aisles of South transept.
+   _k_, _k_, _k_,  Chapels.
+   _l_,            Chapter house with passage from the cloisters.
+   _m_,            Central tower, cross or lantern.
+   _n_,            Screen, over which the organ is usually placed.
+   _o_,            Choir, at the east end of which the altar is
+                     usually placed.
+   _p_, _p_,       Side aisles of the choir.
+   _q_,            Lady chapel.
+
+In the thirteenth century the style was formed in all its purity;
+it was characterized by great simplicity and beauty, and in these
+respects was never surpassed. The arch had few mouldings, and these
+clearly defined and graceful; the shafts of columns were of slender and
+charming proportions, and the foliage employed for the decoration of
+their capitals, while conventional, departed entirely from the acanthus
+leaves of Classic origin, and assumed forms suggested by Western plants.
+ Piers were reduced to the precise dimensions needful, and
+were formed of slender shafts, grouped together, which received the arch
+mouldings on either side, and rose in the front and rear to the height
+necessary to take the springing of the vault. In practice, the thrust
+of the vault was found not to be transmitted directly to a point to be
+received by an arch, but to two points above and below this theoretical
+one, which necessitated the employment of two flying buttresses, the
+one above the other. In Chartres Cathedral these are connected by
+radiating columns, and there are many examples where the intervening
+space is occupied by an open arcade. The French generally built their
+vertical buttresses very massively, but in England the pinnacle was more
+frequently used to counteract the thrust of the arch. For this purpose it
+was eminently appropriate, and might be considered ornamental, but the
+placing of pinnacles upon the corners of the towers and elsewhere where
+they served no end, which was often done, was always a mistake; and a
+defect which mars the effect of many beautiful English buildings.
+
+In Notre Dame of Paris, we find the single round column still occupying
+the first story, with the more complex arrangement of pier and connected
+shafts starting above the abacus of its capital, but as a general thing,
+a distinct shaft was provided for each set of mouldings. In time this was
+replaced by a continuation of the vault mouldings down to the floor,
+interrupted only by an occasional string-course, or a band of foliage
+replacing the capital.
+
+[Illustration: PLAN OF AN ENGLISH CATHEDRAL.
+
+(_From Rickman._)]
+
+Once the weight of the vault had been transferred to piers, the wall
+connecting them ceased to support anything but the extremity of the
+cross-vault comprised between the piers, and otherwise served only
+as a screen. The Gothic architects soon took advantage of this to
+widen the windows, which had been narrow in the early stages, for by
+throwing a discharging arch just under the upper vault across the
+piers the whole space underneath could be occupied by windows, which,
+with the improvement in the making of painted glass, became extremely
+desirable. This was accordingly done, the only stonework left being the
+network of mullions and tracery necessary to receive the panes. This
+tracery, probably suggested by the rich Arabic window fillings, made a
+great advance during the latter part of the thirteenth and fourteenth
+centuries, the combinations of geometrical figures, chiefly the circle,
+being often wonderfully beautiful. The rose window was much favoured by
+the French in their West fronts and transepts, but in England the large
+pointed window was generally preferred, and admirably suited the square
+termination of the apse, which was the most frequently used in that
+country.
+
+The space enclosed by the pointed window had an outline to which it
+was always difficult to adjust geometric traceries so as to avoid
+clumsy joints, or oddly shaped patterns, and these were, therefore,
+subsequently replaced by flowing lines, which could be used
+with much greater freedom.
+
+As these grew bolder they assumed a flame-like appearance, and the later
+period of the style to which they belong was, in consequence, called
+“Flamboyant.” This development occurred chiefly in France, some of the
+best examples being in the church of St. Ouen, at Rouen.
+
+The simplest form of the Gothic vault was that in which the compartment
+comprised between two piers on one side and two on the opposite side
+of the nave was marked by two ribs bridging it, and two diagonal ribs
+intersecting each other. As the system advanced the vault became more
+complex by the addition of other ribs, as strengtheners or as ornaments,
+until in some examples the whole vault became a network of intersecting
+ribs.
+
+These intersections were frequently emphasized by a keystone or by
+an ornament called a boss, which in English work was also placed at
+intervals along string-courses, breaking the continuity after the manner
+of modillions in Classic cornices.
+
+A keystone placed in the centre of a vault was held there by a
+combination of great strength, as it became a point of abutment for all
+the main ribs, whose thrust was distributed against four piers and hence
+exteriorly by buttresses to the ground. A good stone, therefore, in
+this position could have extraordinary dimensions, and was susceptible
+of a variety of treatment. In some French examples it was
+extended, or rather hung, considerably below the surface of the vault
+and ornamentally carved, while in England, in the late so-called
+Perpendicular Gothic, it formed the centre of a large pendant, or
+circular hanging ornament, which in some cases came down almost to the
+level of the springing of the ribs.
+
+This construction was used chiefly in connection with the fan-vaulting,
+in which English architects excelled, which may indeed be said to be an
+English invention and monopoly, as no examples of it are found elsewhere.
+The name explains, in measure, the form taken by the ribs, which,
+spreading out from the sheaf of mouldings in the pier, trace a perfect
+semicircle on the upper ceiling, their intervening spaces being occupied
+by panels. The four semicircles thus traced by the ribs, starting from
+four piers of a compartment, are each tangent to a central and whole
+circle forming the contour of the pendant.
+
+To be successful this requires that the compartment or space included
+between four piers, two on each side of the nave or choir, should
+be a square, otherwise the circles do not touch, and the lines are
+inharmonious.
+
+The chapels of Henry the Seventh, at Westminster, and of St. George,
+at Windsor, contain the best examples of fan-vaulting, and are very
+beautiful in general effect, though it is questionable whether such
+constructive tricks are worthy of unrestricted praise, while the abuse
+of panelling in which English architects indulged in these later Gothic
+buildings, by which the whole wall and ceiling surface was cut up in an
+unending repetition, was certainly blameworthy, and tended to reduce
+their art to a mechanical science.
+
+They excelled, however, in all mechanical workmanship, in which perhaps
+that employed in the execution of timber roofs is the most remarkable.
+These were in a measure, at least upon so large a scale, a feature wholly
+English, for nothing approaching them is found elsewhere. The roof of
+Westminster Hall is the most justly celebrated and is unique in general
+character.
+
+The natural stonework showing all its joints was generally left untouched
+in the interior of Gothic buildings, and afforded the best finish as well
+as contrast to the stained glass in the windows.
+
+Polychrome decoration was attempted occasionally, chiefly on the
+Continent, and in some instances successfully. The best examples are the
+restorations of the Ste. Chapelle and St. Germain des Prés, in Paris,
+though the latter belongs more properly to the Romanesque period. Many
+churches have been completely spoiled as regards their inside appearance
+by coats of whitewash applied to the whole interior surface, giving them
+a bleak and barn-like aspect fatal to architectural effect; this is
+especially frequent in Belgium.
+
+This whitewash, coupled with horribly incongruous late
+Renaissance decoration, has gone far in many cases to ruin what would
+otherwise be fine buildings.
+
+Externally all _good_ Gothic buildings showed a direct correspondence
+with the interior: buttresses, flying buttresses, pinnacles, etc., were
+all constructive and never decorative devices; there was never such a
+thing as a façade or false front built independently of the interior,
+and though the harmony of the lines of both were often difficult to
+reconcile, it was just in the overcoming of such difficulties that the
+brilliant qualities of Gothic architects were called forth.
+
+In the arrangement of the West fronts the French were at their best,
+for the combination of deeply recessed porches with the rose window and
+gable above, flanked by the towers, which in France were usually placed
+here, was both judicious and effective. In England such porches as those
+of Rheims, or deep openings, such as the entrances to the cathedral of
+Paris, were not used, and the West elevations are consequently less
+interesting. Peterborough is an exception to this rule, but the design is
+so exaggerated, that the three immense arcades dwarf everything connected
+with them.
+
+The custom of placing a tower and spire over the intersection of the nave
+and transept was always adhered to in England, and was always a happy
+arrangement which gave the building dignity and character, even when
+the Western towers were omitted. Of this the celebrated
+Salisbury Cathedral is a beautiful example.
+
+The spires of Chartres and of St. Ouen, at Rouen, are the finest in
+France, where towers were frequently built to receive spires which
+were never added. The height to which the nave was carried there often
+prevented the towers from having their due effect, as it was impossible
+to carry them out on a scale large enough to give them a corresponding
+proportion. English architects contented themselves with moderate
+interior heights, rendering the proportioning of their buildings a much
+easier task than that which their neighbours imposed upon themselves,
+by attempting with each new building a more daring altitude, until the
+crumbling vaults of Beauvais set a limit to their audacity.
+
+The comparison of contemporary Gothic in England and France covers the
+subject more accurately than between that of any other countries, for
+these two nations rivalled each other all along in the solution of the
+various problems which arose with each step in their progress, while the
+architects of other countries profited by the results they attained and
+erected their buildings on Anglo-French principles.
+
+The cathedrals of Cologne, in Germany, and Toledo, in Spain, are as
+fine as any to be found in France or England, but they are neither
+German nor Spanish in conception and principle, and therefore do not
+belong to the national architecture of these countries. In Italy,
+Gothic architecture was never understood as it was in the North,
+and whenever anything was attempted in direct imitation of Northern
+principles of design, the result was always hard and mechanical.
+The true Italian Gothic was of itself often beautiful, but this was
+almost a separate style, in which the influences of pointed forms,
+Oriental colour, and the example which the Classical ruins held out so
+conspicuously on their own soil, were brought together by the Italians
+so as to form an harmonious whole.
+
+In Venice a peculiar development of the style was attained, adapted to
+the flat elevations of the canal palaces. This arrangement consisted of a
+consecutive series of arcades, in which the mouldings of each arch were
+carried up and returned, forming a second and sometimes a third row of
+lights, replacing, in the play of light and shadow, the forced absence of
+projections.
+
+These arcades were surmounted by horizontal mouldings, and the lines of
+the cornices and imposts were also horizontal, the Italians never having
+lost sight of the entablature, which had been dropped in France with the
+rise of Romanesque architecture and replaced always afterward by the
+vertical lines which are the prominent one sin of all Northern Gothic
+buildings.
+
+The celebrated Doge’s palace is the foremost of these and ranks amongst
+the most picturesque buildings in Europe. It is not free, however, from
+grave defects and is criticised by architects for the top-heavy and
+injudicious construction, by which a high and rarely pierced wall is
+sustained by the slenderest of arcades.
+
+Most of these palaces are of the fifteenth century and should not perhaps
+be mentioned first, but as they illustrate the principle of horizontal
+lines more readily than by reference to the isolated parts of less
+well-known buildings, they are introduced now.
+
+Although Milan Cathedral is one of the largest and most pretentious
+ecclesiastical buildings in Italy, it is scarcely a good example of
+Italian Gothic, for German architects were employed in its construction
+and their influence is apparent. It is rather to the Cathedral of Sienna
+that we should turn for a complete typical Italian structure. Here we
+find a beautiful building and yet one which can in no way be judged from
+a Northern standard. The West front has three porches, but their recessed
+arches are round instead of pointed, although the detail is Gothic (the
+church having been begun in the middle of the thirteenth century); above
+is a rose window, but, unlike the Western models, without dividing
+tracery. Both the exterior and interior are striped with alternate bands
+of black and white marble. The intersection of the nave and transept
+is covered by a dome, a feature unknown in France or England (with
+the single exception of the wooden one in the cathedral of Ely), and
+the tower or campanile is placed in the angle of the South transept.
+These points are all essentially different from Northern
+treatment, in which some of them would be considered defects. Here,
+however, the parts are sufficiently harmoniously united to produce a
+whole which is pleasing and original. The cathedral of Sienna has much in
+addition to these to make it interesting: attached to it is a library—a
+later building, beautifully decorated in a style similar to the Loggie of
+Raphael in the Vatican; the stalls of the choir are of carved wood, of
+the richest Renaissance design, and the pulpit, by Nicholas Pisano, is a
+gem of sculpture. This pulpit is octagonal; its sides are carved in high
+relief in representation of Scriptural scenes, and it is supported by
+polished columns carrying trefoiled arches and resting upon marble lions
+in lieu of bases. As a work in which both sculpture and architecture
+combine, it is, on a small scale, one of the most beautiful productions
+of its kind, essentially Italian, and rivalled only by that in the
+baptistery of Pisa by the same artist.
+
+The body of a lion as the base of a column was a favourite device of
+Italian architects, and is frequently met with. Porches formed of columns
+carrying a round arch and gable and resting on lions, are often attached
+to the entrance of churches.
+
+Orvieto Cathedral is, on a smaller scale, similar to the neighbouring
+cathedral of Sienna. The West front is designed with most elaborate
+detail and highly ornamented with painting and sculpture. The Duomo
+of Florence partakes also of the general characteristics of Sienna,
+although its proportions are vastly larger. Its most striking feature
+is the great dome, added by Brunelleschi, when the church, designed by
+Arnolfo, was approaching completion; but it is unsatisfactory, as its
+immense size dwarfs the rest of the building. The general picturesqueness
+of outline, the delicate design of the doors and windows, and the
+proximity of the beautiful tower of Giotto, go far to atone for this. The
+exterior walls of the church are covered with a veneering of coloured
+marbles, which, while judiciously treated and good of its kind, is too
+false to be easily reconciled to true artistic principles, and its
+skin-deep beauty has been painfully apparent, until very recently, owing
+to the unfinished condition of the West front.
+
+It may be said in extenuation of this that plaster, while generally
+accepted as an honest material, is no less a shallow covering to disguise
+naked walls; it is, however, frequently misused, and is only tolerable
+so long as it is not employed in imitation of better materials, while
+the thin marble is really intended to deceive the eye, and give the
+impression that its depth is equal to that of the wall.
+
+The interior of the Florence Cathedral is disappointing, it is
+insufficiently lighted, bare, and much in need of the frescos with which
+it was originally intended to be decorated.
+
+The cathedral of Pisa belongs in greater part to the preceding style, but
+the campo-santo adjoining it has a cloister with traceried
+windows, which, notwithstanding its round arches, more nearly resembles
+Northern Gothic than anything in Italy, and by its greater height shows
+a novel and more effective treatment than is usually seen in France or
+England.
+
+The little church of St. Maria della Spina in this town, on the banks of
+the Arno, is a charming little edifice of the Sienna type.
+
+In civil architecture Italy has much to boast of. Her palaces and
+fortresses are amongst the noblest and most picturesque buildings
+of the Middle Ages found anywhere in Europe. Most of these are
+rectangular masses of stone, the austerity of which is relieved by heavy
+window-openings with pointed heads and moulded frames, and crowned by a
+battlemented cornice, occasionally enlivened by shields placed between
+alternate corbels. The addition of the campanile, used as a lookout tower
+rather than as a belfry, generally completes an imposing structure.
+
+Of those in stone, the Palazzo Vecchio and the Bargello, in Florence,
+are among the finest of these half town-hall, half fortress buildings,
+while the Municipio of Sienna, with its immensely high campanile, may be
+mentioned as typical of those in brick. Nearly every large city possesses
+one of these tall towers, notably Verona, Cremona, Mantua, and Florence.
+In the last-named the tower of Giotto is the most highly ornamented
+and graceful of this class of structure, and for general proportions
+unsurpassed. Longfellow, in his well-known poem, regrets
+the lack of a spire to complete it, but it is questionable whether such
+an addition could have been made in keeping with the style in which it is
+designed.
+
+In France the lately restored Chateau de Pierrefonds, near Compiegne,
+illustrates, perhaps as well as any, the typical military building of the
+Gothic period, with all the usual accompanying structures. The exterior
+walls are high and massive, with round towers at the angles crowned with
+projecting battlements and conical roofs. An interior court is reached
+only by traversing a drawbridge and passing through an outer gate and
+passage defended by heavy portcullis. Around this court are grouped the
+apartments, banqueting-halls, the chapel, and the necessary quarters for
+residents and garrison.
+
+The number of remaining domestic buildings of the period is comparatively
+limited. The house of Jacques Coeur at Bourges, the monastic Hotel de
+Cluny, in Paris, the Palais de Justice, and the Hotel Bourgtheroulde,
+in Rouen, may be mentioned among the few still standing, as the best
+examples of contemporary architecture.
+
+Of small half-timbered houses there remain a fair number in France,
+though they are daily being demolished, in the principal cities, to make
+way for so-called improvements.
+
+England is rich in military and civil buildings: the castles of
+Windsor, Warwick, Kenilworth, Rochester, and the Tower of
+London, are all well known and have been frequently described. Perhaps
+the most interesting of English civil structures of the Middle Ages,
+are the colleges at Oxford; as, however, they follow, in the Gothic
+treatment, the progress of the styles, as illustrated in the contemporary
+ecclesiastical edifices, they do not require special description.
+
+The town-halls of Belgium are important Gothic buildings, and are
+found in all the principal cities of that country. Their flat façades
+are singularly rich, but as they embody only the forms and ornament
+of Gothic art, they are less interesting and poorer examples than any
+less pretentious structures showing the constructive element, which
+predominated in the Gothic style.
+
+Toward the close of the style, and before the rebirth of Classic art had
+completely superseded Gothic architecture, a curious transitional style
+had a brief sway, in which both were blended. The wing of the Chateau
+de Blois, built by Louis XII., and the Chateau de Gaillon, built by
+Cardinal Amboise, in the year 1500, the façade of which is now preserved
+in the courtyard of the Ecole des Beaux Arts, may be regarded as the
+best specimens of this charming and short-lived art. The churches of St.
+Etienne du Mont, and St. Eustache, at Paris, may be added to these as
+typical of the contemporary religious edifices.
+
+In them we see the last throes of a dying style which had
+become extravagant and distorted in its final efforts to survive, but
+retained traces of its former beauty even in its expiring moments.
+
+The Gothic style arose in the latter half of the twelfth century, it
+attained its greatest purity and simplicity in the thirteenth; during
+the fourteenth a more extensive use of ornament was introduced, in
+consequence of which it has been termed Decorated Gothic; finally, in the
+fifteenth, its principles and principal features were exaggerated and
+pushed to their utmost limits, until its brilliancy, flickering in the
+flamboyant traceries of the latest period, expired and gave place to a
+Classic revival.
+
+
+
+
+                                   XI.
+
+                            THE RENAISSANCE.
+
+
+A not uncommon error is made in applying the name Renaissance only to the
+delicately treated style of revived Classic art, such as was prevalent
+in France during the reigns of Francis the First, and his immediate
+successors.
+
+The word—derived from the verb _renaître_, signifying in French the
+rebirth (of the classics understood)—cannot, however, be confined to any
+such narrowed limits, for no new style having been substituted since, it
+is as correct a term to-day as it was in the sixteenth century. There
+is certainly a distinction between the first brilliant productions of
+the revival, and the more ponderous buildings which succeeded them, but
+Early and Late Renaissance express this satisfactorily. It did not always
+follow, however, that all the work which, from its characteristics, would
+be classified under the first head, necessarily antedated that belonging
+to the later period.
+
+In Italy, where the works of the Romans were too colossal to be utterly
+destroyed, and too conspicuous to be easily forgotten, the first movement
+naturally took place to reawaken the long dormant art, by
+which they had been produced.
+
+In the fifteenth century Orcagua built the Loggia dei Lanzi, in Florence,
+and boldly substituted round arches for the pointed ones then in vogue.
+This was the turning-point in the tide of Gothic architecture, for it
+needed but little more to induce the delighted Italians to throw off the
+yoke of an art which they had adopted but unwillingly, and which had
+never been sympathetic to their taste. Consistently with their impetuous
+nature, the change was effected without hesitation in a marvellously
+short period, and with scarcely any of the usual intervening transitional
+stages. The ancient forms reappeared and replaced the dying Gothic as
+rapidly as in the days of the French monarchy the cry “Le roi est mort.
+Vive le roi!” heralded at once the king’s death and his son’s succession
+to power.
+
+It is strange that there should have been so little to connect the
+succeeding styles, that the revival should have been so completely
+independent of and uninfluenced by a style which had been steadily
+growing for four centuries, and which men must have become accustomed
+to consider the only one suited to their times. Delicate workmanship
+was, however, the only Gothic legacy the Renaissance architects
+accepted, and this was the chief characteristic of the work of the early
+period. The proportions and scale of their buildings were small; a
+whole order: pedestal, column, and entablature generally
+occupying and marking the height of an ordinary story of fifteen or
+twenty feet, and the ornament used, while profuse, was executed in the
+lowest relief and with most minute detail.
+
+If the revolution in art was great, it had proportionately great
+exponents: Brunelleschi, Bramante, Raphael, Sangallo, Vignola, Michael
+Angelo are names as prominent in history as those of much-lauded victors
+in the battlefield.
+
+Brunelleschi, architect of the dome of St. Mary’s in Florence, was one
+of the earliest innovators. He designed the Strozzi and Pitti Palaces
+in that city, with the horizontal lines and round arches of the Classic
+school, although still retaining the feudal traditions in their massive
+stonework and in the austerity of their exteriors. The great palaces of
+Rome which belong to this period partake also of this external severity,
+and confine their brilliancy to interior display. The palaces of the
+Cancelleria by Bramante, the Palazzo Massini by Balthasar Perruzzi, of
+Sienna, the Sacchetti and Corsini Palaces by Sangallo, the Barberini
+designed by Bernini, and the Farnese Palace upon which Sangallo, Vignola,
+and Michael Angelo devoted their labors in turn, are a few among the most
+celebrated.
+
+Most of these buildings, while varying in size and in accordance with
+the character of their sites, are rectangular in plan, and enclose
+quadrangular courts, the different stories being marked by superposed
+orders and arcades. They are planned on a liberal scale,
+with broad proportions and with great deference to symmetry. The beauty
+of the plan was, in fact, one of the best features of the new style, not
+only in domestic, but in ecclesiastical architecture, for the arbitrary
+Gothic arrangements being once discarded, it became possible to combine
+the circle and straight line in many novel and beautiful ways, for which
+the older Roman buildings furnished admirable examples. The study of
+these plans forms one of the most important elements in an architect’s
+education, and their examination in these days of iron props and
+twelve-inch walls is fraught with much pleasure and profit.
+
+The light and brilliant creations of the early period are abundant in
+Northern Italy, and were models with which the French were readily
+impressed. The façade of the church in the Certosa of Pavia, with its
+elaborate detail and delicate ornament, and such buildings as the
+Spinelli Rezzonico and Vendramin palaces, the church of St. Zachariah,
+the Logetta and Library of St Mark’s of Sansovino, in Venice, and
+farther South the Palazzo Fava in Bologna, the Capella Pazzi attached
+to the older Sta. Croce in Florence, and the monument to Julius II. in
+Sta. Maria del Popolo in Rome are a few beautiful examples of the early
+treatment which has so much affinity with the works produced in France
+under the Valois.
+
+[Illustration: PLAN OF ST. PETER’S AS ORIGINALLY DESIGNED BY MICHAEL
+ANGELO.]
+
+The great Italian cathedral upon which nearly all subsequent churches
+were modelled was commenced upon the site of the old basilica of St.
+Peter’s in Rome in the year 1506, upon plans by Bramante, and occupied
+a century and a half in completion. After Bramante, Giocondo, Julian
+Sangallo, Raphael, Perruzzi, Antonio di Sangallo, Michael Angelo and
+Carlo Maderno each worked upon it in turn.
+
+Michael Angelo, who designed the dome, wished to adopt the plan of the
+Greek cross, that is, with equal arms, as shown in the accompanying plan.
+The result would have been much more monumental and would have given the
+dome its due effect within a moderate distance, while now it can only be
+properly judged from afar, and the high façade terminating the nave is
+both poor in composition and detrimental to the general conception. The
+building is essentially Classic in all its details, but differs from the
+general design of any particular Classical building. The nave is formed
+by a Corinthian arcade similar to those of ancient Rome, though on a
+vastly larger scale, supporting a tunnel-vault, which is decorated with
+sunken panels like those of the ancient Baths. The dome is supported
+on a circular drum carried on four immense piers and improves on the
+Pantheon only in size, while it is surpassed by St. Sophia in scientific
+construction.
+
+The cathedral is most richly, even gaudily, decorated within, with
+coloured marbles and mosaics and contains numerous tombs of great
+magnificence and an altar with twisted columns designed by Bernini.
+It is the largest church in the world, and yet its proportions are so
+harmoniously, or inharmoniously designed, that it does not produce
+a corresponding sense of its vastness upon the beholder. The single
+order occupying the height of two stories is a feature, the invention,
+or rather arrangement of which, is attributed to Michael Angelo. In
+subsequent buildings it was nearly always adopted in preference to the
+smaller orders marking each floor.
+
+The life of this great artist forms of itself a chapter in the history
+of architecture. Michael Buonarotti, surnamed Angelo, the most brilliant
+architect of the sixteenth century, was born of noble parentage in Arezzo
+in the year 1575. He developed extraordinary talents at an early age,
+and after outstripping his first instructor, took up his residence in
+Florence, where he studied anatomy and the human figure until he became
+the most expert draughtsman of his time. In Rome, where he was summoned
+by Julius II., he produced several fine works in statuary, but owing
+to the jealousy of Bramante was forced to quit the city and return to
+Florence. There he aided the citizens to sustain a siege during a year,
+by his superior knowledge of fortification, and subsequently went to
+Venice, where he designed the famous Rialto bridge. At the earnest
+solicitation of the pope he returned to Rome and commenced the great
+paintings in the Sistine Chapel, to which work he had been assigned by
+the counsels of Bramante, who wished to prove his inferiority to his own
+nephew Raphael. The result of the work, completed in a marvellously short
+period, however, was so successful that all Rome ran to see it.
+
+After the accession of Paul III. to the Papal see, Michael Angelo was
+definitely appointed architect of St. Peter’s and worked on the building
+during the remainder of his life, although he returned to Florence
+several times and there executed the splendid statues which adorn the
+chapel of the Medicis. In his later days he was assisted by Vignola
+in his work, but died before its completion at the advanced age of
+eighty-eight.
+
+Giacomo Barrozio, called Vignola from his birthplace near Bologna, is
+known for his great works, the chief of which are the Jesuits’ church
+in Rome and the castle of Caprarolla at Viterbo, which he built for the
+Cardinal Alexander Farnese, and also, especially to architects, for the
+rules and measurements of Classical orders which he composed from the
+buildings of Rome with the aid of the manual of Vitruvius.
+
+This work comprises the elements of design used in nearly all the
+buildings erected during the two following centuries, many of their
+elevations being simple combinations of different pages of Vignola’s
+book, which to this day is the best guide for Classical proportions and
+the architects’ A B C.
+
+The discriminator between the various architectural styles is fond
+of drawing a marked distinction between Italian, French, and German
+Renaissance, and illustrating it by views of the typical Italian palace,
+with a flat tile roof and low pediments, and the typical French house,
+with immensely high slate roofs and pretentious dormers. Although the eye
+of the practised architect can distinguish between the representative
+work of Sansovino and Philibert Delorme, and between that of Bernini and
+Claude Perrault, yet such distinctions do not form separate styles, for
+they are but unimportant differences, caused by local influences.
+
+The subject should be looked upon in a broader sense, for all these
+subdivisions tend to confuse the student and lead him to forget the
+sequence of the great historical style of which they form part.
+
+The Jacobean, Queen Anne, and kindred so-called styles in England were
+merely eccentric streams flowing out of the one main channel, which were
+scarcely worthy of distinction and certainly not of revival in our times.
+
+In France, under each reign, there was a slight difference of treatment,
+chiefly in the decoration of interiors, which permits of a classification
+most convenient to the modern upholsterer, but for our purposes it is
+sufficient to apply the two divisions—Early and Late Renaissance.
+
+The Chateaux of Blois, Chambord, and Chenonceaux in the Valley of
+the Loire, the Palaces of Fontainebleau, St. Germain en Laye, the
+Tuileries and the old Louvre in Paris are splendid examples of the
+former, and monuments worthy of the great artists, Pierre
+Lescot, Philibert Delorme, Jean Goujon, and others, who laboured upon
+them. They are illustrative of the employment of the small orders and
+ornament in low relief, which characterized the corresponding period in
+Italy, though they are generally richer and more spirited in design than
+the Italian buildings, and the soft stone which is so abundant in France
+permitted more lavish ornament upon the exteriors.
+
+The skeletons of each design, that is to say, the main architectural
+lines, stripped of elaborate detail, are much alike and can nearly all
+be brought back to the ancient method of superposing orders. This is no
+disparagement on the value of the work, for the plans of many buildings
+were excellent, and the variety of ornamental design was of a delicacy
+and imaginative beauty which has rarely been surpassed.
+
+It is questionable, indeed, whether the change which took place in the
+century of Louis XIV., in the introduction of larger proportions and
+greater severity of ornament, was so much a gain as it was considered at
+the time. To this period belong some of the great churches modelled upon
+or rather suggested by St. Peter’s in Rome: St. Paul’s in London, rebuilt
+by Christopher Wren; the Val de Grace, the joint work of Lemercier,
+Leduc, and Mansart, and the church of the Hotel des Invalides in Paris,
+also by Mansart, are among the finest of the period and style. The plan
+of the last-named church is appended as a particularly happy example
+in general arrangement and symmetrical variety, doing great credit to
+Mansart, who also built the larger portion of the celebrated Chateau de
+Versailles.
+
+The publication of Stewart and Revetts’ great work upon the antiquities
+of Athens called general attention in England to the beauty of Greek art,
+toward the close of the last century, and resulted in the erection of a
+number of buildings in imitation of Athenian monuments which were utterly
+inappropriate and unsuited to the English climate.
+
+In France architecture went through two or three fashionable phases, from
+great extravagance of design under Louis XV. to extreme simplicity under
+Louis XVI., finally relapsing under Napoleon into the servile copying
+of entire Classic buildings: a great falling off from the principle of
+the sixteenth century work, which had always been original in conception
+although borrowing detail from the antique.
+
+During the early part of this century, architecture sank to the lowest
+ebb all over the world, probably owing to the disturbing influences of
+the great Napoleonic wars. Within the last thirty years the spirited
+writings of a few enthusiasts and the liberal teachings of the French
+schools have caused a general revival, and better work is being done now
+than at any time during the century.
+
+[Illustration: PLAN OF CHURCH OF THE HOTEL DES INVALIDES AT PARIS.]
+
+Avaricious commerce and the predominance of the desire for display
+rather than quiet love of the arts are factors which stand much in the
+way of genuine progress, but it is not improbable that the spread of
+refined education will eventually succeed in planting the seeds of this
+love in the heart of the great masses, and enable architecture to resume
+its natural and elevating position in their midst.
+
+
+
+
+                                  XII.
+
+                               CONCLUSION.
+
+
+At the present stage of modern art we have the principles, broadly
+speaking, of two great styles of architecture to guide us in the design
+of the buildings which we may have to erect. These are the Classic and
+the Gothic; for we may apply the term Classic not merely to the works
+of the Greeks and Romans, but to their offshoots the Byzantine and
+Romanesque styles, the one branching Eastward and the other Westward,
+altered in many respects, but founded on the older systems; and we have
+seen that the Renaissance was but a revival of the same methods and forms.
+
+In each of these styles the best result has always been attained where
+the constructional element has been held to be as important as the
+decorative, where the essential and useful have not been subservient to
+considerations of ornament or display. In Classic work much has been done
+that is unworthy, in the senseless repetition of columns and pilasters
+which support nothing, in decoration which serves only to conceal
+ill-adjusted architectural lines; and the same is equally
+true of degenerate Gothic, in which whole walls have been covered with
+meaningless panels, and massive buttresses built up to receive no strain.
+
+Nevertheless, by following only what is good in the principles of each,
+and by avoiding the errors which experience has enabled us to perceive,
+especially those which have engrafted themselves upon us by bigoted
+custom, we can not only produce fine work but assist in the advance of
+architecture.
+
+Before deciding upon what style to employ in the composition of an
+edifice, it is well to first consider thoroughly the programme of what is
+wanted in its plan, and then the special character with which we desire
+to invest it both exteriorly and interiorly. It is scarcely necessary to
+add that both should be intimately connected.
+
+We have seen that the best period of Gothic art was that wherein the
+whole structure was raised on a theory of weights and strains thrown
+from vault to pier, and pier to buttress; it is, therefore, absurd, when
+a building occupies a space between the party-walls of modern street
+lots, to attempt an interior construction having the appearance of
+corresponding with buttresses and similar contrivances for which there is
+no room on the outside.
+
+If, therefore, we choose Gothic for our style, let us follow no false
+theory, but work on the principles demonstrated in its innumerable
+examples, in which it may be possible to find room for further
+development, introducing no feature of construction which has not a full
+and consistent meaning.
+
+One can scarcely go the lengths to which many venture, in saying that
+Gothic architecture is suited only to ecclesiastical buildings, for
+there are many splendid military and civil structures, from the keeps
+and castles of England and France, to the town-halls of Belgium. But
+there is this much to be said in their favour, that while the laws of
+fortification and domestic life have altered entirely since the Middle
+Ages, on the one hand, those governing the observances of religion have
+remained unchanged and no manner of building is so essentially religious
+in its character or better calculated to command the reverence and awe of
+the devotee, on the other.
+
+In support of this view many will agree in admitting that there is
+nothing of this religious sentiment expressed in the Corinthian
+colonnades of St. Peter’s, or, in fact, in any of the great number of
+Renaissance churches which are scattered throughout the cities of Europe,
+while it never fails to exercise its influence upon anyone entering the
+great Gothic cathedrals.
+
+The great prevailing thought of Mediæval times was a religious one, and
+we see it reflected in the minutest details of the lives of the people
+of that age; it was, consequently, but natural that it should attain its
+highest expression when they filled their churches with the best that
+could be produced in architecture, sculpture, and painting. While the
+Classic orders seem out of place in a temple of Christian worship they
+are appropriate in civil buildings, and we have no better examples for
+beauty of proportion. They are the result of the thought and taste of
+generations of architects and have stood the test of time, for they are
+as pleasing to-day as in the days of ancient Greece and Rome.
+
+It is their proportion rather than their component parts which we should
+follow, for a column, unless needed as a support, is a questionable
+decoration, and pilasters or engaged columns are only desirable where
+additional thickness of wall is required, used as the Gothic architect
+would have used buttresses, and never as mere ornaments, which are
+at once a fraudulent delusion and a retrogression in the progress of
+architecture.
+
+A multiplicity of columns and entablatures does not make perfect
+architecture, but great leading lines, good proportion, clear detail, and
+appropriate ornament.
+
+The guiding rule is to do nothing which has not intrinsic merit. It
+is better to have an absolutely plain wall than one covered with poor
+decoration; far better to have no cornice at all than a galvanized iron
+one, painted to look like stone.
+
+The true definition of architecture is “ornamental construction.” It
+is not a utilitarian science, because if so there would be no _raison
+d’être_ for beauty of design, for mere shelter and commodious arrangement
+could as well be provided by the engineer as by the architect. The art
+of the architect lies in the composition of buildings at once suited
+to their purpose and beautiful to the eye; and as such his art is one
+that can progress, not through a series of changing fashions which grow
+wearisome before they have lasted a decade, but step by step, according
+to the example of the great periods of the past.
+
+This example teaches us never to copy slavishly, but to imitate old
+examples only so far as they may suit modern needs, in principle rather
+than in detail, and to eschew the reproduction of defects, however
+picturesque, so that architecture may be a living art instead of the
+mummified representation of archæological researches.
+
+In pursuing the study of so vast and splendid an art we should do so with
+some feeling of reverence for its dignity, not looking upon it as a mere
+money-making trade, for the greatest architects the world has known have
+been satisfied in being only worshippers at a great shrine. Reverence
+is a sentiment slightly regarded in an age when delicacy of feeling in
+such matters is often held up as a butt for the jests and derision of the
+vulgar, and the dignity of the art has little foothold when it has become
+a custom for the vendor of cheap furniture to style his shop an “Art
+Repository,” and the founder of cast-iron abortions to call his factory
+“The Art Metal Works.”
+
+Nevertheless all of our work must reflect something of our inner
+thoughts, and if we do not place them upon a high plane it is not
+possible for their reflection to contain what is noble and true. We
+cannot become artists in the true sense of the word without loving and
+reverencing the beauty and principles which have made the art so great a
+one.
+
+It is the custom among certain people to sneer at sentiment, and call for
+practical art; but the most practical art is essentially the product of
+thoughtful sentiments.
+
+As an illustration, let us compare the Laocoön, of sculpture; the Halls
+of Karnak, of architecture; the Dead March, of music; the “Descent from
+the Cross,” of painting, with the “Dancing Faun,” the arabesques of the
+Renaissance, the waltzes of Chopin, and the gay feasts depicted by Paolo
+Veronese, and the contrast shows us that each branch of an universal art
+expresses the opposite feelings of gravity or tragedy, of joy or comedy,
+each in its separate manner.
+
+In designing, questions arise every moment which can only be decided by
+an innate sentiment of what is good and appropriate. There are no fixed
+laws governing the height of a spire or the projection of a moulding;
+they are matters which depend upon correct feeling, or, in other words,
+upon educated taste.
+
+If it were not so, art would become a mechanical science, and could no
+longer be called by that name. Emotion has no place in mechanics, but it
+has great influence in the arts. We know the Greeks were an emotional
+race, and it is said that Michael Angelo wept before a beautiful statue
+or painting; and the works of the people and of the individual were
+proportionate to the depth of their feelings, and have perhaps never been
+excelled.
+
+Let us, therefore, commence this study—for the omega of this book is but
+the alpha of architecture—despising none of its delicate subtleties, and
+endeavour to grasp its principles, in the hope of doing our share in its
+further advance, laying aside the petty gratification of our vanity in a
+genuine affection for our art.
+
+
+                                 THE END
+
+
+
+
+  TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE
+
+
+  Illustrations in this eBook have been positioned between paragraphs
+  and outside quotations. In versions of this eBook that support
+  hyperlinks, the page references in the List of Illustrations lead to
+  the corresponding illustrations.
+
+  The index was not checked for proper alphabetization or correct page
+  references.
+
+  Obvious typographical errors and punctuation errors have been corrected
+  after careful comparison with other occurrences within the text and
+  consultation of external sources.
+
+  Some hyphens in words have been silently removed, some added, when a
+  predominant preference was found in the original book.
+
+  Except for those changes noted below, all misspellings in the text, and
+  inconsistent or archaic usage, have been retained.
+
+  Page
+  21: “tenemos” replaced by “temenos”.
+  31: “Chilambaram” replaced by “Chidambaram”.
+  32: “baldaquins” replaced by “baldachins”.
+  40: “ababaster” replaced by “alabaster”.
+  111: “Adb-el-Rhaman” replaced by “Abd-el-Rhaman”.
+  119: “continuons” replaced by “continuous”.
+  126: “weer” replaced by “were”.
+
+
+
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 76489 ***
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+</head>
+<body>
+<div style='text-align:center'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 76489 ***</div>
+
+
+<div class="transnote">
+<strong>TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE</strong>
+<p class="noindent">Footnote anchors are denoted by <span class="fnanchor">[number]</span>, and the footnotes have been
+placed at the end of the paragraph.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent">Some minor changes to the text are noted at the <a href="#END_NOTE">end of the book</a>.
+</p>
+</div>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"><div class="chapter"></div>
+<figure class="figcenter illowp60" id="cover" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/cover.jpg" alt="Book Cover">
+</figure>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"><div class="chapter"></div>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp60" id="frontis" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/frontis.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      ST. TROPHYME AT ARLES.
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"><div class="chapter"></div>
+
+
+<h1>
+<br>
+<span class="lspp5">A SHORT HISTORY</span><br>
+<br>
+<span class="fs50">OF</span><br>
+<br>
+<span class="fs150 lsp1">ARCHITECTURE</span><br>
+</h1>
+<p class="center p2 wsp lspp5">
+<span class="fs60">BY</span><br>
+ARTHUR LYMAN TUCKERMAN<br>
+</p>
+<p class="center fs60 p4 pb4 wsp lspp5">
+<i>WITH ILLUSTRATIONS BY THE AUTHOR</i><br>
+</p>
+<figure class="figcenter illowp30" id="tp" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/tp.jpg" alt="Drawing of carving of winged hourse with human head">
+</figure>
+
+
+<p class="wsp lsp1 center pspaced p2">
+<span class="fs75">NEW YORK</span><br>
+CHARLES SCRIBNER’S SONS<br>
+<span class="fs75">1897</span>
+</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"><div class="chapter"></div>
+
+
+<p class="center fs75 p4 pb6">
+<span class="smcap fs75">Copyright, 1887, by</span><br><br>
+<span class="wsp fs110">CHARLES SCRIBNER’S SONS</span><br>
+</p><p class="center fs50 p4 pb4">
+TROW’S<br>
+PRINTING AND BOOKBINDING COMPANY,<br>
+NEW YORK.
+</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"><div class="chapter"></div>
+
+<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poetry">
+<div class="stanza"><div class="verse indent18">“To build, to build!</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">That is the noblest art of all the arts.</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">Painting and Sculpture are but images,</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">Are merely shadows cast by outward things</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">On stone or canvas, having in themselves</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">No separate existence. Architecture,</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">Existing in itself, and not in seeming</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">A something it is not, surpasses them</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">As substance shadow.”</div></div>
+
+<p class="right">
+—<span class="smcap">Longfellow</span>, in <cite>Michael Angelo</cite>.
+</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"><div class="chapter"><p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_v">[Pg v]</span></p>
+
+
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="PREFACE">PREFACE.</h2></div>
+
+<hr class="r15">
+
+<p class="drop-cap">I <span class="frstwrd">have</span> written this short history of architecture
+to meet the requirements of those who
+wish to become acquainted with the main facts
+without having to read voluminous works, many of
+which are addressed, not to the student, but to the
+connoisseur, who is presumed at the start to have a
+knowledge of the subject sufficient to enable him to
+comprehend critical and theoretical essays.</p>
+
+<p>The plan I have adopted has been to trace the
+origin of each style, its characteristic points and its
+connection with those which preceded and succeeded
+it, without introducing technical terms or any but
+the most important dates.</p>
+
+<p>There is a temptation to enter into the social and
+political histories of each building race, but brevity
+forbids this, as well as any of the gushing descriptions
+usually found in modern handbooks on art.</p>
+
+<p>I imagine that very few people have the time to
+read lengthy treatises on architecture, but that there
+are many who would be glad to know the chief historical
+facts, were these to be presented within a
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_vi">[vi]</span>small compass. I hope, therefore, that this volume
+may be of interest to the general reader and may
+find its way to schools other than those which make
+art matters their specialty, for it seems to me that
+if the average schoolboy were taught as much about
+the history of the most useful and beautiful of the
+creations of the people of each age, as about the
+manner and quantity of warfare and slaughter in
+which they indulged, he would obtain as valuable a
+quality of information.</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+<span class="smcap">Art Schools of the Metropolitan Museum.</span><br>
+<span style="margin-left: 6.5em;">March, 1887</span>
+</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"><div class="chapter"><p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_vii">[vii]</span></p>
+
+
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="LIST_OF_PLATES">LIST OF PLATES.</h2></div>
+<hr class="r15">
+
+
+
+<table class="toc wd80">
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"><p class="hang1 nm"><span class="smcap">St. Trophyme at Arles</span>,</p></td>
+<td class="tdrb"><i>Frontispiece</i>.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr fs50 lsp1 wsp" colspan="2">FACING PAGE</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"><p class="hang1 nm"><span class="smcap">The Greek Orders</span>,</p></td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#facing056">56</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"><p class="hang1 nm"><span class="smcap">Plan of the Temple of Theseus at Athens</span>,</p></td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#facing062">62</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"><p class="hang1 nm"><span class="smcap">The Roman Orders</span>,</p></td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#facing070-71">70</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"><p class="hang1 nm"><span class="smcap">Palace of Diocletian at Spalatro</span>,</p></td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#facing073">73</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"><p class="hang1 nm"><span class="smcap">Plan of the Pantheon at Rome</span>,</p></td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#facing074">74</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"><p class="hang1 nm"><span class="smcap">Plan of The Baths of Agrippa</span>,</p></td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#facing075">75</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"><p class="hang1 nm"><span class="smcap">Plan of the Temple of the Sun at Baalbek</span>,</p></td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#facing076">76</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"><p class="hang1 nm"><span class="smcap">Plan of the Old Basilica of St. Paul’s
+ Beyond the Walls</span>,</p></td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#facing089">89</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"><p class="hang1 nm"><span class="smcap">St. Vitale, of Ravenna</span>,</p></td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#facing092">92</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"><p class="hang1 nm"><span class="smcap">The Temple of Minerva Medica</span>,</p></td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#facing093">93</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"><p class="hang1 nm"><span class="smcap">The Temple of Vesta, sometimes
+ Called the Temple of Hercules</span>,</p></td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#facing094_1">94</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"><p class="hang1 nm"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_viii">[viii]</span>
+ <span class="smcap">The Baptistery of Constantine</span>,</p></td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#facing094_2">94</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"><p class="hang1 nm"><span class="smcap">The Pendentive System in Byzantine Domes</span>,</p></td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#facing097">97</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"><p class="hang1 nm"><span class="smcap">Church of Sergius and Bacchus at Constantinople</span>,</p></td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#facing098">98</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"><p class="hang1 nm"><span class="smcap">Plan of St. Sophia, Constantinople</span>,</p></td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#facing099">99</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"><p class="hang1 nm"><span class="smcap">Romanesque Construction</span>,</p></td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#facing121">121</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"><p class="hang1 nm"><span class="smcap">Comparative Series, showing Greek,
+ Roman, Romanesque, and Gothic Methods of Support</span>,</p></td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#facing124">124</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"><p class="hang1 nm"><span class="smcap">Plan of Strasbourg Cathedral</span>,</p></td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#facing128">128</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"><p class="hang1 nm"><span class="smcap">Chevet of Notre Dame du Port at Clermont</span>,</p></td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#facing130">130</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"><p class="hang1 nm"><span class="smcap">Plan of Rheims Cathedral</span>,</p></td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#facing134">134</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"><p class="hang1 nm"><span class="smcap">Plan of an English Cathedral</span>,</p></td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#facing136">136</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"><p class="hang1 nm"><span class="smcap">Plan of St. Peter’s as Originally
+Designed by Michael Angelo</span>,</p></td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#facing155">155</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"><p class="hang1 nm"><span class="smcap">Plan of Church of the Hotel
+ des Invalides at Paris</span>,</p></td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#facing160">160</a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"><div class="chapter"><p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_ix">[ix]</span></p>
+
+
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CONTENTS">CONTENTS.</h2></div>
+
+<hr class="r15">
+
+
+<table class="toc wd80">
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr fs50 lsp1 wsp" colspan="3">PAGE</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Introduction</span>,</td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#INTRODUCTION">1</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrt wd1p5e">I.</td>
+<td class="tdl"><p class="hang1 nm">—<span class="smcap">Celtic or Druidical Remains</span>,</p></td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#I">5</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrt">II.</td>
+<td class="tdl"><p class="hang1 nm">—<span class="smcap">The Monuments of Egypt</span>,</p></td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#II">10</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrt">III.</td>
+<td class="tdl"><p class="hang1 nm">—<span class="smcap">Asiatic Architecture</span>,</p></td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#III">30</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrt">IV.</td>
+<td class="tdl"><p class="hang1 nm">—<span class="smcap">Greece</span>,</p></td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#IV">52</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrt">V.</td>
+<td class="tdl"><p class="hang1 nm">—<span class="smcap">Etruria and Rome</span>,</p></td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#V">68</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrt">VI.</td>
+<td class="tdl"><p class="hang1 nm">—<span class="smcap">The Early Christian Style</span>,</p></td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#VI">88</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrt">VII.</td>
+<td class="tdl"><p class="hang1 nm">—<span class="smcap">The Byzantine Style</span>,</p></td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#VII">95</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrt">VIII.</td>
+<td class="tdl"><p class="hang1 nm">—<span class="smcap">Mahometan Architecture</span>,</p></td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#VIII">105</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrt">IX.</td>
+<td class="tdl"><p class="hang1 nm">—<span class="smcap">The Romanesque Style</span>,</p></td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#IX">115</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrt">X.</td>
+<td class="tdl"><p class="hang1 nm">—<span class="smcap">Gothic Architecture</span>,</p></td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#X">132</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrt">XI.</td>
+<td class="tdl"><p class="hang1 nm">—<span class="smcap">The Renaissance</span>,</p></td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#XI">151</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrt">XII.</td>
+<td class="tdl"><p class="hang1 nm">—<span class="smcap">Conclusion</span>,</p></td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#XII">162</a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"><div class="chapter"><p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1">[1]</span></p>
+
+
+
+<p class="center lsp1 wsp fs120 p6" id="A_SHORT">A SHORT<br>
+<br>
+<span class="fs150">HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.</span></p></div>
+
+<hr class="r15">
+<h2 class="nobreak p1" id="INTRODUCTION"><span class="fs60 lsp2">INTRODUCTION.</span></h2>
+
+
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="frstwrd">Architecture</span> is an art combining the
+qualities of utility and beauty. Its object
+is, and has been from its origin, to satisfy both the
+necessities and tastes of the various building races.</p>
+
+<p>For this purpose the two distinct, and yet closely
+related, sciences of construction and decoration have
+been employed, and the history of the progress
+which has been made in each, goes hand in hand
+with the history of each age and each race.</p>
+
+<p>The requirements of the inhabitants of every
+country have always been defined by its character
+and climate, and, in order to satisfy these requirements,
+the art has adapted itself to them and grown
+up and expanded in the different fields in which it
+has been directed.</p>
+
+<p>It is customary to explain the origin of the art of
+building somewhat as follows: The first impulse of
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_2">[2]</span>the barbarian, in whatever part of the globe he may
+be born, is to seek a shelter from the varying temperature
+of night and day. If he lives in the mountains,
+he chooses the caves and clefts in the rocks
+for his habitation; if on the plain, he follows the
+example of the animals and hollows out a retreat in
+the ground where he may seek warmth and protection.
+Where the soil is rocky, he gathers branches
+and moss, and piles them in such a manner as to
+form a rude dwelling. Soon after, he perceives
+the inconvenience of these untrimmed boughs, and
+remedies the discomfort by driving four straight
+posts into the ground, and roofing them over with
+cross-pieces, inclined so as to shed the rain.</p>
+
+<p>This is the first semblance of a thoughtful construction,
+and the improvements upon it gradually
+develop into the more studied forms of architecture.</p>
+
+<p>When the first requisite of shelter has been obtained,
+the early builder cuts off the rough edges
+and carves upon the posts rude emblems of the
+natural objects he sees about him, and in doing this
+takes the first step in design and decoration.</p>
+
+<p>When wood is not abundant, he seeks a similar
+result in stone, and the treatment of each material
+gives rise to distinct principles of construction.</p>
+
+<p>The Greeks, who had marble-quarries of easy access,
+bridged over their posts or columns with
+straight lintels, capable of supporting the weight
+of the roof without danger of fracture. The Romans,
+who found their travertine difficult to handle,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_3">[3]</span>built their baths and palaces of brick, and, in
+seeking to connect their pillars and piers, adopted
+the round arch as a means of effecting this end, and
+this round arch was the main principle of Roman
+architecture. When, in due time, the pointed arch
+was found to combine great strength and beauty,
+this new method of building became the leading
+principle of Gothic art. So, according to each necessity,
+the different styles of architecture arose.</p>
+
+<p>When civilization increases the requirements of
+man, it is no longer possible to begin a rude construction,
+and alter it afterward to suit these needs;
+therefore it becomes necessary to consider beforehand
+all the elements required, and, in order to facilitate
+this consideration, drawing comes in as a simple
+means of placing before one all that enters into the
+proposed building.</p>
+
+<p>Therefore, in the study of architecture four divisions
+of the art must be considered, namely: The
+construction of buildings with various materials, the
+appropriate proportions of the same, their representation
+by draughtsmanship and their history in various
+times and among various peoples.</p>
+
+<p>It will be readily understood that each of these
+divisions embraces a wide scope individually, and
+yet no one can be separated from the others without
+affecting the result as a whole.</p>
+
+<p>It is proposed, therefore, to review briefly the history
+of this art, and the causes which have affected
+it, in order that, knowing the reasons which led to
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_4">[4]</span>the formation of each style, the student may follow
+its study with the practical understanding and logical
+inference which lead to the best results.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2">The question of which country furnished the first
+or earliest period of approach to civilization in the
+building of monuments or habitations has been,
+and is likely to be, an open one for some time to
+come.</p>
+
+<p>Speculative discussion on this point can serve no
+end of importance to architects; it interests more
+especially the historian and antiquarian. Consequently
+we will, for the sake of convenience, glance
+over the periods of architecture in the following
+order:</p>
+
+<ul>
+
+<li>1. Celtic or Druidical remains.</li>
+<li>2. The Monuments of Egypt.</li>
+<li>3. Asiatic architecture.</li>
+<li>4. Greece.</li>
+<li>5. Etruria and Rome.</li>
+<li>6. The Early Christian style.</li>
+<li>7. The Byzantine style.</li>
+<li>8. Mahometan architecture.</li>
+<li>9. The Romanesque style.</li>
+<li>10. Gothic architecture.</li>
+<li>11. The Renaissance.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"><div class="chapter"><p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_5">[5]</span></p>
+
+
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="I">I.
+<br><br>
+CELTIC OR DRUIDICAL REMAINS.</h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="frstwrd">The</span> Celtic race has left enduring marks of its
+power in the numerous monuments which are
+found in various parts of Great Britain, France,
+Germany, and Spain, and scattered through adjacent
+countries.</p>
+
+<p>These consist of collections of huge uncarved
+boulders, arranged in geometrical lines, and often
+found in the centre of vast plains, far removed from
+quarry or mountain-side.</p>
+
+<p>The more common forms are called “menhirs
+or peulvans,” signifying in Celtic “long stones.”
+These are either found separately or ranged in long
+parallel lines.</p>
+
+<p>The most remarkable examples are at Carnac, in
+Brittany, where there are twelve hundred of these
+huge stones, varying from three to eighteen feet in
+height, ranged in eleven rows, leading to a semicircular
+enclosure.</p>
+
+<p>What purpose they served, and whether of
+a religious or civil character, has not been conclusively
+determined. Some consider that they
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_6">[6]</span>served to mark the burial-spot of the Druids;
+others that they were landmarks or emblems of
+victory.</p>
+
+<p>To another class belong the so-called Rocking
+Stones, which consist of two immense blocks of
+rock, placed one upon the other, and either balanced
+so exactly that the slightest touch will suffice to
+shake them, or pivoted so as to revolve. There are
+examples at Tenanville, near Cherbourg, in the
+north of France, and in Sussex, England. One of
+these, called the “Great upon Little,” is estimated
+to weigh a million pounds.</p>
+
+<p>Batissier considers them to have been erected by
+the priests, either to strike terror and wonder into
+the hearts of the people, whom they sought to
+hold in subjection, or as emblems of the world suspended
+in the air. We know that they have existed
+from remote ages, as mention is made of their
+antiquity by Pliny and Ptolemy.</p>
+
+<p>Trilitha, or lichavens, are formed with three
+stones, two vertical and one horizontal resting upon
+the others, in the shape of a rude gateway.
+This is what they were probably intended for,
+though it has been suggested that they were used
+for altars. Similar to these are the dolmens, or
+table-stones, consisting of one large flat boulder
+supported by several smaller ones. Their upper
+surfaces, as a rule, have channels cut in them,
+which are generally believed to have been receptacles
+for the blood of victims sacrificed upon them,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_7">[7]</span>and some are even hollowed out in the shape of
+the human body.</p>
+
+<p>The Merchants’ Tables, at Lochmariaker, are the
+most noted among the many that still exist.</p>
+
+<p>From fragments of skeletons usually found in the
+vicinity of dolmens, it has been imagined that either
+the priests or their human offerings were buried
+there as upon consecrated ground.</p>
+
+<p>There are several instances where these dolmens
+form covered ways or avenues, being placed one
+beside another in continuous line, and generally
+surrounded by a plantation of trees. They are frequently
+divided by blocks of stone into several
+compartments, and, like the tumuli or barrows,
+were probably used as places of interment for the
+dead.</p>
+
+<p>The most interesting, perhaps, of any of these
+groups of stones are the “cromlechs”: enclosures
+formed of numerous boulders, arranged either in
+elliptic rows or in concentric circles, with a large
+monolith in the central point. Each circle is composed
+of a definite number of “menhirs,” and the
+whole is usually surrounded by a ditch.</p>
+
+<p>It is supposed that each stone represented a minor
+deity, and the central one the chief of the gods.
+Their purpose apparently was to mark the place of
+large assemblies, called together for the administration
+of civil, military, and religious rites.</p>
+
+<p>The cromlech of Stonehenge in Wiltshire is the
+most celebrated and one of the largest known. The
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_8">[8]</span>country folk call it the Cor-Gaur, or dance of giants,
+and attribute its formation to the magic of the famous
+enchanter, Merlin. It is composed of two
+circular and two elliptic enclosures, the one within
+the other, and is several hundred feet in circumference.</p>
+
+<p>In none of these Celtic monuments is there anything
+which may be called strictly architectural,
+but some of them illustrate a principle of building
+which is of importance to note. To place a row of
+stones in upright positions denotes no special phase
+of intelligent thought, beyond a desire to permanently
+mark some interesting locality, but when the
+ancient race which raised these massive rocks conceived
+the idea of supporting one block upon a number
+of smaller ones, it had reached a first principle
+of construction, destined to be employed for many
+centuries afterward in some of the finest buildings.
+After the trilithon came the table-stones, and from
+these it was but a step to the covered alleys, which
+were in themselves a first conception of a rude habitation,
+walled in and roofed over. There can be
+nothing more elementary than this, and no simpler
+constructional expedient, in whatever country it may
+first have been evolved. We do not know the precise
+date of Celtic monuments, nor is it probable
+that they are as ancient as the Egyptian pyramids,
+but as in any case they illustrate the transition from
+brutal ignorance to an era of thought, we may place
+them at the commencement of our chronological list.
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">[9]</span>In the various themes and discussions advanced by
+archæologists, and the strange legends and tales of
+the peasantry with regard to them, we have no concern.
+It is sufficient for us to know that they exist
+and afford us an insight into the dawning efforts of
+a barbaric people to progress in the art which we
+propose to study.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"><div class="chapter"><p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">[10]</span></p>
+
+
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="II">II.
+<br><br>
+THE MONUMENTS OF EGYPT.</h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="frstwrd">The</span> history of Egypt is divided into five periods,
+from the earliest ages down to its conquest
+by the Romans at the beginning of the
+Christian era. The first period comprises the first
+fourteen dynasties of ancient kings, among whom
+the most important are: Menes, founder of Memphis,
+Shoofoo or Cheops, Shafra or Chephren, and Mycerinus,
+builders of the pyramids of Gizeh, and the
+two Theban monarchs, Osirtasen I. and Amenemha
+III., by whom the tombs at Beni Hassan, the Labyrinth
+and Lake Moeris were constructed. According
+to Bunsen these fourteen dynasties date from 3623
+to 2547 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span></p>
+
+<p>The second period is marked by the invasion of
+the Hyksos, or Shepherd Kings, of whom there were
+three dynasties. They remained in power until
+1625 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> and were a warlike and destructive race,
+leaving no permanent traces of their occupation.</p>
+
+<p>The third period is the most brilliant in Egyptian
+history, extending from 1625 to 525 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, and comprising
+nine dynasties of great conquerors and builders.
+The best known of these are: Amosis, Thothmes
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">[11]</span>III., Sethi I., Rameses II. (the Great), called
+also Sesostris, and Rameses III. Under these kings
+the great temples of Luxor, Abydus, and Karnak
+were erected and the arts were assiduously cultivated.</p>
+
+<p>The Persians under Cambyses occupied the country
+in the year 525 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> They were expelled a century
+later, but were again victorious in 340 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, and
+remained in possession until the conquest of Alexander
+the Great in 332. This fourth period was as
+unproductive in works of art as had been that of the
+Hyksos dominion.</p>
+
+<p>After Alexander, the Ptolemys ruled until the
+close of the first century before Christ. Their
+government promoted the cultivation of the arts
+and industries and formed the fifth and last period
+in the history of ancient Egypt as an independent
+state.</p>
+
+<p>Of these five epochs there are, therefore, only three—namely,
+the first, third, and fifth—during which
+architecture flourished, and these three in reality
+form but one long period in the history of an art
+which remained almost unaltered, scarcely either
+improving or receding, from the remotest times to
+its last day.</p>
+
+<p>Our knowledge of ancient Egypt has been chiefly
+derived from bass-reliefs, mural paintings and hieroglyphics.
+The latter were unintelligible until the
+discovery of the Rosetta stone by the French consul
+Champollion, in 1798. This was part of a
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">[12]</span>stone tablet bearing three inscriptions, one in hieroglyphics,
+one in the Cursive letters used by the
+lower classes, and the third in Greek. By means of
+this the old alphabet was reconstructed and all the
+ancient inscriptions deciphered.</p>
+
+
+<h3><i>TOMBS</i>.</h3>
+
+<p>The most important monuments of the first period
+are the pyramids, the oldest of which were
+built between three and four thousand years before
+Christ.</p>
+
+<p>There remain about a hundred of these in the
+vicinity of the ancient city of Memphis, extending
+over a considerable extent of country, and others are
+found in Thebes and at Meroë in Ethiopia. There
+have been many theories advanced upon the subject
+of their origin and purpose, and many arguments set
+forth seeking to prove that they were observatories,
+temples, granaries, meteorological monuments, or
+tombs. Nearly all modern authorities agree upon
+the last as the most probable solution of the problem,
+not only from the sarcophagi and mummies
+found within many of them, and from inscriptions
+relating events in the lives of important personages
+which adorn the walls of some of their inner chambers,
+but from the fact that these buildings are never
+found beyond the confines of cemeteries.</p>
+
+<p>In erecting these monuments, the Egyptians usually
+selected a site upon a rocky plateau, on which
+a space equal to the superficial area required for
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_13">[13]</span>the base was made level, a mound being left in
+the centre which was bonded in with the masonry.
+Below this platform a sepulchral chamber and connecting
+passage were hollowed in the rock. The
+pyramid was built over this chamber and contained
+one or more additional apartments, reached from the
+outside by narrow and inclined corridors. It was
+generally constructed with blocks of limestone, in
+successive steps receding at an angle varying from
+forty-five to seventy degrees. The outside was afterward
+cased with slabs of polished syenite, upon
+which inscriptions were engraved or painted. The
+interior chambers and corridors were likewise lined
+with polished granite, sometimes so mathematically
+jointed that a needle could not be pushed between
+the stones. Ceilings were formed by inclined slabs
+resting against each other or the walls were corbelled
+inward until they met.</p>
+
+<p>The entrances to the passages were invariably
+closed and concealed, and portcullises of heavy
+granite blocks, sliding in grooves, were placed at intervals
+along the corridors, the more effectually to
+preserve the sepulchre from violation. Nearly all
+have, nevertheless, been entered and rifled, so that
+but little is left to aid the archæologist in his researches.
+Fragmentary inscriptions and local observations
+compared with the accounts given by
+Greek and Latin authors have, however, resulted in
+the piecing together of what may be presumed to
+be an accurate history of the pyramid-builders.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_14">[14]</span></p>
+<p>The three largest pyramids are situated at Gizeh,
+a small village near Cairo, and are respectively
+those of Cheops, known also as Suphis or Shoofoo,
+Chephren or Shafra, and Mycerinus.</p>
+
+<p>The following table shows the dimensions given
+by two of the best authorities:</p>
+
+<table class="autotable">
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc"></td>
+<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Side of Base.</span></td>
+<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Perpendicular Height.</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc"></td>
+<td class="tdc">Sir G. Wilkinson.</td>
+<td class="tdc">Col. H. Vyse.</td>
+<td class="tdc">Sir G. Wilkinson.</td>
+<td class="tdc">Col. H. Vyse.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Cheops</td>
+<td class="tdc">756′   &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="tdc">764′   &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="tdc">480′ 9″</td>
+<td class="tdc">480′ 9″</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Chephren</td>
+<td class="tdc"></td>
+<td class="tdc">707′ 9″</td>
+<td class="tdc">453′ &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;   </td>
+<td class="tdc">454′ 3″</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Mycerinus</td>
+<td class="tdc"></td>
+<td class="tdc">364′ 6″</td>
+<td class="tdl"></td>
+<td class="tdc">208′&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;    </td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>All of these are oriented and the entrances are
+all on the North sides. This is a rule applicable to
+all the pyramids except that of Sakkarah, which is
+placed without reference to the points of the compass
+and was probably erected at a much later
+date.</p>
+
+<p>The first or Great Pyramid contains one subterranean
+chamber, reached by a passage some three hundred
+feet long, and two other apartments above the
+level of the ground, the one above the other, called
+the King’s and Queen’s sepulchres. The entrance
+to the connecting corridors is placed 45 feet above
+the ground and 23 feet away from the true centre
+in order to deceive explorers. The Queen’s Chamber
+is about 18 feet square by 20 feet in height,
+and is placed directly under the apex of the pyramid.
+It is 67 feet above the ground, and 71 feet
+below the King’s Chamber. The passage leading
+to the latter is 28 feet high, formed by corbelled
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_15">[15]</span>walls. This chamber is roofed by a flat ceiling and
+measures 34 feet in length by 17 in breadth, and is
+19 feet high. The walls and ceiling are built of
+finely polished granite, and the apartment contains
+a sarcophagus of the same material. The weight
+of the superincumbent masonry is relieved by five
+other compartments placed over the chamber, four
+of which are covered by flat slabs, and the fifth by
+inclined stones resting against each other. It was
+in this highest compartment that some hieroglyphics
+scrawled in red ochre on the walls were discovered,
+by means of which the name Shoofoo became known.
+Herodotus says that one hundred thousand men
+were employed during twenty years in building the
+Great Pyramid, after they had devoted ten years,
+previous to its erection, to the construction of a
+causeway to the Nile, over which the stone was carried,
+which had been brought down the river from
+the Arabian hills.</p>
+
+<p>Diodorus asserts that the number of workmen
+employed was upward of three hundred and sixty
+thousand.</p>
+
+<p>The second pyramid contains two chambers, the
+most important of which is on the ground level,
+partly sunk in the rock. Its dimensions are 46 feet
+long by 16 in width, and 22 feet high. Within it
+a granite sarcophagus was found, containing the
+bones of an ox. This discovery gave rise to much
+speculation, as to whether the pyramids were not
+originally intended for the sepulchres of the animal
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_16">[16]</span>deities worshipped by the Egyptians, the bull Apis
+in particular. The third pyramid was covered by
+a casing of polished red granite, formed of blocks
+with bevelled edges. There are several chambers
+inside, one of which contained a mummy and case,
+now transferred to the British Museum.</p>
+
+<p>Near the pyramid of Cheops, on the same plateau,
+is the Sphinx. This great statue, with a human
+head and the body of a lion, is carved in the natural
+rock, deficiencies being made up by added masonry.
+Its dimensions are colossal, the body being 140 feet
+long, and the face 30 feet high by 14 feet in breadth.
+This mysterious creation was intended as the representation
+of a god, and as such had sacrifices offered
+before it, as the altars and temples erected beneath
+it attest. From inscriptions upon a stone found
+near by, it is known that the Sphinx was called
+Hor-em-khoo, “The Sun in his Resting-place.” The
+head was originally surmounted by a royal helmet,
+the face had a beard, fragments of which have been
+unearthed, and it is otherwise badly mutilated.
+This fanciful creature has doubtless much affinity
+with the winged bulls and lions of the Assyrian
+epoch.</p>
+
+<p>The Egyptians also buried their dead in smaller
+tombs, in subterranean vaults, and in catacombs excavated
+in the rock of mountainous regions. A
+great number of these smaller tombs were built
+in the vicinity of ancient Memphis and are now
+commonly called “mastabahs.” In arrangement
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">[17]</span>they were nearly all similar, the sepulchre consisting
+of three parts: a temple overground, a pit or
+well, and a subterranean chamber. The temple was
+in the shape of a frustum of a pyramid, the walls inclining
+inward at an angle of seventy degrees. It
+contained one or several apartments, used as places
+of assembly for the relatives and friends of the
+deceased, who came at stated intervals to hold
+services and to bring offerings of a suitable character.
+A list of these occasions was placed over
+the entrance, and on a second tablet or stella, inside,
+the name, titles, and virtues of the dead were recorded.
+The walls were brilliantly painted, domestic
+and religious scenes being the usual subjects
+depicted. The well-opening was usually concealed
+and filled with masonry. Its sides were formed of
+slabs of granite down to rock level and then excavated
+in the rock, sometimes thirty or forty yards
+below the surface. From the bottom of the pit a
+doorway, usually walled up, opened into a chamber
+containing a stone sarcophagus, in which the mummy
+was placed.</p>
+
+<p>The finest excavated grottos are found at Beni
+Hassan and in the neighborhood of Thebes. Those
+at Beni Hassan follow the type of the “mastabah,”
+having the assembly hall, the well, and the
+chamber beneath, all being hollowed out of the
+rock. The sides are decorated with columns, architraves,
+and cornices, in imitation of constructive architecture,
+and the ceilings are cut out to represent
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">[18]</span>vaults, the uncarved surfaces being adorned with
+paintings and hieroglyphics. The columns are especially
+interesting, as having evidently furnished
+the Greeks with the model for their Doric temples,
+and the order has in consequence been called the
+proto-doric. They have a diameter of five feet and
+are sixteen feet high; the shaft has sixteen sides
+with flutings and is surmounted by a tile or abacus.
+Besides these, there are other columns with capitals
+in the form of a lotus or papyrus bud, which are
+more commonly found in Egyptian temples.</p>
+
+<p>The tombs of the kings at Thebes are arranged on
+a different principle; they consist of long sloping
+corridors opening into chambers and halls, and penetrating
+in a continuous line into the mountain rock.
+There are several groups, the most important of
+which is situated in the valley of Biban-el-Molook,
+or the “Gates of the Kings.” The tomb of Sethi
+I., the father of Rameses II., discovered by the explorer
+Belzoni in the earlier part of the century,
+is the finest example, the sculpture and paintings
+which it contains being very remarkable for their
+execution and of great historical interest, as they
+illustrate very completely the manners and customs
+of the ancient Egyptians. Every effort had evidently
+been made to conceal the tomb, for not only
+was the entrance closed and covered with loose rock,
+but the first chamber, reached by a succession of
+passages and steep staircases, had been walled up
+and the four sides painted, so as to have the appearance
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">[19]</span>of being the limit of the extent of the tomb.
+The hollow sound, caused by hammering on the walls
+at one point, led the explorer to continue his efforts,
+which were rewarded by the discovery of several
+more halls and chambers, terminating in a great
+vaulted chamber, thirty feet long, containing an
+alabaster sarcophagus. It has been conjectured that
+many of these excavated grottos were occupied as
+residences by the kings and great personages of
+the empire during their lifetime, and converted into
+sepulchres after death. The custom of relatives
+meeting at intervals in an assembly hall connected
+with the tomb does not seem to have prevailed here
+as at Memphis, but it is not improbable that the
+great Theban temples were used, if indeed they
+were not erected for this purpose.</p>
+
+<p>The great mass of the people were not honoured by
+such magnificent tombs, but were buried in subterranean
+vaults in the necropolis (Greek, “city of the
+dead”) attached to each great town. The largest
+are those of Saïs, Sakkarah near Memphis, Thebes,
+and Abydus. These underground galleries were
+reached by deep wells, and often contained several
+stories of small chambers in which the embalmed
+bodies were placed, together with vases, statuettes,
+and other votive offerings. There were also cemeteries
+in which the animals worshipped by the
+Egyptians were buried, containing thousands of
+embalmed birds and reptiles, particularly the ibis
+and crocodile. The Apis mausoleum at Sakkarah,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">[20]</span>where the sacred bulls were interred, is one of the
+most important, the chambers and galleries being
+excavated in the rock and covering an immense
+area. The mausoleum was connected with the Serapeum,
+a temple above ground, where the living
+bull was worshipped as a deity.</p>
+
+
+<h3><i>TEMPLES.</i></h3>
+
+<p>There are two classes of Egyptian temples—those
+hollowed out of the mountain rock, commonly
+called speos, and those built upon the open plain
+and distinguished by the term “hypæthral” (Greek,
+“under air”). The most important of the latter are
+the temples of Sethi I., at Abydus; Amun re, at
+Kooneh; the great and small temples of Medeenet
+Haboo, erected by Rameses III. and Thothmes II.;
+the Rameseum or Memnonium, of Rameses II.;
+Luxor and Karnak, at Thebes; and the temples of
+Denderah, Edfou, and Philæ, built by the Ptolemys.
+All of these are similar in general plan, consisting
+of a greater or less number of courts, halls, and
+sanctuaries, which in each case are placed “en suite,”
+that is, one opening into the other in a continuous
+line, the larger apartments being in about the centre
+of this line and gradually diminishing in size, the
+last chamber being the smallest. As the main characteristics
+of the largest temples apply in a modified
+form to the smallest, a description of a complete
+temple would seem to be the best way of explaining
+the usual arrangements.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">[21]</span></p>
+<p>A wall of crude brick usually enclosed the whole
+structure, which was surrounded by a sacred grove,
+or <ins class="corr" title="Transcriber's Note&mdash;original text: tenemos" id="tenemos">temenos</ins>. This wall was entered by an outer
+gate, or pylon, built in the shape of a frustum of a
+pyramid, and surmounted by a coved cornice, the
+doorway having perpendicular or slanting jambs.
+From this an avenue, or dromos, bordered with
+sphinxes with human or rams’ heads, led up to the
+propylæa, or towers. The latter resembled the outer
+pylons, but were on a larger scale, containing staircases
+leading to upper terraces. They were spaced
+a short distance apart to admit of a passage between
+them, which was entered through a second gateway
+similar to the first. The sides of these buildings
+were usually elaborately painted, and rings were inserted
+in the masonry to hold the poles upon which
+the royal banners were hoisted. This second entrance
+was often flanked by two obelisks—long tapering
+monoliths with pyramidal summits, covered
+with hieroglyphic inscriptions recounting the dedication
+of the temple by the king to his favorite divinity.
+These obelisks were sometimes ninety feet
+high, and mounted upon square blocks. They were
+not always of equal size, probably owing to the difficulty
+of obtaining single stones of such enormous
+length. It is of interest to note that their sides
+were made slightly convex in order to prevent their
+appearing concave, which would be the effect had
+they been left quite flat. A second set of towers, or
+propylæa, with staircases, came next, with a court
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">[22]</span>or area intervening. On each side of this court a
+colonnade was generally placed; and sometimes before
+the entrance to the towers two colossal statues
+of the king, represented seated, with his hands resting
+upon his knees in the conventional attitude of
+repose. The most famous are those known as the
+Colossi of Memnon, which stand on the plain of
+Thebes. They were probably in the court of the
+temple of Amunoph III., of which scarcely any vestige
+now remains. They are fifty feet high, mounted
+upon pedestals. One of them is called the Vocal
+Memnon, as, in ancient times, it gave forth sounds
+at the break of day—a phenomenon more easily explained
+as a trick of the priests, than by natural
+causes.</p>
+
+<p>Beyond this court there was usually an inner vestibule,
+with columns forming porticos on the four
+sides; those opposite the entrance being connected
+by stone screens, reaching half-way up, forming a
+shaded anteroom, or pronaos, to the great hall of assembly,
+which was the next apartment.</p>
+
+<p>The shafts and capitals of the columns varied in
+different buildings. The plain cylinder, carrying
+an inverted bell decorated with palm or other
+smaller leaves, or a capital in the shape of the lotus
+flower were the commonest forms. A column, representing
+the stems of water-plants bound together
+with rings, and swelling out at the top in the place
+of the capital, was also often employed. Besides
+these, statues of kings, or shafts surmounted by the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">[23]</span>heads of Isis or Osiris, were used as supports. The
+architrave, or beam, did not rest directly upon the
+capital, but upon an intermediate block. This
+block, when on the heads of deities, was in the
+shape of a miniature pylon. The cornices were
+formed of a deep cove and fillet decorated with
+winged asps.</p>
+
+<p>Some idea of the size of these inner vestibules, or
+peristyles, may be formed from the dimensions of
+that in the great temple of Medeenet Haboo, which
+measures 123 by 133 feet, and has a height of 39
+feet 4 inches. Each of the porticos of the East and
+West sides is supported by five columns; those on
+the North and South by eight Osiride pillars, having
+a circumference of 23 feet and a height of 24 feet.</p>
+
+<p>The great hall of assembly, which adjoined the vestibule,
+was generally the finest portion of the temple.
+The architraves supporting the roof rested upon a
+great number of lofty columns, which in the centre
+rose to a greater height, in order to obtain a clerestory,
+by which the hall was lighted. The largest
+of these is in the temple of Karnak, measuring 170
+by 329 feet. The central avenue consists of twelve
+columns, 62 feet high by 11 feet 6 inches in diameter.
+Besides these there are one hundred and twenty-two
+others, 42 feet 6 inches in height and 28
+feet in circumference. The lintel over the doorway
+by which it is entered measured 40 feet in length.
+The sanctuary was contiguous to the great hall,
+and terminated the suite. This consisted of a
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">[24]</span>chamber, either occupying the whole of the rear
+space, or isolated by corridors on each side, with
+smaller sanctuaries opposite. In many of these,
+altars and statues have been found, some of the
+former formed of a single block, hollowed at the top
+and pierced through from top to bottom, so that sacrifices
+placed upon them could be consumed apparently
+without ignition, by means of fires kindled in
+subterranean vaults.</p>
+
+<p>In connection with the halls in the temple of
+Abydus and elsewhere there were a number of vaulted
+chambers; the vault not being formed of a series
+of true arches, that is, with joints radiating to a
+common centre, but consisting of stone beams placed
+one beside the other, and hollowed out on the under
+side. The arch, however, was not unknown to the
+Egyptians—there are stone vaulted tombs at Sakkarah
+of the time of Psammetichus (650 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>), and
+crude brick arches have been found at Thebes dating
+as far back as the period of the eighth dynasty
+(2925 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>?). The antiquity of the arch has been
+the subject of much debate, owing chiefly to the
+fact that the Greeks made no use of it; recent explorations
+have, however, shown that this constructive
+expedient was known both in Egypt and Assyria
+many years before it was adopted by the
+Etruscans, to whom its invention was long attributed.</p>
+
+<p>The exterior walls of all temples were built on a
+batter, sloping inward at an angle of about seventy
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">[25]</span>degrees and with scarcely any openings. The inside
+walls were perpendicular, and decorated with bass-reliefs
+and paintings. These were often of a most
+elaborate character, and it is from them that so much
+has been learned concerning the ancient history of
+the country.</p>
+
+<p>The rock-cut temples of Nubia are laid out on
+much the same plan. They usually consist of a
+pronaos, naos, and sanctuary, forming a suite, with
+an entrance marked by colossal statuary hewn out
+of the side of the cliff. Some have a dromos of
+sphinxes, propylæa, and a peristyle court of masonry
+preceding the excavated portions. The temple of
+Wady Sabooah is the best example of the latter.
+Of the former none can compare with the Great
+and Small temples of Aboo Simbel, or Ipsambool,
+which are of the time of Rameses the Great.</p>
+
+<p>The smaller of the two is dedicated to the goddess
+Athor, the Venus of the Egyptians. The exterior
+is ornamented with six statues of deities recessed
+in the rock, each measuring thirty-five feet in
+height. In the interior there is a first hall, supported
+by square pillars, opening into a corridor,
+flanked by smaller halls, leading to the sanctuary.</p>
+
+<p>The front of the Great temple is adorned with
+four statues of the king seated upon his throne,
+each sixty feet high. In the great hall there are eight
+Osiride pillars, upward of thirty feet in height. The
+sides of the speos are carved with bass-reliefs, representing
+the conquests of Rameses the Great.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">[26]</span></p>
+<p>There are some sixteen smaller chambers, the suite
+terminating in the sanctuary, which contains an altar
+and four statues—the three deities, Amun re, Phre,
+and Phtah, with the king seated in their company.</p>
+
+<p>Under the headings tombs and temples are comprised
+the chief architectural works of the Egyptians.
+Besides these there were one or two gigantic
+constructions, famous in antiquity, but which have
+now almost disappeared. Of these, the Labyrinth
+and the Lake Moeris were the most important. The
+former appears to have been an immense structure,
+half palace, half tomb, built by Amenemha III., of
+the twelfth dynasty. It was built on three sides of
+an open square, measuring about five hundred feet on
+the side, consisting of numerous chambers and courts,
+in two stories, one above and the other below the
+level of the ground. At the open end was placed a
+large pyramid, of which the ruins still remain. Herodotus
+admired the Labyrinth more than any other
+of the Egyptian buildings, declaring it to surpass
+the pyramids in labour and expense. Near by was
+the artificial Lake Moeris, formed to retain the Nile
+waters during the inundation, for the purpose of irrigating
+the country surrounding Memphis, during
+the dry season. It covered an immense area; tradition
+says 450 miles in circumference. The banks
+were fortified with massive masonry, and the waters
+distributed by means of locks and sluices.</p>
+
+<p>The Egyptians appear as a civilized nation, having
+a scientific, artistic, and political knowledge of
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">[27]</span>no mean order, at a time when the greater part of
+the world’s inhabitants were but a step removed from
+the level of ignorant savages, and when, according to
+a generally accepted chronology, the world itself had
+existed but a few hundred years. The construction
+of the Pyramids reveals a building capacity which
+has rarely been rivalled, requiring not only immense
+mechanical power, but an accuracy of judgment and
+calculation in the adjustment of blocks of granite
+weighing many tons, not simply piled one above the
+other, but perfectly jointed and polished, and so disposed
+that passages and chambers were roofed over
+and their ceilings relieved from superincumbent
+weight by ingeniously contrived compartments, one
+above the other, and closed by sliding doors of monolithic
+stones, the handling of which could only have
+been successful by people well versed in the theories
+of equilibrium and support; and yet all this was
+done at a date which the best authorities agree in
+saying could not have been later than three thousand
+years before Christ. Their temples show an
+equally advanced erudition, and the paintings and
+hieroglyphics with which the walls of these buildings
+are adorned give a faithful representation of
+the customs of a people acquainted with the minor
+arts and sciences and the appliances requisite for
+agriculture.</p>
+
+<p>The admiration with which we may regard the
+excellence of so ancient an art is tempered when we
+find that it contained no element of progress. The
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">[28]</span>monuments of the eighteenth dynasty, though numerous
+and imposing, scarcely differ from those of
+the preceding period, and even in the days of the
+Ptolemys, who encouraged the native art, there was
+nothing attempted but a repetition of the old
+methods. From beginning to end the arts were so
+fettered by conventionality and dogmatic laws, opposed
+to originality or change, that the only improvements
+made were in mere mechanical execution.</p>
+
+<p>A great prevailing thought seems to have actuated
+this people,—that of death and eternity. Their aim
+in erecting their buildings was to render them quasi-eternal,
+and by embalming the bodies of the dead
+they even sought to perpetuate the semblance of
+life. Their kings at the beginning of their reigns
+commenced the construction of their own sepulchres,
+employing hundreds of workmen and immense expenditure
+of the national funds for the purpose, and
+countless thousands passed their lives in hollowing
+temples in the mountain rock and in carrying huge
+blocks from great distances for the building of the
+pylons and hypostylic halls of the Nile, in which
+durability and massiveness were considered all-important.</p>
+
+<p>Egyptian architecture, simply from the enormous
+scale of everything it produced, was always dignified
+and it had also the merit of severe simplicity;
+but mere size can scarcely be rated as an artistic
+quality of a high order, and on that account it cannot
+compare favourably with the art of the Greeks,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">[29]</span>who were probably inspired by what they saw in
+Egypt, but who, in their own work, succeeded in
+combining the qualities of majesty and beauty without
+resorting to the use of extraordinary materials.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"><div class="chapter"><p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">[30]</span></p>
+
+
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="III">III.
+<br><br>
+ASIATIC ARCHITECTURE.</h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="frstwrd">It</span> would, perhaps, be reasonable to suppose that
+in India, where the Aryan race had its origin,
+the earliest traces of dawning art would be found.
+It has, however, been fairly well established that
+all remnants of very ancient art, which may have
+existed there in former times, have now virtually
+disappeared, and that at present there are no remains
+in Hindostan of a remoter antiquity than the
+second or third century before the Christian era.</p>
+
+<p>The architecture of India loses much of its interest
+for us from the fact of its having had no influence
+upon the origin or development of the European
+styles of building, which, starting in Egypt
+and Assyria, formed a continuous chain, each linked
+with its predecessor and successor down to modern
+times.</p>
+
+<p>The Indians were, in fact, never a migratory or
+colonizing race of people, and their architecture was
+a distinctly native production, executed in accordance
+with the rules laid down by the priests in their
+sacred books, having no affinity with the constructive
+principles of the Western world and showing
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">[31]</span>no trace of the arts practised by Western nations,
+except in the slight resemblance of a few mouldings
+and fragments of sculpture.</p>
+
+<p>The chief structures of the country are temples,
+pagodas, and dagobas, which are found in many
+different parts of the peninsular and adjacent
+islands, resembling each other in general style, but
+with some local peculiarities which have caused
+them to be usually classified in certain comprehensive
+divisions, of which the following are the most
+important:</p>
+
+<p>The Buddhist style, including the stambhas or
+lats, a species of commemorative pillar, the stupas
+or topes, of which the best examples are found at
+Sarnath and Manikyala, and the viharas of Bengal.</p>
+
+<p>The Dravidian style, exemplified in the temples of
+<ins class="corr" title="Transcriber's Note&mdash;original text: Chilambaram" id="Chilambaram">Chidambaram</ins>, Tanjore, Combaconum, and Madura,
+and the rock-cut temples of Mahavellipore, and
+those known as the Kylas at Ellora.</p>
+
+<p>The Indo-Aryan, or Northern, comprising the temples
+of Kanaruc, Bhuwaneswur, Jajepur, and Cuttack,
+in the province of Orissa.</p>
+
+<p>The stupas, or dagobas, were a form of structure
+specially erected for the purposes of Buddhist worship.
+They were sometimes built in the shape of a
+square tower upon rising ground, of which that at
+Sarnath, north of Benares, is the best known. The
+more important, however, are cylindrical and surmounted
+by a semicircular dome. These are usually
+erected on artificial mounds or tumuli, and are
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">[32]</span>constructed either with jointed stones or with rough
+blocks bedded in cement. The interiors are of
+solid masonry, with the exception of a small square
+chamber, used as a repository for sacred emblems,
+the walls of which are continued up to the top of
+the dome. The stupa at Manikyala, is of great size,
+being upward of eighty feet in height, and measuring
+some three hundred feet in circumference. The
+base of the building is in the form of a cylinder,
+six or seven feet high, supporting an attic decorated
+with pilasters; above this the walls recede, and are
+capped by a hemispherical dome. There are a great
+number of dagobas in Ceylon, in the mountainous
+districts. They are usually placed in a walled enclosure,
+and surrounded by commemorative pillars.
+Smaller constructions of the same description are
+found in the interior of some of the temples, being
+placed where the <ins class="corr" title="Transcriber's Note&mdash;original text: baldaquins" id="baldaquins">baldachins</ins>, or altars, would be
+placed in Christian edifices.</p>
+
+<p>The rock temples of India are of two classes, the
+one consisting of grottos hollowed in the mountain
+side, and the other of a series of monolithic buildings
+cut bodily out of the solid rock, and detached
+from the surrounding hill plateaus by wide excavated
+areas.</p>
+
+<p>The former, resembling the speos of Egypt, consists
+of long galleries, divided into aisles by piers
+of the natural rock left at regular intervals to sustain
+the superincumbent mass. A recess or sanctuary
+is placed at one extremity, containing the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">[33]</span>statue of the divinity to whom the temple is dedicated.
+In some cases the interior is terminated by a semicircular
+apse with a hemispherical vault, and the
+entrance preceded by a vestibule containing votive
+figures, the whole forming a plan very similar to
+that of the Latin basilicas, which will be described
+in a subsequent chapter. The grottos are frequently
+excavated in several stories and connected
+by corridors and ramps.</p>
+
+<p>The walls or sides are ornamented with rude
+sculptures, representing various forms of animal life
+and monstrous creations of native fancy. The piers
+or pillars are generally either square or octagonal,
+decorated with mouldings and flutings, and having
+well defined capitals and bases. The capitals usually
+support a stone beam or bracket, evidently in
+imitation of those used in wooden construction, in
+which a similar expedient would be employed to
+distribute the sustaining power over a wider surface
+than that directly above the column or post. This
+imitation of wooden forms, which we have already
+noticed in Egypt, is found universally in all ancient
+constructions showing that in nearly every country
+wooden architecture was employed before stone.</p>
+
+<p>The group known as the Kylas of Ellora, is the
+finest example of the temples fashioned both inside
+and outside from the solid rock.</p>
+
+<p>The whole edifice is monolithic and situated in an
+oblong court formed by a trench excavated “vivo
+saxo” on the four sides. The exterior surfaces
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">[34]</span>are richly carved, and the piers shaped to represent
+elephants, lions, and fantastic creatures supporting
+the superstructure on their backs. The court is entered
+from a monumental porch, the upper story
+of which is connected with a small chapel by a
+bridge. This chapel is flanked by two colossal elephants,
+and by two columns or towers standing
+isolated on either side. A second bridge leads
+from this to the hall of Shiva, the chief room in
+the suite, which is divided by sixteen columns, with
+corresponding pilasters on the walls. At the farther
+extremity is the sanctuary containing the statue of
+the presiding divinity. Beyond this are open terraces,
+surrounded by chapels. The great hall is
+connected laterally with subterranean chambers in
+the surrounding cliffs, reached also from excavated
+corridors which follow the perimeter of the court,
+the mass above being sustained by square piers
+spaced at short distances apart.</p>
+
+<p>The inside walls are decorated with bass-reliefs
+and the ceilings ornamented with stucco relievos,
+which were originally brilliantly painted. The
+height of the hall of Shiva is about fifty feet, the
+hillside opposite to it being about ninety feet high.</p>
+
+<p>These temples may be said to be the most remarkable
+and unique architectural productions to
+be found anywhere. They are examples of long-continued
+perseverance and patience, and can only
+be the result of a preconceived design which must
+have been thoroughly studied in all its elaborate
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">[35]</span>detail before the first stroke was given toward its
+realization. The unity of conception and execution
+exhibited in such works is truly wonderful, and it is
+not astonishing that the superstitious natives should
+attribute their creation to Visvakarma, the heavenly
+architect. On the other hand, there are but few
+practical lessons to be learned from their examination.
+Such methods are not possible in our day, nor
+if so, would they be desirable. Architecture of this
+kind is scarcely more than wholesale sculpture, and
+as such can in no sense compare favourably with
+the grace of form and scientific construction which
+we see in the works of Greek and Gothic artists.</p>
+
+<p>The Pagodas are the most important of the buildings
+constructed with jointed materials. They consist
+of vast enclosures containing numerous religious
+and domestic edifices. There are often double or
+triple series of enclosing walls of great height and
+thickness. The sides are usually placed so as to face
+the points of the compass and each contains a monumental
+entrance, richly sculptured, and adorned with
+bands of embossed copper.</p>
+
+<p>The chief buildings within are the temple proper,
+or vimana, and a number of hypostylic halls with
+small sanctuaries dedicated to different divinities.</p>
+
+<p>The form of the vimana differs in the North and
+South of India. In both cases it is pyramidal, but
+while in the Southern temples the plan is rectangular
+and the elevations marked by a series of horizontal
+stories and mouldings, in the North the exterior
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">[36]</span>surfaces are convex and the outlines curved,
+showing vertical instead of horizontal divisions.
+The lower story, containing the idol, is usually a hollow
+cube of granite, and serves as a base to the pyramid
+above, which is most frequently built of brick
+with stucco facing.</p>
+
+<p>The halls are composed of a great number of columns
+of varied design, placed in parallel rows. The
+ceilings are formed by stone beams or slabs resting
+upon the columns. The central aisle is frequently
+wider than the others and is roofed over by a corbelled
+vault.</p>
+
+<p>A tank of sacred water surrounded by an open
+colonnade is not uncommonly placed within the enclosure,
+the waters being used by the infirm for the
+healing properties which they are supposed to contain.</p>
+
+<p>The pagodas of Tanjore, Combaconum, and Madura
+are among the finest and most celebrated. They
+were built between the fifth and eleventh centuries of
+the Christian era, and should hardly, therefore, be
+described among the ancient buildings of the world,
+were it not that they are linked in with the chain of
+the older Indian art too closely to be separated from it.</p>
+
+<p>In the period corresponding to the Middle Ages
+of Europe, Mahometan architecture was introduced
+in India and many beautiful buildings were erected
+in a new style blending the foreign art with the
+native ideas and taste, but offering a marked contrast
+to that which preceded it.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">[37]</span></p>
+<p>Although China was one of the oldest of civilized
+countries it contains but few monuments of great
+antiquity. The temples and palaces, being built of
+wood, were exposed to fire and decay, and were
+often pulled down and rebuilt. With the exception
+of the great wall and of the numerous bridges crossing
+rivers or arms of the sea, there are no important
+stone constructions to be found there.</p>
+
+<p>The latter are formed of huge granite piers,
+spanned by massive stone lintels, requiring the
+united labour of thousands of men to convey them
+from the quarries to their destination and to set
+them in place. In the mountains the ravines are
+bridged by iron chains suspended from cliff to cliff.</p>
+
+<p>The great wall was built as a frontier protection,
+and extended the entire length of the boundaries of
+the country. It has always been kept in repair,
+although obviously absurd as a fortification in modern
+times. It is of great thickness, and upward of
+twenty feet in height. The foundations are of stone,
+and the upper part of brick with stone facing, the
+joints of which are extremely accurate. At short
+intervals there are towers, placed so that the middle
+distance between any two is within arrow-shot.</p>
+
+<p>Chinese wooden buildings are all much alike,
+whether temples or palaces. As a rule, they have
+but one or two stories; they are surrounded by
+porticos, consisting of wooden columns mounted on
+stone bases, without capitals, which are replaced by
+a species of bracket. The roofs project considerably,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">[38]</span>and their angles are turned up, this form
+being undoubtedly borrowed from the old tent
+habitations, which were composed of hides stretched
+tightly on bamboos. The tiles with which they are
+covered are semicylindrical in shape and are enamelled
+with bright colour.</p>
+
+<p>The celebrated taas, or Buddhist towers, are of
+similar construction. They are generally octagonal,
+and from six to ten stories high. Each story is set
+back from the one below, and has a balcony and
+projecting roof, with bells hung in the angles. The
+walls are covered with tiles or paintings. A high
+staff is placed on the top and connected with angles
+of the roof by chains.</p>
+
+<p>The tower of Nankin, known as the Porcelain
+Tower, was the most famous. It was erected in
+1431, and but recently destroyed.</p>
+
+<p>The Chinese have always excelled in artificial or
+landscape gardening. In this work they build airy
+bridges, with open-work balustrades, pavilions highly
+ornamented and enriched with painting and gilding,
+and boundary walls with circular openings, disclosing
+vistas of great beauty.</p>
+
+<p>Their commemorative gateways are of interest, as
+they have a central opening and a smaller one on
+each side, like the Roman triumphal arches; the
+heads are square, however, with brackets in the corners.
+The upper parts are ornamented with figures
+in relief and inscriptions recording the virtues of
+persons to whose memory they are dedicated.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">[39]</span></p>
+<p>Although communication existed between China
+and the countries bordering upon the Mediterranean
+from remote ages, Chinese architecture, like the
+Indian, was without influence upon that of Europe.
+It is only in Western Asia that the first forms of
+building are discernible, which were subsequently
+imitated or followed in European constructions.
+The most important of these are situated in Mesopotamia,
+the fertile region comprised between the
+Tigris and the Euphrates.</p>
+
+<p>The political histories of Assyria, Babylon, and
+Persia are generally treated separately, but the architecture
+of each belongs to one style, which may
+be called the Assyrian, for its distinguishing characteristics
+remain the same in all the great cities
+which were in turn the capitals of reconstructed
+kingdoms and empires.</p>
+
+<p>It may be considered in four chronological divisions:
+In ancient Babylon, from 2234 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> to 1520
+<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, at Wurka and Mugheyr; in Nineveh, from the
+fourteenth to the seventh century <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, at Nimrod,
+Khorsabad, and Koyoundjik; in the second Babylon,
+during the seventh century and after the capture
+of the latter by Cyrus in the year 538 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, in
+Persia, at Persepolis, Passargadæ, and Susa. A
+renaissance of the art may be traced in Sassanian
+buildings erected eight centuries later.</p>
+
+<p>The citadels, palaces, and other important structures
+of these cities were usually built upon artificial
+mounds or terraces, strengthened by massive walls.
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">[40]</span>The materials used were bituminous bricks, cemented
+with bitumen, slabs of gypsum anchored
+with copper nails and bands, and timber for roofs
+and columns. Stone and gypsum or <ins class="corr" title="Transcriber's Note&mdash;original text: ababaster" id="ababaster">alabaster</ins>
+were employed in Nineveh and in the cities of Persia.
+In Babylon the only available material was
+bituminous clay, and consequently all the buildings
+there were built of brick. At the present day nothing
+remains of these but irregular mounds, from
+which but little can be gathered toward an understanding
+of what their appearance was when entire.</p>
+
+<p>Wood was probably used to a great extent, and
+was naturally most easily destroyed by the fire of
+invading armies. The roofs, formed of thick layers
+of earth carried on beams, in falling in, buried the
+lower portions of buildings, and it is probably due
+to this fact that the bass-reliefs have been preserved.</p>
+
+<p>The surfaces of the bricks were frequently enamelled
+in colours, and the wood-work was probably
+brilliantly painted, as traces of pigments have been
+found upon the more durable materials.</p>
+
+<p>But little was known of Assyrian art prior to
+1843, when the excavations of Botta, the French
+consul at Mosul, followed soon after by those conducted
+by Layard, brought to light many ruined
+buildings, in which bass-reliefs, inscribed stones and
+metals, and other important relics were found, enabling
+historians to form a consecutive account of
+the government, warfare, and arts practised by a
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">[41]</span>people whose cities have lain buried and whose very
+name has almost been forgotten for over two thousand
+years.</p>
+
+<p>The explorations were made in Nimrod, Koyoundjik,
+and Khorsabad. The palace of Asshur-bani-pal,
+erected at Nimrod, in the ninth century <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, is
+situated upon a terrace, or platform, approached by
+a wide staircase, and preceded by two gates decorated
+with winged bulls.</p>
+
+<p>These winged bulls, or lions, were placed as the
+guardian deities, at the portals of all the great Assyrian
+palaces, after the manner of the Egyptian
+sphinxes, not standing isolated like these, however,
+but built into the masonry, one side or the front
+and one side only, being carved. The head was human,
+with long beard and hair, and surmounted by
+a helmet, the wings large and proportioned to the
+body. As Sir Henry Layard remarks, it would
+have been difficult to find more fitting symbols to
+express at once the wisdom, power, and ubiquity
+of a supreme being.</p>
+
+<p>The chief apartments of the palace are a large
+assembly hall, 152 feet in length by 30 feet in
+width, and a number of smaller chambers and banqueting-halls,
+ranged around an open court. The
+walls of the great hall were decorated with bass-reliefs,
+representing triumphal processions, carved
+upon slabs of gypsum eight feet in height.</p>
+
+<p>The palace of Esarhaddon, erected in the seventh
+century, on the same terrace, contains a large hall,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">[42]</span>165 by 62 feet, divided in its length by a wall, surmounted
+by a gallery of columns. One of the only
+well-preserved ramps which has been discovered
+was that leading to this palace.</p>
+
+<p>At Koyoundjik, opposite Mosul, the palace of
+Sennacherib was found at the Southwest corner of
+a mound a mile and a half in circumference. It
+contained a vast number of courts and halls, decorated
+with bass-reliefs and winged bulls, and two
+colossal statues.</p>
+
+<p>The palace of Sargon at Khorsabad, erected in the
+year 704 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, is among the best preserved. Like
+the others it is placed upon an artificial terrace, enclosed
+by a wall a mile long on each side. It was
+defended by a citadel of eight towers with doors
+flanked by winged bulls. The palace was reached
+by a long, narrow passage leading to a court and entered
+through three great gates. The bulls of the
+central portal were 19 feet high. On each side were
+two bulls, 13 feet high, with the figure of a giant
+strangling a lion between them.</p>
+
+<p>The halls and chambers were grouped around two
+great courts measuring about 350 by 200 feet. The
+hareem formed a separate set of buildings, as did
+also the stables and outhouses. The walls were of
+great thickness, evidently for coolness. They were
+decorated with slabs of alabaster, enamelled tiles, and
+designs painted on stucco.</p>
+
+<p>There has been much speculation on the method
+of roofing these rooms, some believing that circular
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">[43]</span>vaults were employed and others that wooden beams,
+supported on wooden columns, similar to the stone
+ones found in Persian palaces, were used for this
+purpose. The latter theory seems the more probable,
+as the local manner of building is the same as
+this at the present day. No traces of columns remain,
+however, and the spans are in many cases too
+great to be roofed by single pieces of timber. One
+of the most interesting discoveries made at Khorsabad
+was the gate of the city, the jambs supporting
+a semicircular arch over a span of eighteen feet.
+The gate was a double one having two separate
+passages, one for vehicles and the other for pedestrians:
+the marks of chariot-wheels still remaining
+in the pavement of the former. The sides were ornamented
+with winged bulls, and the archivolts of
+the arches were decorated with blue and yellow designs
+in enamelled tiles.</p>
+
+<p>It had been long supposed that the Etruscans were
+the first to make use of the true semicircular arch
+(<i>i.e.</i>, formed of wedge-shaped stones or bricks, with
+joints radiating to a common centre), but this discovery,
+and the finding of pointed arches in the sewers
+of Babylon, by Layard, places the date when both
+these expedients were known, at a much remoter
+period, though even these are probably much later
+than the examples found in Egypt.</p>
+
+<p>No complete example of a Chaldean temple has
+been found, but there are several the lower stories
+of which are sufficiently well preserved to give an
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">[44]</span>accurate idea of their size and details, and in the
+tomb of Cyrus at Passagardæ, in Persia, we have
+probably a model on a small scale of one of these
+buildings when entire. This tomb consists of a
+platform of six steps, eighteen feet high, surmounted
+by a rectangular chamber. The latter has a
+doorway and a ridged roof abutting against pediments.</p>
+
+<p>It has been surmised that all the temples were
+like this, consisting of a chamber or cella built on
+the summit of a several-storied structure, each story
+being either concentric and reached by a ramp winding
+around the four sides or placed farther to one
+side than that immediately below it and approached
+by straight flights of stairs.</p>
+
+<p>The oldest is probably that at Wurka, dating
+as far back as 2000 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, known as the Bowariyeh.
+There are the remains of two stories, the lower occupying
+about 200 square feet. It is probable that
+a third story or a cella was placed above these, but
+nothing positive can be said on the subject, owing
+to the extremely ruinous condition of the building.
+The temple of Birs Nimroud, probably identical
+with the tower of Babel, is in a more satisfactory
+condition, the upper story having been preserved by
+a process of vitrification. The lowest story occupies
+a square measuring 272 feet on the side, each of
+the upper ones, of which it is supposed there were
+originally six, being 42 feet less.</p>
+
+<p>For the materials used in its construction we have
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">[45]</span>the scriptural authority: “Go to, let us make brick
+and burn them thoroughly. And they had brick for
+stone, and slime had they for mortar” (Gen. xi.);
+slime being probably bitumen.</p>
+
+<p>M. Place discovered the remains of a tower at
+Khorsabad, with a winding ramp, which he thinks
+was originally seven stories in height. The walls
+were strengthened with buttresses and decorated
+with sunken panels, and from traces of colour found
+upon them it has been supposed that each floor
+was painted in a different hue. The area covered
+by the base is about one hundred and fifty square
+feet, and the total height was probably one hundred
+and thirty-five feet.</p>
+
+<p>The ruins of Persepolis are the best preserved of
+the ancient Persian buildings, those at Susa and
+Passagardæ being in too bad a condition to offer
+much that is interesting.</p>
+
+<p>They are situated in the plain of Mardacht, upon
+a terrace partly formed of masonry, and partly
+cut in the rock of the adjoining range of hills. The
+wall is composed of huge blocks of stone fitted together
+without mortar, but with the finest of joints.
+The terrace is reached by a splendid double flight
+of steps, upward of twenty feet in width, and on
+a grade easy enough to permit of the passage of
+long processions without interruption. At the head
+of the stairs is a propylæum, or outer gate, flanked
+by colossal human-headed bulls. Beyond this, a second
+staircase, ornamented with a triple row of bass-reliefs,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">[46]</span>gives access to the Chehil Minar, or great
+hall of Xerxes.</p>
+
+<p>This building occupies a rectangle about three
+hundred and fifty feet long by three hundred in
+width. It consists chiefly of a central hall and
+three lateral porticos, the roofs of which were sustained
+by 72 columns, 36 in the hall and 12 in each
+of the porches.</p>
+
+<p>Thirteen of these are still standing, and the position
+of all the others is well defined by broken bases
+or shafts. They are of two different kinds, the
+one having a capital composed of double-headed
+bulls, and the other a capital with volutes, not
+placed horizontally as we see them in classical columns,
+but vertically and resting on a complicated
+series of mouldings. These last may have been also
+surmounted by the double-headed bulls, as without
+such an addition the columns are shorter than the
+others, which measure 67 feet 4 inches. The beams
+which they sustained, rested upon the body of the
+bull between the two heads.</p>
+
+<p>The shafts of the columns at Persepolis are fluted
+and taper upward from the bases, which are elaborately
+ornamented with mouldings.</p>
+
+<p>It is probable that the Greek Ionic capital was
+derived directly from the Persian voluted model, as
+the order originated in the Greek colony in Asia
+Minor.</p>
+
+<p>The Chehil Minar is the finest building on the
+platform, the other halls of Darius and Xerxes
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">[47]</span>being smaller, and though a hall containing 100
+columns has been found, it is inferior in height,
+the total altitude not exceeding twenty-five feet.</p>
+
+<p>The hall of Darius contained sixteen columns,
+forming a square, preceded by a portico with eight
+more. The walls have long since disappeared, but
+the façade of the building is reproduced upon the
+face of the rock-cut tomb of Darius in the neighbouring
+hill called Naksh-i-Rustam, so that a restoration
+of the structure as it originally appeared is
+easily made.</p>
+
+<p>This tomb shows the four front columns of the
+porch with double-headed capitals, sustaining an entablature,
+above this is placed an attic decorated
+with bass-reliefs and a figure is represented standing
+on the top in the act of sacrificing on an altar.</p>
+
+<p>The stone buildings of Persia are generally supposed
+to be reproductions of the wooden constructions
+of Assyria, as the character of the art is similar
+in both, the bass-reliefs and winged bulls of
+Persepolis being practically identical with those of
+Nineveh.</p>
+
+<p>We find no traces of Assyrian art for several
+centuries after the erection of the buildings just described,
+though it is probable that it had influence
+in all Eastern edifices erected during the interval,
+not only in Asia, but in Greece and later in Byzance.
+There was evidently a revival of Assyrian
+taste during the dynasty of Sassanian kings who
+reigned between the third and seventh centuries of
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">[48]</span>our era. The remnants of their palaces are found
+at Firouzabad, Al Hadhr, Serbistan, Ctesiphon, and
+Mashita, where we find large halls vaulted and
+domed and ornamented in a manner directly traceable
+to the ancient buildings in Assyria. The chief
+peculiarity of these structures lies in the use of the
+horseshoe or elliptical arch, which is found nowhere
+else. The porch of the Tak-Kesra at Ctesiphon
+consists of a great elliptical tunnel-vault, 115 feet
+deep, 85 feet high, over a span of 72 feet.</p>
+
+<p>There is more or less Roman influence in the details
+of the Sassanian palaces, but it is not altogether
+certain whether the knowledge of domical construction
+which they exhibit was derived from, or
+was not itself parent to, Byzantine art.</p>
+
+<p>Comparatively little is known concerning this
+Assyrian style, but it contains interesting elements,
+and it may be that its constructive forms are susceptible
+of a greater development in our own
+time.</p>
+
+<p>Asia Minor, Palestine, and Cyprus are fields covered
+with the evidences of the glory of past ages,
+but the ruin and desolation everywhere is complete.
+The case of the temple of Jerusalem, where not one
+stone remains upon another, applies in most instances
+in places which have formerly been great
+cities, filled with magnificent buildings which were
+their pride in the day of their prosperity.</p>
+
+<p>The temple of Solomon was situated upon Mount
+Moriah, and was built to accommodate the Levites,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">[49]</span>to offer a place of assembly for the people, and as
+a temple for the worship of the priests. The two
+sanctuaries were richly decorated with polished cedar
+and gold, with columns and cornices of bronze, and
+divided by linen curtains embroidered with purple
+and scarlet.</p>
+
+<p>The peculiar formation of the hill upon which it
+was built, required immense walls of the most substantial
+character to be raised from the valley below
+to enlarge its summit, so as to afford sufficient
+space for the erection of the various courts. “It
+was built of stone, made ready before it was brought
+thither; so that there was neither hammer, nor axe,
+nor any tool of iron heard in the house while it was
+in building” (2 Kings vi., 7).</p>
+
+<p>The temple itself is supposed to have been 60
+cubits long, the porch 20 cubits, the Holy place 20
+cubits; the width was 20 cubits and the height 30
+cubits. The porch, however, was 120 cubits high.
+(The cubit is estimated to equal from 10 to 20
+inches.)</p>
+
+<p>The temple underwent several profanations, and
+at last was utterly destroyed in the reign of Jedekiah
+by Nebuchadnezzar, 580 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> After laying in
+ruins 42 years, the foundation of the second temple
+was laid by Zerubbabel and in breadth and height
+was double that of Solomon’s. This second temple
+was plundered and profaned by Antiochus Epiphanes,
+and afterward rebuilt by Herod. It was considerably
+larger than its predecessor and was made of
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">[50]</span>marble and of the most costly workmanship. It became
+the admiration and envy of the world, but, as
+our Lord predicted (Mark xiii., 2), it was completely
+demolished by Titus, <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 70.</p>
+
+<p>Many restorations of the temples of the Greek
+colonists in Ionia have been attempted, but they are
+based on historical descriptions, inscriptions on
+coins, and other uncertain records, and are too conjectural
+to be accepted as accurate. There are, in
+fact, but few architectural remains sufficiently well
+preserved to be of interest to the architect, excepting
+the temples at Baalbek and Palmyra which are
+of the Roman period.</p>
+
+<p>There are several groups of tombs, the most important
+being in Lycia.</p>
+
+<p>These are of interest, as they illustrate more completely
+the transition between wooden and stone
+building than any other examples. There are two
+kinds, the one consisting of sarcophagi standing isolated,
+and the other of excavations in the mountain-sides.
+The former are composed of a stylobate or
+pedestal, serving as a base to a coffer ornamented
+with uprights and cross-pieces and panelled doors
+imitating exactly a wooden original. The roofs
+are curved, having in section the form of a pointed
+arch, being probably the earliest instances of its employment
+as a decorative feature.</p>
+
+<p>The tombs cut in the face of the rock are of
+a similar description, having the same carpentry
+framework. The upper parts are terminated by a
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_51">[51]</span>low pediment or by a row of stone logs supporting
+a horizontal moulding.</p>
+
+<p>Later on during the Greek occupation, these
+wooden forms were abandoned and replaced by
+porticos of the Ionic order.</p>
+
+<p>In various parts of Asia Minor, there are remains
+of tombs similar to these erected by the Pelasgi and
+Etruscans, which will be described in another chapter.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"><div class="chapter"><p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_52">[52]</span></p>
+
+
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="IV">IV.
+<br><br>
+GREECE.</h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="frstwrd">The</span> oldest architectural works in Greece are
+those erected by the Cyclopes or Pelasgi, a
+race who came originally from Lycia, and moved
+gradually Westward, peopling successively the islands
+of the Grecian Archipelago, the Peloponnesus,
+Sicily, and Italy. At Tiryns and Mycenæ, in
+the province of Argolis, are to be seen the most
+remarkable remains of the buildings of this people,
+which were always grouped together in walled
+cities, serving as strongholds to protect the inhabitants
+of the province from the wild tribes with whom
+they came in contact. These cities were generally
+placed upon a rocky eminence, difficult of access
+and commanding a view of the surrounding country.</p>
+
+<p>There are remains of high walls at Tiryns built of
+huge stones extracted from a neighbouring quarry
+and put together without cement or mortar, the
+interstices being filled with smaller stones. From
+the fallen blocks lying scattered at their base it is
+estimated that they originally measured sixty feet
+in height.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">[53]</span></p>
+<p>At intervals these walls are pierced by triangular
+doors and windows, the sides of which are curved,
+forming arches obtained by corbelled or overlapping
+instead of wedged stones. These Cyclopean constructions
+date from the seventeenth century before
+Christ.</p>
+
+<p>The Acropolis of Mycenæ is entered by a doorway
+formed of two vertical monoliths of great size supporting
+a lintel, and called the Gate of the Lions,
+from the carving above, representing two rampant
+lions separated by an engaged column.</p>
+
+<p>This city was surrounded by high fortified walls,
+and contained a place of assembly for the people
+and rude habitations, the remains of which are still
+visible. There is also still to be seen a conical or
+bee-hive-like structure, commonly called the Treasury
+of Atreus. This cone is formed by overlapping
+stones, curving gradually until they meet at the top
+of the vault, which is capped by a large block.
+The doorway by which it is entered is composed of
+slanting jambs of stone, sustaining a massive lintel.
+This lintel is relieved from direct weight above by
+a triangular opening, obtained by a similar process
+of corbelling. The Cyclopean remains are of interest
+to architects chiefly on account of this system
+of corbelled vaulting employed in their construction,
+which would never have been adopted had
+their builders been acquainted with the voussoir
+principle.</p>
+
+<p>Dr. Schliemann has recently excavated the Acropolis
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">[54]</span>of Mycenæ, and found there many interesting
+objects of gold and pottery. Bronze nails with flat
+heads have also been found within the Treasury of
+Atreus, which were evidently used to attach copper
+plates with which the interior was lined. Pausanias
+speaks of a similar treasury belonging to King Minyas,
+at Orchomenos, and other remains of the same
+description have been discovered in different parts
+of the Morea, bearing a resemblance to the ruined
+cities of Etruria.</p>
+
+<p>In fact, the various tumuli found in Western Europe,
+Sardinia, Sicily, Greece, and Asia are all of
+the same type, and were a form commonly adopted
+by the ancient nations.</p>
+
+<p>When we come to the epoch preceding Roman
+architecture, we will examine the character of Etruscan
+buildings, which were similar in many respects
+to the works of the Pelasgi; at present the subject
+of most interest is that of the great century of Greek
+art, for it marks the transition from Crude Art, to
+which belongs all that has preceded, to Fine Art, in
+which the Greeks excelled.</p>
+
+<p>Greek buildings were erected according to the
+rules of three systems or orders, of the origin and
+character of which Vitruvius gives the following
+account, which, if not strictly accurate, is at least as
+reasonable as some of the versions which have been
+advanced. “Dorus, King of the Peloponnesus, having
+had a temple erected to Juno, in Argos, it was
+built by chance in the manner which we call Doric;
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">[55]</span>afterward, in several other towns, other temples were
+built in this same order, having no established rule
+for the proportions of their architecture. About
+the same period the Athenians established several
+colonies in Asia Minor under the guidance of Ion,
+and they called the country which he occupied Ionia.
+These colonists built Doric temples there at first, of
+which the chief was that of Apollo, but as they did
+not know what proportion to give to the columns,
+they sought the means of making them at once
+strong enough to sustain the building, and of rendering
+them at the same time agreeable to the eye.
+For this they took the measure of a man’s foot as
+the sixth part of his height, and on this measure
+formed their column, giving it six diameters.<a id="FNanchor_1_1" href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_1_1" href="#FNanchor_1_1" class="label">[1]</a> We have already seen that there are columns at Beni Hassan, in Egypt,
+resembling so closely the Greek Doric, that it is reasonable to suppose that
+the Greeks borrowed their conception of the order from the Egyptians and
+refined it.</p></div></div>
+
+<p>“Some time afterward, wishing to build a temple
+to Diana, they endeavoured to find a new method,
+equally beautiful and more appropriate to their
+purpose. They imitated the delicacy of a woman’s
+form; they heightened the columns, gave them a
+base like the twisted cords which bind a sandal;
+they carved volutes in the capital to represent that
+portion of the hair which falls to the right and left
+of the head; they put circles and rings on the columns
+to imitate the rest of the hair which is braided
+and caught up on the back of women’s heads; and
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_56">[56]</span>by flutings they imitated the folds of the dress.
+And this order, invented by the Ionians, took the
+name of Ionic.</p>
+
+<p>“The Corinthian column represents the delicacy of
+a young girl, at the age when the figure is slender
+and best suited to the display of ornaments which
+may add to her natural beauty. The invention of
+its capital is due to the following incident: A young
+girl of Corinth, who was about to marry, having
+died, her nurse placed some little vases which she
+had been fond of during her life, in a basket on her
+tomb, and, in order that the weather should not
+spoil them, she placed a tile on the basket. This,
+having been laid accidentally over an acanthus-root,
+it came to pass, when the leaves began to grow, that
+the stems of the plant crept up the sides of the basket
+and, meeting the corners of the tile, were forced to
+curve downward, and to take the form of volutes.
+Callimachus, a sculptor and architect, struck by the
+harmonious result, imitated it in the capitals of
+columns which he subsequently made in Corinth, establishing
+on this model the proportions of the Corinthian
+order.”</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp60" id="facing056" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/facing056.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+     <table class="autotable wd100" ><tr><td class="tdc wd40">DORIC.</td>
+     <td class="tdc wd25">IONIC.</td>
+     <td class="tdc wd45"><span class="pad10p">CORINTHIAN.</span></td>
+</tr><tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="3">THE GREEK ORDERS.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>At this stage it is necessary to explain briefly that
+an order consists of a column, the pedestal upon
+which it stands, and the entablature, or top member,
+which it supports. The column is subdivided into
+the capital, or head; the shaft, or body; and the
+base, or foot. The entablature has likewise three
+divisions: the architrave, or beam sustained by the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">[57]</span>columns; the frieze, or space occupied by the cross-beams;
+and the cornice, or line of stone marking the
+extremity of the rafters. These were originally
+made of wood and subsequently imitated in stone.<a id="FNanchor_2_2" href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_2_2" href="#FNanchor_2_2" class="label">[2]</a> Viollet le Duc maintained that the Greek buildings were in no sense
+an imitation of wooden constructions, but gave no very satisfactory explanation
+of the origin of their component parts. It is perhaps best to
+conclude that they were adaptations of pre-existing edifices to new materials.</p></div>
+</div>
+<p>The Greek Doric column had no base and rested
+upon a series of steps in place of the pedestal. The
+ends of the cross-beams were marked upon the frieze
+by a projection, upon which were cut three grooves
+into which the rain-water ran and fell in drops to
+the ground. These drops were represented in stone
+underneath, completing an ornament which was
+called a triglyph (meaning in Greek, three grooves).
+The spaces intervening between the triglyphs were
+called metopes. The inclination of the sides of the
+roof formed the lines of the triangular termination
+which we call the pediment.</p>
+
+<p>The Greeks employed three methods in their
+Doric, namely, the hexametric, heptametric, and
+octometric, that is, a proportion of six, seven, and
+eight diameters to the height.</p>
+
+<p>We have seen what were the component parts of
+the Ionic and Corinthian orders in the quotation
+from Vitruvius.</p>
+
+<p>In Greek temples the shafts of the columns not
+only tapered considerably, but the vertical lines of an
+entire building inclined to imaginary points determined
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_58">[58]</span>by the intersection of lines following the
+inclination of the end columns. The mass was thus
+in the form of the frustum of a pyramid, being intentionally
+so designed to bind the parts of the building
+together in a manner to withstand effectually
+the oscillation caused by earthquakes, which occur
+frequently in this region.</p>
+
+<p>The city of Athens contained numerous examples
+of each of these orders, and a brief account of the
+buildings of that city will be the best means of
+showing their principal characteristics.</p>
+
+<p>The city proper, in which were the chief temples,
+was built upon a rocky hill rising from the valley
+of the Illysus, lying between the mountain-chains of
+Pentelicus and Hymettus, and situated about five
+miles from the port of Phalerum, on the Gulf of
+Ægina. This Acropolis (rock city) is approached
+by a broad flight of stairs leading to the Propylæum,
+or outer gate, with high pedestals on each
+side which were formerly surmounted by equestrian
+statues.</p>
+
+<p>The Propylæum is composed of a porch of six
+Doric columns, giving access to a large vestibule
+flanked by two outer halls. This vestibule is divided
+by a flight of steps, placed between six Ionic
+columns on pedestals, supporting nine marble beams
+or architraves which carry the weight of the roof.</p>
+
+<p>Beyond is a second porch, opening on the plateau
+of the Acropolis by means of five doors of different
+proportions. The lintel of the central or largest
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">[59]</span>door measures 23 feet, while the architraves are 17
+feet in length and of single stones.</p>
+
+<p>The Athenians prided themselves greatly upon
+the vestibule of the Propylæum, and believed Pericles,
+by whose direction the building was erected, to
+have been divinely inspired. The details and proportions
+of the two orders here combined are of
+great beauty, and show the most refined study.
+From the farther porch, the Parthenon (meaning
+in Greek, virgin), or temple of Minerva, is seen to
+the right, exhibiting a fine perspective view of its
+North and West elevations.</p>
+
+<p>The temple is raised upon a platform surrounded
+by steps, and is rectangular in form, composed of a
+cella, or oblong room, surrounded by an open portico.
+It measures 228 by 101 feet, having eight
+Doric columns on the front and seventeen on the
+flank, inclusive of the corner ones.</p>
+
+<p>Ictinus and Callicrates were the architects, under
+the general supervision of Phidias, who designed
+the gold and ivory figure of Minerva within.</p>
+
+<p>The Doric is of the hexametric order, having an
+approximate proportion of six diameters of the column
+to its height.</p>
+
+<p>The pediments of the Parthenon were decorated
+with rich carvings in high relief, representing, in
+the one, the presentation of Minerva to the assembled
+gods by her father Jupiter, and in the other,
+the contest of Minerva and Neptune for the naming
+of the city.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">[60]</span></p>
+<p>In the metopes were depicted the battles of the
+Athenians with the Centaurs, and scenes in the lives
+of Perseus, Theseus, and Hercules, in the admirable
+sculpture of Phidias.</p>
+
+<p>The building stood almost intact from the fifth
+century before Christ to the seventeenth century of
+our era, when it suffered greatly from Venetian
+artillery, and in modern times its richest sculpture
+was torn from it under the Turkish régime, by order
+of Lord Elgin, who obtained permission from the
+authorities to remove it to the British Museum.
+One of the ships containing the marbles was sunk
+off Cape Matapan. Even in its ruined condition
+the Parthenon stands to-day a great example of the
+finest architecture the world has known.</p>
+
+<p>On the plateau of the Acropolis are the three
+contiguous temples of Pandrosus, Erictheus, and
+Minerva Polias, and the temple of the Wingless
+Victory (Niké Apteros), of the Ionic order.</p>
+
+<p>The temple of Pandrosus is virtually a porch attached
+to the larger temple of Erictheus. It is composed
+of six female figures or caryatides upon a
+high base, supporting an entablature without frieze.
+These figures are of exceeding grace and beauty, and
+are models of the sculptor’s art. The single cella was
+probably divided into three, to which access was had
+separately by the several porches. The ceilings of
+these temples are flat and decorated with sunken
+panels, ornamented with egg and dart moulds. According
+to Diodorus Sicculus, the temple of Erictheus
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">[61]</span>was erected in his honour by the Athenians,
+in gratitude for his having instructed them in the
+worship of Ceres, Goddess of Agriculture. While
+Pausanias states that it contained the miraculous
+spring created by Neptune, who shared in its dedication.</p>
+
+<p>There are three windows in the wall of the cella—unusual
+features in Greek architecture—and the
+levels of the temples are different, evidently so arranged,
+with a view to distinguish them the more
+completely.</p>
+
+<p>The temple of the Wingless Victory is supposed
+to have been erected where Ægeus fell from the
+wall upon seeing the black sails of his son’s ship
+returning after his victory over the Minotaur.
+Others again assert that it was built without reference
+to site and so-called because the Athenians
+considered victory would never leave them, and
+consequently needed no wings. The temple is
+composed of a cella and two porches of four
+columns each, supporting a beautifully decorated
+entablature.</p>
+
+<p>At the base of the Acropolis stood the resident
+portion of the city, containing also other temples
+and public buildings, which are still standing.
+The most important are the temple of Theseus,
+the Tower of the Winds, the theatre of Bacchus,
+and the monument of Lysicrates. Besides these
+there are many Roman buildings, but they belong
+to a subsequent period.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">[62]</span></p>
+<p>Plutarch says that the Athenians under Cimon
+erected the temple of Theseus on his return from
+Crete, and that it is of older construction than the
+temple of Minerva. It has six columns in the front
+and thirteen in flank, supporting marble beams the
+extremities of which rest on the inner wall and correspond
+on the other with the triglyphs on the outer
+face. The metopes had carvings representing the
+exploits of Theseus. The temple stands at the base
+of the Acropolis to the North; it is similar to the
+Parthenon in many respects, being of the same
+Doric order, though less rich in sculpture. It is
+the best preserved of all the monuments, having
+suffered but little during the twenty-two centuries
+it has existed.</p>
+
+<p>The Tower of the Winds, erected by Adronichus
+Cyrrhastes, is an octagonal structure surmounted by
+a frieze, upon which the eight winds of heaven are
+carved in allegorical figures. The roof is a pyramid
+of marble slabs and was at one time surmounted
+by a bronze triton holding a switch, which answered
+the purpose of a vane, but has since disappeared.
+The building was used as a water-clock.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp35" id="facing062" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/facing062.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      PLAN OF THE TEMPLE OF THESEUS AT ATHENS.
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The choragic monument of Lysicrates, commonly
+called the Lantern of Demosthenes, is a circular
+structure of the Corinthian order. The spaces intervening
+between its six columns are closed by
+panels of a single stone upon which trivets are
+carved. The stone roof is decorated with scales
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">[63]</span>and surmounted by a finial of delicate workmanship.
+On this was placed the tripod of the choir
+which had been successful in the Olympian contest
+of the year 375 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, according to inscription.</p>
+
+<p>There are other Corinthian buildings scattered
+throughout Greece, but this is generally taken to
+be the best example and its proportions followed.
+The carvings of the frieze depict the exploits of
+Hercules, who is represented clothed in the traditional
+lion’s skin.</p>
+
+<p>On the opposite slope of the hill are the ruined
+chairs and benches of the theatre of Bacchus, fronting
+an open stage. In building a theatre, the Northern
+slope of a hillside was generally selected for
+the site, in order to avoid the direct solar rays.
+Seats were provided for the audience by cutting
+circular tiers in the rock and a marble stage, profusely
+ornamented, was erected facing them. The
+stage was raised in order that the orchestra might
+not interfere with the view of the actors, and a portico
+adjoining it, served as a promenade during the
+intervals in the performance.</p>
+
+<p>The stadium, or circus, of Athens was formed in
+this way, taking in plan the shape of a horseshoe.
+It was here that the public games and races took
+place, the upper or circular end being occupied by
+the seats of the judges. It belongs, however, to a
+later period, having been constructed in the time of
+the Roman Emperor Hadrian. A few years ago
+the King of Greece caused the stadium to be excavated,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">[64]</span>and several marble chairs and seats were discovered.</p>
+
+<p>Each city of importance possessed a Palæstra, or
+gymnasium, in which were rooms for bathing in hot
+or cold water, for the wrestlers to anoint themselves
+with oil and fine dust, and a school for young
+lads. The building was enclosed by a portico and
+surrounded by pleasure-grounds in which the public
+exercises took place.</p>
+
+<p>The private dwellings were of one story in height,
+surmounted by terraces and divided by courts. The
+women’s apartments were separated from the men’s,
+and the larger houses contained banqueting-halls with
+accommodation for musicians and singers. The
+furniture consisted of tables in wood and choice
+stone, vases, candelabra, tripods in bronze, and rich
+Oriental carpets.</p>
+
+<p>Externally the houses were painted brilliantly
+and decorated with wreaths, garlands, and arms.
+Outside the entrance door stood the statue of the
+god of the household—Jupiter, Minerva, or Mercury.</p>
+
+<p>The richer citizens preferred country villas to
+city residences, which they surrounded with ornamental
+gardens and woods. The groves of the
+Academy where Plato held his school in the shade
+of the olives, outside the city gates, are probably
+the most celebrated of the latter.</p>
+
+<p>The dead were buried in necropoli without the
+city, and their place of interment marked by tombs
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_65">[65]</span>in the form of pyramids or funeral pyres, or more
+simply by a stella, or upright tablet, inscribed with
+the name and virtues of the deceased, and upon
+which were carved scenes in his life. In the colonies
+in Asia Minor the system of excavating chambers
+in the rock was adopted, the entrance to them
+being marked by Ionic columns supporting entablatures
+and pediments.</p>
+
+<p>The public buildings of Athens were built of
+white marble from the island of Paros and the
+mountain quarries of Pentelicus, resembling in its
+fracture the purest loaf-sugar. The sun and rain
+have stained them to a tawny red during the many
+ages which have passed over them, and nearly all
+trace of the various dyes, with which they are supposed
+to have been coloured, has disappeared to-day.</p>
+
+<p>The Greeks built their walls of bonded masonry,
+the vertical joints coming in the centres of the
+stones above and below, and they were frequently additionally
+strengthened by metal anchors. In walls
+of unusual thickness it was customary to construct
+the inside and outside faces first and fill the intervening
+spaces with loose stones and mortar, with
+an occasional through stone to connect the parts and
+bind them together.</p>
+
+<p>The joints were sometimes emphasized by grooves,
+but this ornament was used more frequently in Roman
+work.</p>
+
+<p>Until its introduction by the Romans the arch
+was rarely, if ever, employed, and the limit of inter-columniation
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_66">[66]</span>was restricted by the necessity of finding
+stones of sufficient length to form the architraves.</p>
+
+<p>The roofs were generally of wood, covered with
+terra-cotta tiles or sheet metal, and left open at intervals
+for the admission of light. This is, however,
+a disputed point, as the wood, being perishable, has
+left no positive proofs of the method employed.
+It appears that an awning or sail was stretched
+over these openings when services were being held.
+It is probable that in many instances there was no
+light admitted, except that from the entrance door.
+The effect of a religious ceremony performed in
+the temples by the artificial light of torches, with
+the flickering fires from the tripods and votive stands
+reflected upon the ivory and gold of the statues, and
+the smoke wreathing weirdly above the heads of
+the assembled multitude, must have been infinitely
+more impressive than if lit by the colder light of
+day.</p>
+
+<p>The Greek colonists carried the principles of
+their architecture with them, leaving monuments of
+their genius wherever they established themselves.
+Of the temple of Diana, at Ephesus, nothing but
+a few fluted drums and scattered fragments remain
+to-day. It was the most magnificent temple of the
+Ionic order, erected with lavish expenditure, and
+decorated within with panels of cedar wood. It
+was burned and pillaged by the Persians.</p>
+
+<p>At Agrigentum, in Sicily, and Pæstum, in Southern
+Italy, there are several Doric temples of massive
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_67">[67]</span>proportions. Of these the temples of Concord, Jupiter,
+and Neptune are the most notable. The columns
+are shorter and their capitals broader than the
+Athenian type, and in one instance there are two
+orders superposed, within the cella, to support the
+roof.</p>
+
+<p>The Greeks erected buildings in many parts of
+Southern Europe, in Asia Minor, and in Egypt, and
+in later times, even under the Roman conquest, they
+remained the masters of the arts, teaching their
+principles and supervising the erection of the monuments
+of Rome. The race was, indeed, peculiarly
+endowed with a genius for creating the beautiful,
+for though we have but scant information on the
+subject of Greek painting, we have preserved to us
+examples of sculpture which have never been surpassed
+or even equalled, and in architecture, though
+many more elaborate buildings have since been
+erected, nothing has ever been produced worthy of
+comparison with the harmonious proportions and
+majestic simplicity of the temples of Attica.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"><div class="chapter"><p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_68">[68]</span></p>
+
+
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="V">V.
+<br>
+ETRURIA AND ROME.</h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="frstwrd">Etruria</span> was peopled, from remote ages, by
+the indigenous inhabitants, and by colonizing
+races from Asia and Greece.</p>
+
+<p>To the latter may be attributed the chief architectural
+works of the country; the ancient Etruscan
+walled cities resembling, in their general construction,
+those of Tiryns and Mycenæ.</p>
+
+<p>Judging from the remains found upon the soil at
+the present day, the Etruscans used their knowledge
+of the laws of building principally in the erection
+of tombs. Of temples there now remain no traces;
+but, according to Vitruvius, they were composed, as
+a rule, of the rectangular chamber, or cella, of the
+Greeks, which was divided into three parts, and preceded
+by a porch of Tuscan columns. The origin
+of the latter he describes as follows:</p>
+
+<p>“The Greek colonists, having brought to Etruria,
+the Tuscany of to-day, their acquaintance with the
+proportions of the Doric order, which was the only
+one as yet used in Greece, they employed this order
+there during a long period, in the same manner as
+in the country where it originated; but finally they
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_69">[69]</span>changed it in several respects; they lengthened the
+column, and added a base to it; they altered the
+capital, simplified the entablature, and, thus changed,
+it was adopted by the Romans, under the name of
+the Tuscan order.”</p>
+
+<p>Etruscan tombs varied with the nature of the districts
+in which they were erected. In the flat portions
+of the country they consisted usually of an
+earthen cone raised upon a circular foundation of
+masonry, with one or more chambers within for the
+reception of the dead. The largest of these tumuli
+was that called the Cucumella, at Vulci.</p>
+
+<p>In the mountains, where material was abundant,
+it was customary to bury the dead in a square stone
+chamber, surmounted by a pyramidal roof, and entered
+by a doorway ornamented with the Greek
+architrave. There are several examples of these at
+Castel d’Asso.</p>
+
+<p>A third form of sepulchre was the hypogee, or
+underground tomb, the entrance to which was
+marked by a colonnade of the Tuscan order, carved
+in the face of the rock; the interior apartment
+being usually rectangular, and reached by a staircase.
+The walls were decorated with paintings, and
+the tomb filled with vases, tripods, arms, and other
+votive offerings. The body was generally either
+placed in a stone sarcophagus or laid upon a bronze
+bed. The ceilings in the older tombs were either
+flat, being cut in the natural rock, with piers left as
+supports, and ornamented with sunken panels, or
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_70">[70]</span>constructed of inclined slabs, resting against and sustaining
+each other.</p>
+
+<p>The corbelled vaults, similar to those of Mycenæ,
+were employed for a considerable number of these
+buildings, but were subsequently relinquished for
+vaults of voussoirs, or wedge-shaped stones. The
+invention of the semicircular vault, the joints of
+which converge to a common centre, was long attributed
+to the Etruscans, but we have seen that
+recent discoveries have shown that it was already
+in use in Egypt and Assyria many centuries before.</p>
+
+<p>This principle, however, was the chief feature of
+Etruscan architecture, and its great legacy to succeeding
+styles.</p>
+
+<p>Etruria as well as Greece sent artists to Rome,
+and the conjunction of the methods used in the two
+countries produced Roman art.</p>
+
+<p>“The Romans took from the Etruscans the semicircular
+arch, formed of jointed stones; from the
+populations of the Campagna they obtained the
+general arrangement of sacred edifices, the Greek
+orders, the distribution and decoration of private
+dwellings. They drew thus from two different
+sources, and endeavoured to unite two principles
+diametrically opposed to one another—the principle
+of the Greek lintel and the Etruscan arch. In
+doing this they show clearly that their ideas upon
+the arts were but little better than those of pirates,
+whose acts are actuated by pride rather than by
+taste, and who adorn themselves in spoils of distinctly
+different origin, the mingling of which produces
+unseemly contrasts.”<a id="FNanchor_3_3" href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_3_3" href="#FNanchor_3_3" class="label">[3]</a> Entretiens sur l’Architecture.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100 p2" id="facing070-71" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/facing070-71.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+<table class="autotable wd100"><tr>
+<td class="tdc wd20"><span class=pad2>TUSCAN.</span></td>
+<td class="tdc wd20"><span class=pad2>DORIC.</span></td>
+<td class="tdc wd20">IONIC.</td>
+<td class="tdc wd20">CORINTHIAN.</td>
+<td class="tdc wd20">COMPOSITE.</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tdc" colspan="5">
+THE ROMAN ORDERS.</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl" colspan="3">
+
+<ul class="caption fs60">
+<li>    PEDESTAL.  BASE.  COLUMN.  SHAFT.   </li>
+<li>CAPITAL ARCHITRAVE FRIEZE.  ENTABLATURE.  CORNICE.</li>
+<li>    WASH. OVOLO. ASTRAGAL. CORONA. ASTRAGAL. CYMA REVERSA.</li>
+<li>    TENIA.  FACIA.</li>
+<li>    ABACUS. OVOLO. NECK. ASTRAGAL.</li>
+<li>    FILLET. TORUS. PLINTH.</li>
+</ul>
+
+</td>
+
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_71">[71]</span>In fact, the Greek orders, modified to suit the
+taste of the Romans, and combined with the Etruscan
+arch and vault, formed the basis of all Roman
+architecture. The scale of their buildings, however,
+was vastly greater than that of those upon which
+they were modelled. The colonnades of their palaces
+and the arcades of their aqueducts were to be
+measured by the mile, the vaults of their baths were
+of prodigious span, and, in general size and number,
+the edifices erected by the Romans exceeded anything
+which had come before them.</p>
+
+<p>The Roman orders were five in number, namely,
+the Tuscan, Doric, Ionic, Corinthian, and Composite.</p>
+
+<p>The Tuscan we have already examined. The
+Doric was somewhat more elaborate, having additional
+mouldings in the capital and base, and the
+triglyph ornament in the frieze. The Ionic and Corinthian
+were but modifications of the corresponding
+Greek orders. The Composite was of the same
+proportion as the Corinthian, the capital being a
+combination of the Ionic and Corinthian.</p>
+
+<p>The Corinthian order was the most generally used,
+its rich character suiting the ostentatious ideas of
+the Romans. The superposition of columns was a
+common method of indicating different stories, and
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_72">[72]</span>different orders were often employed where different-sized
+columns occurred in the same building.</p>
+
+<p>In plan the Roman buildings were rectangular,
+polygonal, and circular, or combinations of these
+geometrical forms. The materials used were local
+stone, imported marbles and alabaster, and bricks,
+which were flatter and longer than the form employed
+at the present day. The Romans excelled in
+their mortars and cements, which were of a strength
+sufficient to make their walls virtually of one mass.</p>
+
+<p>In bonding their stone they employed various
+methods, including those of the Greeks. Of these,
+a favourite one was the building of exterior faces
+only, and filling up the intervening space with broken
+stone and mortar. In order to produce the greatest
+effect at the least cost, in the use of marble, they resorted
+to panelling the external surfaces only with
+thin slabs. Interiors were lined with stucco and frequently
+ornamented with paintings, and the floors
+inlaid with mosaic. Roman mouldings were sections
+of the sphere, differing from the Greek, which
+were hyperbolas or parabolas.</p>
+
+<p>The chief constructions of the Romans were
+houses, temples, palaces, amphitheatres, theatres,
+aqueducts, sewers, baths, triumphal arches, tombs
+and commemorative structures, camps, bridges, and
+basilicas.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp65" id="facing073" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/facing073.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      PALACE OF DIOCLETIAN AT SPALATRO.
+<br>
+    (<i>From Durand.</i>)
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>In, and in close proximity to, the Forum Romanum,
+or Campo Vaccino, are admirable examples of nearly
+all these different buildings. The level of the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_73">[73]</span>ancient market-place is several feet below that of the
+streets of modern Rome, but in the excavated portions
+are to be seen the old pavements of irregular
+stone slabs, laid upon concrete foundations and worn
+with the wheels of chariots.</p>
+
+<p>Many ruined temples, the arches of Septimius
+Severus, of Titus and Constantine, the palace of the
+Cæsars, the Colosseum, and the Baths of Constantine
+are collected here within a stone’s throw. By
+taking up each class of buildings separately, however,
+we will get a better idea of the nature of Roman
+architecture than by a description of isolated buildings.</p>
+
+<p>Roman houses resembled in a measure the Greek,
+the different apartments being grouped around inner
+courts. The rooms consisted of halls, vestibules,
+banqueting-rooms, and sleeping-chambers, the women
+not being separated from the men, as was the case in
+Greece. The courts were surrounded by colonnades
+and in the centre a well was usually placed, to receive
+the water from the roofs. Many of the houses
+were several stories in height, but a limit to their
+altitude was fixed by decree.</p>
+
+<p>The excavations in Pompeii have uncovered many
+interesting specimens of private dwellings, richly
+decorated with several paintings and having elaborate
+mosaic patterns on their floors.</p>
+
+<p>In the city of Rome the palace of the Cæsars was
+the most notable example of domestic architecture,
+but at the present day it is difficult to discern among
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_74">[74]</span>the débris and fallen walls what its original plan may
+have been. Some paintings in the so-called house
+of Livia, upon the plateau of the palace, however,
+show that the artists of the period had attained a
+high degree of merit.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp50" id="facing074" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/facing074.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      PLAN OF THE PANTHEON AT ROME
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Roman temples consisted generally of a cella or
+rectangular apartment, preceded by a porch, the
+whole being raised on a platform, reached by stairs
+and enclosed by a colonnade below. Occasionally
+there was a double cella, with separate entrances
+and porches, as in that of Venus and Rome; and
+there are two remaining examples of circular temples—that
+of Vesta, on the Tiber, in Rome, and of
+the Sybil, at Tivoli—while still another type, that of
+the Pantheon of Agrippa, had a circular cella and a
+rectangular porch.</p>
+
+<p>The Corinthian order was the most frequently employed,
+that of the temple of Jupiter Stator being
+the richest, while those of the Pantheon, the Maison
+Carrée, at Nîmes, and of the temple of Antonine and
+Faustina are admirable specimens.</p>
+
+<p>This last is one of the best preserved temples, being
+very nearly entire at the present time; its frieze
+is of the most refined workmanship, representing
+allegorical animals, plants, etc.</p>
+
+<p>The temple of Fortuna Virilis is a good example of
+the Ionic order, but this order was never a favourite
+with the Romans.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="facing075" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/facing075.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      PLAN OF THE BATHS OF AGRIPPA CONNECTING WITH THE PANTHEON, ACCORDING TO PALLADIO.
+
+    (<i>From Durand</i>)
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>A debased form of Ionic is that of the temple of
+Concord, or Vespasian, where the capital is altered
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_75">[75]</span>to a considerable extent and a rope moulding added.
+A remarkable constructional feature of this temple
+is the relieving arch of brick, concealed behind the
+frieze, to diminish the weight on the lintel below.</p>
+
+<p>The great drum of the Pantheon, enclosed by a
+circular vault, is one of the earliest examples of
+domical architecture. A notable feature in it is the
+absence of the keystone, which is replaced here by
+an open ring, leaving an aperture for the entrance
+of light. The walls are pierced with niches and
+relieved by immense arches. The pediment of the
+porch is one of the most perfect remaining; in
+height its proportion exceeds that of Greek temples.</p>
+
+<p>The temple of Diana, at Nîmes, is a remarkable
+structure, having three aisles, the central one being
+decorated with niches and columns, which support
+an entablature and a ribbed vault.</p>
+
+<p>The ruined temples of Baalbek and of Jupiter
+Olympius, at Athens, are among the most colossal
+of this class of building. The Corinthian columns
+of the latter measure upward of sixty feet, and their
+capitals are of singularly fine workmanship.</p>
+
+<p>The Emperor Hadrian embellished Athens with
+numerous and splendid buildings, which to-day have
+assumed the colour and ruined appearance of the
+older constructions of the time of Pericles.</p>
+
+<p>Of the temple of Jupiter Olympius there are
+scarcely more than a dozen columns standing of
+the original one hundred and twenty. The Turks
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_76">[76]</span>ground up many of them to make lime for their
+mortar.</p>
+
+<p>The Romans took their conception of the theatre
+from the Greeks. The building was composed of
+two parts, the one devoted to the stage and its
+accessories, and the other to the accommodation of
+the audience. The stage was usually in the form
+of a rectangle, the longer side of which formed the
+diameter of the semicircle, which was the plan of
+the second part. The latter was composed of concentric
+seats in successive steps, to which access was
+had by stairs radiating from the centre and leading
+to an upper surrounding gallery. At the foot of
+these steps a space was reserved called the orchestra
+(Greek, “dancing place”), usually occupied by the
+senators. The stage, which was decorated with
+columns and niches, was raised above the orchestra,
+and was connected with the actors’ rooms. The
+wall at the back of the stage was carried up to the
+level of the circular enclosing wall, and treated with
+superposed orders. The theatre of Marcellus, in
+Rome, and those of Herculaneum, Arles, and Orange
+are among the best examples.</p>
+
+<p>The most celebrated amphitheatre (amphi theatron,
+Greek, “double theatre”) is that commonly
+known as the Colosseum, or Flavian Amphitheatre.
+It is composed of the arena or oval space, occupied
+by the combatants, and of the “visorium,” formed by
+concentric seats placed in tiers, one above the other.</p>
+
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp35" id="facing076" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/facing076.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      PLAN OF THE TEMPLE OF THE SUN AT BAALBEK.
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>It was capable of seating eighty thousand spectators,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_77">[77]</span>and upon its arena four thousand gladiators
+have fought at a time. It was here that before
+commencing their combats they came to the foot of
+the emperor’s throne, saluting him with the celebrated
+cry, “Morituri te salutamus.”</p>
+
+<p>The substructure of the building consists of
+vaulted passages, communicating with the visorium
+by numerous staircases, and with the exterior by the
+doors called “vomitoria.” The arena was surrounded
+by a ditch of running water, and under
+it were chambers in which prisoners and animals
+were confined.</p>
+
+<p>The visorium was divided according to the rank
+of its occupants. The upper classes occupied the
+“podium” or lower gallery, which extended on either
+side of the emperor’s throne, at the extremity of the
+longer axis of the building. For protection from
+the elements during performances an immense sail
+was stretched over the building from posts inserted
+in stone brackets at the top of the exterior wall.</p>
+
+<p>The heights of the three lower stories of the
+Colosseum are marked externally by arcades and
+superposed orders with engaged columns, Doric,
+Ionic, and Corinthian, and the fourth and upper one
+by Corinthian pilasters. The entablatures of each
+order are carried around the entire circumference
+of the building.</p>
+
+<p>Architects generally criticise this construction adversely,
+for “if, on the one hand, the engaged columns
+might be supposed to serve as buttresses and thus
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_78">[78]</span>become a useful decoration, it must be admitted, on
+the other, that the projecting entablatures carried
+from column to column do more harm than good
+as regards the solidity of the building. [The architrave
+having no longer the force of the Greek lintel,
+being composed of several blocks supported by the
+arch below.] The Romans, however, did not always
+falsely apply the true principles of architecture. In
+the arena of Nîmes, for instance, the two superposed
+orders which serve as buttresses between the arcades
+of the two stories on the exterior of that building,
+are real buttresses. The lower order is composed
+of projecting piers, the upper order of engaged
+columns; the cornices follow the contour of each
+pilaster or column and do not form those projecting
+belts which are placed so clumsily and uselessly
+around such buildings as the theatre of Marcellus
+and the Colosseum of Rome.”<a id="FNanchor_4_4" href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_4_4" href="#FNanchor_4_4" class="label">[4]</a> Viollet le Duc.</p></div>
+</div>
+<p>This amphitheatre was commenced by Vespasian
+and continued under Titus, who dedicated it in the
+year 80 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> In the ninth century it was half destroyed,
+and subsequently became a quarry, from
+which materials were extracted for the construction
+of the Farnese palace and other buildings.</p>
+
+<p>A large part, however, is standing to-day, having
+been rescued from total destruction by order of Pope
+Benoit XIV.</p>
+
+<p>There are celebrated remains of amphitheatres at
+Verona, Pola, Capua, Arles, and Nîmes.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_79">[79]</span></p>
+<p>Circuses and Naumachias belong to the same class
+of buildings, the one serving for chariot and other
+races, and the other for naval combats. The arena
+in each was oval in plan and from it rose the successive
+tiers of broad steps upon which the seats
+were ranged. At the top a portico decorated with
+statues enclosed the whole building.</p>
+
+<p>The Circus Maximus was the most important of
+these, containing numerous splendid statues and
+obelisks, and covering a vast area.</p>
+
+<p>The aqueducts of ancient Rome stretched for
+miles across the Campagna. The channel in which
+the water flowed was supported by one or more arcades,
+superposed according to the height required.
+These arcades consisted of round brick arches carried
+on substantial piers, and were placed where possible
+upon the highest elevations of the country they
+traversed. At intervals wide basins were provided
+for the collection of sediment, and reservoirs received
+the water at their termination. From the latter
+pipes supplied the baths and private dwellings.</p>
+
+<p>In France the famous Pont du Gard is a portion
+of an immense Roman aqueduct formed of three
+rows of arcades, which supplied the city of Nîmes.</p>
+
+<p>Bridges were constructed on the same principle;
+the arches increasing their span according to the
+depth of the piers upon which they rested, being
+generally of two stories, the upper one having double
+the number of piers.</p>
+
+<p>The Roman bridges and aqueducts in Spain are
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_80">[80]</span>among the most justly celebrated, notably those of
+Segovia, Tarragona, and Alcantara. Bridging rivers
+by boats was a common method in use by the Roman
+armies under Julius Cæsar. We have also an account
+of a wooden bridge over the Danube, constructed
+by Trajan.</p>
+
+<p>Under every street in Rome there ran vaulted
+sewers conducting all impurities into the main artery,
+called the Cloaca Maxima, which in turn discharged
+its contents into the Tiber. This sewer is
+one of the oldest examples of the use of voussoirs,
+dating from the reign of Tarquinius Priscus. It is
+covered by a triple vault, sustaining the street above.</p>
+
+<p>Agrippa conducted the waters of several streams
+into the sewers and appointed inspectors to keep
+them in repair and good order.</p>
+
+<p>In the building of the baths of Rome, Agrippa,
+Nero, Vespasian, Caracalla, Titus, Diocletian, and
+Constantine vied with each other in the production
+of the most magnificent structures. They are to-day
+in a hopelessly ruined condition, but from the numerous
+fragments of carved marble and panelled
+stucco lying on their sites, and from the rich paintings
+and mosaics of the baths of Titus and Caracalla,
+it is not difficult to form an idea of their
+original splendour.</p>
+
+<p>It is not a little significant of what their rich
+decoration must have been to note that such marvels
+of statuary as the Laocoon, the Farnese Bull, and
+the Gladiators have been discovered within them.
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_81">[81]</span>Besides the necessary administrative rooms, these
+buildings generally contained a frigidarium or cold
+bath, a tepidarium or warm bath, and a sudatorium,
+circular in form and covered in by a dome.
+The walls, built of brick, were pierced with niches
+and supported high cross and barrel vaults of immense
+span. It has been conjectured that the Pantheon
+was the entrance hall of the baths of Agrippa,
+the porch having been added at a later period when
+the building was converted into a temple.</p>
+
+<p>The chief commemorative structures were triumphal
+arches and votive columns. The former were
+of two kinds, having either one main arched opening,
+or a large central arch for vehicles and two
+lower ones on either side for foot passengers. The
+arch of Titus in Rome is an example of the first, its
+main arch being flanked by composite columns, supporting
+a richly carved entablature, which is in
+turn surmounted by an attic, inscribed with the dedication
+to the conqueror by the Senate and Roman
+people. The bassi relievi employed in its decoration
+represent the sacking of Jerusalem by Titus;
+a specially notable feature among the spoils depicted
+being the golden candelabra with the seven
+sockets, mentioned in Scripture history.</p>
+
+<p>The arches of Constantine and Septimius Severus
+are of the second category. They are covered with
+rich sculpture and are of very beautiful proportion.
+Famous arches are those of Orange in the
+south of France, Beneventum, Ancona, Rimini,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_82">[82]</span>Pola, and Athens. Everywhere, in fact, where a victory
+was to be commemorated, or the termination
+of a great military road to be marked, it was customary
+to erect an arch.</p>
+
+<p>Another method of paying homage to great
+men was to erect columns surmounted by their
+statues. The columns of Trajan and Antoninus in
+Rome are especially remarkable. The former is the
+higher and of the best workmanship. The pedestal
+upon which it rests is ornamented with elaborate
+carvings representing the arms of conquered nations,
+and is enriched at the four upper corners of its cornice
+by imperial eagles with garlands suspended
+between them. A wreath replaces the torus or
+round mould at the base of the column, and
+around the shaft is wound a ribbon of sculpture,
+representing a triumphal procession, which
+terminates at the capital. Isolated columns were
+also often employed for the inscription of legal
+notices, as boundary-marks, or for marking military
+limits.</p>
+
+<p>The gates at the entrances of the principal cities
+were similar to the triumphal arches. There are
+two especially fine examples in France, those of
+Autun and Treves. In these the attic story is replaced
+by a gallery connecting the two flanking
+wings, which are several stories in height, and contain
+chambers which it is commonly supposed were
+used as courts of justice.</p>
+
+<p>Roman camps were regulated and arranged with
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_83">[83]</span>military precision, and were of two descriptions. The
+one, erected for temporary use, was defended by a
+rude palisade of branches and a ditch, the other,
+the “castra hiberna,” or winter quarters, was generally
+a permanent structure, built of brick, containing
+within a square enclosure the barracks, workshops,
+hospitals, and other necessary buildings.
+This enclosure was divided by cross-roads, passing
+through gates in the outer wall. The gate facing
+the enemy was called the porta prætoria, hence
+prætorian camp.</p>
+
+<p>Necrological monuments were built in various
+forms, from the simple tablet to the immense mausoleums
+of the emperors. Just without the walls
+of Rome are still to be seen the remains of the
+sepulchre of Caius Sestius, a large pyramid containing
+a chamber several feet above the ground level.
+Farther out, on the Appian Way, is the tomb of Cæcilia
+Metella, a cylindrical structure upon a square
+base, of considerable magnitude. The exterior is
+simple, the only decoration being a series of ox-skulls
+in the frieze. This building was probably originally
+surmounted by an earthen cone, after the manner
+of the Etruscan tombs.</p>
+
+<p>The tomb of Augustus was constructed in a similar
+manner but on a larger scale. The entrance
+was preceded by a porch and the exterior walls
+contained niches. The conical mound above was
+planted with trees and shrubbery.</p>
+
+<p>The Scipios were buried in stone sarcophagi in a
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_84">[84]</span>subterranean chamber, which has been but recently
+discovered.</p>
+
+<p>A curious monument was that of the Horatii,
+consisting of a rectangular block of masonry, containing
+the sepulchre, surmounted by four stone
+cones, grouped around a fifth and higher one.
+These probably had a symbolical meaning, as a similar
+structure, called the tomb of Porsenna, is said
+to have existed in Etruria.</p>
+
+<p>By far the most magnificent building of the kind
+was the Mausoleum, or Mole of Hadrian, the ruins
+of which now go by the name of the Castel St. Angelo.
+The tomb rose conspicuously on the banks
+above the Tiber, on a square foundation; its two
+upper stories were circular in plan, and decorated
+with colonnades and statuary, and the whole was
+capped by an immense roof, terminated by a pineapple
+of bronze.</p>
+
+<p>The tombs of St. Helena and St. Costanza were
+circular structures similar to that of Cæcilia Metella,
+the cone of earth, however, being replaced by
+a dome. The interior of the tomb of St. Costanza
+was divided by columns which sustained a vault
+connecting with the outer wall.</p>
+
+<p>The practice of burning bodies and preserving
+their ashes gave rise also to the building of columbariums,
+rectangular structures containing in their
+walls receptacles for funereal urns.</p>
+
+<p>In the valley of Jerusalem the hypogee was the
+form of sepulchre commonly adopted, its entrance
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_85">[85]</span>being decorated with a colonnade of one of the
+Roman orders.</p>
+
+<p>Basilicas were the law courts of the Roman
+people and places of assembly for the transaction of
+their daily affairs. On the exterior, these buildings
+were surrounded by numerous courts and porticos,
+where the merchants assembled daily to discuss
+their affairs or to await the result of the trials conducted
+within. In the interior they contained a
+large hall or nave flanked by side aisles, preceding a
+transept or further room which was terminated by
+a semicircular apse. This apse was occupied by
+the magistrate while presiding in the cases submitted
+to his decision.</p>
+
+<p>The ruins of the basilicas of Titus and Maxentius
+remain, at the present day, in sufficient preservation
+to show that in the one a flat ceiling of timber
+was employed, and in the other a system of intersecting
+vaults similar in construction to those of
+the baths of Caracalla. There are traces of several
+ancient buildings of this kind, but it is supposed
+that many were pulled down by the Christians, who
+erected churches on their sites, using the old basilica
+as their model.</p>
+
+<p>The plan was, in reality, but an improvement on
+that of the Roman temple, the side aisles and
+transepts being naturally developed additions to the
+older cella to which the apse had been added previously
+in many examples.</p>
+
+<p>The great administrative power governing the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_86">[86]</span>erection of the buildings of Rome was one of the
+most remarkable features connected with them.
+Architecture with the Romans was a means to an
+end, this end being the construction of edifices suiting
+their requirements and their desire for display. No
+scope was allowed for individual talent or ingenuity,
+unless employed in the carrying out of a distinct
+programme, laid down by those in power; each
+building forming part of a great scheme, prevailing
+throughout the conquered world.</p>
+
+<p>In Greece architectural works were produced in
+the different cities and states under the guidance of
+independent artists, with the co-operation of their
+fellow-citizens who were eager to attain the true principles
+of art; in Rome and the Roman world, art
+was entirely subservient to a system of politics which
+ran through all departments.</p>
+
+<p>The vast wealth which flowed into the capital
+from tributary provinces was the great mainstay
+which permitted the execution of so many vast and
+expensive structures, forming a collection never surpassed.
+Roman art corresponded with the national
+character, for it was coarse and ostentatious, but at
+the same time vast and strong. The population of
+Athens delighted in intellectual pursuits, in philosophy,
+in art; it crowded the seats on the slope of
+the Acropolis to enjoy the wit and satire of Æschylus
+and Sophocles, and the palæstra to witness the
+development of bodily grace and dexterity, while the
+Romans flocked to the Colosseum for the enjoyment
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_87">[87]</span>of scenes of blood and carnage, to gaze upon the
+slaughter of captives and the anguish of animals.
+The force of their government, nevertheless, was unquestionable;
+their patriotism, unlike that of the
+Greeks, was unaffected by civic jealousies or party
+feeling; they trod rough-shod upon the nations, but
+they planted everywhere the imprint of their heroic
+civilization and made their capital the centre of the
+world, and left to it, for all ages, the proud appellation
+of the Eternal City.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"><div class="chapter"><p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_88">[88]</span></p>
+
+
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="VI">VI.
+<br><br>
+THE EARLY CHRISTIAN STYLE.</h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="frstwrd">After</span> the conversion of the Emperor Constantine
+to Christianity, in the fourth century,
+the Christians who, as a persecuted sect had hitherto
+held their religious observances in hiding, in
+the catacombs of Rome, adopted the basilica as
+the most convenient form of building for the purposes
+of their worship. The bishop occupied a throne
+in the apse, surrounded by the presbyters or fathers
+of the church, and the congregation of the faithful
+filled the central nave.</p>
+
+<p>For several centuries this plan was but little
+changed, the only notable additions to it being the
+continuation of the transept beyond the line of the
+walls of the nave, thus making it cruciform; the occasional
+substitution of double aisles, making five
+divisions in the body of the church, instead of the
+original three, and the addition of a tower or belfry.</p>
+
+<p>All subsequent churches, whether Romanesque,
+Gothic, or Renaissance were constructed on but
+slight modifications of this original plan, which, in
+fact, was itself evolved from that of the Roman
+temple.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp40" id="facing089" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/facing089.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      PLAN OF THE OLD BASILICA OF ST. PAUL’S BEYOND THE WALLS.
+<br>
+<ul>
+<li class="caption">  A - Apse</li>
+<li class="caption">  T - Transept</li>
+<li class="caption">  N - Nave</li>
+<li class="caption">  X - Narthex</li>
+</ul>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_89">[89]</span></p>
+<p>The first basilicas erected for Christian worship
+had double aisles; this form was, however, soon discontinued,
+probably owing to the difficulty of observing
+the offices of the clergy from the outer aisle.
+Of these St. Peter’s, St. Paul’s beyond the walls, and
+St. John Lateran were the finest examples. The first-named
+was built upon the site of the present cathedral,
+and was removed in the sixteenth century to
+make room for it. Its dimensions were of notable
+size, being about 380 feet long by 212 feet in width.
+It was preceded by an atrium, or open court, surrounded
+by a colonnade, in which the Christians met
+to transact their affairs. The basilica of St. Paul’s
+was destroyed by fire in the early part of this century,
+and a new structure resembling the old was
+erected in its place on a scale of great magnificence.
+The columns of its Corinthian colonnade and the
+floor are of polished marble and the wooden roof
+lavishly ornamented with carving and gilding. The
+transept is enriched with mosaics, and contains a
+baldachin over the altar, in which malachite and
+other choice stones have been used unsparingly.</p>
+
+<p>A typical basilica was generally arranged as follows:
+The atrium or quadrangular open court, surrounded
+by porticos, preceded the main building, or
+was replaced by a porch composed of columns sustaining
+a low roof which was called the narthex. Within,
+the structure was divided into a nave, side aisles,
+transept, and apse. The nave (derived from “navis,”
+a vessel, symbolical of that of St. Peter) was loftier
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_90">[90]</span>than the adjoining aisles, the upper wall being
+usually panelled with pictures and pierced at the
+top by a range of windows, from which the Gothic
+clerestory was derived later on. In one or two instances
+where the side aisles had a second story or
+upper gallery for the women, the panels and windows
+were placed in the outer wall.</p>
+
+<p>The interior lines of columns were usually of the
+Ionic or Corinthian orders, having been taken from
+older buildings, but if new they were of stouter
+proportions than the Classical models. These columns
+supported either a continuous architrave or
+circular arches.</p>
+
+<p>Wooden doors, often covered by chased bronze,
+were hung in the main entrance and the wall above
+was usually pierced by a round window or bull’s-eye,
+afterward developed into the rose window. At
+the other end of the nave a wide arched opening,
+called the triumphal arch, connected it with the
+transept.</p>
+
+<p>An enclosure, separated from the body of the
+church by a balustrade, at the upper end of the nave,
+contained the seats of the choristers and the reading-desks.</p>
+
+<p>The altar was placed in the transept and was frequently
+surmounted by a baldachin composed of
+four or six columns supporting a light dome. Behind
+the altar in the centre of the apse was the
+throne (cathedra) occupied by the bishop (episcopus),
+being raised by steps from the semicircular
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_91">[91]</span>stone seats (exedra) used by the presbyters, which
+were covered with carpets. The walls of the transept
+and apse were inlaid with mosaic inscriptions
+and pictures, in which the head of our Saviour,
+the figures of saints and holy emblems were the
+chief subjects. Deep blue, purple, and green were
+the prevailing colours and the letters were of gold.
+The floors were decorated with mosaic patterns.
+The roofs were either flat with sunken panels framed
+with mouldings and gilded ornaments, or else showed
+the open trussed wood-work, though the latter was
+the exception. Externally there was no attempt at
+enrichment, the exterior generally offering a great
+contrast to the lavish internal decorations.</p>
+
+<p>At the present day nearly all the basilicas have
+undergone transformation, the old roofs have been
+replaced, the walls covered with a modern adornment
+of pilasters and gaudy paintings, the colonnades
+have been broken through to allow of entrances
+to side-chapels, or disfigured by the heterogeneous
+decoration of the eighteenth century, and
+the exteriors treated with renaissance façades.</p>
+
+<p>Nevertheless the general plan and arrangements
+have remained substantially the same, and we have
+very interesting specimens of this class of building
+in St. Maria Maggiore, St. Agnese, San Clemente,
+and others, in Rome, San Appolinare, in Ravenna,
+the basilicas at Torcello, in the Venetian lagoons,
+and later examples in St. Ambrogio, of Milan, and St.
+Maria Sopra Minerva, in Rome.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_92">[92]</span></p>
+<p>The basilica at Torcello was built mainly from
+fragments of an older church upon the mainland
+at Altino. The bishop’s throne is one of the most
+interesting and best preserved examples we have.</p>
+
+<p>The Greek name for this, cathedra, was the origin
+of our term cathedral, applied to churches containing
+the bishop’s seat, there being no architectural distinction
+between the buildings.</p>
+
+<p>From the tombs of the Romans the Christians
+derived their conception of the edifices which they
+used as baptisteries. Their exterior walls were
+either polygonal or circular, and of severe simplicity.
+The interiors were generally divided by a
+row of columns sustaining a round vault, and forming
+a circular enclosure in which the font was
+placed. A wall, carried on these columns, contained
+windows, and served as a lantern to light the building.
+This wall occasionally supported a dome.
+San Stephano Rotondo, in Rome; St. Angeli, in
+Perugia, and St. Vitale, in Ravenna, are the best
+examples among the many found in Italy.</p>
+
+<p>San Stephano has a double range of interior columns,
+taken from Roman temples, the one supporting
+an entablature, and the other a series of arches.
+The church has been much modified by successive
+alterations, and the interior is ornamented with curious
+paintings, representing the sufferings of the
+martyrs.</p>
+
+<p>The baptistery of St. Angeli is smaller, but has
+preserved its original form in a greater degree.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp60" id="facing092" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/facing092.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      ST. VITALE, OF RAVENNA.
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="facing093" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/facing093.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      THE TEMPLE OF MINERVA MEDICA.
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_93">[93]</span></p>
+<p>St. Vitale is a type of structure much copied in
+subsequent buildings. It is itself modelled on the
+so-called temple of Minerva Medica, differing only
+in having an octagon instead of a decagon plan.
+Of this Fergusson gives the following account:</p>
+
+<p>“It certainly belongs to the best days of the Roman
+empire, if, indeed, it be not a Christian building,
+which I am very much inclined to believe it is,
+for on comparing it with the baptistery of Constantine
+and the tomb of St. Contanza, it shows a considerable
+advance in construction on both of these
+buildings, and a greater similarity to San Vitale,
+at Ravenna, and other buildings of that time, than
+to anything else now found in Rome.</p>
+
+<p>It has a dome eighty feet in diameter, resting on
+a decagon of singularly light and elegant construction.
+Nine of the compartments contain niches,
+which give great room on the floor, as well as variety
+and lightness to the general design. Above
+this is a clerestory of ten well-proportioned windows,
+which give light to the building; perhaps
+not in so effective a manner as the one eye of the
+Pantheon, though by a far more convenient arrangement,
+to protect from the elements a people who
+did not possess glass.</p>
+
+<p>“So far as I know, all domed buildings erected by
+the Romans up to the time of Constantine, and, indeed,
+long afterward, were circular in the interior,
+though they were sometimes octagonal externally.
+This, however, is a polygon both internally and on
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_94">[94]</span>the outside, and the mode in which the dome is
+placed on the polygon shows the first rudiments of
+the pendentive system, which was afterward carried
+to such perfection by the Byzantine architects, but
+is nowhere else to be found in Rome. It probably
+was for the purpose of somewhat diminishing the
+difficulties of this construction that the architect
+adopted a figure with ten instead of eight sides.”</p>
+
+<p>The plans of the temple of Vesta and of the baptistery
+of Constantine have been placed here next to
+one another in order to show the transposition of
+the columns from the exterior to the interior, which
+is the chief distinction between the Roman circular
+buildings and Christian baptisteries.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="facing094_1" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/facing094_1.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      THE TEMPLE OF VESTA, SOMETIMES CALLED THE TEMPLE OF HERCULES.
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp85" id="facing094_2" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/facing094_2.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      THE BAPTISTERY OF CONSTANTINE.
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"><div class="chapter"><p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_95">[95]</span></p>
+
+
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="VII">VII.
+<br><br>
+THE BYZANTINE STYLE.</h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="frstwrd">Constantine</span> and his mother St. Helena
+built churches in Bethlehem, Jerusalem, and
+Antioch, and embellished Constantinople with numerous
+splendid edifices. The Eastern basilicas
+preserved the same character in their construction
+as those of Italy, but their component parts were
+more homogeneous, the materials being specially
+prepared, instead of being borrowed from ancient
+buildings. The first vigour of emancipated Christianity
+found vent not only in the erection of
+edifices devoted to its religious observances, but in
+the infliction of irreparable injury upon the pagan
+monuments of Greece and Rome. Constantine
+brought many fragments of these Classical buildings
+to the new capital, but they have been destroyed,
+together with the palaces, churches, and baths which
+he built there, in successive invasions, by fire, or by
+earthquakes.</p>
+
+<p>In Thessalonica there are two good examples of
+early basilicas—the old mosque and the five-aisled
+church of St. Demetrius; and in Northern Syria there
+are many admirable specimens. Of these the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_96">[96]</span>churches at Rouheilia, Kalb-Louzeh, and Tourmanim
+deserve special mention.</p>
+
+<p>The latter is a particularly successful building,
+designed in the new style growing out of the older
+Roman one, and is a model structure, being constructed
+exactly in accordance with the requirements
+of the early Church.</p>
+
+<p>In plan, the Syrian conventual buildings depart
+but slightly from that of the basilicas of Rome, but
+in their interior treatment they show a gradual
+secession from the rules which govern Classical
+buildings, retaining only their useful and discarding
+their merely ornamental features.</p>
+
+<p>When the seat of the empire had been transferred
+to Byzance, the Christians carried with them
+the principles of the arch and the vault and combined
+them in a new form of structure. This construction,
+differing from that employed in Rome,
+combined with Eastern or late Greek forms of
+ornament, produced a new style called the Byzantine.</p>
+
+<p>The distinctive feature of this method of construction
+was the placing of the circular dome, not
+upon a cylindrical drum, as had been done by the
+Romans in the Pantheon and other buildings, but
+upon four walls, square in plan, surmounted by
+semicircular arches, with the intervening spaces
+occupied by pendentives. To each side of this
+central square was joined a nave of the same length,
+forming thus in plan a Greek cross, that is, one
+having each arm equally long. These naves were
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_97">[97]</span>usually short, more frequently semicircular than
+rectangular, and often terminated by an apse.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp40" id="facing097" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/facing097.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      THE PENDENTIVE SYSTEM IN BYZANTINE DOMES.
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>We have seen, in the baptistery of St. Vitale, at
+Ravenna (in which Greek artists were undoubtedly
+employed), a tendency to reduce the number of sides
+of polygonal buildings supporting circular domes;
+the architects of Byzance were therefore merely
+taking another step in the same direction when they
+placed the dome upon a quadrilateral substructure.</p>
+
+<p>To comprehend the pendentive, let us take a circle
+and inscribe within it a square; at the four angles
+of the square we will place solid piers of masonry
+and connect them with semicircular arches. Let us
+now suppose that a hemispherical dome had been
+built upon this circle as plan, and we will see that
+the planes of the arches and the plane passing at
+the level of the top of the keystones of the arches,
+in intersecting this dome, would leave but four triangular
+portions of it. These triangular portions
+are called pendentives, and are the only portions of
+the original hemisphere which are actually built.
+As this hemisphere would have been necessarily
+constructed of materials the joints of which would
+have radiated from the centre of the sphere, so also
+do the joints of the pendentives radiate from this
+same centre, which is identical with the centre of
+the original circle. The plane passing at the level
+of the top of the keystones in intersecting the hemisphere
+describes another circle, upon which the actual
+dome is placed.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_98">[98]</span></p>
+<p>The question has not been established satisfactorily
+whether the Byzantine architects really understood
+the pendentive, as in many instances they
+resorted to less scientific methods of filling in the
+vacant spaces between the arches and the upper
+dome, but the only logical method of constructing
+it is that which has just been described.</p>
+
+<p>In building domes, it was not uncommon in the
+East to replace stonework by light terra-cotta pipes,
+fitting into each other, giving great lightness and
+comparative strength.</p>
+
+<p>Justinian gave a marked impetus to architectural
+work and to the building of religious edifices in particular.
+He commissioned Anthemius of Thralles,
+and Isidor of Miletus, to execute the plans for the
+new church of St. Sophia, upon the site of an older
+building of Constantine, also dedicated to the “Holy
+Wisdom,” which had been burnt during an emeute
+soon after it had been repaired by Theodosius.</p>
+
+<p>Justinian had already built the church of Sergius
+and Bacchus in Constantinople, on a plan nearly
+identical with that of St. Vitale, at Ravenna, with
+the exception that the whole structure was externally
+in the form of a square, enclosing the octagon
+supporting the dome. This served as a stepping-stone
+to the conception of the larger church, which
+became the type of all subsequent Byzantine constructions.</p>
+
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp65" id="facing098" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/facing098.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      CHURCH OF SERGIUS AND BACCHUS AT CONSTANTINOPLE.
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp55" id="facing099" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/facing099.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      PLAN OF ST. SOPHIA, CONSTANTINOPLE.
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>By comparing the plans of the Pantheon, the
+temple of Minerva Medica, the baptistery of Constantine,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_99">[99]</span>St. Vitale, at Ravenna, and the church of
+Sergius and Bacchus, in the order in which they are
+enumerated, with that of St. Sophia, the sequence
+and continuous progress of domical construction is
+at once apparent, and such comparison explains the
+successive steps in a more satisfactory manner than
+a folio of description.</p>
+
+<p>“The church of St. Sophia,” says M. Texier, “is
+built on a square plan, 251 feet long by 186 feet
+wide. In the centre of this square rises the dome,
+the diameter of which, measuring 108 feet, determines
+the width of the nave. The dome is supported
+by four great arches and four pendentives. Two
+hemispheric vaults abut against the two arches,
+which are perpendicular to the axis of the nave,
+giving it an oval appearance. Each of these hemispheres
+is itself pierced by two smaller hemispheres
+carried on columns. This superposition of domes,
+whose points of abutment are not visible, gives to
+the whole structure a lightness difficult to realize.”</p>
+
+<p>The church is built upon a foundation of béton
+twenty feet deep. It is preceded by an atrium
+surrounded by a portico of the Ionic order. The
+nave is entered by a double narthex, or porch, extending
+along the whole width of the West front.
+The interior, both floor and walls, was formerly
+adorned with rich marbles, and paintings upon a
+ground of gold. The dome was built of light bricks
+faced with hard cement and mosaic, and was lighted
+by forty windows.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_100">[100]</span></p>
+<p>Originally a painting of the Holy Father was
+placed in the centre of the dome, and four cherubim
+in the pendentives. The latter are still to be
+discerned under the coat of whitewash with which
+the Turks have hidden the original magnificence of
+the interior.</p>
+
+<p>The apse, lighted by three windows, contained
+the throne and seat of the Church fathers. The
+columns supporting the great arches and the galleries,
+originally occupied by the women, are of rare
+marble, eight of them having, it is said, formed part
+of the temple of Diana at Ephesus, being brought,
+together with the spoils of many Eastern and
+Western buildings, to adorn the great edifice. The
+foliage of their capitals is fine and sharp and intricately
+interlaced, having no resemblance to the Classic
+models beyond a debased form of the volute
+which terminates their upper corners. This style of
+ornament is a distinguishing feature of the Byzantine
+style, and reappears in many examples both in
+the East and West.</p>
+
+<p>The church, commenced in the year 532, took sixteen
+years to build, during which time incredible
+sums were expended upon it. When completed,
+the appearance it presented was most magnificent,
+resulting not only from the rich marbles, wood-work,
+paintings, and mosaics with which it was decorated,
+but also from the countless candelabras, curtains,
+precious vases, and golden vessels with which it was
+furnished.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_101">[101]</span></p>
+<p>After the capture of Constantinople by Mahomet
+II., in the year 1453, St. Sophia was converted into
+a mosque, and suffered greatly at the hands of the
+Turks. It is only within recent years that any attempt
+at preserving its original splendour has been
+made.</p>
+
+<p>The architectural principles upon which St. Sophia
+was constructed were reproduced in all Byzantine
+buildings in Italy and France as well as in the
+Orient. In Turkey, indeed, the edifices subsequently
+erected are almost counterparts of the original
+structure, the mosque of Suleiman and that of Achmet,
+built as late as 1610, embodying almost identical
+features of construction.</p>
+
+<p>In Athens there are two or three small Byzantine
+churches, which, though differing greatly in point
+of size, are founded upon the plan of the mother
+church; and in Asia Minor generally and Armenia
+especially, there are a great number; notably the
+churches of Daghour and Pitzounda and the cathedral
+of Anim.</p>
+
+<p>The decoration of some of the latter differs from
+the usual Byzantine methods in the frequent revival
+of Classic forms, and in the use of thin pilasters,
+carrying blind arches on the exterior.</p>
+
+<p>This feature reappears in the buildings of Italy,
+influenced by the style, particularly at Pisa.</p>
+
+<p>In some later buildings a new manner of obtaining
+light was introduced, by raising the dome upon
+a cylindrical drum, supported by the four arches
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_102">[102]</span>and pendentives of the older system. St. Nicodemus,
+of Athens, is one of the best examples of this.</p>
+
+<p>When the body of St. Mark was brought to
+Venice, having been stolen from Constantinople by
+means of a clever trick about the year 831, the
+Doge Partecipazio ordered a church to be built to
+his memory. The greater part of this building as
+it stands to-day dates, however, from the tenth century.
+It resembles St. Sophia in a great degree,
+the frequent intercourse of the Venetian maritime
+population with the Orient having enabled them to
+study the principles of Byzantine art, and to bring
+spoils from the buildings of the East to their native
+city.</p>
+
+<p>St. Mark’s has also much affinity with the church
+of Mone-tes-Koras, in Armenia, the principal façade,
+with its five large bays decorated with columns
+and arches framing the five doors which give access
+to the church, being identical in general conception.</p>
+
+<p>The interior of the building has the form of
+the Greek cross, the four arms of which and also
+the central compartment formed by their intersection,
+are roofed by domes supported on arches and
+pendentives. The style of ornament is very similar
+to that of its prototype, with its rich gold mosaics,
+frescos, and inlaid marble, some of the details being
+essentially Oriental in character.</p>
+
+<p>The constructors of the pendentives in St. Mark’s
+do not seem to have properly understood that they
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_103">[103]</span>formed part of a sphere to the centre of which their
+joints should have converged, but filled up the spaces
+between the supporting arches by a series of small
+superposed arches.</p>
+
+<p>The influence of this Byzantine construction extended
+into Aquitania, in the South of France. At
+the close of the tenth century a number of churches
+were erected there, with the dome as a prominent
+feature. St. Front, of Perigueux, was built upon
+a plan closely resembling that of St. Mark’s in
+Venice, and very nearly upon a similar scale of dimensions.
+The architects of the church, however,
+seem to have distrusted the strength of the semicircular
+arch, and resorted to the ogival<a id="FNanchor_5_5" href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> or pointed
+form as a means of securing greater supporting
+power, although this arch had not as yet been
+adopted in France.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_5_5" href="#FNanchor_5_5" class="label">[5]</a> From augere, to strengthen.</p></div>
+</div>
+<p>They, too, failed completely to grasp the principle
+of the pendentive, as those of St. Front are
+formed of corbelled stones with horizontal beds,
+instead of voussoirs converging to the centre of
+the hemisphere of which they should form part.</p>
+
+<p>Besides St. Front, the churches of Fontevrault,
+Souliac, Angoulême, and others in Aquitania were
+built with similar characteristics, though in plan
+they adopted the Latin instead of the Greek cross.
+The abbey church of Fontevrault is perhaps the
+most successful of these, the four domes of its
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_104">[104]</span>nave producing a very pleasing effect. The greater
+number of these buildings were erected during the
+eleventh and twelfth centuries, in an imported
+fashion, rather than in a style destined to be engrafted
+upon French national architecture.</p>
+
+<p>All of them show the want of a clear comprehension
+of the principles involved, and are evidently
+foreign to the taste of the people.</p>
+
+<p>The introduction of this style in France, offers a
+parallel case to the introduction of Gothic architecture
+in Italy, a century or two later, for in neither
+case were the styles in accordance with native inspiration.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"><div class="chapter"><p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_105">[105]</span></p>
+
+
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="VIII">VIII.
+<br><br>
+MAHOMETAN ARCHITECTURE.</h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="frstwrd">The</span> year 622 of our era is a remarkable one in
+historical annals, being the date of the flight
+of Mahomet, the Hegira from which all events are
+computed by followers of his religion. Within a
+marvellously short period the new faith spread from
+the confines of Arabia, throughout Asia Minor and
+Persia and all along the North coast of Africa to
+Spain, propagated everywhere by the force of the
+victorious sword, until, scarcely a century later, we
+find its promoters bearing the crescent against Charlemagne,
+under the shadow of the Pyrenees.</p>
+
+<p>As a political and theological narrative the history
+of the rise of the faith of Islam, is a wonderfully interesting
+one, and to us it is important as it explains
+the reason for the geographical position of so many
+buildings, erected in accordance with the requirements
+of the new religion, and therefore having a
+great similarity in all countries where it prevailed.</p>
+
+<p>The Kaabah, or “square house,” built by Mahomet
+at Mecca upon the site of a temple which tradition
+says was founded by Abraham, appears to have been
+the earliest Mahometan mosque. Mahomet had already
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_106">[106]</span>erected a building at Medina, but this seems
+to have been not so much a house of prayer as a
+dwelling-place for his family. The Kaabah has less
+importance as an architectural production than as the
+centre of the wheel of Mahometanism, the faithful
+being directed to turn their faces toward it when
+praying, and to regard it as the ultimate goal of their
+wanderings.</p>
+
+<p>The original structure was built by foreign workmen,
+and had no great pretensions, but subsequently
+it was surrounded by a colonnaded court, and by
+later additions was very considerably enlarged. Although
+the Koran decrees that all good Mussulmen
+should make a pilgrimage to Mecca, it does not uphold
+the Kaabah as a model to be followed in the
+erection of other mosques nor give any specific directions
+of the manner in which they should be built.
+It was therefore natural when the peace, following
+their rapid conquests, permitted the Mahometans to
+turn their thoughts to the erection of religious edifices,
+suitable for the observances of their worship,
+that they should borrow inspiration from the surrounding
+nations.</p>
+
+<p>The style they eventually evolved was drawn from
+Byzantine, Sassanian, Greek, and Roman sources, and
+became native by adaptation.</p>
+
+<p>In Turkey, Asia Minor, and Persia we find Mahometan
+mosques closely resembling Christian and Byzantine
+churches, many domed edifices being copied
+from St. Sophia and differing only in point of decoration,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_107">[107]</span>while the atrium or courtyard preceding the
+entrance to Christian buildings furnished the type
+for the wide colonnaded courts, with porticos roofed
+with a succession of hemispherical or bulbous domes,
+which became so common in Arabian buildings.</p>
+
+<p>The mosques of Omar, at Jerusalem, on the site of
+the temple of Solomon, of Wallid, at Damascus, Al-Azhar,
+Athar-en-Neby, Ibn Touloun, and Hassan, in
+Cairo, are notable edifices, in which the columns are
+either taken or copied from Greek and Roman temples,
+and in which the pointed arches seem to have
+been suggested by the hyperbolic arches of certain
+ancient Sassanian structures, such as the palace of
+Coroes, the Takt Kesra in the ruins of Ctesiphon, on
+the Tigris, and the buildings of Firouzabad and Sarbistan,
+which were mentioned in connection with
+Persian art.</p>
+
+<p>One of the earliest examples of the use of the
+pointed arch is in the Nilometer, erected on the
+Rodah, or Isle of Gardens, at Cairo, by Wallid, in
+the eighth century.</p>
+
+<p>This is a matter worthy of note, as showing conclusively
+that the Gothic arch was no invention of the
+thirteenth century, in Europe, but merely the adoption
+of a form used five centuries before in Egypt,
+and probably universally known, if indeed it had
+ever been lost sight of, since the days of the prosperity
+of Babylon.</p>
+
+<p>Of the early mosques the most important are
+those of Omar and Abd-el-Malek at Jerusalem and
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_108">[108]</span>of Wallid at Damascus. The mosque of Omar was
+but a simple vaulted chamber, oriented in order to
+enable the faithful to turn in the direction of Mecca
+while praying. That of Abd-el-Malek, called the
+Aksah, adjoins it and is an extensive structure. It
+is chiefly remarkable for its general resemblance to
+the basilica in its division into aisles. The columns
+forming these carry pointed arches, built over connecting
+beams. It is not improbable that this design
+was inspired by the order of the church of the
+Dome of the Rock, adjoining it, built by Constantine,
+where the columns support circular arches, over a
+continuous entablature.</p>
+
+<p>Wallid, Caliph of Damascus, erected a mosque on
+the site of the old church of St. John the Baptist,
+and employed labour and material in its construction
+furnished by Justinian, Emperor of Byzance.</p>
+
+<p>The mosques of Cairo resemble each other in a
+great degree. They have usually a first court, giving
+access to apartments for the accommodation of
+strangers, with baths, and stables for their camels,
+connected with a second and larger quadrangular
+court, having a fountain in the centre and porticos
+on three sides. The fourth side, facing the entrance,
+has a series of aisles roofed in and forming the
+sanctuary, with recesses in the rear wall, where the
+prayers are offered. Reading-desks, provided with
+copies of the Koran, and hanging lamps form the
+chief furniture.</p>
+
+<p>The minarets, one or more of which are usually
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_109">[109]</span>erected at the angles of the building, are special
+features. These tall, graceful towers, from whose
+summits a crier calls the people to prayers five
+times daily, serve a purpose similar to that of the
+belfries and campaniles of Europe. The diameter
+of most of them is small in proportion to the height,
+giving them a slender and beautiful aspect, very
+distinct from another class of towers, of which the
+Giralda at Seville is the best known, which were
+conceived in the same spirit of massiveness in which
+the campanile in the square before St. Mark’s in
+Venice was built. They are ascended by spiral
+staircases placed either within or without, and have
+projecting balconies at various stages.</p>
+
+<p>The building materials employed by the Arabs
+were chiefly stone of different colours, combined in
+bands and patterns, and brick covered with stucco.
+Enamelled tiles and multicoloured marbles were used
+both externally and internally, while within, carved
+wood, gilding, painting, and plaster were lavishly
+employed.</p>
+
+<p>Of the forms of decoration, the chief were elaborate
+gold inscriptions in Arabic characters, floral
+and geometric designs in interlaced patterns of the
+most intricate combinations, coloured with all the
+profusion suggested by the Oriental love of brilliancy
+and with the exquisite harmony which we see in
+Persian and Indian fabrics.</p>
+
+<p>A favourite form of decoration was that formed
+by a multiplication of minute pendentives, called the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_110">[110]</span>honeycomb ornament, the whole surface, as well as
+the dome above, being covered with an agglomeration
+of minute niches, the effect of which is frequently
+compared to that of stalactites. This form of ornament
+was much used, particularly in the mosques
+and palaces of Spain.</p>
+
+<p>In Cairo domestic architecture has a distinctive
+character of its own. The houses have reception-rooms
+on the ground floor, furnished with the divans,
+carpets, and lamps usual in Oriental manner of life,
+while the upper floors, occupied by the women, have
+projecting balconies of lattice wood-work, which
+permit them to see without being seen, and form an
+agreeable and picturesque feature on the exterior.</p>
+
+<p>The richness and the progress of Arabic art at a
+period when architecture had sunk to the lowest
+ebb throughout Europe, is due in great measure
+to the establishment of the learned academies of
+Damascus, Bagdad, and other principal cities, and
+to the revival of Classic learning by the translation
+of the works of Greek authors.</p>
+
+<p>In Spain, where the Moorish and Christian populations
+were thrown in constant contact with one
+another, the difference of religious opinion maintained
+a wide gulf between them, and while the
+Christians struggled with the difficulties of the
+Romanesque revival, their opponents attained a
+brilliant era in art, as a result of their superior
+industry and civilization.</p>
+
+<p>One of the oldest Arabian buildings in Spain is
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_111">[111]</span>the great mosque at Cordova. Here, as in the East,
+we find Corinthian and Composite columns, taken
+from Roman buildings on the soil, forming integral
+parts of the new structure, but the Classical principles
+of building are in no sense adhered to. The
+entablature is replaced by cinque-foiled arches with
+voussoirs of alternate stone and brick; a second
+order of columns is superposed directly upon the
+capitals of the first, carrying horseshoe arches, and
+between the two arcades an intermediary series of
+trefoiled arches is placed, springing from the keystone
+of the lower arches and divided at the centre
+by the upper ones.</p>
+
+<p>The general plan of the building consists of the
+usual series of aisles, of which there are nineteen,
+with divisional walls. The sanctuary has a vault
+with intersecting ribs, surmounted by a small dome
+and enriched by profuse ornament, and is the object
+of much just admiration for its beauty.</p>
+
+<p>The chapel of Villa Viciosa, a later structure, has
+a series of arcades similar to those before the sanctuary,
+differing only in the arrangement of the intermediary
+arches, which are carried up to the level
+of the upper arches from a horizontal course, and
+are cinque-foiled instead of trefoiled, both on the
+extrados and intrados.</p>
+
+<p>The mosque was begun by <ins class="corr" title="Transcriber's Note&mdash;original text: Adb-el-Rhaman" id="Adb-el-Rhaman">Abd-el-Rhaman</ins>, in
+the eighth century, and successively added to during
+the four centuries following. It covers a very
+large superficial area, upwards of one hundred and
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_112">[112]</span>sixty thousand square feet, and surpasses, in this
+respect, most European buildings. Its chief defects
+are the want of height, which does not exceed thirty
+feet, and the monotony of the aisles, which are
+nearly all precisely alike.</p>
+
+<p>At Toledo there are several Moorish buildings of
+merit, the principal one of which is the mosque
+called, at present, the church of “Cristo de la Luz.”
+It is similar to the sanctuary of Cordova in general
+aspect, but is a marvel of intricate and minute workmanship.
+The whole area which it occupies does
+not exceed four hundred superficial feet, but the
+proportions are so nicely balanced that it appears
+much larger. There are four columns carrying
+horseshoe arches, above which comes a second arcade,
+and each division is roofed in by a vault of intersecting
+ribs. These vaults are formed of wood,
+overlaid with plaster, and have no pretension to
+scientific construction. Indeed, in none of the Arabian
+buildings in Spain do we find anything of the
+kind attempted, the decorative features being always
+the most prominent.</p>
+
+<p>In the tower of Seville a species of vault was
+formed by thickening the walls gradually as they
+rose from the ground until they met; this, however,
+was nothing more than extensive corbelling,
+and, consequently, very inferior to Roman and Byzantine
+methods.</p>
+
+<p>The Alcázar, at Seville, and the Palace of the Alhambra,
+at Granada, are the richest examples of
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_113">[113]</span>Moorish architecture, and show in their design and
+ornament the most fertile expression of the brilliant
+imagination with which this warm-blooded people
+imbued all its creations.</p>
+
+<p>The Court of the Lions in the latter, a rectangular
+enclosure, surrounded by arcades, with projecting
+domed pavilions at the upper and lower ends, is
+generally held to be the finest production of the
+later period of the style.</p>
+
+<p>The same materials are used here as in the other
+buildings—plaster shaped in the most exquisite forms
+and coloured brilliantly, tiles ornamented with patterns
+and devices of the most elaborate character,
+and wooden ceilings carved and richly painted. All
+these are handled with such correct taste that their
+brilliancy never degenerates into gaudiness.</p>
+
+<p>A splendid fountain in the centre of the court,
+the lower bowl of which is supported upon the
+backs of lions, explains the name given to this celebrated
+structure.</p>
+
+<p>The mosque of Cordova is superior, in respect to
+materials, to the other remaining Moorish buildings
+in Spain, in which plaster is used to excess. It is
+vain, however, to look in any of them for any distinct
+or novel constructional departure. The lintel
+and arch in Greece and Rome, the dome carried on
+pendentives in Byzance, were features giving character
+to each style, but the art of the Mahometan
+architects differed only in form and colour from its
+predecessors. The horseshoe arch with one and two
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_114">[114]</span>centres, that is both round and pointed, was used by
+them almost exclusively, but it cannot rank as a
+constructional invention, for the real arch starts
+only at the level of the centres, and the remaining
+lower portion is a mere corbelling to obtain a form
+pleasing to the eye.</p>
+
+<p>Any new method of construction always affected
+the surrounding parts, and often altered the whole
+design of a building. It is obvious, therefore, that a
+mere change in the appearance of an arch such as
+this, which affects nothing connected with it, cannot
+be said to have created any new era in the progress
+of building.</p>
+
+<p>We hear the question frequently asked why a
+modern and new style is not developed in our times,
+and the answer architects make is illustrated by
+just this case, that is, that no new style can be
+evolved without a new constructive principle. As
+yet none such has been forthcoming, the only novel
+method of construction lately introduced being the
+employment of iron girders and posts, which, from an
+artistic point of view, can scarcely be considered an
+improvement upon the use of what are called the
+natural building materials.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"><div class="chapter"><p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_115">[115]</span></p>
+
+
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="IX">IX.
+<br><br>
+THE ROMANESQUE STYLE.</h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="frstwrd">Some</span> late historians have departed from the
+previously generally accepted nomenclature of
+architectural styles, in designating under the general
+term of Christian architecture all buildings
+erected between the tenth and sixteenth centuries
+in Western Europe.</p>
+
+<p>As, however, Christian building in Europe began
+with the conversion of Constantine, this chronology
+is hardly satisfactory, and as the customary division
+of Gothic from the styles preceding it, is on
+many grounds a convenient one, it is preferable to
+adopt the conventional names, and to distinguish
+under the title of “Romanesque” the outgrowth of
+the debased form of Roman architecture which, influenced
+by Byzantine and Arabic art, formed a distinct
+method of building throughout the West for
+nearly two centuries after the year 1000 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>, giving
+it the alternative name of “Norman” in Normandy
+and England.</p>
+
+<p>Previous to this date the long continuance of war
+and barbaric incursions seem to have prevented the
+erection of any stable edifices; fire and the poverty
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_116">[116]</span>of the material with which they were constructed
+having caused the destruction of the few of which
+an account has been preserved.</p>
+
+<p>Many churches subsequently built, however, were
+erected upon the sites of these older ones and have
+fragments of the older buildings incorporated in
+them. Of such are the churches of St. Germain
+des Prés, in Paris, and Notre Dame du Port, at
+Clermont.</p>
+
+<p>Under Charlemagne, a revival of art was attempted,
+the chief building constructed by him
+being a reproduction of St. Vitale, of Ravenna, in
+which he employed sculpture and ornament torn
+from the original structure, and fragments from
+the edifices of ancient Rome; but this effort soon
+died away, and the period intervening between the
+eighth and tenth centuries was totally lacking in
+any architectural production of merit.</p>
+
+<p>As the Roman principles of architecture had been
+taken Eastward and gradually transformed into a
+new style at Byzance, so also in the West they had
+been the forerunners of another method of building,
+but proportionately different in accordance with the
+character, customs, and race of the Western populations.</p>
+
+<p>The basilica formed, as it had in the East, the
+model upon which all church architecture was designed,
+the nave, transept, aisles, and apse being all
+retained in this new class of buildings, but many of
+the building methods were new, and the details of
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_117">[117]</span>their decoration differed considerably from the precise
+proportions and Classic graces of the buildings
+of Rome. The result exhibits a curious contrast
+between the barbaric ornament and the scientific
+construction, which advanced throughout the style
+in the genuine efforts which were made to progress
+in the art of building.</p>
+
+<p>Starting thus at the decadence of Classic art, with
+a Classical building as the original type for their
+churches, the Romanesque architects took up each
+of the parts combining in its formation, and sought
+to improve or elaborate each, in pursuance of certain
+ends, arising from local necessities. There is
+virtually no point where Romanesque ends and
+Gothic commences, to give due reason for the conventional
+divisions of historians, for the one style
+melts into the other in the continual progress in
+the study of the principles of construction which
+was steadily effected throughout both styles.</p>
+
+<p>They differ chiefly in that, during the two centuries
+prior to the thirteenth century, the pointed arch
+was rarely used, and that the influence of the Classic
+decadence is more apparent in the buildings of the
+earlier period. After this, the pointed arch became
+universal, and the whole style becoming entirely
+distinct from its derivation, the ornament and
+detail, quite unlike anything which had come
+before, it may be said that a new style had been
+created.</p>
+
+<p>This new style, which has been called Gothic,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_118">[118]</span>continued to be developed until the fifteenth century,
+when its principles became exaggerated, and
+it died out at the extreme point to which they could
+be pushed.</p>
+
+<p>It has been customary to call the buildings of the
+eleventh and twelfth centuries, built in the transition
+of Roman to Gothic art, Romanesque; but the
+pointed arch was used in both styles, though, as
+stated above, less frequently in the earlier one; and
+it should not, therefore, be taken as the distinguishing
+characteristic of Gothic architecture.</p>
+
+<p>The chief points wherein the Romanesque churches,
+which were the only buildings of importance constructed
+at that period, differed from the basilicas
+were in the methods of vaulting and their consequent
+effects upon the whole structure, the elaboration
+of the apse, and the system of connected
+supports employed. The main characteristics of
+the style were the same in all Western countries,
+and these being known, it is not difficult to distinguish
+the slight differences arising from local causes.</p>
+
+<p>In the old basilicas the aisles, whether of one or
+two stories, were lighted by windows in the lateral
+walls, while the nave borrowed light from them,
+and also received it directly from a clerestory rising
+above the roof of the galleries. As we have seen,
+these buildings were usually covered by wooden
+roofs, tunnel-vaults or a series of intersecting vaults
+thrown across the square formed by two of the
+columns of the nave, equidistant from each other
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_119">[119]</span>and from corresponding pilasters in the side walls,
+being only occasionally used in the aisles.</p>
+
+<p>The Western architects of the tenth century continued
+to build their churches in this manner, and
+we have a splendid example of a timber roof of
+this kind, as late even as the twelfth century, in
+Peterborough Cathedral; but at an early period
+they sought to replace these perishable roofs by
+stone vaults. They found the construction of the
+semi-dome of the apse and the vaulting of the side
+aisles, either by a <ins class="corr" title="Transcriber's Note&mdash;original text: continuons" id="continuons">continuous</ins> tunnel-vault, by a series
+of semicircular vaults perpendicular to the lateral
+walls, or by intersecting vaults upon a square plan,
+comparatively easy; but the vaulting of the nave
+was a much more difficult matter.</p>
+
+<p>The circular tunnel-vault would have been the
+simplest known method of accomplishing this, but
+the pressure of a circular vault placed over the
+nave would have tended to push outward the walls
+upon which it rested, and this pressure being continuous,
+it was obviously of no avail to place buttresses
+at any separate point, and to place a great
+number, side by side, all along the vault, or, in other
+words, to greatly thicken the supporting wall, was
+to take up too much valuable ground space.</p>
+
+<p>In St. Front and kindred structures we have seen
+the problem solved in one way by the introduction
+of Byzantine domes; but these churches were confined
+to a province of Southern France, and had but
+little influence in other districts.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_120">[120]</span></p>
+<p>In St. Etienne de Nevers, St. Sernin de Toulouse,
+and in Notre Dame du Port at Clermont in Auvergne,
+and others, this difficulty is partially overcome
+by the building of a half vault over the upper
+galleries connecting the tunnel-vault of the nave
+with the outer main walls, and taking the strain
+continuously, the thickness of the outer wall not
+being considered of consequence. This system permitted
+the placing of roofing-tiles directly upon the
+extrados of the vaults, and the entire suppression
+of wooden rafters, which was advantageous in diminishing
+the risk of fire, although the pitch was
+scarcely sufficient to prevent leakage. The great
+disadvantage, however, was that the nave had only
+borrowed light, and in large churches it was inconveniently
+dark.</p>
+
+<p>Another method adopted was that of suppressing
+the upper gallery, and bringing the arches of the
+aisles up to the level of the springing of the main
+vault, so that the summits of the side vaults and the
+walls erected between them, which were at right
+angles to the nave, served to counteract the strain
+of the upper vault. We have examples of this in
+the cathedral of Limoges and at Fontenay, but it
+is open to the same objection, that of darkening
+the nave.</p>
+
+<p>Still another system consisted in binding the
+vault over the nave by ribs or arches thrown
+across to opposite piers, which were strengthened
+by buttresses. These buttresses, however, were
+built upon the top of the arches, thrown across
+the aisles, and did more harm than good.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp90" id="facing121" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/facing121.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+     <span class="fs80">ELEVATION.
+<span class="pad35p">SECTION.</span><br></span>
+
+    ROMANESQUE CONSTRUCTION
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_121">[121]</span></p>
+<p>There is an example of unusual construction at
+Tournus, in Burgundy, where the difficulty is effectually
+surmounted by the building of a number of
+arches at right angles to the axis of the nave, between
+each set of piers; but the effect is far from
+satisfactory.</p>
+
+<p>Finally at Vezelay, in France, the tunnel-vault was
+abandoned and diagonal intersecting vaults were
+thrown across the nave, framed in between semicircular
+arch ribs carried upon piers spaced at equal
+intervals, the weight being thus wholly transferred
+to the four points at the angles of each compartment.
+It was found, however, that these piers needed
+strengthening, as the strain upon them was excessive,
+and it was thus that external buttresses were resorted
+to, which were connected with the piers by arches,
+called flying buttresses, bridging the side aisles and
+conveying the pressure to the outer wall. A weight
+was placed over each buttress, generally taking the
+form of a pinnacle, which stiffened it and counteracted
+the pressure of the arch.</p>
+
+<p>An illustration of this mode of construction has
+been attempted in the accompanying drawing, which
+does not represent any special building, but in which
+the chief characteristics of the style at this juncture
+have been introduced.</p>
+
+<p>The distance across the nave being usually greater
+than that between the columns dividing it from the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_122">[122]</span>aisles, the rectangular compartments of the vault
+were consequently no longer square, but oblong,
+so that while the arches crossing the nave at right
+angles were still semicircular those between the pillars
+were pointed.</p>
+
+<p>The transition from this, in the thirteenth century,
+to the definite adoption of the pointed vault was
+consequently but a step.</p>
+
+<p>We see, thus, that a continual progress was made
+in vaulting throughout the style, and the principle
+of concentrating weight upon isolated points was
+evolved in order to vault the nave and at the same
+time give direct light to it. In effecting this result,
+however, the original aim had been lost sight of—namely,
+that of avoiding the use of wooden roofs; for
+when the Romanesque architects abandoned tunnel-vaulting
+they had to surmount their more complicated
+intersecting vaults by wooden roofs, the perishable
+nature of which caused the ruin of many of
+the finest buildings. Nor was the external appearance
+of these roofs any improvement upon those
+of St. Etienne and St. Sernin, for it is a question
+whether any more monumental roof has been conceived
+than that which is formed by the natural outside
+surface of stone vaults.</p>
+
+<p>In the old basilicas, columns taken from or modelled
+upon those of the temples and palaces of Rome
+had sufficed to support the light brick wall, carried
+upon an architrave or arches, which enclosed the
+nave. When the Western architects resumed the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_123">[123]</span>building of churches, after an interval of war and
+trouble which had proved fatal to architectural progress,
+brick was little used and the formation of
+light masonry and good mortar were lost arts. The
+slender Classic column was consequently insufficient
+to carry the load of a heavy stone wall and had,
+necessarily, to be replaced by a more solid pier.</p>
+
+<p>These piers assumed various forms in the tentative
+efforts made to construct them of the dimensions
+calculated to occupy the least amount of floor
+space; some were square, others circular or formed
+of a number of small columns grouped together, but
+for a long time no very satisfactory shape was found
+which avoided a clumsy adjustment of the superstructure.</p>
+
+<p>It came to be gradually recognized that the form
+of the pier should be subservient to, and made to
+correspond with, the arches and the column receiving
+the arch rib of the vault above, which it had to
+sustain. This was effected at first by a square pier,
+with rectangular projections on each side, forming
+abutments for the reception of the constructional
+arrangement above. Subsequently these were replaced
+by pilasters and engaged columns on each
+face, three of which supported the rear and side
+arches of the nave, the fourth being continued up
+to the springing of the vault, and redeemed from
+exaggerated effect by bands or string-courses. There
+are good examples in France at Vezelay, Beaune
+and Langres and Autun. In England the contemporary<span class="pagenum" id="Page_124">[124]</span>
+architects usually employed square or circular
+masses of solid masonry, carrying a heavy abacus,
+these pillars being sometimes ornamented with a
+fluting, as in the crypt at Canterbury, or with zigzag
+patterns, as at Waltham Abbey, Durham, and
+Lindisfarne.</p>
+
+<p>The capitals of Romanesque columns are especially
+interesting, for they became constructively useful
+instead of simply ornamental, as were those used
+in the Roman orders. The section of the arch rib
+being square and the column round, it was necessary
+to afford support to the overlapping corners, the
+whole surface of the projecting tile or abacus being
+occupied by the upper masonry, instead of the line
+of the shaft being continued up, as had been done
+in Rome. The capital was therefore made to spread
+outward from the shaft in order to corbel the superstructure.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="facing124" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/facing124.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      COMPARATIVE SERIES, SHOWING GREEK,
+    ROMAN, ROMANESQUE, AND GOTHIC METHODS OF SUPPORT.
+
+<ul class="wd70">
+<li class="caption">    1. Greek Lintel.</li>
+<li class="caption">    2. Roman Arch, showing False Lintel.</li>
+<li class="caption">    3. Vault Springing from Entablature.</li>
+<li class="caption">    4. Arch Springing</li>
+<li class="caption hang1">    5. Romanesque Column, with Arches Springing from Outer Edge of the Capital.</li>
+<li class="caption">    6. Romanesque Pier.</li>
+<li class="caption">    7. Gothic Pier.</li>
+</ul>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>A simple form of this is found in many German,
+Italian, and English examples, the upper part of the
+capital being a cube and the lower a hemisphere.
+The early examples generally imitate those of the
+Corinthian order in a rude fashion corresponding
+with the poverty of talent of the period. The
+capitals of the twelfth century are better carved and
+better suited to the services they have to perform.
+Figures representing biblical subjects are introduced
+in some and in others strange animals and conventional
+foliage, sometimes arranged as the acanthus
+leaf had been in the Roman models. The proportions
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_125">[125]</span>of the Classic column were also departed from, the
+capital often being a quarter or a sixth of the whole
+column; its height being regulated by the size of
+the beds of stone, which were generally low. In
+Germany, however, the older proportions were more
+closely adhered to. The quality of the stone determined
+in a great measure the depth of the carving,
+the harder kinds having less depth of incision
+and the style of ornament applied to them resembling
+the Byzantine.</p>
+
+<p>In France the Romanesque column has usually
+a third of the diameter of its shaft engaged in a
+pier or wall, though isolated ones are used in the
+triforiums, towers, and porches; in England the
+latter are common, and recessed columns, that is
+to say, placed in an angle of masonry, are also
+frequently seen.</p>
+
+<p>The bases of Romanesque columns, at first simple
+round and hollow moulds, gradually became more
+elaborate, until they resembled the attic base. Occasionally
+they were decorated with foliage or animals,
+and there are instances where both capital
+and base are similar. The introduction of an angle
+ornament, connecting the torus or round mould
+with the corners of the plinth beneath, is especially
+noticeable; this was effective in preventing the
+angles from being broken by thickening the stone
+at the weakest points, and in later examples added
+to the beauty of the base.</p>
+
+<p>The arches of the period were usually semicircular
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_126">[126]</span>and employed either separately or with a second and
+broader one, their contour being frequently marked
+by a few simple mouldings of degenerate classic
+origin.</p>
+
+<p>Two or three arches supported by detached columns, and comprised
+within a larger one, were frequently placed in the triforiums; when
+three were used the central one was usually higher than the others.
+Besides mouldings: billets, zigzags, stars, and similar simple ornaments
+ <ins class="corr" title="Transcriber's Note&mdash;original text: weer" id="weer">were</ins>
+employed in their decoration. Where Arabic taste exercised its
+influence, it is not uncommon to find alternate voussoirs of
+different-coloured stones, and variegated bands in the piers.</p>
+
+<p>The Italians were especially fond of this treatment
+and it is seen in the exteriors and interiors of many
+of their buildings. To them is also due the introduction
+of blind arcades, the columns of which were
+either engaged in the wall or separated from it by
+an intervening gallery. The façade of the cathedral
+at Pisa is perhaps the most beautiful example of this.</p>
+
+<p>In the West, arcades of this kind became a frequent
+method of decorating blank walls, and there
+are instances where a second series of arches intersect
+the first, resulting in a number of pointed
+arches formed by the crossing of the circular ones;
+from this an ingenious but unfounded theory has
+been deducted purporting to explain the origin of
+Gothic architecture.</p>
+
+<p>The doors and porches of the Romanesque period
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_127">[127]</span>are among the most beautiful to be found in any
+style. Starting in the earlier examples with a simple,
+round-arched opening, the number of mouldings
+in the arch became richer and of greater number,
+and, as the style advanced, recessed and supported
+by columns. These mouldings were decorated with
+the zigzag, billet, and kindred ornaments, many of
+which were probably copied from the decoration
+of the old basilica of St. Paul’s without the walls
+of Rome.</p>
+
+<p>As the jambs of the doorways were generally
+built on an angle, the contiguous shafts and arches
+sometimes gave the effect of an arched passage in
+perspective. Such effects were frequently intentional
+in the churches in Southern France, for we
+find that the walls of the nave and vault of Notre
+Dame de Poitiers, and of other buildings, were purposely
+made to converge in order to give the appearance
+of greater length.</p>
+
+<p>It was not uncommon to give the doors square
+heads, supported by corbels and occasionally by a
+central shaft; in these cases the arch above relieved
+the lintel from the weight of the superstructure,
+and gave the character of the style to the whole.
+The tympanum, thus enclosed, offered a ground for
+rich sculpture, which was availed of to the fullest
+extent. The outer door of a porch was usually
+richer in design than the inner one; in England
+there are many examples of shallow porches with
+single deeply recessed doors.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_128">[128]</span></p>
+<p>In Provence there are many beautiful examples,
+foremost amongst which must be mentioned the
+porch of St. Trophyme, at Arles (see <a href="#frontis">frontispiece</a>).
+Romanesque windows were but modifications of the
+doors; often having recessed shafts at their sides
+and being frequently divided by a central column.</p>
+
+<p>The bull’s-eye, or round window, of the early
+Christian basilicas continued to be used, but it had
+not as yet the richness of tracery which it attained
+in the Gothic period.</p>
+
+<p>Classical features of design still retained their
+hold upon many details, notably in the cornices,
+where the modillions or brackets of the Corinthian
+order were frequently employed, and but slightly
+altered in form, although of native composition.
+The corona of the cornice also differed but little
+from the Roman models, and was occasionally supported
+directly by engaged columns replacing buttresses,
+chiefly on the exterior of apsidal chapels.</p>
+
+<p>In the early Christian churches the apse had consisted
+of a central semicircular termination to the
+building, flanked occasionally by two smaller semicircular
+recesses containing altars. In the baptisteries
+and Byzantine churches these had been multiplied,
+and had come to be customary features
+in every new building. In England, the Norman
+architects generally ended their churches rectangularly,
+without even the original single apse, though
+there are a few examples in which it is used, as at
+Newhaven, Sussex. In Germany it was frequently
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_129">[129]</span>the custom to affix apses to three sides of the
+square tower placed at the intersection of the
+nave and transept, and the result was generally
+satisfactory, as may be seen in St. Martin’s of
+Cologne, and in the Apostles’ Church in the same
+city.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp45" id="facing128" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/facing128.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      PLAN OF STRASBOURG CATHEDRAL<br> (Compare with Basilica, page <a href="#facing089">89</a>.)
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>In France the plan resolved itself into an open
+semicircular colonnade with a passage intervening
+between it and the outer wall which followed the
+outline of a series of small apses. These formed an
+harmonious cluster, and became a type which was
+matured in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries.
+Those belonging to the Romanesque period, however,
+had a distinct and constructively excellent
+character which has rarely been subsequently surpassed.
+Among the best are those of Notre Dame
+du Port at Clermont, St. Etienne de Nevers, and
+St. Sernin at Toulouse.</p>
+
+<p>In France towers were generally placed at the
+West end of the church, while in England and Germany
+the usual way was to build them at the junction
+of the nave and transept; in Italy they were often
+detached from the main structure. They were
+characterized by simple solidity; the openings being
+few and the detail bold; the angles were strengthened
+by stout piers; the roofs were either of timber
+or stone, according to the nature of the materials
+in the localities in which they were erected, and
+they were usually lighted by the round-arched double
+window. This round arch, ornamented with a
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_130">[130]</span>few simple mouldings and reposing upon short
+sturdy columns, forms a constantly recurring feature
+in the composition of the several parts of Romanesque
+buildings.</p>
+
+<p>The corridors which surrounded the square courtyards
+adjoining churches, and connected them with
+the dormitories, refectories, and other apartments of
+the clergy, are called cloisters. They differed but little
+from the Roman “impluvium” and the “atrium”
+of the basilica, the changes consisting chiefly in the
+addition of raised sills separating them from the
+court, and in their being usually vaulted instead of
+carrying timber roofs. The series of arcades forming
+them were treated in many ways, and the detail
+admitted of much elaboration and variety, as may
+be seen in the many remarkable examples throughout
+Europe. The cloisters of St. Paul’s, at Rome,
+and the atrium of St. Ambrogio, at Milan, form
+very interesting historical links between the Roman
+and Romanesque styles and are very beautiful specimens
+of their kind.</p>
+
+<p>It had been the custom during the struggling
+period of the early Church to bury the bodies of
+saints in subterranean chambers called crypts, a
+word derived from the Greek verb “to hide”; subsequently
+these became component parts of all
+churches, serving as places of interment and for the
+occasional celebration of masses. Their masonry
+was necessarily of the massive character required
+for the foundation of the piers of the church above,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_131">[131]</span>consisting generally in a grouping of columns sustaining
+a heavy vault.</p>
+
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="facing130" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/facing130.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      CHEVET OF NOTRE DAME DU PORT AT CLERMONT.
+<br>
+    (<i>From Chapuy.</i>)
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The crypt of St. Eutrope, at Saintes in France,
+may be mentioned as one of the best examples, the
+pillars being richly carved, and the ribs of the vault
+of great boldness and strength.</p>
+
+<p>In Germany the crypt is often raised sufficiently
+above the level of the ground to obtain light from
+windows, as at Spires, and this is sometimes carried
+to such an extreme that the church becomes double,
+that is, of two stories, as at Schwartz Rheindorf.</p>
+
+<p>In England, Canterbury Cathedral possesses perhaps
+the best example, the crypt being very large
+and its details varied. Some of the capitals of the
+columns remain half finished, the work upon them
+having been arrested by a conflagration in the
+twelfth century.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"><div class="chapter"><p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_132">[132]</span></p>
+
+
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="X">X.
+<br><br>
+GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE.</h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="frstwrd">Briefly</span> recapitulating the preceding chapters:
+We have seen that the Greek temple,
+composed of a cella, or oblong room, surrounded
+by a colonnade, was copied by the Romans with
+but few alterations, the only one of importance being
+the addition of a semicircular recess to the rear
+wall. The columns of the colonnade having been
+transposed from the outside to the interior, dividing
+the room in three parts, longitudinally; a cross
+wall having been introduced dividing it transversely,
+and the apse retained, the building became a basilica.
+By extending the transept and nave the plan
+became cruciform and symbolically the most suitable
+for that of a Christian church.</p>
+
+<p>The Western architects, desiring to replace the
+wooden roofs by stone vaults, found it convenient to
+substitute for columns carrying arches, piers with
+engaged shafts connecting directly with the superstructure.</p>
+
+<p>After various attempts to obtain direct light for
+the central division or nave, rendered difficult by
+the necessity of counteracting the continuous thrust
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_133">[133]</span>of the barrel vault thrown across it, this vault was
+finally abandoned and replaced by intersecting vaults,
+which conveyed the thrust diagonally upon equidistant
+piers. To avoid increasing the size of the latter
+to an inconvenient extent, an expedient was resorted
+to which consisted in propping them from the exterior
+by flying buttresses thrown from them to outside
+piers across the roof of the aisles. The result
+of the width of the nave being usually greater than
+the distance between piers was that, while the diagonal
+ribs of the vault remained semicircular, their
+lateral intersection produced pointed arches.</p>
+
+<p>This form of construction was developed during
+the middle and latter half of the twelfth century.
+The pointed arch had been used occasionally before
+by the Romanesque architects; it had been used frequently
+by the Arabs, as far back as the eighth century,
+and had been known and employed long before
+the Christian era in the sewers of Babylon. It
+was, therefore, not a new invention, but a known
+method adopted in a fresh departure in constructive
+architecture; for the circular arches being abandoned
+and definitely replaced by the pointed arch the
+succeeding architecture became pointed or Gothic.</p>
+
+<p>This is the condensed history of the derivation of
+the style as generally accepted at the present day,
+though the subject has given rise to much controversy.</p>
+
+<p>The concentration of the weight of the vault upon
+the piers, instead of upon a continuous wall, was
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_134">[134]</span>more or less the key to the whole scheme of Gothic
+construction; for the main principle remained the
+same throughout its many and varied examples.
+The idea was improved upon gradually and finally
+pushed to exaggeration; the decoration of the component
+parts of a building increased as the style advanced
+and they were reduced to just the sizes needed
+for stability, but their construction remained almost
+unaltered throughout.</p>
+
+<p>We have followed the steps by which the form
+given to Christian churches emanated from the early
+basilicas; this form of building, that is, its plan and
+divisions into nave, aisles, transept, choir, apse, etc.,
+had become traditional and was generally accepted
+in all the best examples.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp30" id="facing134" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/facing134.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      PLAN OF RHEIMS CATHEDRAL.
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The problem of accommodating large assemblies
+in the manner best suited to enable them to concentrate
+their sight and hearing upon a given point has
+been solved in various ways, perhaps most successfully
+in our modern opera-houses, but this problem
+was not one with which the Gothic architects endeavoured
+to grapple; their attention was devoted
+to the improvement and embellishment of the typical
+plan of structure, which custom and dogma had
+prescribed as the most suitable and in accordance
+with the needs of the liturgy. The plan was more
+or less elastic, and differed without material distinction
+in the different countries of Western Europe.
+These differences are easily noted by comparing the
+appended plans; the one, that of Rheims Cathedral,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_135">[135]</span>showing perhaps the most perfect arrangement
+of any in France, and the other, that of a typical
+English cathedral. The latter does not represent
+any particular structure, but is a composition including
+all the usual divisions and connecting buildings,
+taken from an old copy of Rickman.</p>
+
+<table class="autotable">
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr"><i>a</i>, <i>a</i>,</td>
+<td class="tdl">Towers at West end.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr"><i>b</i>, <i>b</i>,</td>
+<td class="tdl">Porches.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr"><i>c</i>,</td>
+<td class="tdl">The nave.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr"><i>d</i>, <i>d</i>,</td>
+<td class="tdl">Side aisles of the nave.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr"><i>e</i>,</td>
+<td class="tdl">The cloisters.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr"><i>f</i>,</td>
+<td class="tdl">Library.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr"><i>g</i>,</td>
+<td class="tdl">North transept.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr"><i>h</i>,</td>
+<td class="tdl">South transept.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr"><i>i</i>, <i>i</i>,</td>
+<td class="tdl">Side aisles of South transept.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr"><i>k</i>, <i>k</i>, <i>k</i>,</td>
+<td class="tdl">Chapels.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr"><i>l</i>,</td>
+<td class="tdl">Chapter house with passage from the cloisters.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr"><i>m</i>,</td>
+<td class="tdl">Central tower, cross or lantern.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr"><i>n</i>,</td>
+<td class="tdl">Screen, over which the organ is usually placed.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr"><i>o</i>,</td>
+<td class="tdl">Choir, at the east end of which the altar is usually placed.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr"><i>p</i>, <i>p</i>,</td>
+<td class="tdl">Side aisles of the choir.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr"><i>q</i>,</td>
+<td class="tdl">Lady chapel.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>In the thirteenth century the style was formed
+in all its purity; it was characterized by great simplicity
+and beauty, and in these respects was never
+surpassed. The arch had few mouldings, and these
+clearly defined and graceful; the shafts of columns
+were of slender and charming proportions, and the
+foliage employed for the decoration of their capitals,
+while conventional, departed entirely from the
+acanthus leaves of Classic origin, and assumed forms
+suggested by Western plants.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_136">[136]</span></p>
+<p>Piers were reduced to the precise dimensions
+needful, and were formed of slender shafts, grouped
+together, which received the arch mouldings on
+either side, and rose in the front and rear to the
+height necessary to take the springing of the vault.
+In practice, the thrust of the vault was found not to
+be transmitted directly to a point to be received by
+an arch, but to two points above and below this
+theoretical one, which necessitated the employment
+of two flying buttresses, the one above the other.
+In Chartres Cathedral these are connected by
+radiating columns, and there are many examples
+where the intervening space is occupied by an open
+arcade. The French generally built their vertical
+buttresses very massively, but in England the pinnacle
+was more frequently used to counteract the
+thrust of the arch. For this purpose it was eminently
+appropriate, and might be considered ornamental,
+but the placing of pinnacles upon the corners
+of the towers and elsewhere where they served
+no end, which was often done, was always a mistake;
+and a defect which mars the effect of many beautiful
+English buildings.</p>
+
+<p>In Notre Dame of Paris, we find the single round
+column still occupying the first story, with the
+more complex arrangement of pier and connected
+shafts starting above the abacus of its capital, but
+as a general thing, a distinct shaft was provided for
+each set of mouldings. In time this was replaced
+by a continuation of the vault mouldings down to
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_137">[137]</span>the floor, interrupted only by an occasional string-course,
+or a band of foliage replacing the capital.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp45" id="facing136" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/facing136.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      PLAN OF AN ENGLISH CATHEDRAL.
+
+    (<i>From Rickman.</i>)
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Once the weight of the vault had been transferred
+to piers, the wall connecting them ceased to support
+anything but the extremity of the cross-vault comprised
+between the piers, and otherwise served only
+as a screen. The Gothic architects soon took advantage
+of this to widen the windows, which had been
+narrow in the early stages, for by throwing a discharging
+arch just under the upper vault across the
+piers the whole space underneath could be occupied
+by windows, which, with the improvement in the
+making of painted glass, became extremely desirable.
+This was accordingly done, the only stonework
+left being the network of mullions and tracery
+necessary to receive the panes. This tracery, probably
+suggested by the rich Arabic window fillings,
+made a great advance during the latter part of the
+thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, the combinations
+of geometrical figures, chiefly the circle, being often
+wonderfully beautiful. The rose window was much
+favoured by the French in their West fronts and transepts,
+but in England the large pointed window was
+generally preferred, and admirably suited the square
+termination of the apse, which was the most frequently
+used in that country.</p>
+
+<p>The space enclosed by the pointed window had
+an outline to which it was always difficult to adjust
+geometric traceries so as to avoid clumsy joints,
+or oddly shaped patterns, and these were, therefore,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_138">[138]</span>subsequently replaced by flowing lines, which could
+be used with much greater freedom.</p>
+
+<p>As these grew bolder they assumed a flame-like
+appearance, and the later period of the style to
+which they belong was, in consequence, called
+“Flamboyant.” This development occurred chiefly
+in France, some of the best examples being in the
+church of St. Ouen, at Rouen.</p>
+
+<p>The simplest form of the Gothic vault was that
+in which the compartment comprised between two
+piers on one side and two on the opposite side of
+the nave was marked by two ribs bridging it, and
+two diagonal ribs intersecting each other. As the
+system advanced the vault became more complex
+by the addition of other ribs, as strengtheners or as
+ornaments, until in some examples the whole vault
+became a network of intersecting ribs.</p>
+
+<p>These intersections were frequently emphasized
+by a keystone or by an ornament called a boss,
+which in English work was also placed at intervals
+along string-courses, breaking the continuity after
+the manner of modillions in Classic cornices.</p>
+
+<p>A keystone placed in the centre of a vault was
+held there by a combination of great strength, as it
+became a point of abutment for all the main ribs,
+whose thrust was distributed against four piers and
+hence exteriorly by buttresses to the ground. A
+good stone, therefore, in this position could have
+extraordinary dimensions, and was susceptible of a
+variety of treatment. In some French examples it
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_139">[139]</span>was extended, or rather hung, considerably below
+the surface of the vault and ornamentally carved,
+while in England, in the late so-called Perpendicular
+Gothic, it formed the centre of a large pendant,
+or circular hanging ornament, which in some cases
+came down almost to the level of the springing of
+the ribs.</p>
+
+<p>This construction was used chiefly in connection
+with the fan-vaulting, in which English architects
+excelled, which may indeed be said to be an English
+invention and monopoly, as no examples of it
+are found elsewhere. The name explains, in measure,
+the form taken by the ribs, which, spreading
+out from the sheaf of mouldings in the pier, trace a
+perfect semicircle on the upper ceiling, their intervening
+spaces being occupied by panels. The four
+semicircles thus traced by the ribs, starting from
+four piers of a compartment, are each tangent to a
+central and whole circle forming the contour of the
+pendant.</p>
+
+<p>To be successful this requires that the compartment
+or space included between four piers, two on
+each side of the nave or choir, should be a square,
+otherwise the circles do not touch, and the lines are
+inharmonious.</p>
+
+<p>The chapels of Henry the Seventh, at Westminster,
+and of St. George, at Windsor, contain the
+best examples of fan-vaulting, and are very beautiful
+in general effect, though it is questionable
+whether such constructive tricks are worthy of unrestricted
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_140">[140]</span>praise, while the abuse of panelling in
+which English architects indulged in these later
+Gothic buildings, by which the whole wall and
+ceiling surface was cut up in an unending repetition,
+was certainly blameworthy, and tended to reduce
+their art to a mechanical science.</p>
+
+<p>They excelled, however, in all mechanical workmanship,
+in which perhaps that employed in the
+execution of timber roofs is the most remarkable.
+These were in a measure, at least upon so large
+a scale, a feature wholly English, for nothing approaching
+them is found elsewhere. The roof of
+Westminster Hall is the most justly celebrated
+and is unique in general character.</p>
+
+<p>The natural stonework showing all its joints was
+generally left untouched in the interior of Gothic
+buildings, and afforded the best finish as well as
+contrast to the stained glass in the windows.</p>
+
+<p>Polychrome decoration was attempted occasionally,
+chiefly on the Continent, and in some instances
+successfully. The best examples are the restorations
+of the Ste. Chapelle and St. Germain des
+Prés, in Paris, though the latter belongs more
+properly to the Romanesque period. Many churches
+have been completely spoiled as regards their inside
+appearance by coats of whitewash applied to the
+whole interior surface, giving them a bleak and
+barn-like aspect fatal to architectural effect; this is
+especially frequent in Belgium.</p>
+
+<p>This whitewash, coupled with horribly incongruous
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_141">[141]</span>late Renaissance decoration, has gone far in
+many cases to ruin what would otherwise be fine
+buildings.</p>
+
+<p>Externally all <em>good</em> Gothic buildings showed a
+direct correspondence with the interior: buttresses,
+flying buttresses, pinnacles, etc., were all constructive
+and never decorative devices; there was never such
+a thing as a façade or false front built independently
+of the interior, and though the harmony of the lines
+of both were often difficult to reconcile, it was just
+in the overcoming of such difficulties that the
+brilliant qualities of Gothic architects were called
+forth.</p>
+
+<p>In the arrangement of the West fronts the French
+were at their best, for the combination of deeply
+recessed porches with the rose window and gable
+above, flanked by the towers, which in France were
+usually placed here, was both judicious and effective.
+In England such porches as those of Rheims,
+or deep openings, such as the entrances to the cathedral
+of Paris, were not used, and the West elevations
+are consequently less interesting. Peterborough
+is an exception to this rule, but the design
+is so exaggerated, that the three immense arcades
+dwarf everything connected with them.</p>
+
+<p>The custom of placing a tower and spire over the
+intersection of the nave and transept was always
+adhered to in England, and was always a happy
+arrangement which gave the building dignity and
+character, even when the Western towers were
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_142">[142]</span>omitted. Of this the celebrated Salisbury Cathedral
+is a beautiful example.</p>
+
+<p>The spires of Chartres and of St. Ouen, at Rouen,
+are the finest in France, where towers were frequently
+built to receive spires which were never
+added. The height to which the nave was carried
+there often prevented the towers from having their
+due effect, as it was impossible to carry them out
+on a scale large enough to give them a corresponding
+proportion. English architects contented themselves
+with moderate interior heights, rendering the
+proportioning of their buildings a much easier task
+than that which their neighbours imposed upon
+themselves, by attempting with each new building
+a more daring altitude, until the crumbling vaults of
+Beauvais set a limit to their audacity.</p>
+
+<p>The comparison of contemporary Gothic in England
+and France covers the subject more accurately
+than between that of any other countries, for these
+two nations rivalled each other all along in the solution
+of the various problems which arose with each
+step in their progress, while the architects of other
+countries profited by the results they attained and
+erected their buildings on Anglo-French principles.</p>
+
+<p>The cathedrals of Cologne, in Germany, and
+Toledo, in Spain, are as fine as any to be found in
+France or England, but they are neither German nor
+Spanish in conception and principle, and therefore
+do not belong to the national architecture of these
+countries.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_143">[143]</span></p>
+<p>In Italy, Gothic architecture was never understood
+as it was in the North, and whenever anything
+was attempted in direct imitation of Northern
+principles of design, the result was always hard and
+mechanical. The true Italian Gothic was of itself
+often beautiful, but this was almost a separate style,
+in which the influences of pointed forms, Oriental
+colour, and the example which the Classical ruins
+held out so conspicuously on their own soil, were
+brought together by the Italians so as to form an
+harmonious whole.</p>
+
+<p>In Venice a peculiar development of the style
+was attained, adapted to the flat elevations of the
+canal palaces. This arrangement consisted of a consecutive
+series of arcades, in which the mouldings of
+each arch were carried up and returned, forming a
+second and sometimes a third row of lights, replacing,
+in the play of light and shadow, the forced
+absence of projections.</p>
+
+<p>These arcades were surmounted by horizontal
+mouldings, and the lines of the cornices and imposts
+were also horizontal, the Italians never having lost
+sight of the entablature, which had been dropped
+in France with the rise of Romanesque architecture
+and replaced always afterward by the vertical lines
+which are the prominent one sin of all Northern
+Gothic buildings.</p>
+
+<p>The celebrated Doge’s palace is the foremost of
+these and ranks amongst the most picturesque buildings
+in Europe. It is not free, however, from grave
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_144">[144]</span>defects and is criticised by architects for the top-heavy
+and injudicious construction, by which a high
+and rarely pierced wall is sustained by the slenderest
+of arcades.</p>
+
+<p>Most of these palaces are of the fifteenth century
+and should not perhaps be mentioned first, but as
+they illustrate the principle of horizontal lines more
+readily than by reference to the isolated parts of
+less well-known buildings, they are introduced now.</p>
+
+<p>Although Milan Cathedral is one of the largest
+and most pretentious ecclesiastical buildings in Italy,
+it is scarcely a good example of Italian Gothic, for
+German architects were employed in its construction
+and their influence is apparent. It is rather to the
+Cathedral of Sienna that we should turn for a complete
+typical Italian structure. Here we find a
+beautiful building and yet one which can in no way
+be judged from a Northern standard. The West
+front has three porches, but their recessed arches
+are round instead of pointed, although the detail is
+Gothic (the church having been begun in the middle
+of the thirteenth century); above is a rose window,
+but, unlike the Western models, without dividing
+tracery. Both the exterior and interior are striped
+with alternate bands of black and white marble.
+The intersection of the nave and transept is covered
+by a dome, a feature unknown in France or England
+(with the single exception of the wooden one
+in the cathedral of Ely), and the tower or campanile
+is placed in the angle of the South transept.
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_145">[145]</span>These points are all essentially different from Northern
+treatment, in which some of them would be considered
+defects. Here, however, the parts are sufficiently
+harmoniously united to produce a whole
+which is pleasing and original. The cathedral of
+Sienna has much in addition to these to make it
+interesting: attached to it is a library—a later
+building, beautifully decorated in a style similar to
+the Loggie of Raphael in the Vatican; the stalls of
+the choir are of carved wood, of the richest Renaissance
+design, and the pulpit, by Nicholas Pisano, is
+a gem of sculpture. This pulpit is octagonal; its
+sides are carved in high relief in representation of
+Scriptural scenes, and it is supported by polished
+columns carrying trefoiled arches and resting upon
+marble lions in lieu of bases. As a work in which
+both sculpture and architecture combine, it is, on a
+small scale, one of the most beautiful productions
+of its kind, essentially Italian, and rivalled only by
+that in the baptistery of Pisa by the same artist.</p>
+
+<p>The body of a lion as the base of a column was
+a favourite device of Italian architects, and is frequently
+met with. Porches formed of columns carrying
+a round arch and gable and resting on lions,
+are often attached to the entrance of churches.</p>
+
+<p>Orvieto Cathedral is, on a smaller scale, similar to
+the neighbouring cathedral of Sienna. The West
+front is designed with most elaborate detail and
+highly ornamented with painting and sculpture.
+The Duomo of Florence partakes also of the general
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_146">[146]</span>characteristics of Sienna, although its proportions
+are vastly larger. Its most striking feature is the
+great dome, added by Brunelleschi, when the
+church, designed by Arnolfo, was approaching completion;
+but it is unsatisfactory, as its immense size
+dwarfs the rest of the building. The general picturesqueness
+of outline, the delicate design of the
+doors and windows, and the proximity of the beautiful
+tower of Giotto, go far to atone for this. The
+exterior walls of the church are covered with a veneering
+of coloured marbles, which, while judiciously
+treated and good of its kind, is too false to be easily
+reconciled to true artistic principles, and its skin-deep
+beauty has been painfully apparent, until very
+recently, owing to the unfinished condition of the
+West front.</p>
+
+<p>It may be said in extenuation of this that plaster,
+while generally accepted as an honest material, is
+no less a shallow covering to disguise naked walls;
+it is, however, frequently misused, and is only tolerable
+so long as it is not employed in imitation of
+better materials, while the thin marble is really intended
+to deceive the eye, and give the impression
+that its depth is equal to that of the wall.</p>
+
+<p>The interior of the Florence Cathedral is disappointing,
+it is insufficiently lighted, bare, and much
+in need of the frescos with which it was originally
+intended to be decorated.</p>
+
+<p>The cathedral of Pisa belongs in greater part to
+the preceding style, but the campo-santo adjoining
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_147">[147]</span>it has a cloister with traceried windows, which, notwithstanding
+its round arches, more nearly resembles
+Northern Gothic than anything in Italy, and
+by its greater height shows a novel and more effective
+treatment than is usually seen in France or
+England.</p>
+
+<p>The little church of St. Maria della Spina in this
+town, on the banks of the Arno, is a charming little
+edifice of the Sienna type.</p>
+
+<p>In civil architecture Italy has much to boast of.
+Her palaces and fortresses are amongst the noblest
+and most picturesque buildings of the Middle Ages
+found anywhere in Europe. Most of these are rectangular
+masses of stone, the austerity of which is
+relieved by heavy window-openings with pointed
+heads and moulded frames, and crowned by a battlemented
+cornice, occasionally enlivened by shields
+placed between alternate corbels. The addition of
+the campanile, used as a lookout tower rather than as
+a belfry, generally completes an imposing structure.</p>
+
+<p>Of those in stone, the Palazzo Vecchio and the
+Bargello, in Florence, are among the finest of these
+half town-hall, half fortress buildings, while the
+Municipio of Sienna, with its immensely high campanile,
+may be mentioned as typical of those in
+brick. Nearly every large city possesses one of
+these tall towers, notably Verona, Cremona, Mantua,
+and Florence. In the last-named the tower of
+Giotto is the most highly ornamented and graceful
+of this class of structure, and for general proportions
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_148">[148]</span>unsurpassed. Longfellow, in his well-known
+poem, regrets the lack of a spire to complete it, but
+it is questionable whether such an addition could
+have been made in keeping with the style in which
+it is designed.</p>
+
+<p>In France the lately restored Chateau de Pierrefonds,
+near Compiegne, illustrates, perhaps as well
+as any, the typical military building of the Gothic
+period, with all the usual accompanying structures.
+The exterior walls are high and massive, with round
+towers at the angles crowned with projecting battlements
+and conical roofs. An interior court is
+reached only by traversing a drawbridge and passing
+through an outer gate and passage defended by
+heavy portcullis. Around this court are grouped
+the apartments, banqueting-halls, the chapel, and
+the necessary quarters for residents and garrison.</p>
+
+<p>The number of remaining domestic buildings of
+the period is comparatively limited. The house of
+Jacques Coeur at Bourges, the monastic Hotel de
+Cluny, in Paris, the Palais de Justice, and the Hotel
+Bourgtheroulde, in Rouen, may be mentioned
+among the few still standing, as the best examples
+of contemporary architecture.</p>
+
+<p>Of small half-timbered houses there remain a fair
+number in France, though they are daily being demolished,
+in the principal cities, to make way for
+so-called improvements.</p>
+
+<p>England is rich in military and civil buildings:
+the castles of Windsor, Warwick, Kenilworth,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_149">[149]</span>Rochester, and the Tower of London, are all well
+known and have been frequently described. Perhaps
+the most interesting of English civil structures
+of the Middle Ages, are the colleges at Oxford; as,
+however, they follow, in the Gothic treatment, the
+progress of the styles, as illustrated in the contemporary
+ecclesiastical edifices, they do not require
+special description.</p>
+
+<p>The town-halls of Belgium are important Gothic
+buildings, and are found in all the principal cities
+of that country. Their flat façades are singularly
+rich, but as they embody only the forms and ornament
+of Gothic art, they are less interesting and
+poorer examples than any less pretentious structures
+showing the constructive element, which predominated
+in the Gothic style.</p>
+
+<p>Toward the close of the style, and before the rebirth
+of Classic art had completely superseded
+Gothic architecture, a curious transitional style had
+a brief sway, in which both were blended. The
+wing of the Chateau de Blois, built by Louis XII.,
+and the Chateau de Gaillon, built by Cardinal Amboise,
+in the year 1500, the façade of which is now
+preserved in the courtyard of the Ecole des Beaux
+Arts, may be regarded as the best specimens of this
+charming and short-lived art. The churches of St.
+Etienne du Mont, and St. Eustache, at Paris, may
+be added to these as typical of the contemporary
+religious edifices.</p>
+
+<p>In them we see the last throes of a dying style
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_150">[150]</span>which had become extravagant and distorted in its
+final efforts to survive, but retained traces of its
+former beauty even in its expiring moments.</p>
+
+<p>The Gothic style arose in the latter half of the
+twelfth century, it attained its greatest purity and
+simplicity in the thirteenth; during the fourteenth
+a more extensive use of ornament was introduced,
+in consequence of which it has been termed Decorated
+Gothic; finally, in the fifteenth, its principles
+and principal features were exaggerated and pushed
+to their utmost limits, until its brilliancy, flickering
+in the flamboyant traceries of the latest period, expired
+and gave place to a Classic revival.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"><div class="chapter"><p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_151">[151]</span></p>
+
+
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="XI">XI.
+<br><br>
+THE RENAISSANCE.</h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="frstwrd">A not</span> uncommon error is made in applying the
+name Renaissance only to the delicately
+treated style of revived Classic art, such as was
+prevalent in France during the reigns of Francis
+the First, and his immediate successors.</p>
+
+<p>The word—derived from the verb <i lang="fr">renaître</i>, signifying
+in French the rebirth (of the classics understood)—cannot,
+however, be confined to any such
+narrowed limits, for no new style having been substituted
+since, it is as correct a term to-day as it
+was in the sixteenth century. There is certainly a
+distinction between the first brilliant productions
+of the revival, and the more ponderous buildings
+which succeeded them, but Early and Late Renaissance
+express this satisfactorily. It did not always
+follow, however, that all the work which, from its
+characteristics, would be classified under the first
+head, necessarily antedated that belonging to the
+later period.</p>
+
+<p>In Italy, where the works of the Romans were
+too colossal to be utterly destroyed, and too conspicuous
+to be easily forgotten, the first movement
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_152">[152]</span>naturally took place to reawaken the long dormant
+art, by which they had been produced.</p>
+
+<p>In the fifteenth century Orcagua built the Loggia
+dei Lanzi, in Florence, and boldly substituted
+round arches for the pointed ones then in vogue.
+This was the turning-point in the tide of Gothic
+architecture, for it needed but little more to induce
+the delighted Italians to throw off the yoke
+of an art which they had adopted but unwillingly,
+and which had never been sympathetic to their
+taste. Consistently with their impetuous nature, the
+change was effected without hesitation in a marvellously
+short period, and with scarcely any of the
+usual intervening transitional stages. The ancient
+forms reappeared and replaced the dying Gothic
+as rapidly as in the days of the French monarchy
+the cry “Le roi est mort. Vive le roi!” heralded at
+once the king’s death and his son’s succession to
+power.</p>
+
+<p>It is strange that there should have been so
+little to connect the succeeding styles, that the revival
+should have been so completely independent of
+and uninfluenced by a style which had been steadily
+growing for four centuries, and which men must
+have become accustomed to consider the only one
+suited to their times. Delicate workmanship was,
+however, the only Gothic legacy the Renaissance
+architects accepted, and this was the chief characteristic
+of the work of the early period. The proportions
+and scale of their buildings were small; a
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_153">[153]</span>whole order: pedestal, column, and entablature generally
+occupying and marking the height of an
+ordinary story of fifteen or twenty feet, and the
+ornament used, while profuse, was executed in the
+lowest relief and with most minute detail.</p>
+
+<p>If the revolution in art was great, it had proportionately
+great exponents: Brunelleschi, Bramante,
+Raphael, Sangallo, Vignola, Michael Angelo
+are names as prominent in history as those of much-lauded
+victors in the battlefield.</p>
+
+<p>Brunelleschi, architect of the dome of St. Mary’s
+in Florence, was one of the earliest innovators.
+He designed the Strozzi and Pitti Palaces in that
+city, with the horizontal lines and round arches
+of the Classic school, although still retaining the
+feudal traditions in their massive stonework and
+in the austerity of their exteriors. The great palaces
+of Rome which belong to this period partake also
+of this external severity, and confine their brilliancy
+to interior display. The palaces of the Cancelleria
+by Bramante, the Palazzo Massini by Balthasar
+Perruzzi, of Sienna, the Sacchetti and Corsini Palaces
+by Sangallo, the Barberini designed by Bernini,
+and the Farnese Palace upon which Sangallo, Vignola,
+and Michael Angelo devoted their labors in
+turn, are a few among the most celebrated.</p>
+
+<p>Most of these buildings, while varying in size
+and in accordance with the character of their sites,
+are rectangular in plan, and enclose quadrangular
+courts, the different stories being marked by superposed
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_154">[154]</span>orders and arcades. They are planned on a
+liberal scale, with broad proportions and with great
+deference to symmetry. The beauty of the plan
+was, in fact, one of the best features of the new
+style, not only in domestic, but in ecclesiastical architecture,
+for the arbitrary Gothic arrangements
+being once discarded, it became possible to combine
+the circle and straight line in many novel and
+beautiful ways, for which the older Roman buildings
+furnished admirable examples. The study of these
+plans forms one of the most important elements
+in an architect’s education, and their examination in
+these days of iron props and twelve-inch walls is
+fraught with much pleasure and profit.</p>
+
+<p>The light and brilliant creations of the early
+period are abundant in Northern Italy, and were
+models with which the French were readily impressed.
+The façade of the church in the Certosa
+of Pavia, with its elaborate detail and delicate
+ornament, and such buildings as the Spinelli Rezzonico
+and Vendramin palaces, the church of St.
+Zachariah, the Logetta and Library of St Mark’s
+of Sansovino, in Venice, and farther South the Palazzo
+Fava in Bologna, the Capella Pazzi attached
+to the older Sta. Croce in Florence, and the monument
+to Julius II. in Sta. Maria del Popolo in Rome
+are a few beautiful examples of the early treatment
+which has so much affinity with the works produced
+in France under the Valois.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp65" id="facing155" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/facing155.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      PLAN OF ST. PETER’S AS ORIGINALLY DESIGNED BY MICHAEL ANGELO.
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The great Italian cathedral upon which nearly all
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_155">[155]</span>subsequent churches were modelled was commenced
+upon the site of the old basilica of St. Peter’s in
+Rome in the year 1506, upon plans by Bramante,
+and occupied a century and a half in completion.
+After Bramante, Giocondo, Julian Sangallo, Raphael,
+Perruzzi, Antonio di Sangallo, Michael Angelo and
+Carlo Maderno each worked upon it in turn.</p>
+
+<p>Michael Angelo, who designed the dome, wished
+to adopt the plan of the Greek cross, that is, with
+equal arms, as shown in the accompanying plan.
+The result would have been much more monumental
+and would have given the dome its due effect
+within a moderate distance, while now it can only
+be properly judged from afar, and the high façade
+terminating the nave is both poor in composition
+and detrimental to the general conception. The
+building is essentially Classic in all its details, but
+differs from the general design of any particular
+Classical building. The nave is formed by a Corinthian
+arcade similar to those of ancient Rome,
+though on a vastly larger scale, supporting a tunnel-vault,
+which is decorated with sunken panels like
+those of the ancient Baths. The dome is supported
+on a circular drum carried on four immense piers
+and improves on the Pantheon only in size, while it
+is surpassed by St. Sophia in scientific construction.</p>
+
+<p>The cathedral is most richly, even gaudily, decorated
+within, with coloured marbles and mosaics
+and contains numerous tombs of great magnificence
+and an altar with twisted columns designed by
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_156">[156]</span>Bernini. It is the largest church in the world, and
+yet its proportions are so harmoniously, or inharmoniously
+designed, that it does not produce a corresponding
+sense of its vastness upon the beholder.
+The single order occupying the height of two stories
+is a feature, the invention, or rather arrangement of
+which, is attributed to Michael Angelo. In subsequent
+buildings it was nearly always adopted in
+preference to the smaller orders marking each floor.</p>
+
+<p>The life of this great artist forms of itself a
+chapter in the history of architecture. Michael
+Buonarotti, surnamed Angelo, the most brilliant
+architect of the sixteenth century, was born of
+noble parentage in Arezzo in the year 1575. He
+developed extraordinary talents at an early age,
+and after outstripping his first instructor, took up
+his residence in Florence, where he studied anatomy
+and the human figure until he became the most
+expert draughtsman of his time. In Rome, where
+he was summoned by Julius II., he produced several
+fine works in statuary, but owing to the jealousy of
+Bramante was forced to quit the city and return to
+Florence. There he aided the citizens to sustain a
+siege during a year, by his superior knowledge of
+fortification, and subsequently went to Venice, where
+he designed the famous Rialto bridge. At the
+earnest solicitation of the pope he returned to Rome
+and commenced the great paintings in the Sistine
+Chapel, to which work he had been assigned by the
+counsels of Bramante, who wished to prove his inferiority
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_157">[157]</span>to his own nephew Raphael. The result of
+the work, completed in a marvellously short period,
+however, was so successful that all Rome ran to
+see it.</p>
+
+<p>After the accession of Paul III. to the Papal see,
+Michael Angelo was definitely appointed architect
+of St. Peter’s and worked on the building during
+the remainder of his life, although he returned to
+Florence several times and there executed the splendid
+statues which adorn the chapel of the Medicis.
+In his later days he was assisted by Vignola in his
+work, but died before its completion at the advanced
+age of eighty-eight.</p>
+
+<p>Giacomo Barrozio, called Vignola from his birthplace
+near Bologna, is known for his great works,
+the chief of which are the Jesuits’ church in Rome
+and the castle of Caprarolla at Viterbo, which he
+built for the Cardinal Alexander Farnese, and also,
+especially to architects, for the rules and measurements
+of Classical orders which he composed from
+the buildings of Rome with the aid of the manual
+of Vitruvius.</p>
+
+<p>This work comprises the elements of design used
+in nearly all the buildings erected during the two
+following centuries, many of their elevations being
+simple combinations of different pages of Vignola’s
+book, which to this day is the best guide for Classical
+proportions and the architects’ A B C.</p>
+
+<p>The discriminator between the various architectural
+styles is fond of drawing a marked distinction
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_158">[158]</span>between Italian, French, and German Renaissance,
+and illustrating it by views of the typical Italian
+palace, with a flat tile roof and low pediments, and
+the typical French house, with immensely high slate
+roofs and pretentious dormers. Although the eye
+of the practised architect can distinguish between
+the representative work of Sansovino and Philibert
+Delorme, and between that of Bernini and Claude
+Perrault, yet such distinctions do not form separate
+styles, for they are but unimportant differences,
+caused by local influences.</p>
+
+<p>The subject should be looked upon in a broader
+sense, for all these subdivisions tend to confuse the
+student and lead him to forget the sequence of the
+great historical style of which they form part.</p>
+
+<p>The Jacobean, Queen Anne, and kindred so-called
+styles in England were merely eccentric streams
+flowing out of the one main channel, which were
+scarcely worthy of distinction and certainly not of
+revival in our times.</p>
+
+<p>In France, under each reign, there was a slight
+difference of treatment, chiefly in the decoration of
+interiors, which permits of a classification most convenient
+to the modern upholsterer, but for our purposes
+it is sufficient to apply the two divisions—Early
+and Late Renaissance.</p>
+
+<p>The Chateaux of Blois, Chambord, and Chenonceaux
+in the Valley of the Loire, the Palaces of Fontainebleau,
+St. Germain en Laye, the Tuileries and
+the old Louvre in Paris are splendid examples of the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_159">[159]</span>former, and monuments worthy of the great artists,
+Pierre Lescot, Philibert Delorme, Jean Goujon, and
+others, who laboured upon them. They are illustrative
+of the employment of the small orders and ornament
+in low relief, which characterized the corresponding
+period in Italy, though they are generally
+richer and more spirited in design than the Italian
+buildings, and the soft stone which is so abundant
+in France permitted more lavish ornament upon the
+exteriors.</p>
+
+<p>The skeletons of each design, that is to say, the
+main architectural lines, stripped of elaborate detail,
+are much alike and can nearly all be brought
+back to the ancient method of superposing orders.
+This is no disparagement on the value of the work,
+for the plans of many buildings were excellent, and
+the variety of ornamental design was of a delicacy
+and imaginative beauty which has rarely been surpassed.</p>
+
+<p>It is questionable, indeed, whether the change
+which took place in the century of Louis XIV., in
+the introduction of larger proportions and greater
+severity of ornament, was so much a gain as it was
+considered at the time. To this period belong some
+of the great churches modelled upon or rather suggested
+by St. Peter’s in Rome: St. Paul’s in London,
+rebuilt by Christopher Wren; the Val de Grace, the
+joint work of Lemercier, Leduc, and Mansart, and
+the church of the Hotel des Invalides in Paris, also by
+Mansart, are among the finest of the period and style.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_160">[160]</span></p>
+<p>The plan of the last-named church is appended
+as a particularly happy example in general arrangement
+and symmetrical variety, doing great credit to
+Mansart, who also built the larger portion of the
+celebrated Chateau de Versailles.</p>
+
+<p>The publication of Stewart and Revetts’ great
+work upon the antiquities of Athens called general
+attention in England to the beauty of Greek art, toward
+the close of the last century, and resulted in
+the erection of a number of buildings in imitation of
+Athenian monuments which were utterly inappropriate
+and unsuited to the English climate.</p>
+
+<p>In France architecture went through two or three
+fashionable phases, from great extravagance of design
+under Louis XV. to extreme simplicity under
+Louis XVI., finally relapsing under Napoleon into
+the servile copying of entire Classic buildings: a
+great falling off from the principle of the sixteenth
+century work, which had always been original in
+conception although borrowing detail from the antique.</p>
+
+<p>During the early part of this century, architecture
+sank to the lowest ebb all over the world, probably
+owing to the disturbing influences of the great Napoleonic
+wars. Within the last thirty years the
+spirited writings of a few enthusiasts and the liberal
+teachings of the French schools have caused a general
+revival, and better work is being done now than
+at any time during the century.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp55" id="facing160" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/facing160.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+      PLAN OF CHURCH OF THE HOTEL DES INVALIDES AT PARIS.
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Avaricious commerce and the predominance of
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_161">[161]</span>the desire for display rather than quiet love of the
+arts are factors which stand much in the way of genuine
+progress, but it is not improbable that the spread
+of refined education will eventually succeed in planting
+the seeds of this love in the heart of the great
+masses, and enable architecture to resume its natural
+and elevating position in their midst.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"><div class="chapter"><p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_162">[162]</span></p>
+
+
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="XII">XII.
+<br><br>
+CONCLUSION.</h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="frstwrd">At</span> the present stage of modern art we have the
+principles, broadly speaking, of two great
+styles of architecture to guide us in the design of
+the buildings which we may have to erect. These
+are the Classic and the Gothic; for we may apply
+the term Classic not merely to the works of the
+Greeks and Romans, but to their offshoots the
+Byzantine and Romanesque styles, the one branching
+Eastward and the other Westward, altered in
+many respects, but founded on the older systems;
+and we have seen that the Renaissance was but a
+revival of the same methods and forms.</p>
+
+<p>In each of these styles the best result has always
+been attained where the constructional element has
+been held to be as important as the decorative,
+where the essential and useful have not been subservient
+to considerations of ornament or display.
+In Classic work much has been done that is unworthy,
+in the senseless repetition of columns and
+pilasters which support nothing, in decoration which
+serves only to conceal ill-adjusted architectural
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_163">[163]</span>lines; and the same is equally true of degenerate
+Gothic, in which whole walls have been covered
+with meaningless panels, and massive buttresses
+built up to receive no strain.</p>
+
+<p>Nevertheless, by following only what is good in
+the principles of each, and by avoiding the errors
+which experience has enabled us to perceive, especially
+those which have engrafted themselves upon
+us by bigoted custom, we can not only produce fine
+work but assist in the advance of architecture.</p>
+
+<p>Before deciding upon what style to employ in
+the composition of an edifice, it is well to first
+consider thoroughly the programme of what is
+wanted in its plan, and then the special character
+with which we desire to invest it both exteriorly
+and interiorly. It is scarcely necessary to add that
+both should be intimately connected.</p>
+
+<p>We have seen that the best period of Gothic art
+was that wherein the whole structure was raised on
+a theory of weights and strains thrown from vault
+to pier, and pier to buttress; it is, therefore, absurd,
+when a building occupies a space between the party-walls
+of modern street lots, to attempt an interior
+construction having the appearance of corresponding
+with buttresses and similar contrivances for which
+there is no room on the outside.</p>
+
+<p>If, therefore, we choose Gothic for our style, let
+us follow no false theory, but work on the principles
+demonstrated in its innumerable examples, in
+which it may be possible to find room for further
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_164">[164]</span>development, introducing no feature of construction
+which has not a full and consistent meaning.</p>
+
+<p>One can scarcely go the lengths to which many
+venture, in saying that Gothic architecture is suited
+only to ecclesiastical buildings, for there are many
+splendid military and civil structures, from the keeps
+and castles of England and France, to the town-halls
+of Belgium. But there is this much to be said in
+their favour, that while the laws of fortification and
+domestic life have altered entirely since the Middle
+Ages, on the one hand, those governing the observances
+of religion have remained unchanged and
+no manner of building is so essentially religious in
+its character or better calculated to command the
+reverence and awe of the devotee, on the other.</p>
+
+<p>In support of this view many will agree in admitting
+that there is nothing of this religious sentiment
+expressed in the Corinthian colonnades of St. Peter’s,
+or, in fact, in any of the great number of Renaissance
+churches which are scattered throughout the
+cities of Europe, while it never fails to exercise its
+influence upon anyone entering the great Gothic
+cathedrals.</p>
+
+<p>The great prevailing thought of Mediæval times
+was a religious one, and we see it reflected in the
+minutest details of the lives of the people of that
+age; it was, consequently, but natural that it should
+attain its highest expression when they filled their
+churches with the best that could be produced in
+architecture, sculpture, and painting.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_165">[165]</span></p>
+<p>While the Classic orders seem out of place in a
+temple of Christian worship they are appropriate in
+civil buildings, and we have no better examples for
+beauty of proportion. They are the result of the
+thought and taste of generations of architects and
+have stood the test of time, for they are as pleasing
+to-day as in the days of ancient Greece and Rome.</p>
+
+<p>It is their proportion rather than their component
+parts which we should follow, for a column, unless
+needed as a support, is a questionable decoration,
+and pilasters or engaged columns are only desirable
+where additional thickness of wall is required, used
+as the Gothic architect would have used buttresses,
+and never as mere ornaments, which are at once a
+fraudulent delusion and a retrogression in the progress
+of architecture.</p>
+
+<p>A multiplicity of columns and entablatures does
+not make perfect architecture, but great leading
+lines, good proportion, clear detail, and appropriate
+ornament.</p>
+
+<p>The guiding rule is to do nothing which has not
+intrinsic merit. It is better to have an absolutely
+plain wall than one covered with poor decoration;
+far better to have no cornice at all than a galvanized
+iron one, painted to look like stone.</p>
+
+<p>The true definition of architecture is “ornamental
+construction.” It is not a utilitarian science, because
+if so there would be no <i lang="fr">raison d’être</i> for
+beauty of design, for mere shelter and commodious
+arrangement could as well be provided by the engineer
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_166">[166]</span>as by the architect. The art of the architect
+lies in the composition of buildings at once suited
+to their purpose and beautiful to the eye; and as
+such his art is one that can progress, not through a
+series of changing fashions which grow wearisome
+before they have lasted a decade, but step by step,
+according to the example of the great periods of the
+past.</p>
+
+<p>This example teaches us never to copy slavishly,
+but to imitate old examples only so far as they may
+suit modern needs, in principle rather than in detail,
+and to eschew the reproduction of defects, however
+picturesque, so that architecture may be a living art
+instead of the mummified representation of archæological
+researches.</p>
+
+<p>In pursuing the study of so vast and splendid an
+art we should do so with some feeling of reverence
+for its dignity, not looking upon it as a mere money-making
+trade, for the greatest architects the world
+has known have been satisfied in being only worshippers
+at a great shrine. Reverence is a sentiment
+slightly regarded in an age when delicacy of
+feeling in such matters is often held up as a butt
+for the jests and derision of the vulgar, and the
+dignity of the art has little foothold when it has
+become a custom for the vendor of cheap furniture
+to style his shop an “Art Repository,” and the
+founder of cast-iron abortions to call his factory
+“The Art Metal Works.”</p>
+
+<p>Nevertheless all of our work must reflect something
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_167">[167]</span>of our inner thoughts, and if we do not place
+them upon a high plane it is not possible for their
+reflection to contain what is noble and true. We
+cannot become artists in the true sense of the word
+without loving and reverencing the beauty and
+principles which have made the art so great a one.</p>
+
+<p>It is the custom among certain people to sneer at
+sentiment, and call for practical art; but the most
+practical art is essentially the product of thoughtful
+sentiments.</p>
+
+<p>As an illustration, let us compare the Laocoön,
+of sculpture; the Halls of Karnak, of architecture;
+the Dead March, of music; the “Descent from the
+Cross,” of painting, with the “Dancing Faun,” the
+arabesques of the Renaissance, the waltzes of Chopin,
+and the gay feasts depicted by Paolo Veronese,
+and the contrast shows us that each branch of an
+universal art expresses the opposite feelings of
+gravity or tragedy, of joy or comedy, each in its
+separate manner.</p>
+
+<p>In designing, questions arise every moment which
+can only be decided by an innate sentiment of what
+is good and appropriate. There are no fixed laws
+governing the height of a spire or the projection of
+a moulding; they are matters which depend upon
+correct feeling, or, in other words, upon educated
+taste.</p>
+
+<p>If it were not so, art would become a mechanical
+science, and could no longer be called by that
+name. Emotion has no place in mechanics, but
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_168">[168]</span>it has great influence in the arts. We know the
+Greeks were an emotional race, and it is said that
+Michael Angelo wept before a beautiful statue or
+painting; and the works of the people and of the individual
+were proportionate to the depth of their
+feelings, and have perhaps never been excelled.</p>
+
+<p>Let us, therefore, commence this study—for the
+omega of this book is but the alpha of architecture—despising
+none of its delicate subtleties, and endeavour
+to grasp its principles, in the hope of doing
+our share in its further advance, laying aside the
+petty gratification of our vanity in a genuine affection
+for our art.</p>
+
+
+<p class="center p4">THE END</p>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"><div class="chapter"></div>
+
+<div class="transnote" id="END_NOTE">
+<strong>TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE</strong>
+
+
+<p class="noindent">Illustrations in this eBook have been positioned between paragraphs
+and outside quotations. In versions of this eBook that support
+hyperlinks, the page references in the List of Illustrations lead to
+the corresponding illustrations.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent">The index was not checked for proper alphabetization or correct page
+references.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent">Obvious typographical errors and punctuation errors have been
+corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences within
+the text and consultation of external sources.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent">Some hyphens in words have been silently removed, some added,
+when a predominant preference was found in the original book.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent">Except for those changes noted below, all misspellings in the text,
+and inconsistent or archaic usage, have been retained.</p>
+
+
+<table class="autotable">
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl smcap" colspan="2">Page</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#tenemos">21</a>:</td>
+<td class="tdl">“tenemos” replaced by “temenos”.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Chilambaram">31</a>:</td>
+<td class="tdl">“Chilambaram” replaced by “Chidambaram”.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#baldaquins">32</a>:</td>
+<td class="tdl">“baldaquins” replaced by “baldachins”.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#ababaster">40</a>:</td>
+<td class="tdl">“ababaster” replaced by “alabaster”.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Adb-el-Rhaman">111</a>:</td>
+<td class="tdl">“Adb-el-Rhaman” replaced by “Abd-el-Rhaman”.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#continuons">119</a>:</td>
+<td class="tdl">“continuons” replaced by “continuous”.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#weer">126</a>:</td>
+<td class="tdl">“weer” replaced by “were”.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+</div>
+
+<div style='text-align:center'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 76489 ***</div>
+</body>
+</html>
+
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+This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements,
+metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be
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+
+Procedures for determining public domain status are described in
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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for eBook #76489
+(https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/76489)