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padding-left: 3em;} +.poetry .indentq {text-indent: -3.5em;} + +/* large inline blocks don't split well on paged devices */ +.x-ebookmaker .poetry {display: block; margin-left: 4.5em;} + + +/* Transcriber's notes */ +.transnote {background-color: #E6E6FA; + color: black; + font-size:small; + padding:0.5em; + margin-bottom:5em; + font-family:sans-serif, serif;} + +.transnote p {text-indent: 0em;} + + +/* custom cover (cover.jpg) */ +.customcover {visibility: hidden; display: none;} +.x-ebookmaker .customcover {visibility: visible; display: block;} + +/* Poetry indents */ +.poetry .indent0 {text-indent: -3em;} +.poetry .indent10 {text-indent: 3em;} +.poetry .indent2 {text-indent: -2em;} +.poetry .indent22 {text-indent: 8em;} +.poetry .indent4 {text-indent: -1em;} +.poetry .indent8 {text-indent: 1em;} + + + </style> +</head> +<body> +<div style='text-align:center'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 75962 ***</div> + + +<div class="transnote"> +<p><strong>TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE</strong></p> + +<p>The original book <cite>Mare Liberum</cite> was first published in 1608 +in renaissance latin. The latin of this book is based on a later 1633 +printing. The english translation carefully maintains the meaning, and +clarifies the context, of the original latin.</p> + +<p>In this 1916 book, following the Introductory Note and Preface, the +latin text and the translated english text were on alternate pages +i.e. the first page of latin text was followed by the first page of +corresponding english text, then the next (second) page of latin +text was followed by the second page of corresponding english text, +and so on.</p> + +<p>This etext displays the latin and english pages side by side on +browsers, and on alternating pages on handheld devices.</p> + +<p>There are three different sets of Footnotes.</p> +<p class="pad4">(a) The five Footnotes in the Introductory Note have anchors [A] +to [E].</p> + +<p class="pad4">(b) The 192 Footnotes associated with the latin text have anchors +[1a] [2a] through [192a].</p> + +<p class="pad4">(c) The 192 Footnotes associated with the english text have anchors +[1] [2] through [192].</p> + +<p>All these Footnotes have been placed after the Index at the end of +the book.</p> + +<p>In addition there are 17 Notes, distinct from Footnotes, which are +anchored with * or †. These Notes by the translator have been +placed at the end of the paragraph containing the anchor.</p> + +<p class="customcover">New original cover art included with this eBook is +granted to the public domain.</p> + +<p>Some minor changes to the text are noted at the <a href="#TN">end of the book.</a></p> +</div> + + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"></div> + +<p class="p4 pfs120 lsp">HVGONIS GROTII</p> + +<p class="pfs180 lsp2">MARE LIBERVM</p> + +<p class="pfs90">SIVE</p> + +<p class="p1 pfs100 lht">DE IVRE QVOD BATAVIS<br> +COMPETIT<br> +AD INDICANA COMMERCIA,<br> +DISSERTATIO</p> + +<p class="p6 p4b pfs120">1608</p> + + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"></div> + +<p class="p1 pfs135 wsp">Carnegie Endowment for International Peace</p> +<p class="pfs90">DIVISION OF INTERNATIONAL LAW</p> +<hr class="r20"> + +<h1>THE FREEDOM OF THE SEAS</h1> + +<p class="pfs80">OR</p> + +<p class="p1 pfs100">THE RIGHT WHICH BELONGS TO THE DUTCH<br> +TO TAKE PART IN THE EAST INDIAN TRADE</p> + +<p class="p3 pfs80">A DISSERTATION BY</p> +<p class="pfs120 lsp2">HUGO GROTIUS</p> +<p class="p2 pfs70">TRANSLATED WITH A REVISION OF THE LATIN TEXT OF 1633</p> +<p class="p1 pfs70">BY</p> +<p class="pfs90">RALPH VAN DEMAN MAGOFFIN, <span class="smcap">Ph.D.</span></p> +<p class="pfs80">Associate Professor of Greek and Roman History<br> +The Johns Hopkins University</p> + +<p class="p3 pfs70">EDITED WITH AN INTRODUCTORY NOTE</p> +<p class="pfs70">BY</p> +<p class="pfs90 lsp">JAMES BROWN SCOTT</p> +<p class="p2b pfs80">DIRECTOR</p> + +<hr class="r20"> + +<p class="p4 pfs80">NEW YORK</p> +<p class="pfs100">OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS</p> +<p class="pfs80">AMERICAN BRANCH: <span class="smcap fs90">35 West 32nd Street</span></p> +<p class="pfs70">LONDON, TORONTO, MELBOURNE, AND BOMBAY<br> +HUMPHREY MILFORD</p> +<p class="pfs100">1916</p> + + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"></div> + +<p class="p6 pfs70">COPYRIGHT 1916</p> +<p class="p1 pfs60">BY THE</p> +<p class="pfs70">CARNEGIE ENDOWMENT FOR INTERNATIONAL PEACE</p> +<p class="pfs70 smcap">Washington, D. C.</p> + +<p class="p6 pfs60">THE QUINN & BODEN CO. PRESS</p> +<p class="p6b pfs60">RAHWAY, N. J.</p> + + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_v"></a>[Pg v]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="INTRODUCTORY_NOTE">INTRODUCTORY NOTE</h2> + +<p>Since the month of August, 1914, the expression “Freedom +of the Seas” has been on the lips alike of belligerent +and neutral, and it seems as advisable as it is timely to +issue—for the first time in English—the famous Latin +tractate of Grotius proclaiming, explaining, and in no small +measure making the “freedom of the seas.”<a id="FNanchor_A" href="#Footnote_A" class="fnanchor">[A]</a></p> + +<p>The title of the little book, first published, anonymously, +in November, 1608, explains the reason for its composition: +“The Freedom of the Seas, or the Right which belongs to +the Dutch to take part in the East Indian trade.” It was +an open secret that it was written by the young Dutch +scholar and lawyer, Hugo Grotius. It was a secret and +remained a secret until 1868 that the <cite>Mare Liberum</cite> was +none other than Chapter XII of the treatise <cite>De Jure +Praedae</cite>, written by Grotius in the winter of 1604-5, which +first came to light in 1864 and was given to the world four +years later.<a id="FNanchor_B" href="#Footnote_B" class="fnanchor">[B]</a></p> + +<p>The publication of the treatise on the law of prize is +important as showing that the author of the <cite>Mare Liberum</cite> +was already an accomplished international lawyer, and it<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_vi"></a>[vi]</span> +proves beyond peradventure that the masterpiece of 1625 +on the “Law of War and Peace” was not a hurried production, +but the culmination of study and reflection extending +over twenty years and more. More important +still is the fact that neither the law of prize nor the <cite>Mare +Liberum</cite> was a philosophic exercise, for it appears that +Grotius had been retained by the Dutch East India Company +to justify the capture by one of its ships of a Portuguese +galleon in the straits of Malacca in the year 1602; +that the treatise on the law of prize, of which the <cite>Mare +Liberum</cite> is a chapter, was in the nature of a brief; and that +the first systematic treatise on the law of nations—The Law +of War and Peace—was not merely a philosophical disquisition, +but that it was the direct outgrowth of an actual case +and of professional employment.<a id="FNanchor_C" href="#Footnote_C" class="fnanchor">[C]</a></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_vii"></a>[vii]</span></p> + +<p>The Spaniards, as is well known, then claimed the +Pacific Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico, and Portugal +claimed, in like manner, the Atlantic south of Morocco and +the Indian Ocean, and both nations, at this time under a +common sovereign, claimed and sought to exercise the right +of excluding all foreigners from navigating or entering +these waters. The Dutch, then at war with Spain, although +not technically at war with Portugal, established themselves +in 1598 in the island of Mauritius. Shortly thereafter they +made settlements in Java and in the Moluccas. In 1602 +the Dutch East India Company was formed, and, as it attempted +to trade with the East Indies, its vessels came into +competition with those of the Portuguese engaged in the +Eastern trade, which sought to exclude them from the +Indian waters. One Heemskerck, a captain in the employ +of the Company, took a large Portuguese galleon in the +Straits of Malacca. To trade with the East Indies was one +thing, to capture Portuguese vessels was quite another thing. +Therefore, some members of the Company refused their +parts of the prize; others sold their shares in the company, +and still others thought of establishing a new company in +France, under the protection of King Henry IV, which +should trade in peace and abstain from all warlike action. +The matter was therefore one of no little importance, and +it appears that Grotius was consulted and wrote his treatise +on the law of prize, which is in the nature of a brief and +is, at any rate, a lawyer’s argument.<a id="FNanchor_D" href="#Footnote_D" class="fnanchor">[D]</a></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_viii"></a>[viii]</span></p> + +<p>In 1608 Spain and Holland began negotiations which, +on April 9, 1609, resulted in the truce of Antwerp for the +period of 12 years, and, in the course of the negotiations, +Spain tried to secure from the United Provinces a renunciation +of their right to trade in the East and West Indies. +The Dutch East India Company thereupon, it would appear, +requested Grotius to publish that part of his brief dealing +with the freedom of the seas. This was done under the +title of <cite>Mare Liberum</cite>, with such changes as were necessary +to enable it to stand alone.</p> + +<p>It will be observed that the <cite>Mare Liberum</cite> was written +to refute the unjustified claims of Spain and Portugal to +the high seas and to exclude foreigners therefrom. The +claims of England, less extensive but not less unjustifiable, +were not mentioned, and yet, if the arguments of Grotius +were sound, the English claims to the high seas to the south +and east of England, as well as to undefined regions to +the north and west, would likewise fall to the ground. +Therefore the distinguished English lawyer, scholar, and +publicist, John Selden by name, bestirred himself in behalf +of his country and wrote his <cite>Mare Clausum</cite> in 1617 or 1618, +although it was not published until 1635, to refute the little +tractate, <cite>Mare Liberum</cite>.<a id="FNanchor_E" href="#Footnote_E" class="fnanchor">[E]</a> In the dedication to King Charles I, +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_ix"></a>[ix]</span> +Selden said: “There are among foreign writers, who +rashly attribute your Majesty’s more southern and eastern +sea to their princes. Nor are there a few, who following +chiefly some of the ancient Caesarian lawyers, endeavor to +affirm, or beyond reason too easily admit, that all seas are +common to the universality of mankind.” The thesis of +Selden was twofold: first, “that the sea, by the law of +nature or nations, is not common to all men, but capable +of private dominion or property as well as the land”; +second, “that the King of Great Britain is lord of the sea +flowing about, as an inseparable and perpetual appendant +of the British Empire.”</p> + +<p>In this battle of books, to use the happy expression of +Professor Nys, the Dutch Scholar has had the better of his +English antagonist. If it cannot be said that Grotius wears +his learning “lightly like a flower”, the treatise of Selden +is, in comparison, over-freighted with it; the <cite>Mare Liberum</cite> +is still an open book, the <cite>Mare Clausum</cite> is indeed a closed +one, and as flotsam or jetsam on troubled waters, Chapter +XII of the Law of Prize rides the waves, whereas its rival, +heavy and water-logged, has gone under.</p> + +<p>In the leading case of The Louis (2 Dodson 210), decided +in 1817, some two hundred years after Selden’s book +was written, Sir William Scott, later Lord Stowell and one +of Selden’s most distinguished countrymen, said, in rejecting +the claim of his country to the exercise of jurisdiction +beyond a marine league from the British shore:</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_x"></a>[x]</span></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>I have to observe, that two principles of public law +are generally recognized as fundamental.</p> + +<p>One is the perfect equality and entire independence +of all distinct states. Relative magnitude creates no +distinction of right; relative imbecility, whether permanent +or casual, gives no additional right to the more +powerful neighbor; and any advantage seized upon +that ground is mere usurpation. This is the great +foundation of public law, which it mainly concerns the +peace of mankind, both in their politic and private +capacities, to preserve inviolate.</p> + +<p>The second is, that all nations being equal, all +have an equal right to the uninterrupted use of the +unappropriated parts of the ocean for their navigation. +In places where no local authority exists, where the +subjects of all states meet upon a footing of entire +equality and independence, no one state, or any of its +subjects, has a right to assume or exercise authority +over the subjects of another.</p> +</div> + +<p>In closing the preface to the <cite>Mare Clausum</cite>, Selden used +language, which the undersigned quotes, albeit in an inverse +sense, as a fit ending to this subject:</p> + +<p>“Other passages there are everywhere of the same kind. +But I enlarge myself too much in a thing so manifest. +Therefore I forbear to light a candle to the sun. Farewell +reader.”</p> + +<p class="right"> +<span class="padr4 smcap">James Brown Scott,</span><br> +<span class="padr2"><i>Director of the Division of</i></span><br> +<span class="padr4"><i>International Law</i>.</span></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Washington, D. C.,</span><br> +<span class="pad2"><i>February 28, 1916</i>.</span></p> + + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_xi"></a>[xi]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="TRANSLATORS_PREFACE">TRANSLATOR’S PREFACE</h2> + + +<p class="center"><em>The Latin Text</em></p> + +<p>The Latin Text is based upon the Elzevir edition of +1633, the modifications being only such as to bring the +Latin into conformity with the present day Teubner and +Oxford texts.</p> + +<p>References in the notes to classic authors are given in +unabbreviated form, following in other respects the Thesaurus +Linguae Latinae Index. Citations to the Civil Law +are given in the modern notation, which is followed, in +parentheses, by the older method of reference. The text +used is that of Mommsen, Krueger, Schoell et Kroll. The +Canon Law is cited from the Friedberg edition of 1879-81. +The abbreviations used are explained below.</p> + + +<p class="p1 center"><em>The Translation</em></p> + +<p>The translator wishes to make due acknowledgment for +the passages from classic writers quoted from standard +translations, to which references are also made in the notes. +He has also consulted the French translation of Grotius by +A. Guichon de Grandpont (1845). But his chief acknowledgment +is to his colleague and friend, Professor Kirby +Flower Smith of The Johns Hopkins University, to whom +he read the translation, and who gave him the benefit of his +knowledge of Latin and his taste in English, in a number +of troublesome passages. Many niceties of the translation +belong to Professor Smith, but mistakes in interpretation +belong to the translator alone.</p> + +<p>Acknowledgment and thanks are also due to Professor<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_xii"></a>[xii]</span> +Westel Woodbury Willoughby of Johns Hopkins, who +has been so good as to read the translation through in +galley proof and give the translator the benefit of his +technical knowledge of law; to his Johns Hopkins colleague, +Professor Wilfred P. Mustard, who has helped +him out of a number of difficulties; to Bishop Shahan, +Rector of the Catholic University of America, who has +given of his time to help expand several of Grotius’ +abbreviated references to theological or canonical authors; +to John Curlett Martin, Johns Hopkins Fellow in Greek, +who has been of great assistance in the verification of references; +and to the men of the Quinn and Boden Company +for their courteous assistance while the book was going +through the press.</p> + + +<p class="p1 center"><em>List of Abbreviations</em></p> + + <div class="abbrev"> +<p>Auth., Authenticum.</p> +<p>Clem., Constitutiones Clementis Papae Quinti.</p> +<p>Dist., Distinctio Decreti Gratiani.</p> +<p>Extravag., Constitutiones XXD. Ioannis Papae XXII.</p> +<p>Lib. VI, Liber sextus Decretalium D. Bonifacii Papae VIII.</p> +<p>Other abbreviations should offer no difficulties.</p> + </div> + + +<p class="p1 center"><em>Notes of Explanation</em></p> + +<p>The words and phrases in the Latin text in capitals follow +the type of the Elzevir text.</p> + +<p>In order that both text and translation may be complete +in themselves, the notes below the translation follow the +notes of the text in shortened or expanded form, or in duplicate, +as the occasion would seem to demand. The notes in +Grotius’ Latin text are in a most abbreviated form, and the +references are seldom specific. They have been expanded +without further explanation.</p> + +<p>[ ] in the translation, text, or notes, inclose additions +made by the translator.</p> + + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_xiv"></a>[xiv]</span></p> + + <div class="textcol" lang="la"> +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CAPITA_DISSERTATIONIS">CAPITA DISSERTATIONIS +HVGONIS GROTII DE MARE LIBERO</h2> + +<table class="autotable"> +<tr> +<td class="tdrt"></td> +<td class="tdl"></td> +<td class="tdrb fs60">PAGINA</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdrt"></td> +<td class="tdl">Ad Principes populosque liberos orbis Christiani</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdrt fs60">CAPVT</td> +<td class="tdl"></td> +<td class="tdrb"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdrt">I.</td> +<td class="tdl">Iure gentium quibusvis ad quosvis liberam esse navigationem</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_7">7</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdrt">II.</td> +<td class="tdl">Lusitanos nullum habere ius dominii in eos Indos ad quos Batavi navigant titulo inventionis</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_11">11</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdrt">III.</td> +<td class="tdl">Lusitanos in Indos non habere ius dominii titulo donationis Pontificiae</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_15">15</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdrt">IV.</td> +<td class="tdl">Lusitanos in Indos non habere ius dominii titulo belli</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_18">18</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdrt">V.</td> +<td class="tdl">Mare ad Indos aut ius eo navigandi non esse proprium Lusitanorum titulo occupationis</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_22">22</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdrt">VI.</td> +<td class="tdl">Mare aut ius navigandi proprium non esse Lusitanorum titulo donationis Pontificiae</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_45">45</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdrt">VII.</td> +<td class="tdl">Mare aut ius navigandi proprium non esse Lusitanorum titulo praescriptionis aut consuetudinis</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_47">47</a></td> +</tr> +</table> + </div> + + <div class="textcol"> +<div class="chapter"></div> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="TABLE_OF_CONTENTS">TABLE OF CONTENTS</h2> + +<table class="autotable"> +<tr> +<td class="tdrt"></td> +<td class="tdl"></td> +<td class="tdrb fs60">PAGE</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdrt"></td> +<td class="tdl">Introductory Note</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_v">v</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdrt"></td> +<td class="tdl">Translator’s Preface</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_xi">xi</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl smcap" colspan="2">Freedom of the Seas</td> +<td class="tdrb"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdrt"></td> +<td class="tdl">To the rulers and to the free and independent nations of Christendom</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#TO_THE_RULERS">1</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdrt fs60">CHAPTER</td> +<td class="tdl"></td> +<td class="tdrb"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdrt">I.</td> +<td class="tdl">By the Law of Nations navigation is free to all persons whatsoever</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#CHAPTER_I">7</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdrt">II.</td> +<td class="tdl">The Portuguese have no right by title of discovery to sovereignty over the East Indies to which the Dutch make voyages</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#CHAPTER_II">11</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdrt">III.</td> +<td class="tdl">The Portuguese have no right of sovereignty over the East Indies by virtue of title based on the Papal Donation</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#CHAPTER_III">15</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdrt">IV.</td> +<td class="tdl">The Portuguese have no right of sovereignty over the East Indies by title of war</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">18</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdrt">V.</td> +<td class="tdl">Neither the Indian Ocean nor the right of navigation thereon belongs to the Portuguese by title of occupation</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#CHAPTER_V">22</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdrt">VI.</td> +<td class="tdl">Neither the Sea nor the right of navigation thereon belongs to the Portuguese by virtue of title based on the Papal Donation</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">45</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdrt">VII.</td> +<td class="tdl">Neither the Sea nor the right of navigation thereon belongs to the Portuguese by title of prescription or custom</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">47</a></td> +</tr> +</table> + </div> + +<hr class="page x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_xv"></a>[xv]</span></p> + + <div class="textcol" lang="la"> +<table class="autotable"> +<tr> +<td class="tdc fs60">CAPVT</td> +<td class="tdl"></td> +<td class="tdrb fs60">PAGINA</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdrt">VIII.</td> +<td class="tdl">Iure gentium inter quosvis liberam esse mercaturam</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_61">61</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdrt">IX.</td> +<td class="tdl">Mercaturam cum Indis propriam non esse Lusitanorum titulo occupationis</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_65">65</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdrt">X.</td> +<td class="tdl">Mercaturam cum Indis propriam non esse Lusitanorum titulo donationis Pontificiae</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_66">66</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdrt">XI.</td> +<td class="tdl">Mercaturam cum Indis non esse Lusitanorum propriam iure praescriptionis aut consuetudinis</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_67">67</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdrt">XII.</td> +<td class="tdl">Nulla aequitate niti Lusitanos in prohibendo commercio</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_69">69</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdrt">XIII.</td> +<td class="tdl">Batavis ius commercii Indicani, qua pace, qua indutiis, qua bello retinendum</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_72">72</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdrt"></td> +<td class="tdl">Regis Hispaniarum litterae</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_77">77</a></td> +</tr> +</table> + </div> + + <div class="textcol"> +<div class="chapter"></div> + +<table class="autotable"> +<tr> +<td class="tdc fs60">CHAPTER</td> +<td class="tdl"></td> +<td class="tdrb fs60">PAGE</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdrt">VIII.</td> +<td class="tdl">By the Law of Nations trade is free to all persons whatsoever</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">61</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdrt">IX.</td> +<td class="tdl">Trade with the East Indies does not belong to the Portuguese by title of occupation</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#CHAPTER_IX">65</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdrt">X.</td> +<td class="tdl">Trade with the East Indies does not belong to the Portuguese by virtue of title based on the Papal Donation</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#CHAPTER_X">66</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdrt">XI.</td> +<td class="tdl">Trade with the East Indies does not belong to the Portuguese by title of prescription or custom</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#CHAPTER_XI">67</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdrt">XII.</td> +<td class="tdl">The Portuguese prohibition of trade has no foundation in equity</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#CHAPTER_XII">69</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdrt">XIII.</td> +<td class="tdl">The Dutch must maintain their right of trade with the East Indies by peace, by treaty, or by war</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIII">72</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdrt"></td> +<td class="tdl">Appendix: Two letters of Philip III, King of Spain</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#APPENDIX">77</a></td> +</tr> +</table> + </div> + + +<hr class="page x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_1"></a>[Pg 1]</span></p> + + <div class="textcol" lang="la"> +<h2 class="nobreak" id="AD">AD<br> +PRINCIPES<br> +POPVLOSQVE LIBEROS<br> +ORBIS CHRISTIANI</h2> + +<p>Error est non minus vetus quam pestilens, quo multi +mortales, ii autem maxime qui plurimum vi atque opibus +valent, persuadent sibi, aut, quod verius puto, persuadere +conantur, iustum atque iniustum non suapte natura, sed +hominum inani quadam opinione atque consuetudine distingui. +Itaque illi et leges et aequitatis speciem in hoc inventa +existimant, ut eorum qui in parendi condicione nati +sunt dissensiones atque tumultus coerceantur; ipsis vero qui +in summa fortuna sunt collocati, ius omne aiunt ex voluntate, +voluntatem ex utilitate metiendam. Hanc autem sententiam +absurdam plane atque naturae contrariam auctoritatis +sibi nonnihil conciliasse haud adeo mirum est, cum +ad morbum communem humani generis, quo sicut vitia ita +vitiorum patrocinia sectamur, accesserint adulantium artes +quibus omnis potestas obnoxia est.</p> + +<p>Sed contra exstiterunt nullo non saeculo viri liberi, +sapientes, religiosi, qui falsam hanc persuasionem animis +simplicium evellerent ceteros autem eius defensores impudentiae +convincerent. Deum quippe esse monstrabant conditorem +rectoremque universi, imprimis autem humanae +naturae parentem, quam ideo, non uti cetera animantia, in +species diversas, variaque discrimina segregasset, sed unius +esse generis, una etiam appellatione voluisset contineri,</p> + </div> + + <div class="textcol"> +<div class="chapter"></div> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="TO_THE_RULERS">TO THE RULERS AND TO THE FREE<br> +AND INDEPENDENT NATIONS<br> +OF CHRISTENDOM</h2> + +<p>The delusion is as old as it is detestable with which many +men, especially those who by their wealth and power exercise +the greatest influence, persuade themselves, or as I rather +believe, try to persuade themselves, that justice and injustice +are distinguished the one from the other not by their own +nature, but in some fashion merely by the opinion and the +custom of mankind. Those men therefore think that both +the laws and the semblance of equity were devised for the +sole purpose of repressing the dissensions and rebellions of +those persons born in a subordinate position, affirming meanwhile +that they themselves, being placed in a high position, +ought to dispense all justice in accordance with their own +good pleasure, and that their pleasure ought to be bounded +only by their own view of what is expedient. This opinion, +absurd and unnatural as it clearly is, has gained considerable +currency; but this should by no means occasion surprise, +inasmuch as there has to be taken into consideration not only +the common frailty of the human race by which we pursue +not only vices and their purveyors, but also the arts of flatterers, +to whom power is always exposed.</p> + +<p>But, on the other hand, there have stood forth in every +age independent and wise and devout men able to root out +this false doctrine from the minds of the simple, and to +convict its advocates of shamelessness. For they showed +that God was the founder and ruler of the universe, and +especially that being the Father of all mankind, He had not +separated human beings, as He had the rest of living things, +into different species and various divisions, but had willed +them to be of one race and to be known by one name; that</p> + </div> + + +<hr class="page x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_2"></a>[2]</span></p> + + <div class="textcol" lang="la"> +<p class="noindent">dedisset insuper originem eandem, similem membrorum +compagem, vultus inter se obversos, sermonem quoque et +alia communicandi instrumenta, ut intelligerent omnes +naturalem inter se societatem esse atque cognationem. Huic +autem a se fundatae aut domui aut civitati summum illum +principem patremque familias suas quasdam scripsisse +leges, non in aere aut tabulis, sed in sensibus animisque +singulorum, ubi invitis etiam et aversantibus legendae +occurrent his legibus summos pariter atque infimos teneri, +in has non plus regibus licere, quam plebi adversus decreta +decurionum, decurionibus contra praesidium edicta, praesidibus +in regum ipsorum sanctiones. Quin illa ipsa populorum +atque urbium singularum iura ex illo fonte dimanare, +inde sanctimoniam suam atque maiestatem accipere.</p> + +<p>Sicut autem in ipso homine alia sunt quae habet cum +omnibus communia, alia quibus ab altero quisque distinguitur, +ita earum rerum quas in usum hominis produxisset +natura alias eam manere communes, alias cuiusque industria +ac labore proprias fieri voluisse, de utrisque autem +datas leges, ut communibus quidem sine detrimento omnium +omnes uterentur, de ceteris autem quod cuique contigisset eo +contentus abstineret alieno.</p> + +<p>Haec si homo nullus nescire potest nisi homo esse +desierit, haec si gentes viderunt quibus ad verum omne +caecutientibus sola naturae fax illuxit, quid vos sentire ac +facere aequum est, principes populique Christiani?</p> + </div> + + <div class="textcol"> +<div class="chapter"></div> + +<p class="noindent">furthermore He had given them the same origin, the same +structural organism, the ability to look each other in the +face, language too, and other means of communication, in +order that they all might recognize their natural social bond +and kinship. They showed too that He is the supreme Lord +and Father of this family; and that for the household or the +state which He had thus founded, He had drawn up certain +laws not graven on tablets of bronze or stone but written in +the minds and on the hearts of every individual, where +even the unwilling and the refractory must read them. +That these laws were binding on great and small alike; that +kings have no more power against them than have the common +people against the decrees of the magistrates, than have +the magistrates against the edicts of the governors, than +have the governors against the ordinances of the kings themselves; +nay more, that those very laws themselves of each +and every nation and city flow from that Divine source, and +from that source receive their sanctity and their majesty.</p> + +<p>Now, as there are some things which every man enjoys +in common with all other men, and as there are other things +which are distinctly his and belong to no one else, just so +has nature willed that some of the things which she has +created for the use of mankind remain common to all, and +that others through the industry and labor of each man become +his own. Laws moreover were given to cover both +cases so that all men might use common property without +prejudice to any one else, and in respect to other things so +that each man being content with what he himself owns +might refrain from laying his hands on the property of +others.</p> + +<p>Now since no man can be ignorant of these facts unless +he ceases to be a man, and since races blind to all truth +except what they receive from the light of nature, have recognized +their force, what, O Christian Kings and Nations, +ought you to think, and what ought you to do?</p> + </div> + + +<hr class="page x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_3"></a>[3]</span></p> + + <div class="textcol" lang="la"> +<p>Si quis durum putat ea a se exigi quae tam sancti +nominis professio requirit, cuius minimum est ab iniuriis +abstinere, certe quid sui sit offici scire quisque potest ex eo +quod alteri praecipit. Nemo est vestrum qui non palam +edicat rei quemque suae esse moderatorem et arbitrum: qui +non fluminibus locisque publicis cives omnes uti ex aequo et +promiscue iubeat, qui non commeandi commercandique +libertatem omni ope defendat.</p> + +<p>Sine his si parva illa societas, quam rempublicam vocamus, +constare non posse iudicatur (et certe constare non +potest) quamobrem non eadem illa ad sustinendam totius +humani generis societatem atque concordiam erunt necessaria? +Si quis adversus haec vim faciat, merito indignamini, +exempla etiam pro flagiti magnitudine statuitis, non alia de +causa nisi quia ubi ista passim licent status imperi tranquillus +esse non potest. Quod si rex in regem, populus in +populum inique et violente agat, id nonne ad perturbandam +magnae illius civitatis quietem et ad summi custodis spectat +iniuriam? Hoc interest, quod sicut magistratus minores de +vulgo iudicant, vos de magistratibus, ita omnium aliorum +delicta cognoscenda vobis et punienda mandavit rex universi, +vestra excepit sibi. Is autem quamquam supremam +animadversionem sibi reservat, tardam, occultam, inevitabilem, +nihilominus duos a se iudices delegat qui rebus +humanis intersint, quos nocentium felicissimus non effugit, +conscientiam cuique suam, et famam sive existimationem</p> + </div> + + <div class="textcol"> +<div class="chapter"></div> + +<p>If any one thinks it hard that those things are demanded +of him which the profession of a religion so sacred requires, +the very least obligation of which is to refrain from injustice, +certainly every one can know what his own duty is from the +very demands he makes of others. There is not one of you +who does not openly proclaim that every man is entitled to +manage and dispose of his own property; there is not one +of you who does not insist that all citizens have equal and +indiscriminate right to use rivers and public places; not one +of you who does not defend with all his might the freedom +of travel and of trade.</p> + +<p>If it be thought that the small society which we call a +state cannot exist without the application of these principles +(and certainly it cannot), why will not those same principles +be necessary to uphold the social structure of the whole +human race and to maintain the harmony thereof? If any +one rebels against these principles of law and order you are +justly indignant, and you even decree punishments in proportion +to the magnitude of the offense, for no other reason +than that a government cannot be tranquil where trespasses +of that sort are allowed. If king act unjustly and violently +against king, and nation against nation, such action involves +a disturbance of the peace of that universal state, and constitutes +a trespass against the supreme Ruler, does it not? +There is however this difference: just as the lesser magistrates +judge the common people, and as you judge the magistrates, +so the King of the universe has laid upon you the +command to take cognizance of the trespasses of all other +men, and to punish them; but He has reserved for Himself +the punishment of your own trespasses. But although He +reserves to himself the final punishment, slow and unseen +but none the less inevitable, yet He appoints to intervene in +human affairs two judges whom the luckiest of sinners does +not escape, namely, Conscience, or the innate estimation of +oneself, and Public Opinion, or the estimation of others.</p> + </div> + + +<hr class="page x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_4"></a>[4]</span></p> + + <div class="textcol" lang="la"> +<p class="noindent">alienam. Haec tribunalia illis patent quibus alia praeclusa +sunt; ad haec infirmi provocant; in his vincuntur qui vincunt +viribus, qui licentiae modum non statuunt, qui vili putant +constare quod emitur humano sanguine, qui iniurias iniuriis +defendunt, quorum manifesta facinora necesse est et consentiente +bonorum iudicio damnari, et sui ipsorum animi +sententia non absolvi.</p> + +<p>Ad utrumque hoc forum nos quoque novam causam +afferimus; non hercule de stillicidiis aut tigno iniuncto, +quales esse privatorum solent, ac ne ex eo quidem genere +quod frequens est inter populos, de agri iure in confinio +haerentis, de amnis aut insulae possessione; sed de omni +prope oceano, de iure navigandi, de libertate commerciorum. +Inter nos et Hispanos haec controversa sunt: Sitne immensum +et vastum mare regni unius nec maximi accessio; populone +cuiquam ius sit volentes populos prohibere ne vendant, +ne permutent, ne denique commeent inter sese; potueritne +quisquam quod suum numquam fuit elargiri, aut invenire +quod iam erat alienum; an ius aliquod tribuat manifesta +longi temporis iniuria.</p> + +<p>In hac disceptatione ipsis qui inter Hispanos praecipui +sunt divini atque humani iuris magistri calculum porrigimus, +ipsius denique Hispaniae proprias leges imploramus. Id si +nihil iuvat, et eos quos ratio certa convincit cupiditas vetat +desistere, vestram principes maiestatem, vestram fidem +quotquot estis ubique gentes appellamus.</p> + +<p>Non perplexam, non intricatam movemus quaestionem. +Non de ambiguis in religione capitibus, quae plurimum</p> + </div> + + <div class="textcol"> +<div class="chapter"></div> + +<p class="noindent">These two tribunals are open to those who are debarred from +all others; to these the powerless appeal; in them are defeated +those who are wont to win by might, those who put +no bounds to their presumption, those who consider cheap +anything bought at the price of human blood, those who defend +injustice by injustice, men whose wickedness is so manifest +that they must needs be condemned by the unanimous +judgment of the good, and cannot be cleared before the bar +of their own souls.</p> + +<p>To this double tribunal we bring a new case. It is in very +truth no petty case such as private citizens are wont to bring +against their neighbors about dripping eaves or party walls; +nor is it a case such as nations frequently bring against one +another about boundary lines or the possession of a river or +an island. No! It is a case which concerns practically the +entire expanse of the high seas, the right of navigation, the +freedom of trade!! Between us and the Spaniards the following +points are in dispute: Can the vast, the boundless +sea be the appanage of one kingdom alone, and it not the +greatest? Can any one nation have the right to prevent +other nations which so desire, from selling to one another, +from bartering with one another, actually from communicating +with one another? Can any nation give away what it +never owned, or discover what already belonged to some one +else? Does a manifest injustice of long standing create a +specific right?</p> + +<p>In this controversy we appeal to those jurists among the +Spanish themselves who are especially skilled both in divine +and human law; we actually invoke the very laws of Spain +itself. If that is of no avail, and those whom reason clearly +convicts of wrong are induced by greed to maintain that +stand, we invoke your majesty, ye Princes, your good faith, +ye Peoples, whoever and wherever ye may be.</p> + +<p>It is not an involved, it is not an intricate question that +I am raising. It is not a question of ambiguous points of</p> + </div> + + +<hr class="page x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_5"></a>[5]</span></p> + + <div class="textcol" lang="la"> +<p class="noindent">habere videntur obscuritatis, quae tantis tam diu animis +decertata, apud sapientes hoc fere certum reliquerunt, nusquam +minus inveniri veritatem quam ubi cogitur assensus. +Non de statu nostrae reipublicae, et libertate armis haud +parta sed vindicata; de qua recte statuere ii demum possunt +qui iura patria Belgarum, mores avitos, et institutum non +in leges regnum, sed ex legibus principatum accurate cognoverint, +in qua tamen quaestione aequis iudicibus extremae +servitutis depulsa necessitas, subtilius inquirentibus decreti* +tot nationum publica auctoritas, infensis etiam et malevolis +adversariorum confessio nihil dubitandum reliquit.</p> + +<p>* [decreta (?); decreti is the reading of the 1633 and 1720 texts].</p> + +<p>Sed quod hic proponimus nihil cum istis commune habet, +nullius indiget anxiae disquisitionis, non ex divini codicis +pendet explicatione, cuius multa multi non capiunt, non +ex unius populi scitis quae ceteri merito ignorant.</p> + +<p>Lex illa e cuius praescripto iudicandum est, inventu est +non difficilis, utpote eadem apud omnes; et facilis intellectu, +utpote nata cum singulis, singulorum mentibus insita. Ius +autem quod petimus tale est quod nec rex subditis negare +debeat, neque Christianus non Christianis. A natura enim +oritur, quae ex aequo omnium parens est, in omnes munifica, +cuius imperium in eos extenditur qui gentibus imperant, et +apud eos sanctissimum est qui in pietate plurimum profecerunt.</p> + +<p>Cognoscite hanc causam principes! cognoscite populi! si +quid iniquum postulamus, scitis quae vestra et e vobis eorum +qui viciniores nobis estis apud nos semper fuerit auctoritas!</p> + </div> + + <div class="textcol"> +<div class="chapter"></div> + +<p class="noindent">theology which seem to be wrapped in the deepest obscurity, +which have been debated already so long and with such heat, +that wise men are almost convinced that truth is never so +rarely found as when assent thereto is forced. It is not a +question of the status of our government and of independence +not won by arms but restored. On this point those +can reach a right decision who have an accurate knowledge +of the ancestral laws and hereditary customs of the people +of the Netherlands, and who have recognized that their state +is not a kingdom illegally founded but is a government based +upon law. In this matter, however, just judges no longer +compelled to subordinate their convictions have been persuaded; +the public authority of many nations has entirely +satisfied those who were seeking a precedent; and the admissions +of our adversaries have left even the foolish and +malevolent no room for doubt.</p> + +<p>But what I here submit has nothing in common with these +matters. It calls for no troublesome investigation. It does +not depend upon an interpretation of Holy Writ in which +many people find many things they cannot understand, nor +upon the decrees of any one nation of which the rest of the +world very properly knows nothing.</p> + +<p>The law by which our case must be decided is not difficult +to find, seeing that it is the same among all nations; and it +is easy to understand, seeing that it is innate in every individual +and implanted in his mind. Moreover the law to +which we appeal is one such as no king ought to deny to +his subjects, and one no Christian ought to refuse to a +non-Christian. For it is a law derived from nature, the +common mother of us all, whose bounty falls on all, and +whose sway extends over those who rule nations, and which +is held most sacred by those who are most scrupulously just.</p> + +<p>Take cognizance of this cause, ye Princes, take cognizance +of it, ye Nations! If we are making an unjust demand, +you know what your authority and the authority of</p> + </div> + + +<hr class="page x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_6"></a>[6]</span></p> + + <div class="textcol" lang="la"> +<p>Monete, parebimus. Quin si quid a nobis hac in re peccatum +est, iram vestram, odium denique humani generis non +deprecamur. Sin contra se res habet, quid vobis censendum, +quid agendum sit, vestrae religioni et aequitati relinquimus.</p> + +<p>Olim inter populos humaniores summum nefas habebatur +armis eos impetere qui res suas arbitris permitterent, contra +qui tam aequam condicionem recusarent, ii non ut unius sed +ut omnium hostes ope communi comprimebantur. Itaque +eam in rem videmus icta foedera, iudices constitutos. Reges +ipsi validaeque gentes nihil aeque gloriosum ac magnificum +deputabant, quam aliorum coercere insolentiam, aliorum infirmitatem +atque innocentiam sublevare. Qui si mos +hodieque obtineret, ut humani nihil a se alienum* homines +arbitrarentur, profecto orbe non paulo pacatiore uteremur; +refrigesceret enim multorum audacia, et qui iustitiam +utilitatis causa nunc negligunt, iniustitiam damno suo +dediscerent.</p> + +<p>* [Cf. Terence, Hautontimorumenos 77].</p> + +<p>Sed hoc ut in causa istac non frustra forte speramus, ita +illud certo confidimus, bene rebus expensis existimaturos +vos omnes imputari nobis non magis posse pacis moras, +quam belli causas; ac proinde uti hactenus amici nobis faventes +atque benevoli fuistis, ita vos aut etiam magis in +posterum fore, quo nihil optatius iis potest contingere qui +primam partem felicitatis putant bene facere, alteram bene +audire.</p> + </div> + + <div class="textcol"> +<div class="chapter"></div> + +<p class="noindent">those of you who are our nearer neighbors has always been +so far as we are concerned. Caution us, we will obey. +Verily, if we have done any wrong in this our cause, we will +not deprecate your wrath, nor even the hatred of the human +race. But if we are right, we leave to your sense of righteousness +and of fairness what you ought to think about this +matter and what course of action you ought to pursue.</p> + +<p>In ancient times among the more civilized peoples it was +held to be the greatest of all crimes to make war upon those +who were willing to submit to arbitration the settlement of +their difficulties; but against those who declined so fair an +offer all others turned, and with their combined resources +overwhelmed them, not as enemies of any one nation, but +as enemies of them all alike. So for this very object we see +that treaties are made and arbiters appointed. Kings themselves +and powerful nations used to think that nothing was +so chivalrous or so noble as to coerce the insolent and to +help the weak and innocent.</p> + +<p>If today the custom held of considering that everything +pertaining to mankind pertained also to one’s self, we should +surely live in a much more peaceable world. For the presumptuousness +of many would abate, and those who now +neglect justice on the pretext of expediency would unlearn +the lesson of injustice at their own expense.</p> + +<p>We have felt that perhaps we were not entertaining a +foolish hope for our cause. At all events we are confident +that you will all recognize after duly weighing the facts in +the case that the delays to peace can no more be laid to our +charge than can the causes of war; and as hitherto you have +been indulgent, even favorably disposed to us, we feel sure +that you will not only remain in this mind, but be even more +friendly to us in the future. Nothing more to be desired +than this can come to men who think that the first condition +of happiness is good deeds; the second, good repute.</p> + </div> + + +<hr class="page x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_7"></a>[7]</span></p> + + <div class="textcol" lang="la"> +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CAPVT_I">CAPVT I</h2> + +<p class="center"><i>Iure gentium quibusvis ad quosvis +liberam esse navigationem</i></p> + +<p>Propositum est nobis breviter ac dilucide demonstrare ius +esse Batavis, hoc est, Ordinum Foederatorum Belgico-Germaniae +subditis ad Indos, ita uti navigant navigare, cumque +ipsis commercia colere. Fundamentum struemus hanc iuris +gentium, quod primarium vocant regulam certissimam, cuius +perspicua atque immutabilis est ratio; licere cuivis genti +quamvis alteram adire, cumque ea negotiari.</p> + +<p>Deus hoc ipse per naturam loquitur, cum ea cuncta quibus +vita indiget, omnibus locis suppeditari a natura non vult: +artibus etiam aliis alias gentes dat excellere. Quo ista, nisi +quod voluit mutua egestate et copia humanas foveri amicitias, +ne singuli se putantes sibi ipsis sufficere, hoc ipso redderentur +insociabiles? Nunc factum est ut gens altera alterius suppleret +inopiam, divinae iustitiae instituto, ut eo modo (sicut +Plinius dicit<a id="FNanchor_1a" href="#Footnote_1a" class="fnanchor">[1a]</a>) quod genitum esset uspiam, apud omnes +natum videretur. Poetas itaque canentes audimus:</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> +<div class="poetry"> + <div class="verse indent0"><i>Nec vero terrae ferre omnes omnia possunt.</i><a id="FNanchor_2a" href="#Footnote_2a" class="fnanchor">[2a]</a></div> +</div> +</div> + +<p class="noindent">Item:</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> +<div class="poetry"> + <div class="verse indent0"><i>Excudent alii</i>,</div> +</div> +</div> + +<p class="noindent">et quae sequuntur.<a id="FNanchor_3a" href="#Footnote_3a" class="fnanchor">[3a]</a></p> + </div> + + <div class="textcol"> +<div class="chapter"></div> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I</h2> + +<p class="center"><i>By the Law of Nations navigation is free to all persons +whatsoever</i></p> + +<p>My intention is to demonstrate briefly and clearly that +the Dutch—that is to say, the subjects of the United +Netherlands—have the right to sail to the East Indies, as +they are now doing, and to engage in trade with the people +there. I shall base my argument on the following most +specific and unimpeachable axiom of the Law of Nations, +called a primary rule or first principle, the spirit of which +is self-evident and immutable, to wit: Every nation is free +to travel to every other nation, and to trade with it.</p> + +<p>God Himself says this speaking through the voice of +nature; and inasmuch as it is not His will to have Nature +supply every place with all the necessaries of life, He ordains +that some nations excel in one art and others in another. +Why is this His will, except it be that He wished human +friendships to be engendered by mutual needs and resources, +lest individuals deeming themselves entirely sufficient unto +themselves should for that very reason be rendered unsociable? +So by the decree of divine justice it was brought +about that one people should supply the needs of another, +in order, as Pliny the Roman writer says,<a id="FNanchor_1" href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> that in this way, +whatever has been produced anywhere should seem to have +been destined for all. Vergil also sings in this wise:</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> +<div class="poetry"> + <div class="verse indent0">“<i>Not every plant on every soil will grow</i>,”<a id="FNanchor_2" href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></div> +</div> +</div> + +<p class="noindent">and in another place:</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> +<div class="poetry"> + <div class="verse indentq">“<i>Let others better mould the running mass</i></div> + <div class="verse indent0"><i>Of metals</i>,” etc.<a id="FNanchor_3" href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a></div> +</div> +</div> + </div> + +<hr class="page x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_8"></a>[8]</span></p> + + <div class="textcol" lang="la"> +<p class="noindent">Hoc igitur qui tollunt, illam laudatissimam tollunt humani +generis societatem, tollunt mutuas benefaciendi occasiones, +naturam denique ipsam violant. Nam et ille quem Deus +terris circumfudit Oceanus, undique et undique versus navigabilis, +et ventorum stati aut extraordinarii flatus, non ab +eadem semper, et a nulla non aliquando regione spirantes, +nonne significant satis concessum a natura cunctis gentibus +ad cunctas aditum? Hoc Seneca<a id="FNanchor_4a" href="#Footnote_4a" class="fnanchor">[4a]</a> summum Naturae beneficium +putat, quod et vento gentes locis dissipatas miscuit, +et sua omnia in regiones ita descripsit, ut necessarium mortalibus +esset inter ipsos commercium. Hoc igitur ius ad +cunctas gentes aequaliter pertinet: quod clarissimi Iurisconsulti<a id="FNanchor_5a" href="#Footnote_5a" class="fnanchor">[5a]</a> +eo usque producunt, ut negent ullam rempublicam aut +Principem prohibere in universum posse, quo minus alii ad +subditos suos accedant, et cum illis negotientur. Hinc ius +descendit hospitale sanctissimum: hinc querelae:</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> +<div class="poetry"> + <div class="verse indent0"><i>Quod genus hoc hominum? quaeve hunc tam barbara morem</i></div> + <div class="verse indent0"><i>Permittit patria? hospitio prohibemur harenae.</i><a id="FNanchor_6a" href="#Footnote_6a" class="fnanchor">[6a]</a></div> +</div> +</div> + +<p class="noindent">Et alibi</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> +<div class="poetry"> + <div class="verse indent22"><i>litusque rogamus</i></div> + <div class="verse indent0"><i>Innocuum et cunctis undamque auramque patentem.</i><a id="FNanchor_7a" href="#Footnote_7a" class="fnanchor">[7a]</a></div> +</div> +</div> + +<p>Et scimus bella quaedam ex hac causa coepisse, ut Megarensibus</p> + </div> + + <div class="textcol"> +<div class="chapter"></div> + +<p class="noindent">Those therefore who deny this law, destroy this most praise-worthy +bond of human fellowship, remove the opportunities +for doing mutual service, in a word do violence to Nature +herself. For do not the ocean, navigable in every direction +with which God has encompassed all the earth, and the regular +and the occasional winds which blow now from one +quarter and now from another, offer sufficient proof that +Nature has given to all peoples a right of access to all other +peoples? Seneca<a id="FNanchor_4" href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> thinks this is Nature’s greatest service, +that by the wind she united the widely scattered peoples, +and yet did so distribute all her products over the earth that +commercial intercourse was a necessity to mankind. Therefore +this right belongs equally to all nations. Indeed the +most famous jurists<a id="FNanchor_5" href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> extend its application so far as to deny +that any state or any ruler can debar foreigners from having +access to their subjects and trading with them. Hence is +derived that law of hospitality which is of the highest sanctity; +hence the complaint of the poet Vergil:</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> +<div class="poetry"> + <div class="verse indentq">“<i>What men, what monsters, what inhuman race,</i></div> + <div class="verse indent0"><i>What laws, what barbarous customs of the place,</i></div> + <div class="verse indent0"><i>Shut up a desert shore to drowning men,</i></div> + <div class="verse indent2"><i>And drive us to the cruel seas again.</i>”<a id="FNanchor_6" href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a></div> +</div> +</div> + +<p class="noindent">And:</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> +<div class="poetry"> + <div class="verse indentq">“<i>To beg what you without your want may spare—</i></div> + <div class="verse indent0"><i>The common water, and the common air.</i>”<a id="FNanchor_7" href="#Footnote_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a></div> +</div> +</div> + +<p class="noindent">We know that certain wars have arisen over this very matter; +such for example as the war of the Megarians against the</p> + </div> + + +<hr class="page x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_9"></a>[9]</span></p> + + <div class="textcol" lang="la"> +<p class="noindent">in Athenienses.<a id="FNanchor_8a" href="#Footnote_8a" class="fnanchor">[8a]</a> Bononiensibus in. Venetos,<a id="FNanchor_9a" href="#Footnote_9a" class="fnanchor">[9a]</a> Castellanis +etiam in Americanos has iustas potuisse belli causas +esse, et ceteris probabiliores Victoria putat,<a id="FNanchor_10a" href="#Footnote_10a" class="fnanchor">[10a]</a> si peregrinari +et degere apud illos prohiberentur, si arcerentur a participatione +earum rerum quae iure gentium aut moribus communia +sunt, si denique ad commercia non admitterentur.</p> + +<p>Cui simile est quod in Mosis<a id="FNanchor_11a" href="#Footnote_11a" class="fnanchor">[11a]</a> historia et inde apud +Augustinum legimus,<a id="FNanchor_12a" href="#Footnote_12a" class="fnanchor">[12a]</a> iusta bella Israelitas contra Amorrhaeos +gessisse, quia innoxius transitus denegabatur; qui +IVRE HVMANAE SOCIETATIS aequissimo patere +debebat. Et hoc nomine Hercules Orchomeniorum, Graeci +sub Agamemnone Mysorum Regi arma intulerunt,<a id="FNanchor_13a" href="#Footnote_13a" class="fnanchor">[13a]</a> quasi +libera essent naturaliter itinera, ut Baldus dixit.<a id="FNanchor_14a" href="#Footnote_14a" class="fnanchor">[14a]</a> Accusanturque</p> + </div> + + <div class="textcol"> +<div class="chapter"></div> + +<p class="noindent">Athenians,<a id="FNanchor_8" href="#Footnote_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> and that of the Bolognese against the Venetians.<a id="FNanchor_9" href="#Footnote_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> +Again, Victoria<a id="FNanchor_10" href="#Footnote_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> holds that the Spaniards could have shown +just reasons for making war upon the Aztecs and the Indians +in America, more plausible reasons certainly than +were alleged, if they really were prevented from traveling +or sojourning among those peoples, and were denied the +right to share in those things which by the Law of Nations or +by Custom are common to all, and finally if they were debarred +from trade.</p> + +<p>We read of a similar case in the history of Moses,<a id="FNanchor_11" href="#Footnote_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> which +we find mentioned also in the writings of Augustine,<a id="FNanchor_12" href="#Footnote_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> where +the Israelites justly smote with the edge of the sword the +Amorites because they had denied the Israelites an innocent +passage through their territory, a right which according to +the Law of Human Society ought in all justice to have been +allowed. In defense of this principle Hercules attacked the +king of Orchomenus in Boeotia; and the Greeks under their +leader Agamemnon waged war against the king of Mysia<a id="FNanchor_13" href="#Footnote_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> on +the ground that, as Baldus<a id="FNanchor_14" href="#Footnote_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> has said, high roads were free</p> + </div> + + +<hr class="page x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_10"></a>[10]</span></p> + + <div class="textcol" lang="la"> +<p class="noindent">a Germanis apud Tacitum<a id="FNanchor_15a" href="#Footnote_15a" class="fnanchor">[15a]</a> Romani, quod colloquia +congressusque gentium arcerent, fluminaque et terras et +coelum quodam modo ipsum clauderent. Nec ullus titulus +Christianis quondam in Saracenos magis placuit, quam quod +per illos terrae Iudaeae aditu arcerentur.<a id="FNanchor_16a" href="#Footnote_16a" class="fnanchor">[16a]</a></p> + +<p>Sequitur ex sententia Lusitanos etiamsi domini essent +earum regionum ad quas Batavi proficiscuntur, iniuriam +tamen facturos si aditum Batavis et mercatum praecluderent.</p> + +<p>Quanto igitur iniquius est volentes aliquos a volentium +populorum commercio secludi, illorum opera quorum in +potestate nec populi isti sunt, nec illud ipsum, qua iter est, +quando latrones etiam et piratas non alio magis nomine +detestamur, quam quod illi hominum inter se commeatus +obsident atque infestant?</p> + </div> + + <div class="textcol"> +<div class="chapter"></div> + +<p class="noindent">by nature. Again, as we read in Tacitus,<a id="FNanchor_15" href="#Footnote_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a> the Germans +accused the Romans of ‘preventing all intercourse between +them and of closing up to them the rivers and roads, and +almost the very air of heaven’. When in days gone by the +Christians made crusades against the Saracens, no other pretext +was so welcome or so plausible as that they were denied +by the infidels free access to the Holy Land.<a id="FNanchor_16" href="#Footnote_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a></p> + +<p>It follows therefore that the Portuguese, even if they +had been sovereigns in those parts to which the Dutch make +voyages, would nevertheless be doing them an injury if +they should forbid them access to those places and from +trading there.</p> + +<p>Is it not then an incalculably greater injury for nations +which desire reciprocal commercial relations to be debarred +therefrom by the acts of those who are sovereigns neither of +the nations interested, nor of the element over which their +connecting high road runs? Is not that the very cause which +for the most part prompts us to execrate robbers and pirates, +namely, that they beset and infest our trade routes?</p> + </div> + + +<hr class="page x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_11"></a>[11]</span></p> + + <div class="textcol" lang="la"> +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CAPUT_II">CAPUT II</h2> + +<p class="center"><i>Lusitanos nullum habere ius dominii in eos +Indos ad quos Batavi navigant +titulo inventionis</i></p> + +<p>Non esse autem Lusitanos earum partium dominos ad +quas Batavi accedunt, puta Iavae, Taprobanae, partis +maximae Moluccarum, certissimo argumento colligimus, +quia dominus nemo est eius rei quam nec ipse umquam nec +alter ipsius nomine possedit. Habent insulae istae quas +dicimus et semper habuerunt suos reges, suam rempublican, +suas leges, sua iura; Lusitanis mercatus, ut aliis gentibus +conceditur; itaque et tributa cum pendunt, et ius mercandi +a principibus exorant, dominos se non esse, sed ut externos +advenire satis testantur; ne habitant quidem nisi precario. +Et quamquam ad dominium titulus non sufficiat, quia et +possessio requiritur, cum aliud sit rem habere, aliud ius ad +rem consequendam, tamen ne titulum quidem dominii in +eas partes Lusitanis ullum esse affirmo, quem non ipsis +eripuerit Doctorum, et quidem Hispanorum sententia.</p> + +<p>Primum si dicent inventionis praemio eas terras sibi +cessisse, nec ius, nec verum dicent. Invenire enim non illud +est oculis usurpare, sed apprehendere, ut Gordiani epistola</p> + </div> + + <div class="textcol"> +<div class="chapter"></div> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II</h2> + +<p class="center"><i>The Portuguese have no right by title of discovery to +sovereignty over the East Indies to which the +Dutch make voyages</i></p> + +<p>The Portuguese are not sovereigns of those parts of the +East Indies to which the Dutch sail, that is to say, Java, +Ceylon,* and many of the Moluccas. This I prove by the +incontrovertible argument that no one is sovereign of a +thing which he himself has never possessed, and which no +one else has ever held in his name. These islands of which +we speak, now have and always have had their own kings, +their own government, their own laws, and their own legal +systems. The inhabitants allow the Portuguese to trade +with them, just as they allow other nations the same privilege. +Therefore, inasmuch as the Portuguese pay tolls, and +obtain leave to trade from the rulers there, they thereby +give sufficient proof that they do not go there as sovereigns +but as foreigners. Indeed they only reside there on suffrance. +And although the title to sovereignty is not sufficient, +inasmuch as possession is a prerequisite—for having +a thing is quite different from having the right to acquire +it—nevertheless I affirm that in those places the Portuguese +have no title at all to sovereignty which is not denied them +by the opinion of learned men, even of the Spaniards.</p> + +<p>* [Taprobane was the ancient name of Ceylon. Milton speaks of it in +Paradise Regained IV, 75:<br> +<span class="pad2">“And utmost Indian Isle Taprobane.”]</span></p> + +<p>First of all, if they say that those lands have come under +their jurisdiction as the reward of discovery, they lie, +both in law and in fact. For to discover a thing is not only +to seize it with the eyes but to take real possession thereof,</p> + </div> + + +<hr class="page x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_12"></a>[12]</span></p> + + <div class="textcol" lang="la"> +<p class="noindent">ostenditur;<a id="FNanchor_17a" href="#Footnote_17a" class="fnanchor">[17a]</a> unde Grammatici<a id="FNanchor_18a" href="#Footnote_18a" class="fnanchor">[18a]</a> invenire et occupare pro +verbis ponunt idem significantibus; et tota Latinitas quod +adepti sumus, id demum invenisse nos dicit, cui oppositum +est perdere. Quin et ipsa naturalis ratio, et legum diserta +verba, et eruditiorum interpretatio<a id="FNanchor_19a" href="#Footnote_19a" class="fnanchor">[19a]</a> manifeste ostendit, ad +titulum dominii parandum eam demum sufficere inventionem +quae cum possessione coniuncta est, ubi scilicet res +mobiles apprehenduntur, aut immobiles terminis atque custodia +sepiuntur;<a id="FNanchor_20a" href="#Footnote_20a" class="fnanchor">[20a]</a> quod in hac specie dici nullo modo potest. +Nam praesidia illic Lusitani nulla habent. Quid quod ne +reperisse quidem Indiam ullo modo dici possunt Lusitani, +quae tot a saeculis fuerat celeberrima. Iam ab Horati +tempore:<a id="FNanchor_21a" href="#Footnote_21a" class="fnanchor">[21a]</a></p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> +<div class="poetry"> + <div class="verse indent0"><i>Impiger extremos currit mercator ad Indos</i></div> + <div class="verse indent0"><i>Per mare pauperiem fugiens.</i></div> +</div> +</div> + +<p class="noindent">Taprobanes pleraque quam exacte nobis Romani descripsere?<a id="FNanchor_22a" href="#Footnote_22a" class="fnanchor">[22a]</a> +Iam vero et ceteras insulas ante Lusitanos non</p> + </div> + + <div class="textcol"> +<div class="chapter"></div> + +<p class="noindent">as Gordian<a id="FNanchor_17" href="#Footnote_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> points out in one of his letters. For that +reason the Grammarians<a id="FNanchor_18" href="#Footnote_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> give the same signification to the +expressions ‘to find’ and ‘to occupy’; and all Latinity applies +the phrase ‘we have found’ only to the thing which +‘we have seized’; and the opposite of this is ‘to lose’. +However, natural reason itself, the precise words of the +law, and the interpretation of the more learned men<a id="FNanchor_19" href="#Footnote_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> all +show clearly that the act of discovery is sufficient to give +a clear title of sovereignty only when it is accompanied by +actual possession. And this only applies of course to movables +or to such immovables as are actually inclosed within +fixed bounds and guarded.<a id="FNanchor_20" href="#Footnote_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> No such claim can be established +in the present case, because the Portuguese maintain +no garrisons in those regions. Neither can the Portuguese +by any possible means claim to have discovered India, a +country which was famous centuries and centuries ago! It +was already known as early as the time of the emperor +Augustus as the following quotation from Horace shows:</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> +<div class="poetry"> + <div class="verse indentq">“<i>That worst of evils, poverty, to shun</i></div> + <div class="verse indent0"><i>Dauntless through seas, and rocks, and fires you run</i></div> + <div class="verse indent0"><i>To furthest Ind</i>,”<a id="FNanchor_21" href="#Footnote_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a></div> +</div> +</div> + +<p class="noindent">And have not the Romans described for us in the most +exact way the greater part of Ceylon?<a id="FNanchor_22" href="#Footnote_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> And as far as the +other islands are concerned, not only the neighboring</p> + </div> + + +<hr class="page x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_13"></a>[13]</span></p> + + <div class="textcol" lang="la"> +<p class="noindent">finitimi tantum Persae et Arabes, sed Europaei etiam, +praecipue Veneti noverant.</p> + +<p>Praeterea inventio nihil iuris tribuit, nisi in ea quae ante +inventionem nullius fuerant.<a id="FNanchor_23a" href="#Footnote_23a" class="fnanchor">[23a]</a> Atqui Indi cum ad eos Lusitani +venerunt, etsi partim idololatrae, partim Mahumetani +erant, gravibusque peccatis involuti, nihilominus publice +atque privatim rerum possessionumque suarum dominium +habuerunt, quod illis sine iusta causa eripi non potuit.<a id="FNanchor_24a" href="#Footnote_24a" class="fnanchor">[24a]</a> Ita +certissimis rationibus post alios auctores maximi nominis +concludit Hispanus Victoria:<a id="FNanchor_25a" href="#Footnote_25a" class="fnanchor">[25a]</a> ‘Non possunt’, inquit, +‘Christiani saeculares aut Ecclesiastici potestate civili et +principatu privare infideles, eo dumtaxat titulo, quia infideles +sunt, nisi ab eis alia iniuria profecta sit’.</p> + +<p>Fides enim, ut recte inquit Thomas<a id="FNanchor_26a" href="#Footnote_26a" class="fnanchor">[26a]</a> non tollit ius naturale +aut humanum ex quo dominia profecta sunt. Immo +credere infideles non esse rerum suarum dominos, haereticum +est; et res ab illis possessas illis ob hoc ipsum eripere furtum +est et rapina, non minus quam si idem fiat Christianis.</p> + +<p>Recte igitur dicit Victoria<a id="FNanchor_27a" href="#Footnote_27a" class="fnanchor">[27a]</a> non magis ista ex causa +Hispanis ius in Indos quaesitum, quam Indis fuisset in +Hispanos, si qui illorum priores in Hispaniam venissent. +Neque vero sunt Indi Orientis amentes et insensati, sed</p> + </div> + + <div class="textcol"> +<div class="chapter"></div> + +<p class="noindent">Persians and Arabs, but even Europeans, particularly the +Venetians, knew them long before the Portuguese did.</p> + +<p>But in addition to all this, discovery <i lang="la">per se</i> gives no +legal rights over things unless before the alleged discovery +they were <i lang="la">res nullius</i>.<a id="FNanchor_23" href="#Footnote_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a> Now these Indians of the East, on +the arrival of the Portuguese, although some of them were +idolators, and some Mohammedans, and therefore sunk in +grievous sin, had none the less perfect public and private +ownership of their goods and possessions, from which they +could not be dispossessed without just cause.<a id="FNanchor_24" href="#Footnote_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a> The Spanish +writer Victoria,<a id="FNanchor_25" href="#Footnote_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a> following other writers of the highest +authority, has the most certain warrant for his conclusion +that Christians, whether of the laity or of the clergy, cannot +deprive infidels of their civil power and sovereignty +merely on the ground that they are infidels, unless some +other wrong has been done by them.</p> + +<p>For religious belief, as Thomas Aquinas<a id="FNanchor_26" href="#Footnote_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a> rightly observes, +does not do away with either natural or human law +from which sovereignty is derived. Surely it is a heresy +to believe that infidels are not masters of their own property; +consequently, to take from them their possessions on +account of their religious belief is no less theft and robbery +than it would be in the case of Christians.</p> + +<p>Victoria then is right in saying<a id="FNanchor_27" href="#Footnote_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> that the Spaniards have +no more legal right over the East Indians because of their +religion, than the East Indians would have had over the +Spaniards if they had happened to be the first foreigners +to come to Spain. Nor are the East Indians stupid and +unthinking; on the contrary they are intelligent and shrewd,</p> + </div> + + +<hr class="page x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_14"></a>[14]</span></p> + + <div class="textcol" lang="la"> +<p class="noindent">ingeniosi et solertes, ita ut ne hinc quidem praetextus +subiciendi possit desumi, qui tamen per se satis est manifestae +iniquitatis. Iam olim Plutarchus πρόφασιν πλεονεξίας +fuisse dicit ἡμερῶσαι τὰ βαρβαρικὰ,* improbam scilicet alieni +cupiditatem hoc sibi velum obtendere, quod barbariem +mansuefacit. Et nunc etiam color ille redigendi invitas +gentes ad mores humaniores, qui Graecis olim et Alexandro +usurpatus est, a Theologis omnibus, praesertim Hispanis,<a id="FNanchor_28a" href="#Footnote_28a" class="fnanchor">[28a]</a> +improbus atque impius censetur.</p> + +<p>* [Plutarch, Pompeius LXX].</p> + </div> + + <div class="textcol"> +<div class="chapter"></div> + +<p class="noindent">so that a pretext for subduing them on the ground of their +character could not be sustained. Such a pretext on its +very face is an injustice. Plutarch said long ago that the +civilizing of barbarians had been made the pretext for aggression, +which is to say that a greedy longing for the property +of another often hides itself behind such a pretext. +And now that well-known pretext of forcing nations into a +higher state of civilization against their will, the pretext +once seized by the Greeks and by Alexander the Great,* is +considered by all theologians, especially those of Spain,<a id="FNanchor_28" href="#Footnote_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a> to +be unjust and unholy.</p> + +<p>* [Cf. Plutarch, Of the Fortune or Virtue of Alexander the Great I, 5].</p> + </div> + + +<hr class="page x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_15"></a>[15]</span></p> + + <div class="textcol" lang="la"> +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CAPVT_III">CAPVT III</h2> + +<p class="center"><i>Lusitanos in Indos non habere ius +dominii titulo donationis +Pontificiae</i></p> + +<p>Secundo si Pontificis Alexandri Sexti divisione utentur, +ante omnia illud attendendum est, volueritne Pontifex +contentiones tantum Lusitanorum et Castellanorum dirimere, +quod potuit sane, ut lectus inter illos arbiter, sicut et ipsi +Reges iam ante inter se ea de re foedera quaedam +pepigerant;<a id="FNanchor_29a" href="#Footnote_29a" class="fnanchor">[29a]</a> et hoc si ita est, cum res inter alios acta sit, ad +ceteras gentes non pertinebit; an vero prope singulos mundi +trientes duobus populis donare. Quod etsi voluisset, et +potuisset Pontifex, non tamen continuo sequeretur dominos +eorum locorum esse Lusitanos, cum donatio dominum non +faciat, sed secuta traditio;<a id="FNanchor_30a" href="#Footnote_30a" class="fnanchor">[30a]</a> quare et huic causae possessio +deberet accedere.</p> + +<p>Tum vero si quis ius ipsum sive divinum sive humanum +scrutari volet, non autem ex commodo suo metiri, facile</p> + </div> + + <div class="textcol"> +<div class="chapter"></div> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III</h2> + +<p class="center"><i>The Portuguese have no right of sovereignty over the +East Indies by virtue of title based on the Papal +Donation</i></p> + +<p>Next, if the partition made by the Pope Alexander VI* +is to be used by the Portuguese as authority for jurisdiction +in the East Indies, then before all things else two points +must be taken into consideration.</p> + +<p>* [The Cambridge Modern History, I, 23-24, has a good paragraph upon this +famous Papal Bull of May 14, 1493 (modified June 7, 1494, by treaty of +Tordesillas).]</p> + +<p>First, did the Pope merely desire to settle the disputes +between the Portuguese and the Spaniards?</p> + +<p>This was clearly within his power, inasmuch as he had +been chosen to arbitrate between them, and in fact the +kings of both countries had previously concluded certain +treaties with each other on this very matter.<a id="FNanchor_29" href="#Footnote_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a> Now if this +be the case, seeing that the question concerns only the +Portuguese and Spaniards, the decision of the Pope will +of course not affect the other peoples of the world.</p> + +<p>Second, did the Pope intend to give to two nations, +each one third of the whole world?</p> + +<p>But even if the Pope had intended and had had the +power to make such a gift, still it would not have made +the Portuguese sovereigns of those places. For it is not a +donation that makes a sovereign, it is the consequent delivery +of a thing<a id="FNanchor_30" href="#Footnote_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a> and the subsequent possession thereof.</p> + +<p>Now, if any one will scrutinize either divine or human +law, not merely with a view to his own interests, he will</p> + </div> + + +<hr class="page x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_16"></a>[16]</span></p> + + <div class="textcol" lang="la"> +<p class="noindent">deprehendet donationem eiusmodi ut rei alienae nullius esse +momenti. Disputationem de potestate Pontificis, hoc est +Episcopi Romanae Ecclesiae, hic non aggrediar, nec quicquam +ponam nisi ex hypothesi, hoc est, quod confitentur +homines inter eos eruditissimi, qui plurimum Pontificiae +tribuunt auctoritati, maxime Hispani, qui cum pro sua perspicacia +facile vident Dominum Christum omne a se +terrenum imperium abdicasse,<a id="FNanchor_31a" href="#Footnote_31a" class="fnanchor">[31a]</a> mundi certe totius dominium, +qua homo fuit, non habuisse, et si habuisset, nullis tamen +argumentis astrui posse ius illud in Petrum, aut Romanam +Ecclesiam Vicarii iure translatum; cum alias etiam certum +sit, multa Christum habuisse in quae Pontifex non successerit,<a id="FNanchor_32a" href="#Footnote_32a" class="fnanchor">[32a]</a> +intrepide affirmarunt (utar ipsorum verbis) Pontificem +non esse dominum civilem aut temporalem totius orbis.<a id="FNanchor_33a" href="#Footnote_33a" class="fnanchor">[33a]</a> +Immo etiam si quam talem potestatem in mundo haberet, +eam tamen non recte exerciturum, cum spirituali sua +iurisdictione contentus esse debeat, saecularibus autem +Principibus eam concedere nullo modo posse. Tum vero +si quam habeat potestatem, eam habere, ut loquuntur in +ordine ad spiritualia.<a id="FNanchor_34a" href="#Footnote_34a" class="fnanchor">[34a]</a> Quocirca nullam illi esse potestatem +in populos infideles, ut qui ad Ecclesiam non pertineant.<a id="FNanchor_35a" href="#Footnote_35a" class="fnanchor">[35a]</a></p> + +<p>Unde sequitur ex sententia Caietani et Victoriae et</p> + </div> + + <div class="textcol"> +<div class="chapter"></div> + +<p class="noindent">easily apprehend that a donation of this kind, dealing with +the property of others, is of no effect. I shall not enter +here upon any discussion as to the power of the Pope, +that is the Bishop of the Roman Church, nor shall I advance +anything but a hypothesis which is accepted by men of the +greatest erudition, who lay the greatest stress on the power +of the Pope, especially the Spaniards, who with their perspicacity +easily see that our Lord Jesus Christ when he said +“My kingdom is not of this world” thereby renounced all +earthly power,<a id="FNanchor_31" href="#Footnote_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a> and that while He was on earth as a man, +He certainly did not have dominion over the whole world, +and if He had had such dominion, still by no arguments +could such a right be transferred to Peter, or be transmitted +to the Roman Church by authority of the ‘Vicar of Christ’; +indeed, inasmuch as Christ had many things to which the +Pope did not succeed,<a id="FNanchor_32" href="#Footnote_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a> it has been boldly affirmed—and I +shall use the very words of the writers—that the Pope is +neither civil nor temporal Lord of the whole world.<a id="FNanchor_33" href="#Footnote_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a> On +the contrary, even if the Pope did have any such power on +earth, still he would not be right in using it, because he +ought to be satisfied with his own spiritual jurisdiction, +and be utterly unable to grant that power to temporal +princes. So then, if the Pope has any power at all, he has it, +as they say, in the spiritual realm only.<a id="FNanchor_34" href="#Footnote_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a> Therefore he has +no authority over infidel nations, for they do not belong +to the Church.<a id="FNanchor_35" href="#Footnote_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a></p> + +<p>It follows therefore according to the opinions of</p> + </div> + + +<hr class="page x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_17"></a>[17]</span></p> + + <div class="textcol" lang="la"> +<p class="noindent">potioris partis tam Theologorum quam Canonistarum,<a id="FNanchor_36a" href="#Footnote_36a" class="fnanchor">[36a]</a> non +esse idoneum titulum adversus Indos, vel quia Papa +dederit provincias illas tamquam dominus absolute, vel quia +non recognoscunt dominium Papae; atque adeo ne Saracenos +quidem isto titulo umquam spoliatos.</p> + </div> + + <div class="textcol"> +<div class="chapter"></div> + +<p class="noindent">Cajetan and Victoria and the more authoritative of the +Theologians and writers on Canon Law,<a id="FNanchor_36" href="#Footnote_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a> that there is no clear +title against the East Indians, based either on the ground +that the Pope made an absolute grant of those provinces as +if he were their sovereign, or on the pretext that the East +Indians do not recognize his sovereignty. Indeed, and in +truth, it may be affirmed that no such pretext as that was +ever invoked to despoil even the Saracens.</p> + </div> + + +<hr class="page x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_18"></a>[18]</span></p> + + <div class="textcol" lang="la"> +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CAPVT_IV">CAPVT IV</h2> + +<p class="center"><i>Lusitanos in Indos non habere ius +dominii titulo belli</i></p> + +<p>His igitur sublatis cum manifestum sit, quod et Victoria +scribit,<a id="FNanchor_37a" href="#Footnote_37a" class="fnanchor">[37a]</a> Hispanos ad terras remotiores illas navigantes +nullum ius secum attulisse occupandi eas provincias, unus +dumtaxat titulus belli restat, qui et ipse si iustus esset, tamen +ad dominium proficere non posset, nisi iure praedae, hoc +est post occupationem. Atqui tantum abest ut Lusitani eas +res occupaverint, ut cum plerisque gentibus quas Batavi +accesserunt, bellum eo tempore nullum haberent. Et sic +igitur nullum ius illis quaeri potuit, cum etiam si quas ab +Indis pertulissent iniurias, eas longa pace et amicis commerciis +remisisse merito censeantur.</p> + +<p>Quamquam ne fuit quidem quod bello obtenderent. +Nam qui Barbaros bello persequuntur ut Americanos +Hispani, duo solent praetexere, quod ab illis commercio +arceantur, aut quod doctrinam verae religionis illi nolent +agnoscere. Et commercia quidem Lusitani ab Indis impetrarunt,<a id="FNanchor_38a" href="#Footnote_38a" class="fnanchor">[38a]</a> +ut hac in parte nihil habeant quod querantur.</p> + </div> + + <div class="textcol"> +<div class="chapter"></div> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV</h2> + +<p class="center"><i>The Portuguese have no right of sovereignty over the East +Indies by title of war</i></p> + +<p>Since it is clear, (as Victoria also says),<a id="FNanchor_37" href="#Footnote_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a> from the refutation +of any claim to title from the Pope’s Donation, +that the Spaniards when they sailed to those distant lands +did not carry with them any right to occupy them as +provinces, only one kind of title remains to be considered, +namely, that based upon war. But even if this title could +be justified, it would not serve to establish sovereignty, +except by right of conquest, that is to say, occupation would +be a prerequisite. But the Portuguese were as far as +possible from occupation of those lands. They were not +even at war with most of the peoples whom the Dutch +visited. So therefore no legal claim could be established +there by the Portuguese, because even if they had suffered +wrongs from the East Indians, it might reasonably be considered +by the long peace and friendly commercial relations +that those injuries had been forgiven.</p> + +<p>Indeed there was no pretext at all for going to war. +For those who force war upon barbarous peoples, as the +Spaniards did upon the aborigines of America, commonly +allege one of two pretexts: either that they have been refused +the right to trade, or that the barbarians are unwilling +to acknowledge the doctrines of the True Faith. But +as the Portuguese actually obtained from the East Indians +the right to trade,<a id="FNanchor_38" href="#Footnote_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a> they have, on that score at least, no</p> + </div> + + +<hr class="page x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_19"></a>[19]</span></p> + + <div class="textcol" lang="la"> +<p class="noindent">Alter vero obtentus nihilo est iustior, quam ille Graecorum in +Barbaros, quo Boëthius respexit:<a id="FNanchor_39a" href="#Footnote_39a" class="fnanchor">[39a]</a></p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> +<div class="poetry"> + <div class="verse indent0"><i>An distant quia dissidentque mores,</i></div> + <div class="verse indent0"><i>Iniustas acies, et fera bella movent,</i></div> + <div class="verse indent2"><i>Alternisque volunt perire telis?</i></div> + <div class="verse indent2"><i>Non est iusta satis saevitiae ratio.</i></div> +</div> +</div> + +<p class="noindent">Ista autem et Thomae et Concili Toletani et Gregori et +Theologorum, Canonistarum, Iurisprudentiumque fere +omnium conclusio est:<a id="FNanchor_40a" href="#Footnote_40a" class="fnanchor">[40a]</a> Quantumcumque fides annuntiata +sit Barbaris (nam de his qui subditi ante fuerunt Christianis +Principibus item de Apostatis alia est quaestio) probabiliter +et sufficienter, et si noluerint eam respicere, non tamen +licere hac ratione eos bello persequi, et spoliare bonis suis.<a id="FNanchor_41a" href="#Footnote_41a" class="fnanchor">[41a]</a></p> + +<p>Operae pretium est in hanc rem ipsa Caietani verba +describere:<a id="FNanchor_42a" href="#Footnote_42a" class="fnanchor">[42a]</a> ‘Quidam’, ait, ‘infideles nec de iure nec de +facto subsunt secundum temporalem iurisdictionem Principibus +Christianis, ut inveniuntur pagani, qui numquam +imperio Romano subditi fuerunt, terras habitantes, in quibus +Christianum numquam fuit nomen. Horum namque +domini, quamvis infideles, legitimi domini sunt, sive regali +sive politico regimine gubernantur; nec sunt propter infidelitatem +a dominio suorum privati, cum dominium sit</p> + </div> + + <div class="textcol"> +<div class="chapter"></div> + +<p class="noindent">grounds of complaint. Nor is there any better justification +for the other pretext than the one alleged by the Greeks +against the barbarians, to which Boëthius makes the following +allusion:</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> +<div class="poetry"> + <div class="verse indentq">“<i>Unjust and cruel wars they wage,</i></div> + <div class="verse indent0"><i>And haste with flying darts the death to meet or deal.</i></div> + <div class="verse indent0"><i>No right nor reason can they show;</i></div> + <div class="verse indent0"><i>’Tis but because their lands and laws are not the same.</i>”<a id="FNanchor_39" href="#Footnote_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a></div> +</div> +</div> + +<p class="noindent">Moreover the verdict of Thomas Aquinas, of the Council of +Toledo, of Gregory, and of nearly all theologians, canonists, +and jurists, is as follows:<a id="FNanchor_40" href="#Footnote_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a> However persuasively and +sufficiently the True Faith has been preached to the heathen—former +subjects of Christian princes or apostates are quite +another question—if they are unwilling to heed it, that is +not sufficient cause to justify war upon them, or to despoil +them of their goods.<a id="FNanchor_41" href="#Footnote_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a></p> + +<p>It is worth while on this point to quote the actual words +of Cajetan:<a id="FNanchor_42" href="#Footnote_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a> ‘There are some infidels who are neither in +law nor in fact under the temporal jurisdiction of Christian +princes; just as there were pagans who were never, subjects +of the Roman Empire, and yet who inhabit lands +where the name of Christ was never heard. Now their +rulers, though heathen, are legitimate rulers, whether the +people live under a monarchical or a democratic régime. +They are not to be deprived of sovereignty over their possessions</p> + </div> + + +<hr class="page x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_20"></a>[20]</span></p> + + <div class="textcol" lang="la"> +<p class="noindent">ex iure positivo, et infidelitas ex divino iure, quod non tollit +ius positivum, ut superius in quaestione habitum est. Et +de his nullam scio legem quoad temporalia. Contra hos +nullus Rex, nullus Imperator, nec Ecclesia Romana potest +movere bellum ad occupandas terras eorum, aut subiciendos +illos temporaliter; quia nulla subest causa iusta belli, cum +Iesus Christus Rex Regum, cui data est potestas in caelo et +in terra, miserit ad capiendam possessionem mundi, non +milites armatae militiae, sed sanctos praedicatores, sicut +oves inter lupos. Vnde nec in testamento veteri, ubi armata +manu possessio erat capienda, terrae infidelium inductum +lego bellum alicui propter hoc quod non erant fideles, sed +quia nolebant dare transitum, vel quia eos offenderant, ut +Madianitae, vel ut recuperarent sua, divina largitate sibi +concessa. Vnde GRAVISSIME PECCAREMVS, si +fidem Christi Iesu per hanc viam ampliare contenderemus; +nec essemus LEGITIMI DOMINI illorum, sed MAGNA +LATROCINIA committeremus, et teneremur ad restitutionem, +utpote INIVSTI DEBELLATORES AVT +OCCVPATORES. Mittendi essent ad hos praedicatores +boni viri, qui verbo et exemplo converterent eos ad Deum; +et non qui eos opprimant, spolient, scandalizent, subiciant, +et duplo gehennae filios faciant, more Pharisaeorum’.</p> + +<p>Et in hanc formam audimus saepe a Senatu in Hispania, +et Theologis praecipue Dominicanis decretum fuisse, sola +verbi praedicatione non bello Americanos ad fidem traducendos; +libertatem etiam quae illis eo nomine erepta esset,</p> + </div> + + <div class="textcol"> +<div class="chapter"></div> + +<p class="noindent">because of their unbelief, since sovereignty is a +matter of positive law, and unbelief is a matter of divine +law, which cannot annul positive law, as has been argued +above. In fact I know of no law against such unbelievers +as regards their temporal possessions. Against them no +King, no Emperor, not even the Roman Church, can declare +war for the purpose of occupying their lands, or of +subjecting them to temporal sway. For there is no just +cause for war, since Jesus Christ the King of Kings, to +whom all power was given in heaven and on earth, sent out +for the conquest of the world not armed soldiers, but holy +disciples, “as sheep in the midst of wolves.” Nor do I +read in the Old Testament, when possession had to be +obtained by force of arms, that the Israelites waged war +on any heathen land because of the unbelief of its inhabitants; +but it was because the heathen refused them the right +of innocent passage, or attacked them, as the Midianites +did; or it was to recover the possessions which had been +bestowed upon them by divine bounty. Wherefore we +should be most miserable sinners if we should attempt to +extend the religion of Jesus Christ by such means. Nor +should we be their lawful rulers, but, on the contrary, we +should be committing great robberies, and be compelled to +make restitution as unjust conquerors and invaders. There +must be sent to them as preachers, good men to convert +them to God by their teaching and example; not men who +will oppress them, despoil them, subdue and proselytize +them, and “make them twofold more the children of hell +than themselves,”* after the manner of the Pharisees’.</p> + +<p>* [Matthew XXIII, 15].</p> + +<p>Indeed I have often heard that it has been decreed by +the Council of Spain, and by the Churchmen, especially the +Dominicans, that the Americans (Aztecs and Indians) +should be converted to the Faith by the preaching of the +Word alone, and not by war, and even that their liberty of</p> + </div> + + +<hr class="page x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_21"></a>[21]</span></p> + + <div class="textcol" lang="la"> +<p class="noindent">restitui debere, quod a Paulo tertio Pontifice, et Carolo V +Imperatore Hispaniarum Rege comprobatum dicitur.</p> + +<p>Omittimus iam Lusitanos in plerisque partibus religionem +nihil promovere, ne operam quidem dare, cum soli lucro +invigilent. Immo et illud ibi verum esse, quod de Hispanis +in America Hispanus scripsit, non miracula, non signa +audiri, non exempla vitae religiosae, quae ad eandem fidem +alios possent impellere, sed multa scandala, multa facinora, +multas impietates.</p> + +<p>Quare cum et possessio et titulus deficiat possessionis, +neque res dicionesque Indorum pro talibus haberi debeant +quasi nullius ante fuissent, neque cum illorum essent, ab +aliis recte acquiri potuerint, sequitur Indorum populos, de +quibus nos loquimur, Lusitanorum proprios non esse, sed +liberos, et sui iuris; de quo ipsi doctores Hispani non +dubitant.<a id="FNanchor_43a" href="#Footnote_43a" class="fnanchor">[43a]</a></p> + </div> + + <div class="textcol"> +<div class="chapter"></div> + +<p class="noindent">which they had been robbed in the name of religion should +be restored. This policy is said to have received the approval +of Pope Paul III, and of Emperor Charles V, King of the +Spains.</p> + +<p>I pass over the fact that the Portuguese in most places +do not further the extension of the faith, or indeed, pay +any attention to it at all, since they are alive only to the +acquisition of wealth. Nay, the very thing that is true of +them, is the very thing which has been written of the Spaniards +in America by a Spaniard, namely, that nothing is +heard of miracles or wonders or examples of devout and +religious life such as might convert others to the same faith, +but on the other hand no end of scandals, of crimes, of +impious deeds.</p> + +<p>Wherefore, since both possession and a title of possession +are lacking, and since the property and the sovereignty +of the East Indies ought not to be considered as if they had +previously been <i lang="la">res nullius</i>, and since, as they belong to the +East Indians, they could not have been acquired legally +by other persons, it follows that the East Indian nations in +question are not the chattels of the Portuguese, but are +free men and <i lang="la">sui juris</i>. This is not denied even by the +Spanish jurists themselves.<a id="FNanchor_43" href="#Footnote_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a></p> + </div> + + +<hr class="page x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_22"></a>[22]</span></p> + + <div class="textcol" lang="la"> +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CAPUT_V">CAPUT V</h2> + +<p class="center"><i>Mare ad Indos aut ius eo navigandi non +esse proprium Lusitanorum titulo +occupationis</i></p> + +<p>Si ergo in populos terrasque et diciones Lusitani ius +nullum quaesiverunt, videamus an mare et navigationem, +aut mercaturam sui iuris facere potuerint. De mari autem +prima sit consideratio, quod cum passim in iure aut nullius, +aut commune, aut publicum iuris gentium dicatur, hae +voces quid significent ita commodissime explicabitur, si +Poetas ab Hesiodo omnes, et Philosophos; et Iurisconsultos +veteres imitati in tempora distinguamus, ea, quae tempore +forte haud longo, certa tamen ratione, et sui natura discreta +sunt. Neque nobis vitio verti debet si in iuris a natura procedentis +explicatione auctoritate et verbis eorum utimur +quos constat naturali iudicio plurimum valuisse.</p> + +<p>Sciendum est igitur in primordiis vitae humanae aliud +quam nunc est dominium, aliud communionem fuisse.<a id="FNanchor_44a" href="#Footnote_44a" class="fnanchor">[44a]</a> Nam +dominium nunc proprium quid significat, quod scilicet ita +est alicuius ut alterius non sit eodem modo. Commune +autem dicimus, cuius proprietas inter plures consortio</p> + </div> + + <div class="textcol"> +<div class="chapter"></div> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V</h2> + +<p class="center"><i>Neither the Indian Ocean nor the right of navigation +thereon belongs to the Portuguese by title of +occupation</i></p> + +<p>If therefore the Portuguese have acquired no legal right +over the nations of the East Indies, and their territory and +sovereignty, let us consider whether they have been able to +obtain exclusive jurisdiction over the sea and its navigation +or over trade. Let us first consider the case of the sea.</p> + +<p>Now, in the legal phraseology of the Law of Nations, +the sea is called indifferently the property of no one (<i lang="la">res +nullius</i>), or a common possession (<i lang="la">res communis</i>), or public +property (<i lang="la">res publica</i>). It will be most convenient to explain +the signification of these terms if we follow the practice +of all the poets since Hesiod, of the philosophers and +jurists of the past, and distinguish certain epochs, the divisions +of which are marked off perhaps not so much by intervals +of time as by obvious logic and essential character. +And we ought not to be criticised if in our explanation of a +law deriving from nature, we use the authority and definition +of those whose natural judgment admittedly is held in +the highest esteem.</p> + +<p>It is therefore necessary to explain that in the earliest +stages of human existence both sovereignty and common +possession had meanings other than those which they bear +at the present time.<a id="FNanchor_44" href="#Footnote_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a> For nowadays sovereignty means a +particular kind of proprietorship, such in fact that it absolutely +excludes like possession by any one else. On the +other hand, we call a thing ‘common’ when its ownership</p> + </div> + + +<hr class="page x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_23"></a>[23]</span></p> + + <div class="textcol" lang="la"> +<p class="noindent">quodam aut consensu collata est exclusis aliis. Linguarum +paupertas coegit voces easdem in re non eadem usurpare. +Et sic ista nostri moris nomina ad ius illud pristinum +similitudine quadam et imagine referuntur. Commune +igitur tunc non aliud fuit quam quod simpliciter proprio +opponitur; dominium autem facultas non iniusta utendi re +communi, quem usum Scholasticis<a id="FNanchor_45a" href="#Footnote_45a" class="fnanchor">[45a]</a> visum est facti non iuris +vocare, quia qui nunc in iure usus vocatur, proprium est +quiddam, aut ut illorum more loquar, privative ad alios +dicitur.</p> + +<p>Iure primo Gentium, quod et Naturale interdum dicitur, +et quod poetae alibi aetate aurea, alibi Saturni aut Iustitiae +regno depingunt, nihil proprium fuit; quod Cicero dixit: +‘Sunt autem privata nulla natura’. Et Horatius:<a id="FNanchor_46a" href="#Footnote_46a" class="fnanchor">[46a]</a></p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> +<div class="poetry"> + <div class="verse indent0"><i>Nam PROPRIAE telluris ERVM NATVRA neque illum</i></div> + <div class="verse indent0"><i>Nec me nec quemquam statuit.</i></div> +</div> +</div> + +<p class="noindent">Neque enim potuit natura dominos distinguere. Hoc igitur +significatu res omnes eo tempore communes fuisse dicimus, +idem innuentes quod poetae cum primos homines in medium +quaesivisse, et Iustitiam casto foedere res medias tenuisse* +dicunt; quod ut clarius explicent, negant eo tempore campos +limite partitos, aut commercia fuisse ulla.</p> + +<p>* [in medium quaerebant, Vergil, Georgica I, 127; medias casto res more +tenebas, Avienus, Aratus, 298 (W. P. Mustard)].</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> +<div class="poetry"> + <div class="verse indent8"><i>promiscua rura per agros</i></div> + <div class="verse indent0"><i>Praestiterant cunctis COMMVNIA cuncta VIDERI.</i><a id="FNanchor_47a" href="#Footnote_47a" class="fnanchor">[47a]</a></div> +</div> +</div> + </div> + + <div class="textcol"> +<div class="chapter"></div> + +<p class="noindent">or possession is held by several persons jointly according +to a kind of partnership or mutual agreement from which +all other persons are excluded. Poverty of language compels +the use of the same words for things that are not the +same. And so because of a certain similarity and likeness, +our modern nomenclature is applied to that state of primitive +law. Now, in ancient times, ‘common’ meant simply +the opposite of ‘particular’; and ‘sovereignty’ or ‘ownership’, +meant the privilege of lawfully using common property. +This seemed to the Scholastics<a id="FNanchor_45" href="#Footnote_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a> to be a use in fact +but not in law, because what now in law is called use, is a +particular right, or if I may use their phraseology, is, in +respect to other persons, a privative right.</p> + +<p>In the primitive law of nations, which is sometimes +called Natural Law, and which the poets sometimes portray +as having existed in a Golden Age, and sometimes +in the reign of Saturn or of Justice, there was no +particular right. As Cicero says: ‘But nothing is by nature +private property’. And Horace:<a id="FNanchor_46" href="#Footnote_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a> ‘For nature has decreed +to be the master of private soil neither him, nor me, nor anyone +else’. For nature knows no sovereigns. Therefore in +this sense we say that in those ancient times all things were +held in common, meaning what the poets do when they say +that primitive men acquired everything in common, and +that Justice maintained a community of goods by means of +an inviolable compact. And to make this clearer, they say +that in those primitive times the fields were not delimited +by boundary lines, and that there was no commercial intercourse. +[As Avienus says]:<a id="FNanchor_47" href="#Footnote_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a> ‘The promiscuity of the fields +had made everything seem common to all’.</p> + +<p>The word ‘seemed’ is rightly added, owing to the +changed meaning of the words, as we have noted above.</p> + </div> + + +<hr class="page x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_24"></a>[24]</span></p> + + <div class="textcol" lang="la"> +<p class="noindent">Recte additum est ‘videri’ propter translationem ut diximus +vocabuli. Communio autem ista ad usum referebatur:<a id="FNanchor_48a" href="#Footnote_48a" class="fnanchor">[48a]</a></p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> +<div class="poetry"> + <div class="verse indent4"><i>pervium cunctis iter,</i></div> + <div class="verse indent0"><i lang="la">COMMVNIS VSVS omnium rerum fuit.</i></div> +</div> +</div> + +<p class="noindent">Cuius ratione dominium quoddam erat, sed universale, et +indefinitum; Deus enim res omnes non huic aut illi dederat, +sed humano generi, atque eo modo plures in solidum eiusdem +rei domini esse non prohibebantur; quod si hodierna significatione +sumamus dominium, contra omnem est rationem. Hoc +enim proprietatem includit, quae tunc erat penes neminem. +Aptissime autem illud dictum est:<a id="FNanchor_49a" href="#Footnote_49a" class="fnanchor">[49a]</a></p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> +<div class="poetry"> + <div class="verse indent4"><i>omnia rerum</i></div> + <div class="verse indent0"><i>Vsurpantis erant,</i></div> +</div> +</div> + +<p>Ad eam vero, quae nunc est, dominiorum distinctionem +non impetu quodam, sed paulatim ventum videtur, initium +eius monstrante natura. Cum enim res sint nonnullae, +quarum usus in abusu consistit, aut quia conversae in substantiam +utentis nullum postea usum admittunt, aut quia +utendo fiunt ad usum deteriores, in rebus prioris generis, ut +cibo et potu, proprietas statim quaedam ab usu non seiuncta +emicuit.<a id="FNanchor_50a" href="#Footnote_50a" class="fnanchor">[50a]</a> Hoc enim est proprium esse, ita esse cuiusquam +ut et alterius esse non possit; quod deinde ad res posterioris, +generis, vestes puta, et res mobiles alias aut se moventes +ratione quadam productum est.</p> + +<p>Quod cum esset, ne res quidem immobiles omnes, agri</p> + </div> + + <div class="textcol"> +<div class="chapter"></div> + +<p class="noindent">But that kind of common possession relates to use, as is seen +from a quotation from Seneca:<a id="FNanchor_48" href="#Footnote_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a></p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> +<div class="poetry"> + <div class="verse indent10">“<i>Every path was free,</i></div> + <div class="verse indent0"><i>All things were used in common.</i>”</div> +</div> +</div> + +<p class="noindent">According to his reasoning there was a kind of sovereignty, +but it was universal and unlimited. For God had not given +all things to this individual or to that, but to the entire +human race, and thus a number of persons, as it were en +masse, were not debarred from being substantially sovereigns +or owners of the same thing, which is quite contradictory +to our modern meaning of sovereignty. For it now +implies particular or private ownership, a thing which no +one then had. Avienus has said very pertinently:<a id="FNanchor_49" href="#Footnote_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a> ‘All +things belonged to him who had possession of them’.</p> + +<p>It seems certain that the transition to the present distinction +of ownerships did not come violently, but gradually, +nature herself pointing out the way. For since there +are some things, the use of which consists in their being +used up, either because having become part of the very +substance of the user they can never be used again, or because +by use they become less fit for future use, it has become +apparent, especially in dealing with the first category, +such things as food and drink for example, that a certain +kind of ownership is inseparable from use.<a id="FNanchor_50" href="#Footnote_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a> For ‘own’ +implies that a thing belongs to some one person, in such +a way that it cannot belong to any other person. By the +process of reasoning this was next extended to things of +the second category, such as clothes and movables and some +living things.</p> + +<p>When that had come about, not even immovables, such,</p> + </div> + + +<hr class="page x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_25"></a>[25]</span></p> + + <div class="textcol" lang="la"> +<p class="noindent">puta, indivisae manere potuerunt; quamquam enim horum +usus non simpliciter in abusu consistat, eorum tamen usus +abusus cuiusdam causa comparatus est, ut arva et arbusta +cibi causa, pascua etiam vestium; omnium autem usibus +promiscue sufficere non possunt. Repertae proprietati lex +posita est, quae naturam imitaretur. Sicut enim initio per +applicationem corporalem usus ille habebatur, unde proprietatem +primum ortam diximus, ita simili applicatione +res proprias cuiusque fieri placuit. Haec est quae dicitur +occupatio, voce accommodatissima ad eas res quae ante in +medio positae fuerant; quo Seneca Tragicus alludit:<a id="FNanchor_51a" href="#Footnote_51a" class="fnanchor">[51a]</a></p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> +<div class="poetry"> + <div class="verse indent4"><i>IN MEDIO est scelus</i></div> + <div class="verse indent0"><i>POSITVM OCCVPANTI.</i></div> +</div> +</div> + +<p class="noindent">Et Philosophus:<a id="FNanchor_52a" href="#Footnote_52a" class="fnanchor">[52a]</a> ‘Equestria OMNIVM equitum Romanorum +sunt. In illis tamen locus meus fit PROPRIVS, +quem OCCVPAVI’. Hinc Quintilianus dicit,<a id="FNanchor_53a" href="#Footnote_53a" class="fnanchor">[53a]</a> quod omnibus +nascitur, industriae esse praemium; et Tullius,<a id="FNanchor_54a" href="#Footnote_54a" class="fnanchor">[54a]</a> factas +esse veteri occupatione res eorum qui quondam in vacua +venerant.</p> + +<p>Occupatio autem haec in his rebus quae possessioni +renituntur, ut sunt ferae bestiae, perpetua esse debet, in +aliis sufficit, corpore coeptam possessionem animo retineri. +Occupatio in mobilibus est apprehensio, in immobilibus</p> + </div> + + <div class="textcol"> +<div class="chapter"></div> + +<p class="noindent">for instance, as fields, could remain unapportioned. For +although their use does not consist merely in consumption, +nevertheless it is bound up with subsequent consumption, +as fields and plants are used to get food, and pastures to +get clothing. There is, however, not enough fixed property +to satisfy the use of everybody indiscriminately.</p> + +<p>When property or ownership was invented, the law of +property was established to imitate nature. For as that +use began in connection with bodily needs, from which as +we have said property first arose, so by a similar connection +it was decided that things were the property of individuals. +This is called ‘occupation’, a word most appropriate to +those things which in former times had been held in common. +It is this to which Seneca alludes in his tragedy +Thyestes,</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> +<div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">“<i>Crime is between us to be seized by one.</i>”<a id="FNanchor_51" href="#Footnote_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a></div> + </div> +</div> +</div> + +<p>And in one of his philosophical writings he also says:<a id="FNanchor_52" href="#Footnote_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a> ‘The +equestrian rows of seats belong to all the equites; nevertheless, +the seat of which I have taken possession is my own +private place’. Further, Quintilian remarks<a id="FNanchor_53" href="#Footnote_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a> that a thing +which is created for all is the reward of industry, and Cicero +says<a id="FNanchor_54" href="#Footnote_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a> that things which have been occupied for a long time +become the property of those who originally found them +unoccupied.</p> + +<p>This occupation or possession, however, in the case of +things which resist seizure, like wild animals for example, +must be uninterrupted or perpetually maintained, but in the +case of other things it is sufficient if after physical possession +is once taken the intention to possess is maintained. +Possession of movables implies seizure, and possession of</p> + </div> + + +<hr class="page x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_26"></a>[26]</span></p> + + <div class="textcol" lang="la"> +<p class="noindent">instructio aut limitatio; unde Hermogenianus cum dominia +distincta dicit, addit, agris terminos positos, aedificia collocata.<a id="FNanchor_55a" href="#Footnote_55a" class="fnanchor">[55a]</a> +Hic rerum status a poetis indicatur:</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> +<div class="poetry"> + <div class="verse indent0"><i>Tum laqueis captare feras, et fallere visco</i></div> + <div class="verse indent0"><i>Inventum.</i></div> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0"><i>Tum primum subiere domos.</i><a id="FNanchor_56a" href="#Footnote_56a" class="fnanchor">[56a]</a></div> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0"><i>COMMVNEMQVE PRIVS, ceu lumina solis et auras</i></div> + <div class="verse indent0"><i>Cautus humum longo signavit LIMITE mensor.</i><a id="FNanchor_57a" href="#Footnote_57a" class="fnanchor">[57a]</a></div> + </div> +</div> +</div> + +<p class="noindent">Celebratur post haec, ut Hermogenianus indicat, commercium +cuius gratia</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> +<div class="poetry"> + <div class="verse indent0"><i>Fluctibus ignotis insultavere carinae.</i><a id="FNanchor_58a" href="#Footnote_58a" class="fnanchor">[58a]</a></div> +</div> +</div> + +<p>Eodem autem tempore et respublicae institui coeperunt. +Atque ita earum quae a prima communione divulsa erant +duo facta sunt genera. Alia enim sunt publica, hoc est, +populi propria (quae est genuina istius vocis significatio) +alia mere privata, hoc est, singulorum. Occupatio autem +publica eodem modo fit, quo privata. Seneca:<a id="FNanchor_59a" href="#Footnote_59a" class="fnanchor">[59a]</a> ‘Fines +Atheniensium, aut Campanorum vocamus, quos deinde inter +se vicini privata terminatione distinguunt’. Gens enim +unaquaeque</p> + </div> + + <div class="textcol"> +<div class="chapter"></div> + +<p class="noindent">immovables either the erection of buildings or some determination +of boundaries, such as fencing in. Hence +Hermogenianus, in speaking of separate ownerships, adds +the boundaries set to the fields and the buildings thereon +constructed.<a id="FNanchor_55" href="#Footnote_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a> This state of things is described thus by the +poets Vergil and Ovid:</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> +<div class="poetry"> + <div class="verse indent0">“<i>Then toils for beasts, and lime for birds, were found</i>,”<a id="FNanchor_56" href="#Footnote_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a></div> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0"><i>Then first men made homes.</i></div> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indentq">“<i>Then landmarks limited to each his right,</i></div> + <div class="verse indent0"><i>For all before was common as the light.</i>”<a id="FNanchor_57" href="#Footnote_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a></div> + </div> +</div> +</div> + +<p class="noindent">In still another place, as Hermogenianus points out, Ovid +praises commerce, for the sake of which:<a id="FNanchor_58" href="#Footnote_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a></p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> +<div class="poetry"> + <div class="verse indent0">‘<i>Ships in triumph sail the unknown seas</i>’.</div> +</div> +</div> + +<p class="noindent">At the same time, however, states began to be established, +and so two categories were made of the things which had +been wrested away from early ownership in common. For +some things were public, that is, were the property of the +people (which is the real meaning of that expression), while +other things were private, that is, were the property of individuals. +Ownership, however, both public and private, +arises in the same way. On this point Seneca says:<a id="FNanchor_59" href="#Footnote_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a> ‘We +speak in general of the land of the Athenians or the Campanians. +It is the same land which again by means of +private boundaries is divided among individual owners’.</p> + </div> + + +<hr class="page x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_27"></a>[27]</span></p> + + <div class="textcol" lang="la"> +<div class="poetry-container"> +<div class="poetry"> + <div class="verse indent0"><i>PARTITA FINES regna constituit, novas</i></div> + <div class="verse indent0"><i>Extruxit VRBES.</i><a id="FNanchor_60a" href="#Footnote_60a" class="fnanchor">[60a]</a></div> +</div> +</div> + +<p class="noindent">Hoc modo dicit Cicero agrum Arpinatem Arpinatium dici, +Tusculanum Tusculanorum: ‘similisque est’, inquit, ‘privatarum +possessionum discriptio. Ex quo quia suum cuiusque +fit eorum, quae natura fuerant COMMVNIA, quod cuique +obtigit, id quisque teneat’.<a id="FNanchor_61a" href="#Footnote_61a" class="fnanchor">[61a]</a> Contra autem Thucydides<a id="FNanchor_62a" href="#Footnote_62a" class="fnanchor">[62a]</a> +eam terram quae in divisione populo nulli obvenit, ἀόριστον +hoe est, indefinitam, et limitibus nullis circumscriptam +vocat.<a id="FNanchor_63a" href="#Footnote_63a" class="fnanchor">[63a]</a></p> + +<p>Ex his quae hactenus dicta sunt duo intelligi possunt. +Prius est, eas res quae occupari non possunt, aut occupatae +numquam sunt, nullius proprias esse posse; quia +omnis proprietas ab occupatione coeperit. Alterum vero, +eas res omnes, quae ita a natura comparatae sunt, ut aliquo +utente nihilominus aliis quibusvis ad usum promiscue sufficiant, +eius hodieque condicionis esse, et perpetuo esse debere +cuius fuerant cum primum a natura proditae sunt. Hoc +Cicero voluit:<a id="FNanchor_64a" href="#Footnote_64a" class="fnanchor">[64a]</a> ‘Ac latissime quidem patens hominibus inter +ipsos, omnibus inter omnes societas haec est; in qua omnium +rerum, quas ad communem hominum usum natura genuit, +est servanda communitas’. Sunt autem omnes res huius +generis, in quibus sine detrimento alterius alteri commodari +potest. Hinc illud esse dicit Cicero:<a id="FNanchor_65a" href="#Footnote_65a" class="fnanchor">[65a]</a> ‘Non prohibere aqua +profluente’. Nam aqua profluens qua talis non qua flumen</p> + </div> + + <div class="textcol"> +<div class="chapter"></div> + +<p class="noindent">‘For each nation’, Seneca says in another place, ‘made its +territories into separate kingdoms and built new cities’.<a id="FNanchor_60" href="#Footnote_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a></p> + +<p class="noindent">Thus Cicero says: “On this principle the lands of Arpinum +are said to belong to the Arpinates, the Tusculan lands to +the Tusculans; and similar is the assignment of private +property. Therefore, inasmuch as in each case some of +those things which by nature had been common property +became the property of individuals, each one should retain +possession of that which has fallen to his lot.”<a id="FNanchor_61" href="#Footnote_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a> On the +other hand Thucydides<a id="FNanchor_62" href="#Footnote_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a> calls the land which in the division +falls to no nation, ἀόριστος, that is, undefined, and undetermined +by boundaries.<a id="FNanchor_63" href="#Footnote_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a></p> + +<p>Two conclusions may be drawn from what has thus far +been said. The first is, that that which cannot be occupied, +or which never has been occupied, cannot be the property +of any one, because all property has arisen from occupation. +The second is, that all that which has been so constituted +by nature that although serving some one person it still +suffices for the common use of all other persons, is today +and ought in perpetuity to remain in the same condition as +when it was first created by nature. This is what Cicero +meant when he wrote: “This then is the most comprehensive +bond that unites together men as men and all to all; +and under it the common right to all things that nature has +produced for the common use of man is to be maintained.”<a id="FNanchor_64" href="#Footnote_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a> +All things which can be used without loss to any one else +come under this category. Hence, says Cicero, comes the +well known prohibition:<a id="FNanchor_65" href="#Footnote_65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a> ‘Deny no one the water that flows +by’. For running water considered as such and not as a</p> + </div> + + +<hr class="page x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_28"></a>[28]</span></p> + + <div class="textcol" lang="la"> +<p class="noindent">est, inter communia omnium a Iurisconsultis refertur: et a +Poeta:<a id="FNanchor_66a" href="#Footnote_66a" class="fnanchor">[66a]</a></p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> +<div class="poetry"> + <div class="verse indent0"><i>Quid prohibetis AQVAS? VSVS COMMVNIS aquarum est.</i></div> + <div class="verse indent0"><i>Nec solem PROPRIVM NATVRA nec AERA fecit.</i></div> + <div class="verse indent0"><i>Nec tenues VNDAS: in PVBLICA munera veni.</i></div> +</div> +</div> + +<p>Dicit haec non esse natura propria, sicut Vlpianus<a id="FNanchor_67a" href="#Footnote_67a" class="fnanchor">[67a]</a> +natura omnibus patere, tum quia primum a natura prodita +sunt, et in nullius adhuc dominium pervenerunt (ut loquitur +Neratius<a id="FNanchor_68a" href="#Footnote_68a" class="fnanchor">[68a]</a>); tum quia ut Cicero dicit, a natura ad usum +communem genita videntur. Publica autem vocat tralatitia +significatione, non quae ad populum aliquem, sed quae ad +societatem humanam pertinent, quae publica Iuris gentium +in Legibus vocantur, hoc est, communia omnium, propria +nullius.</p> + +<p>Huius generis est Aër, duplici ratione, tum quia occupari +non potest, tum quia usum promiscuum hominibus debet. +Et eisdem de causis commune est omnium Maris Elementum, +infinitum scilicet ita, ut possideri non queat, et omnium +usibus accommodatum: sive navigationem respicimus, sive +etiam piscaturam. Cuius autem iuris est mare, eiusdem +sunt si qua mare aliis usibus eripiendo sua fecit, ut arenae +maris, quarum pars terris continua litus dicitur.<a id="FNanchor_69a" href="#Footnote_69a" class="fnanchor">[69a]</a> Recte +igitur Cicero:<a id="FNanchor_70a" href="#Footnote_70a" class="fnanchor">[70a]</a> ‘quid tam COMMVNE quam Mare fluctuantibus,</p> + </div> + + <div class="textcol"> +<div class="chapter"></div> + +<p class="noindent">stream, is classed by the jurists among the things common +to all mankind; as is done also by Ovid:<a id="FNanchor_66" href="#Footnote_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a> ‘Why do you deny +me water? Its use is free to all. Nature has made neither +sun nor air nor waves private property; they are public +gifts’.</p> + +<p>He says that these things are not by nature private +possession, but that, as Ulpian claims,<a id="FNanchor_67" href="#Footnote_67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a> they are by nature +things open to the use of all, both because in the first place +they were produced by nature, and have never yet come +under the sovereignty of any one, as Neratius says;<a id="FNanchor_68" href="#Footnote_68" class="fnanchor">[68]</a> and in +the second place because, as Cicero says, they seem to have +been created by nature for common use. But the poet uses +‘public’, in its usual meaning, not of those things which +belong to any one people, but to human society as a whole; +that is to say, things which are called ‘public’ are, according +to the Laws of the law of nations, the common property +of all, and the private property of none.</p> + +<p>The air belongs to this class of things for two reasons. +First, it is not susceptible of occupation; and second, its +common use is destined for all men. For the same reasons +the sea is common to all, because it is so limitless that it +cannot become a possession of any one, and because it is +adapted for the use of all, whether we consider it from the +point of view of navigation or of fisheries. Now, the same +right which applies to the sea applies also to the things +which the sea has carried away from other uses and made +its own, such for example as the sands of the sea, of which +the portion adjoining the land is called the coast or shore.<a id="FNanchor_69" href="#Footnote_69" class="fnanchor">[69]</a> +Cicero therefore argues correctly:<a id="FNanchor_70" href="#Footnote_70" class="fnanchor">[70]</a> ‘What is so common as</p> + </div> + + +<hr class="page x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_29"></a>[29]</span></p> + + <div class="textcol" lang="la"> +<p class="noindent">LITVS eiectis’? Etiam Vergilius auram, +undam, litus cunctis patere dicit.</p> + +<p>Haec igitur sunt illa quae Romani vocant communia +omnium iure naturali<a id="FNanchor_71a" href="#Footnote_71a" class="fnanchor">[71a]</a> aut quod idem esse diximus, publica +iurisgentium, sicut et usum eorum modo communem, modo +publicum vocant. Quamquam vero etiam ea nullius esse, +quod ad proprietatem attinet, recte dicantur, multum tamen +differunt ab his quae nullius sunt, et communi usui attributa +non sunt, ut ferae, pisces, aves; nam ista si quis occupet, in ius +proprium transire possunt, illa vero totius humanitatis consensu +proprietati in perpetuum excepta sunt propter usum, +qui cum sit omnium, non magis omnibus ab uno eripi potest, +quam a te mihi quod meum est. Hoc est quod Cicero dicit +inter prima esse Iustitiae munera, rebus communibus pro +communibus uti. Scholastici dicerent esse communia alia +affirmative, alia privative. Distinctio haec non modo +Iurisprudentibus usitata est, sed vulgi etiam confessionem +exprimit; unde apud Athenaeum convivator mare commune +esse dicit, at pisces capientium fieri. Et in Plautina Rudente +servo dicenti,<a id="FNanchor_72a" href="#Footnote_72a" class="fnanchor">[72a]</a> ‘Mare quidem commune certost omnibus’, +assentit piscator, addenti autem, ‘In mari inventust +communi’ recte occurrit:</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> +<div class="poetry"> + <div class="verse indent0"><i>Meum quod rete atque hami nancti sunt, meum potissimumst.</i></div> +</div> +</div> + </div> + + <div class="textcol"> +<div class="chapter"></div> + +<p class="noindent">the sea for those who are being tossed upon it, the shore for +those who have been cast thereon’. Vergil also says that +the air, the sea, and the shore are open to all men.</p> + +<p>These things therefore are what the Romans call ‘common’ +to all men by natural law,<a id="FNanchor_71" href="#Footnote_71" class="fnanchor">[71]</a> or as we have said, ‘public’ +according to the law of nations; and indeed they call their +use sometimes common, sometimes public. Nevertheless, +although those things are with reason said to be <i lang="la">res nullius</i>, +so far as private ownership is concerned, still they differ +very much from those things which, though also <i lang="la">res nullius</i>, +have not been marked out for common use, such for example +as wild animals, fish, and birds. For if any one seizes those +things and assumes possession of them, they can become +objects of private ownership, but the things in the former +category by the consensus of opinion of all mankind are +forever exempt from such private ownership on account of +their susceptibility to universal use; and as they belong to +all they cannot be taken away from all by any one person +any more than what is mine can be taken away from me by +you. And Cicero says that one of the first gifts of Justice +is the use of common property for common benefit. The +Scholastics would define one of these categories as common +in an affirmative, the other in a privative sense. This distinction +is not only familiar to jurists, but it also expresses +the popular belief. In Athenaeus for instance the host is +made to say that the sea is the common property of all, but +that fish are the private property of him who catches them. +And in Plautus’ Rudens when the slave says:<a id="FNanchor_72" href="#Footnote_72" class="fnanchor">[72]</a> ‘The sea is +certainly common to all persons’, the fisherman agrees; but +when the slave adds: ‘Then what is found in the common +sea is common property’, he rightly objects, saying: ‘But +what my net and hooks have taken, is absolutely my own’.</p> + </div> + + +<hr class="page x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_30"></a>[30]</span></p> + + <div class="textcol" lang="la"> +<p>Mare igitur proprium omnino alicuius fieri non potest, +quia natura commune hoc esse non permittit, sed iubet, +immo ne litus quidem;<a id="FNanchor_73a" href="#Footnote_73a" class="fnanchor">[73a]</a> nisi quod haec addenda est interpretatio; +ut si quid earum rerum per naturam occupari +possit, id eatenus occupantis fiat, quatenus ea occupatione +usus ille promiscuus non laeditur. Quod merito receptum +est; nam cum ita se habet, cessat utraque exceptio per quam +evenisse diximus, ne omnia in eius proprium transcriberentur.</p> + +<p>Quoniam igitur inaedificatio species est occupationis, in +litore licet aedificare, si id fieri potest sine ceterorum incommodo,<a id="FNanchor_74a" href="#Footnote_74a" class="fnanchor">[74a]</a> +ut Pomponius loquitur, quod ex Scaevola explicabimus, +nisi usus publicus, hoc est communis impediretur. +Et qui aedificaverit, soli dominus fiet, quia id solum nec +ullius proprium, nec ad usum communem necessarium fuit. +Est igitur occupantis; sed non diutius quam durat occupatio, +quia reluctari mare possessioni videtur, exemplo ferae, quae +si in naturalem se libertatem receperit, non ultra captoris +est, ita et litus postliminio mari cedit.</p> + +<p>Quicquid autem privatum fieri occupando, idem et publicum, +hoc est populi proprium posse ostendimus.<a id="FNanchor_75a" href="#Footnote_75a" class="fnanchor">[75a]</a> Sic litus +Imperi Romani finibus inclusum, populi Romani esse Celsus</p> + </div> + + <div class="textcol"> +<div class="chapter"></div> + +<p>Therefore the sea can in no way become the private +property of any one, because nature not only allows but +enjoins its common use.<a id="FNanchor_73" href="#Footnote_73" class="fnanchor">[73]</a> Neither can the shore become the +private property of any one. The following qualification, +however, must be made. If any part of these things is by +nature susceptible of occupation, it may become the property +of the one who occupies it only so far as such occupation +does not affect its common use. This qualification is +deservedly recognized. For in such a case both conditions +vanish through which it might eventuate, as we have said, +that all of it would pass into private ownership.</p> + +<p>Since therefore, to cite Pomponius, building is one kind +of occupation, it is permissible to build upon the shore, if +this can be done without inconvenience to other people;<a id="FNanchor_74" href="#Footnote_74" class="fnanchor">[74]</a> that +is to say (I here follow Scaevola) if such building can be +done without hindrance to public or common use of the +shore. And whoever shall have constructed a building +under the aforesaid circumstances will become the owner of +the ground upon which said building is; because this ground +is neither the property of any one else, nor is it necessary +to common use. It becomes therefore the property of the +occupier, but his ownership lasts no longer than his occupation +lasts, inasmuch as the sea seems by nature to resist +ownership. For just as a wild animal, if it shall have +escaped and thus recovered its natural liberty, is no longer +the property of its captor, so also the sea may recover +its possession of the shore.</p> + +<p>We have now shown that whatever by occupation can +become private property can also become public property, +that is, the private property of a whole nation.<a id="FNanchor_75" href="#Footnote_75" class="fnanchor">[75]</a> And so +Celsus considered the shore included within the limits of +the Roman Empire to be the property of the Roman people.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="page x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_31"></a>[31]</span></p> + + <div class="textcol" lang="la"> +<p class="noindent">existimat; quod si ita est, minime mirandum est, eundem +Populum subditis suis occupandi litoris modum per Principem +aut Praetorem potuisse concedere. Ceterum et haec +occupatio non minus quam privata ita restringenda est, ne +ulterius porrigatur, quam ut salvus sit usus Iurisgentium. +Nemo igitur potest a Populo Romano<a id="FNanchor_76a" href="#Footnote_76a" class="fnanchor">[76a]</a> ad litus maris +accedere prohiberi, et retia siccare, et alia facere, quae semel +omnes homines in perpetuum sibi licere voluerunt.</p> + +<p>Maris autem natura hoc differt a litore, quod mare nisi +exigua sui parte nec inaedificari facile, nec includi potest; +et ut posset, hoc ipsum tamen vix contingeret, sine usus +promiscui impedimento. Si quid tamen exiguum ita occupari +potest, id occupanti conceditur. Hyperbole est igitur<a id="FNanchor_77a" href="#Footnote_77a" class="fnanchor">[77a]</a></p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> +<div class="poetry"> + <div class="verse indent0"><i>Contracta pisces aequora sentiunt</i></div> + <div class="verse indent0"><i>Iactis in altum molibus.</i></div> +</div> +</div> + +<p>Nam Celsus iactas in mare pilas eius esse dicit qui iecerit.<a id="FNanchor_78a" href="#Footnote_78a" class="fnanchor">[78a]</a> +Sed id non concedendum si deterior maris usus eo modo +futurus sit. Et Vlpianus eum qui molem in mare iacit, ita +tuendum dicit si nemo damnum sentiat. Nam si cui haec +res nocitura sit, interdictum utique, ‘Ne quid in loco publico +fiat’ competiturum. Vt et Labeo, si quid tale in mare +struatur, interdictum vult competere, ‘Ne quid in mari, quo +portus, statio, iterve navigiis deterius sit, fiat’.<a id="FNanchor_79a" href="#Footnote_79a" class="fnanchor">[79a]</a></p> + </div> + + <div class="textcol"> +<div class="chapter"></div> + +<p class="noindent">There is not therefore the least reason for surprise that the +Roman people through their emperors or praetors <ins class="corr" id="tn-31" title="Transcriber’s Note—Original text: 'praetors was able'"> +were</ins> able to grant to its subjects the right of occupying the shore. +This public occupation, however, no less than private occupation, +was subject to the restriction that it should not infringe +on international rights. Therefore the Roman people +could not forbid any one from having access to the +seashore,<a id="FNanchor_76" href="#Footnote_76" class="fnanchor">[76]</a> and from spreading his fishing nets there to dry, +and from doing other things which all men long ago decided +were always permissible.</p> + +<p>The nature of the sea, however, differs from that of the +shore, because the sea, except for a very restricted space, +can neither easily be built upon, nor inclosed; if the contrary +were true yet this could hardly happen without hindrance to +the general use. Nevertheless, if any small portion of the +sea can be thus occupied, the occupation is recognized. The +famous hyperbole of Horace must be quoted here: “The +fishes note the narrowing of the waters by piers of rock +laid in their depths.”<a id="FNanchor_77" href="#Footnote_77" class="fnanchor">[77]</a></p> + +<p>Now Celsus holds that piles driven into the sea belong +to the man who drove them.<a id="FNanchor_78" href="#Footnote_78" class="fnanchor">[78]</a> But such an act is not permissible +if the use of the sea be thereby impaired. And +Ulpian says that whoever builds a breakwater must be protected +if it is not prejudicial to the interests of any one; for +if this construction is likely to work an injury to any one, +the injunction ‘Nothing may be built on public property’ +would apply. Labeo, however, holds that in case any such +construction should be made in the sea, the following injunction +is to be enforced: ‘Nothing may be built in the +sea whereby the harbor, the roadstead, or the channel be +rendered less safe for navigation’.<a id="FNanchor_79" href="#Footnote_79" class="fnanchor">[79]</a></p> + </div> + + +<hr class="page x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_32"></a>[32]</span></p> + + <div class="textcol" lang="la"> +<p>Quae autem navigationis eadem piscatus habenda est +ratio, ut communis maneat omnibus. Neque tamen peccabit +si quis in maris diverticulo piscandi locum sibi palis circumsepiat, +atque ita privatum faciat; sicut Lucullus exciso apud +Neapolim monte ad villam suam maria admisit.<a id="FNanchor_80a" href="#Footnote_80a" class="fnanchor">[80a]</a> Et huius +generis, puto fuisse piscinas maritimas quarum Varro et +Columella meminerunt. Nec Martialis alio spectavit, cum +de Formiano Apollinaris loquitur:<a id="FNanchor_81a" href="#Footnote_81a" class="fnanchor">[81a]</a></p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> +<div class="poetry"> + <div class="verse indent0"><i>Si quando NEREVS sentit Aeoli regnum,</i></div> + <div class="verse indent0"><i>Ridet procellas tuta de SVO mensa.</i></div> +</div> +</div> + +<p class="noindent">Et Ambrosius:<a id="FNanchor_82a" href="#Footnote_82a" class="fnanchor">[82a]</a> ‘Inducis mare intra praedia tua ne desint +belluae’. Hinc apparere potest quae mens Pauli fuerit, +cum dicit,<a id="FNanchor_83a" href="#Footnote_83a" class="fnanchor">[83a]</a> si maris proprium ius ad aliquem pertineat, <em>uti +possidetis</em> interdictum ei competere. Esse quidem hoc interdictum +ad privatas causas comparatum, non autem ad +publicas, (in quibus etiam ea comprehenduntur quae +iure gentium communi facere possumus) sed hic iam +agi de iure fruendo quod ex causa privata contingat, +non publica, sive communi. Nam teste Marciano, +quicquid occupatum est et occupari potuit,<a id="FNanchor_84a" href="#Footnote_84a" class="fnanchor">[84a]</a> id iam non est +iurisgentium, sicut est mare. Exempli causa, si quis Lucullum +aut Apollinarem in privato suo, quatenus diverticulum +maris incluserant, piscari prohibuisset, dandum illis interdictum</p> + </div> + + <div class="textcol"> +<div class="chapter"></div> + +<p>Now the same principle which applies to navigation +applies also to fishing, namely, that it remains free and open +to all. Nevertheless there shall be no prejudice if any one +shall by fencing off with stakes an inlet of the sea make a +fish pond for himself, and so establish a private preserve. +Thus Lucullus once brought the water of the sea to his villa +by cutting a tunnel through a mountain near Naples.<a id="FNanchor_80" href="#Footnote_80" class="fnanchor">[80]</a> I +suspect too that the seawater reservoirs for fish mentioned +by Varro and Columella were of this sort. And Martial +had the same thing in mind when he says of the Formian +villa of Apollinaris:<a id="FNanchor_81" href="#Footnote_81" class="fnanchor">[81]</a> ‘Whenever Nereus feels the power of +Aeolus, the table safe in its own resources laughs at the +gale’. Ambrose also has something to say on the same +subject:<a id="FNanchor_82" href="#Footnote_82" class="fnanchor">[82]</a> ‘You bring the very sea into your estates that you +may not lack for fish’. In the light of all this the meaning +of Paulus is clear when he says<a id="FNanchor_83" href="#Footnote_83" class="fnanchor">[83]</a> that if any one has a private +right over the sea, the rule <em lang="la">uti possidetis</em> applies. This rule +however is applicable only to private suits, and not to public +ones, among which are also to be included those suits which +can be brought under the common law of nations. But +here the question is one which concerns the right of use +arising in a private suit, but not in a public or common +one. For according to the authority of Marcianus whatever +has been occupied and can be occupied<a id="FNanchor_84" href="#Footnote_84" class="fnanchor">[84]</a> is no longer +subject to the law of nations as the sea is. Let us take an +example. If any one had prevented Lucullus or Apollinaris +from fishing in the private fish ponds which they had +made by inclosing a small portion of the sea, according to +the opinion of Paulus they would have the right of bringing</p> + </div> + + +<hr class="page x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_33"></a>[33]</span></p> + + <div class="textcol" lang="la"> +<p class="noindent">Paulus putavit non solum iniuriarum actionem, ob +causam scilicet privatae possessionis.<a id="FNanchor_85a" href="#Footnote_85a" class="fnanchor">[85a]</a></p> + +<p>Immo in diverticulo maris, sicut in diverticulo fluminis, +si locum talem occuparim, ibique piscatus sim, maxime si +animum privatim possidendi plurium annorum continuatione +testatus fuerim, alterum eodem iure uti prohibebo; ut ex +Marciano colligimus, non aliter quam in lacu qui mei +domini est. Quod verum quam diu durat occupatio, +quemadmodum in litore antea diximus. Extra diverticulum +idem non erit, ne scilicet communis usus impediatur.<a id="FNanchor_86a" href="#Footnote_86a" class="fnanchor">[86a]</a></p> + +<p>Ante aedes igitur meas aut praetorium ut piscari aliquem +prohibeant usurpatum quidem est, sed nullo iure, adeo +quidem ut Vlpianus contempta ea usurpatione si quis prohibeatur +iniuriarum dicat agi posse<a id="FNanchor_87a" href="#Footnote_87a" class="fnanchor">[87a]</a> Hoc Imperator Leo +(cuius Legibus non utimur) contra iuris rationem mutavit, +voluitque πρόθυρα, hoc est, vestibula maritima eorum esse +propria, qui oram habitarent, ibique eos ius piscandi habere;<a id="FNanchor_88a" href="#Footnote_88a" class="fnanchor">[88a]</a> +quod tamen ita procedere voluit, ut septis quibusdam +remoratoriis quas ἐποχάς Graeci vocant, locus ille occuparetur; +existimans nimirum non fore ut quis exiguam maris +portionem alteri invideret qui ipse toto mari ad piscandum +admitteretur. Certe ut quis magnam maris partem, etiam +si possit, publicis utilitatibus eripiat, non tolerandae est +improbitatis, in quam merito Vir Sanctus invehitur:<a id="FNanchor_89a" href="#Footnote_89a" class="fnanchor">[89a]</a></p> + </div> + + <div class="textcol"> +<div class="chapter"></div> + +<p class="noindent">an injunction, not merely an action for damages based on +private ownership.<a id="FNanchor_85" href="#Footnote_85" class="fnanchor">[85]</a></p> + +<p>Indeed, if I shall have staked off such an inclosure in an +inlet of the sea, just as in a branch of a river, and have +fished there, especially if by doing so continuously for many +years I shall have given proof of my intention to establish +private ownership, I shall certainly prevent any one else +from enjoying the same rights. I gather from Marcianus +that this case is identical with that of the ownership of a +lake, and it is true however long occupation lasts, as we have +said above about the shore. But outside of an inlet this +will not hold, for then the common use of the sea might be +hindered.<a id="FNanchor_86" href="#Footnote_86" class="fnanchor">[86]</a></p> + +<p>Therefore if any one is prevented from fishing in front +of my town house or country seat, it is a usurpation, but an +illegal one, although Ulpian, who rather makes light of this +usurpation, does say that if any one is so prevented he can +bring an action for damages.<a id="FNanchor_87" href="#Footnote_87" class="fnanchor">[87]</a> The Emperor Leo, whose +laws we do not use, contrary to the intent of the law, +changed this, and declared that the entrances, or vestibules +as it were, to the sea, were the private property of those who +inhabited the shore, and that they had the right of fishing +there.<a id="FNanchor_88" href="#Footnote_88" class="fnanchor">[88]</a> However he attached this condition, that the place +should be occupied by certain jetty or pile constructions, +such as the Greeks call ἐποχαἰ, thinking doubtless that no +one who was himself allowed to fish anywhere in the sea +would grudge any one else a small portion of it. To be +sure it would be an intolerable outrage for any one to +snatch away, even if he could do so, from public use a large +area of the sea; an act which is justly reprehended by the +Holy Man,<a id="FNanchor_89" href="#Footnote_89" class="fnanchor">[89]</a> who says: ‘The lords of the earth claim for</p> + </div> + + +<hr class="page x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_34"></a>[34]</span></p> + + <div class="textcol" lang="la"> +<p class="noindent">‘SPATIA MARIS sibi vindicant IVRE MANCIPII, +pisciumque iura sicut vernaculorum conditione sibi servitii +subiecta commemorant. Iste, inquit, SINVS maris meus +est; ille alterius. Dividunt elementa sibi potentes’.</p> + +<p>Est igitur Mare in numero earum rerum quae in commercio +non sunt,<a id="FNanchor_90a" href="#Footnote_90a" class="fnanchor">[90a]</a> hoc est, quae proprii iuris fieri non possunt. +Vnde sequitur si proprie loquamur, nullam Maris partem +in territorio populi alicuius posse censeri. Quod ipsum Placentinus +sensisse videtur, cum dixit: Mare ita esse commune, +ut in nullius dominio sit nisi solius Dei; et Ioannes +Faber, cum mare asserit relictum in suo iure, et esse primaevo, +quo omnia erant communia.<a id="FNanchor_91a" href="#Footnote_91a" class="fnanchor">[91a]</a> Alioquin nihil differrent +quae sunt omnium communia ab his quae publica +proprie dicuntur, ut mare a flumine. Flumen populus +occupare potuit, ut inclusum finibus suis, mare non potuit.</p> + +<p>Territoria autem sunt ex occupationibus populorum, ut +privata dominia ex occupationibus singulorum. Vidit hoc +Celsus, qui clare satis distinguit inter litora,<a id="FNanchor_92a" href="#Footnote_92a" class="fnanchor">[92a]</a> quae Populus +Romanus occupare potuit, ita tamen ut usui communi non +noceretur, et mare quod pristinam naturam retinuit. Nec +ulla lex diversum indicat.<a id="FNanchor_93a" href="#Footnote_93a" class="fnanchor">[93a]</a> Quae vero leges a contrariae</p> + </div> + + <div class="textcol"> +<div class="chapter"></div> + +<p class="noindent">themselves a wide expanse of sea by <i lang="la">jus mancipii</i>, and they +regard the right of fishing as a servitude over which their +right is the same as that over their slaves. That gulf, says +one, belongs to me, and that gulf to some one else. They +divide the very elements among themselves, these great +men’!</p> + +<p>Therefore the sea is one of those things which is not an +article of merchandise,<a id="FNanchor_90" href="#Footnote_90" class="fnanchor">[90]</a> and which cannot become private +property. Hence it follows, to speak strictly, that no part +of the sea can be considered as the territory of any people +whatsoever. Placentinus seems to have recognized this +when he said: ‘The sea is a thing so clearly common to all, +that it cannot be the property of any one save God alone’. +Johannes Faber<a id="FNanchor_91" href="#Footnote_91" class="fnanchor">[91]</a> also asserts that the sea has been left <i lang="la">sui +juris</i>, and remains in the primitive condition where all things +were common. If it were otherwise there would be no difference +between the things which are ‘common to all’, and +those which are strictly termed ‘public’; no difference, that +is, between the sea and a river. A nation can take possession +of a river, as it is inclosed within their boundaries, with +the sea, they cannot do so.</p> + +<p>Now, public territory arises out of the occupation of +nations, just as private property arises out of the occupation +of individuals. This is recognized by Celsus, who has +drawn a sharp distinction between the shores of the sea,<a id="FNanchor_92" href="#Footnote_92" class="fnanchor">[92]</a> +which the Roman people could occupy in such a way that +its common use was not harmed, and the sea itself, which +retained its primitive nature. In fact no law intimates a +contrary view.<a id="FNanchor_93" href="#Footnote_93" class="fnanchor">[93]</a> Such laws as are cited by writers who are of</p> + </div> + + +<hr class="page x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_35"></a>[35]</span></p> + + <div class="textcol" lang="la"> +<p class="noindent">sententiae auctoribus citantur, aut de insulis loquuntur, +quas clarum est occupari potuisse, aut de portu qui non +communis est, sed proprie publicus.</p> + +<p>Qui vero dicunt mare aliquod esse Imperi Romani, +dictum suum ita interpretantur, ut dicant ius illud in mare +ultra protectionem et iurisdictionem non procedere; quod +illi ius a proprietate distinguunt; nec forte satis animadvertunt +idipsum quod Populus Romanus classes praesidio +navigantium disponere potuit, et deprehensos in mari +piratas punire, non ex proprio, sed ex communi iure accidisse, +quod et aliae liberae gentes in mari habent. Illud +interim fatemur, potuisse inter gentes aliquas convenire, ut +capti in maris hac vel illa parte, huius aut illius reipublicae +iudicium subirent, atque ita ad commoditatem distinguendae +iurisdictionis in mari fines describi, quod ipsos quidem eam +sibi legem ferentes obligat,<a id="FNanchor_94a" href="#Footnote_94a" class="fnanchor">[94a]</a> at alios populos non item; +neque locum alicuius proprium facit, sed in personas contrahentium +ius constituit.</p> + +<p>Quae distinctio ut naturali rationi consentanea est, ita +Vlpiani responso quodam comprobatur, qui rogatus an +duorum praediorum maritimorum dominus, alteri eorum +quod venderet servitutem potuisset imponere, ne inde in +certo maris loco piscari liceret, respondet: rem quidem +ipsam, mare scilicet, servitute nulla affici potuisse, quia per +naturam hoc omnibus pateret, sed cum bona fides contractus +legem venditionis servari exposceret, personas possidentium +et in ius eorum succedentium per istam legem obligari.</p> + </div> + + <div class="textcol"> +<div class="chapter"></div> + +<p class="noindent">the contrary opinion apply either to islands, which evidently +could be occupied, or to harbors, which are not ‘common’, +but ‘public’, that is, ‘national’.</p> + +<p>Now those who say that a certain sea belonged to the +Roman people explain their statement to mean that the +right of the Romans did not extend beyond protection and +jurisdiction; this right they distinguish from ownership. +Perchance they do not pay sufficient attention to the fact +that although the Roman People were able to maintain fleets +for the protection of navigation and to punish pirates captured +on the sea, it was not done by private right, but by the +common right which other free peoples also enjoy on the +sea. We recognize, however, that certain peoples have +agreed that pirates captured in this or in that part of the +sea should come under the jurisdiction of this state or of +that, and further that certain convenient limits of distinct +jurisdiction have been apportioned on the sea. Now, this +agreement does bind those who are parties to it,<a id="FNanchor_94" href="#Footnote_94" class="fnanchor">[94]</a> but it has +no binding force on other nations, nor does it make the delimited +area of the sea the private property of any one. +It merely constitutes a personal right between contracting +parties.</p> + +<p>This distinction so conformable to natural reason is also +confirmed by a reply once made by Ulpian. Upon being +asked whether the owner of two maritime estates could on +selling either of them impose on it such a servitude as the +prohibition of fishing in a particular part of the sea, he +replied that the thing in question, evidently the sea, +could not be subjected to a servitude, because it was by +nature open to all persons; but that since a contract made +in good faith demands that the condition of a sale be respected, +the present possessors and those who succeed to</p> + </div> + + +<hr class="page x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_36"></a>[36]</span></p> + + <div class="textcol" lang="la"> +<p class="noindent">Verum est loqui Iurisconsultum de praediis privatis, et lege +privata, sed in territorio et lege populorum eadem hic est +ratio, quia populi respectu totius generis humani privatorum +locum obtinent.</p> + +<p>Similiter reditus qui in piscationes maritimas constituti +Regalium numero censentur, non rem, hoc est mare, aut piscationem, +sed personas obligant.<a id="FNanchor_95a" href="#Footnote_95a" class="fnanchor">[95a]</a> Quare subditi, in quos +legem ferendi potestas Reipublicae aut Principi ex consensu +competit, ad onera ista compelli forte poterunt; sed exteris +ius piscandi ubique immune esse debet, ne servitus imponatur +mari quod servire non potest.</p> + +<p>Non enim maris eadem quae fluminis ratio est:<a id="FNanchor_96a" href="#Footnote_96a" class="fnanchor">[96a]</a> quod +cum sit publicum, id est populi, ius etiam in eo piscandi a +populo aut principe concedi aut locari potest, ita ut ei qui +conduxit, etiam interdictum Veteres dederint, de loco publico +fruendo, addita condicione si is cui locandi ius fuerit, fruendum +alicui locaverit;<a id="FNanchor_97a" href="#Footnote_97a" class="fnanchor">[97a]</a> quae condicio in mari evenire non +potest. Ceterum qui ipsam piscationem numerant inter +Regalia, ne quidem illum locum quem interpretabantur satis +inspexerunt, quod Iserniam et Alvotum non latuit.</p> + +<p>Demonstratum est<a id="FNanchor_98a" href="#Footnote_98a" class="fnanchor">[98a]</a> nec populo nec privato cuipiam ius</p> + </div> + + <div class="textcol"> +<div class="chapter"></div> + +<p class="noindent">their rights were bound to observe that condition. It is true +that the jurist is speaking of private estates and of private +law, but in speaking here of the territory of peoples and +of public law the same reasoning applies, because from the +point of view of the whole human race peoples are treated +as individuals.</p> + +<p>Similarly, revenues levied on maritime fisheries are held +to belong to the Crown, but they do not bind the sea itself +or the fisheries, but only the persons engaged in fishing.<a id="FNanchor_95" href="#Footnote_95" class="fnanchor">[95]</a> +Wherefore subjects, for whom a state or a ruler is by common +consent competent to make laws, will perhaps be compelled +to bear such charges, but so far as other persons are +concerned the right of fishing ought everywhere to be +exempt from tolls, lest a servitude be imposed upon the +sea, which is not susceptible to a servitude.</p> + +<p>The case of the sea is not the same as that of a river,<a id="FNanchor_96" href="#Footnote_96" class="fnanchor">[96]</a> +for as a river is the property of a nation, the right to fish +in it can be passed or leased by the nation or by the ruler, +in such a way (and the like is true with the ancients) that +the lessee enjoys the operation of the injunction <i lang="la">de loco +publico fruendo</i> by virtue of the clause ‘He who has the +right to lease has leased the exclusive right of enjoyment’.<a id="FNanchor_97" href="#Footnote_97" class="fnanchor">[97]</a> +Such a condition cannot arise in respect to the sea. Finally +those who count fishing among the properties of the Crown +have not examined carefully enough the very passage +which they cite to prove their contention, as Isernia* and +Alvotus† have noticed.</p> + +<p>* [Andrea d’Isernia (c. 1480-1553), an Italian commentator, called often +Feudistarum Patriarcha.]</p> + +<p>† [Probably a misprint for Alvarus (Alvarez).]</p> + +<p>It has therefore been demonstrated<a id="FNanchor_98" href="#Footnote_98" class="fnanchor">[98]</a> that neither a nation +nor an individual can establish any right of private ownership</p> + </div> + + +<hr class="page x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_37"></a>[37]</span></p> + + <div class="textcol" lang="la"> +<p class="noindent">aliquod proprium in ipsum mare (nam diverticulum excipimus) +competere posse, cum occupationem nec natura, nec +usus publici ratio permittat. Huius autem rei causa +instituta fuerat haec disputatio, ut appareret Lusitanos mare +quo ad Indos navigatur sui iuris non fecisse. Nam utraque +ratio quae proprietatem impedit, in hac causa est quam in +ceteris omnibus infinito efficacior. Quod in alii difficile +videtur, in hac omnino fieri non potest; quod in aliis iniquum +iudicamus, in hac summe barbarum est, atque inhumanum.</p> + +<p>Non de mari interiore hic agimus, quod terris undique +infusum alicubi etiam fluminis latitudinem non excedit, de +quo tamen satis constat locutos Romanos Iurisconsultos, cum +nobiles illas adversus privatam avaritiam sententias ediderunt; +de Oceano quaeritur, quem immensum, infinitum, +rerum parentem, caelo conterminum antiquitas vocat, cuius +perpetuo humore non fontes tantum et flumina et maria, sed +nubes, sed ipsa quodammodo sidera pasci veteres crediderunt; +qui denique per reciprocas aestuum vices terram hanc +humani generis sedem ambiens, neque teneri neque includi +potest, et possidet verius quam possidetur.</p> + +<p>In hoc autem Oceano non de sinu aut freto, nec de omni +quidem eo quod e litore conspici potest controversia est. +Vindicant sibi Lusitani quicquid duos Orbes interiacet, tantis +spatiis discretos, ut plurimis saeculis famam sui non potuerint +transmittere. Quod si Castellanorum, qui in eadem sunt</p> + </div> + + <div class="textcol"> +<div class="chapter"></div> + +<p class="noindent">over the sea itself (I except inlets of the sea), inasmuch +as its occupation is not permissible either by nature +or on grounds of public utility. The discussion of this matter +has been taken up for this reason, namely, that it may +be seen that the Portuguese have not established private +ownership over the sea by which people go to the East +Indies. For the two reasons that stand in the way of +ownership are in this case infinitely more powerful than in +all others. That which in other cases seems difficult, is here +absolutely impossible; and what in other cases we recognize +as unjust is here most barbarous and inhuman.</p> + +<p>The question at issue then is not one that concerns an +INNER SEA, one which is surrounded on all sides by the +land and at some places does not even exceed a river in +breadth, although it is well known that the Roman jurists +cited such an inner sea in their famous opinions condemning +private avarice. No! the question at issue is the +OUTER SEA, the OCEAN, that expanse of water which +antiquity describes as the immense, the infinite, bounded +only by the heavens, parent of all things; the ocean which +the ancients believed was perpetually supplied with water +not only by fountains, rivers, and seas, but by the clouds, +and by the very stars of heaven themselves; the ocean +which, although surrounding this earth, the home of the +human race, with the ebb and flow of its tides, can be neither +seized nor inclosed; nay, which rather possesses the earth +than is by it possessed.</p> + +<p>Further, the question at issue does not concern a gulf +or a strait in this ocean, nor even all the expanse of sea +which is visible from the shore. [But consider this!!] The +Portuguese claim as their own the whole expanse of the sea +which separates two parts of the world so far distant the +one from the other, that in all the preceding centuries +neither one has so much as heard of the other. Indeed, if +we take into account the share of the Spaniards, whose claim</p> + </div> + + +<hr class="page x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_38"></a>[38]</span></p> + + <div class="textcol" lang="la"> +<p class="noindent">causa, portio accedat, parvo minus omnis Oceanus duobus +populis mancipatus est, aliis tot gentibus ad Septentrionum +redactis angustias; multumque decepta est Natura, quae cum +elementum illud omnibus circumfudit, omnibus etiam suffecturum +credidit. In tanto mari si quis usu promiscuo solum +sibi imperium et dicionem exciperet, tamen immodicae dominationis +affectator haberetur; si quis piscatu arceret alios, +insanae cupiditatis notam non effugeret. At qui etiam +navigatum impedit, quo nihil ipsi perit, de eo quid statuemus?</p> + +<p>Si quis ab igni qui totus suus est, ignem capere, lumen +suo de lumine, alterum prohiberet, lege hunc humanae societatis +reum peragerem: quia vis ea est istius naturae:</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> +<div class="poetry"> + <div class="verse indent0"><i>Vt nihilominus ipsi luceat, cum illi accenderit.</i><a id="FNanchor_99a" href="#Footnote_99a" class="fnanchor">[99a]</a></div> +</div> +</div> + +<p>Quid ni enim quando sine detrimento suo potest, alteri +communicet, in iis quae sunt accipienti utilia, danti non +molesta.<a id="FNanchor_100a" href="#Footnote_100a" class="fnanchor">[100a]</a></p> + +<p>Haec sunt quae Philosophi<a id="FNanchor_101a" href="#Footnote_101a" class="fnanchor">[101a]</a> non alienis tantum, sed et +ingratis praestari volunt. Quae vero in rebus privatis +invidia est, eadem in re communi non potest non esse +immanitas, improbissimum enim hoc est, quod naturae +instituto, consensu gentium, meum non minus quam tuum +est, id te ita intercipere, ut ne usum quidem mihi concedas, +quo concesso nihilominus id tuum sit, quam antea fuit.</p> + </div> + + <div class="textcol"> +<div class="chapter"></div> + +<p class="noindent">is the same as that of the Portuguese, only a little less than +the whole ocean is found to be subject to two nations, while +all the rest of the peoples in the world are restricted to the +narrow bounds of the northern seas. Nature was greatly +deceived if when she spread the sea around all peoples she +believed that it would also be adequate for the use of them +all. If in a thing so vast as the sea a man were to reserve +to himself from general use nothing more than mere sovereignty, +still he would be considered a seeker after unreasonable +power. If a man were to enjoin other people +from fishing, he would not escape the reproach of monstrous +greed. But the man who even prevents navigation, a thing +which means no loss to himself, what are we to say of him?</p> + +<p>If any person should prevent any other person from +taking fire from his fire or a light from his torch, I should +accuse him of violating the law of human society, because +that is the essence of its very nature, as Ennius has said:</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> +<div class="poetry"> + <div class="verse indent0">“<i>No less shines his, when he his friend’s hath lit.</i>”<a id="FNanchor_99" href="#Footnote_99" class="fnanchor">[99]</a></div> +</div> +</div> + +<p>Why then, when it can be done without any prejudice +to his own interests, will not one person share with another +things which are useful to the recipient, and no loss to the +giver?<a id="FNanchor_100" href="#Footnote_100" class="fnanchor">[100]</a> These are services which the ancient philosophers<a id="FNanchor_101" href="#Footnote_101" class="fnanchor">[101]</a> +thought ought to be rendered not only to foreigners but +even to the ungrateful. But the same act which when +private possessions are in question is jealousy can be nothing +but cruelty when a common possession is in question. For +it is most outrageous for you to appropriate a thing, which +both by ordinance of nature and by common consent is as +much mine as yours, so exclusively that you will not grant +me a right of use in it which leaves it no less yours than it +was before.</p> + </div> + + +<hr class="page x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_39"></a>[39]</span></p> + + <div class="textcol" lang="la"> +<p>Tum vero etiam qui alienis incumbunt, aut communia +intercipiunt, certa quadam possessione se tuentur. Quia enim +prima, ut diximus, occupatio res proprias fecit, idcirco imaginem +quandam dominii praefert quamvis iniusta detentio. +At Lusitani num sicuti terras solemus, sic mare illud impositis +praediis ita undique cinxerunt, ut in ipsorum manu +esset quos vellent excludere? An vero tantum hoc abest, ut +ipsi etiam, cum adversus alios populos mundum dividunt, +non ullis limitibus aut natura, aut manu positis, sed imaginaria +quadam linea se tueantur? quod si recipitur et dimensio +talis ad possidendum valet, iamdudum nobis Geometrae +terras, Astronomi etiam caelum eriperent.</p> + +<p>Vbi hic igitur est ista, sine qua nulla dominia coeperunt, +corporis ad corpus adiunctio? Nimirum apparet in nulla +re verius dici posse, quod Doctores nostri prodiderunt,<a id="FNanchor_102a" href="#Footnote_102a" class="fnanchor">[102a]</a> +Mare cum sit incomprehensibile, non minus quam aër, +nullius populi bonis potuisse applicari.</p> + +<p>Si vero ante alios navigasse, et viam quodammodo +aperuisse, hoc vocant occupare, quid esse potest magis +ridiculum? Nam cum nulla pars sit maris, in quam non +aliquis primus ingressus sit, sequetur omnem navigationem +ab aliquo esse occupatam. Ita undique excludimur. Quin +et illi qui terrarum orbem circumvecti sunt, totum sibi +Oceanum acquisivisse dicendi erunt. Sed nemo nescit</p> + </div> + + <div class="textcol"> +<div class="chapter"></div> + +<p>Nevertheless, even those who lay burdens upon foreigners, +or appropriate things common to all, rely upon a possession +which is to some extent real. For since original +occupation created private property, therefore detention of +a thing, though unjust, gives an appearance of ownership. +But have the Portuguese completely covered the ocean, as +we are wont to do on land, by laying out estates on it in +such a way that they have the right to exclude from that +ocean whom they will? Not at all! On the contrary, they +are so far from having done so, that when they divide up +the world to the disadvantage of other nations, they cannot +even defend their action by showing any boundaries either +natural or artificial, but are compelled to fall back upon +some imaginary line. Indeed, if that were a recognized +method, and such a delimitation of boundaries were sufficient +to make possession valid, our geometers long since +would have got possession of the face of the earth, our +astronomers of the very skies.</p> + +<p>But where in this case is that corporal possession or +physical appropriation, without which no ownerships arise? +There appears to be nothing truer than what our learned +jurists have enunciated, namely,<a id="FNanchor_102" href="#Footnote_102" class="fnanchor">[102]</a> that since the sea is just as +insusceptible of physical appropriation as the air, it cannot +be attached to the possessions of any nation.</p> + +<p>But if the Portuguese call <em>occupying</em> the sea merely to +have sailed over it before other people, and to have, as it +were, opened the way, could anything in the world be more +ridiculous? For, as there is no part of the sea on which +some person has not already sailed, it will necessarily follow +that every route of navigation is occupied by some one. +Therefore we peoples of today are all absolutely excluded. +Why will not those men who have circumnavigated the +globe be justified in saying that they have acquired for +themselves the possession of the whole ocean! But there</p> + </div> + + +<hr class="page x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_40"></a>[40]</span></p> + + <div class="textcol" lang="la"> +<p class="noindent">navem per mare transeuntem non plus iuris, quam vestigii +relinquere. Verum etiam quod sibi sumunt neminem ante +ipsos eum Oceanum navigasse, id minime verum est. +Magna enim pars eius de quo agitur maris, ambitu +Mauritaniae, iam olim navigata est; ulterior et in orientem +vergens victoriis Magni Alexandri lustrata est, usque in +Arabicum sinum.<a id="FNanchor_103a" href="#Footnote_103a" class="fnanchor">[103a]</a></p> + +<p>Olim autem hanc navigationem Gaditanis percognitam +fuisse, multa argumento sunt. Caio Caesare Augusti filio +in Arabico sinu res gerente signa navium ex Hispaniensibus +naufragiis agnita. Et quod Caelius Antipater tradidit, +vidisse se qui ex Hispania in Aethiopiam commercii gratia +navigasset. Etiam Arabibus, si verum est, quod Cornelius +Nepos testatus est, Eudoxum quendam sua aetate cum +Lathyrum Regem Alexandriae fugeret, Arabico sinu egressum +Gades usque pervectum. Poenos autem, qui re +maritima plurimum valuerunt, eum Oceanum non ignorasse +longe clarissimum est, cum Hanno Carthaginis potentia +florente circumvectus a Gadibus ad finem Arabiae, praeternavigato +scilicet promontorio quod nunc Bonae Spei dicitur, +(vetus videtur nomen Hesperion ceras fuisse) omne id iter, +situmque litoris et insularum scripto complexus sit, testatusque +ad ultimum non mare sibi, sed commeatum defuisse.</p> + +<p>Ab Arabico autem sinu ad Indiam, Indicique Oceani +insulas, et auream usque Chersonesum, quam esse Iapanem +credunt plerique, etiam re Romana florente navigari +solitum, iter a Plinio descriptum,<a id="FNanchor_104a" href="#Footnote_104a" class="fnanchor">[104a]</a> legationes ab Indis ad</p> + </div> + + <div class="textcol"> +<div class="chapter"></div> + +<p class="noindent">is not a single person in the world who does not know that +a ship sailing through the sea leaves behind it no more +legal right than it does a track. And as for the assumption +of the Portuguese that no one has sailed that ocean before +themselves, that is anything but true. For a great part of +that sea near Morocco, which is in dispute, had already been +navigated long before, and the sea as far east as the Arabian +gulf has been made famous by the victories of Alexander +the Great, as both Pliny and Mela tell us.<a id="FNanchor_103" href="#Footnote_103" class="fnanchor">[103]</a></p> + +<p>There is also much to substantiate the belief that the +inhabitants of Cadiz were well acquainted long ago with +this route, because when Gaius Caesar,* the son of Augustus, +held command in the Arabian gulf, pieces were found of +shipwrecks recognized as Spanish. Caelius Antipater also +has told us in his writings that he himself saw a Spaniard +who had sailed from Spain to Ethiopia on a commercial +voyage. Also the Arabians knew those seas, if the testimony +of Cornelius Nepos is to be believed, because he says +that in his own day a certain Eudoxus, fleeing from Lathyrus, +king of Alexandria, sailed from the Arabian gulf and +finally reached Cadiz. However, by far the most famous +example is that of the Carthaginians. Those most famous +mariners were well acquainted with that sea, because Hanno, +when Carthage was at the height of her power, sailing from +Cadiz to the farthest confines of Arabia, and doubling the +promontory now known as the Cape of Good Hope (the +ancient name seems to have been Hesperion Ceras), described +in a book the entire route he had taken, the appearance +of the coasts, and the location of the islands, declaring +that at the farthest point he reached the sea had not yet +given out but his provisions had.</p> + +<p>* [Strictly speaking, Gaius was the grandson of Augustus, but was adopted +as his son.]</p> + +<p>Pliny’s description of the route to the East,<a id="FNanchor_104" href="#Footnote_104" class="fnanchor">[104]</a> the embassies</p> + </div> + + +<hr class="page x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_41"></a>[41]</span></p> + + <div class="textcol" lang="la"> +<p class="noindent">Augustum, ad Claudium etiam ex Taprobane insula, deinde +gesta Traiani et tabulae Ptolemaei satis ostendunt. Iam +suo tempore Strabo<a id="FNanchor_105a" href="#Footnote_105a" class="fnanchor">[105a]</a> Alexandrinorum mercatorum classem +ex Arabico sinu, ut Aethiopiae ultima, ita et Indiae, petiisse +testatur, cum olim paucis navibus id auderetur. Inde magna +populo Romano vectigalia; addit Plinius<a id="FNanchor_106a" href="#Footnote_106a" class="fnanchor">[106a]</a> impositis sagittariorum +cohortibus piratarum metu navigatum; solamque +Indiam quingenties sestertium, si Arabiam addas et Seres, +millies annis omnibus Romano Imperio ademisse; et merces +centuplicato venditas.</p> + +<p>Et haec quidem vetera satis arguunt primos non fuisse +Lusitanos. In singulis autem sui partibus Oceanus ille et +tunc cum eum Lusitani ingressi sunt, et numquam non +cognitus fuit. Mauri enim, Aethiopes, Arabes, Persae, Indi, +eam maris partem cuius ipsi accolae sunt, nescire neutiquam +potuerunt.</p> + +<p>Mentiuntur ergo qui se mare illud invenisse iactant.</p> + +<p>Quid igitur, dicet aliquis, parumne videtur, quod Lusitani +intermissam multis forte saeculis navigationem primi +repararunt, et, quod negari non potest, Europaeis gentibus +ignotam ostenderunt, magno suo labore, sumptu, periculo?</p> + </div> + + <div class="textcol"> +<div class="chapter"></div> + +<p class="noindent">from the Indies to Augustus, and those from Ceylon +to the emperor Claudius, and finally the accounts of the +deeds of Trajan, and the writings of Ptolemaeus, all make +it quite clear that in the days of Rome’s greatest splendor +voyages were made regularly from the Arabian gulf to +India, to the islands of the Indian ocean, and even so far as +to the golden Chersonesus, which many people think was +Japan. Strabo says<a id="FNanchor_105" href="#Footnote_105" class="fnanchor">[105]</a> that in his own time a fleet of Alexandrian +merchantmen set sail from the Arabian gulf for +the distant lands of Ethiopia and India, although few ships +had ever before attempted that voyage. The Roman people +had a large revenue from the East. Pliny says<a id="FNanchor_106" href="#Footnote_106" class="fnanchor">[106]</a> that cohorts +of archers were carried on the boats engaged in trade as +protection against pirates; he states also that every year +500,000 sesterces* were taken out of the Roman empire by +India alone, or 1,000,000 sesterces if you add Arabia and +China; further, that merchandise brought from the East +sold for one hundred times its original cost.</p> + +<p>* [A Roman sestertius was about four cents.]</p> + +<p>These examples cited from ancient times are sufficient +proof that the Portuguese were not the first in that part +of the world. Long before they ever came, every single +part of that ocean had been long since explored. For how +possibly could the Moors, the Ethiopians, the Arabians, the +Persians, the peoples of India, have remained in ignorance +of that part of the sea adjacent to their coasts!</p> + +<p>Therefore they lie, who today boast that they discovered +that sea.</p> + +<p>Well then, some one will say, does it seem to be a matter +of little moment that the Portuguese were the first to restore +a navigation interrupted perhaps for many centuries, +and unknown—as cannot be denied—at least to the nations +of Europe, at great labor and cost and danger to themselves?</p> + </div> + + +<hr class="page x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_42"></a>[42]</span></p> + + <div class="textcol" lang="la"> +<p class="noindent">Immo vero si in hoc incubuerunt ut quod soli reperissent +id omnibus monstrarent, quis adeo est amens, qui non +plurimum se illis debere profiteatur? Eandem enim gratiam, +laudemque et gloriam immortalem illi promeruerint, +qua omnes contenti fuerunt rerum magnarum inventores, +quotquot scilicet non sibi, sed humano generi prodesse studuerunt. +Sin Lusitanis suus ante oculos quaestus fuit, +lucrum quod semper maximum est in praevertendis negotiationibus, +illis sufficere debuit. Et scimus itinera prima +proventus interdum quater decuplos, aut etiam uberiores +dedisse, quibus factum ut inops diu populus ad repentinas +divitias subito prorumperet, tanto luxus apparatu, quantus +vix beatissimis gentibus in supremo progressae diu fortunae +fastigio fuit.</p> + +<p>Si vero eidem in hoc praeiverunt, ne quisquam sequeretur, +gratiam non merentur, cum lucrum suum respexerint; +lucrum autem suum dicere non possunt, cum eripiant +alienum. Neque enim illud certum est nisi ivissent eo +Lusitani, iturum fuisse neminem. Adventabant enim +tempora, quibus ut artes paene omnes, ita et terrarum et +marium situs clarius in dies noscebantur. Excitassent +vetera, quae modo retulimus, exempla, et si non uno impetu +omnia patuissent, at paulatim promota velis fuissent litora +alio semper aliud monstrante. Factum denique fuisset,</p> + </div> + + <div class="textcol"> +<div class="chapter"></div> + +<p class="noindent">On the contrary, if they had laid weight upon the +fact that they were pointing out to all what they alone +had rediscovered, there is no one so lacking in sense that he +would not acknowledge the greatest obligation to them. +For the Portuguese will have earned the same thanks, +praise, and immortal glory with which all discoverers of +great things have been content, whenever they have striven +to benefit not themselves but the whole human race. But +if the Portuguese had before their eyes only their own +financial gain, surely their profit, which is always the largest +for those first in a new field of enterprise, ought to have +satisfied them. For we know that their first voyages returned +a profit sometimes of forty times the original investment, +and sometimes even more. And by this overseas +trade it has come about that a people, previously for a long +time poor, have leaped suddenly into the possession of great +riches, and have surrounded themselves with such outward +signs of luxurious magnificence as scarcely the most prosperous +nations have been able to display at the height of +their fortunes.</p> + +<p>But if these Portuguese have led the way in this matter +in order that no one may follow them, then they do not deserve +any thanks, inasmuch as they have considered only +their own profit. Nor can they call it their profit, because +they are taking the profit of some one else. For it is not at +all demonstrable that, if the Portuguese had not gone to +the East Indies, no one else would have gone. For the +times were coming on apace in which along with other +sciences the geographical locations of seas and lands were +being better known every day. The reports of the expeditions +of the ancients mentioned above had aroused people, +and even if all foreign shores had not been laid open at a +single stroke as it were, yet they would have been brought +to light gradually by sailing voyages, each new discovery +pointing the way to the next. And so there would finally</p> + </div> + + +<hr class="page x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_43"></a>[43]</span></p> + + <div class="textcol" lang="la"> +<p class="noindent">quod fieri potuisse Lusitani docuerunt, cum multi essent +populi non minus flagrantes mercaturae et rerum externarum +studio. Venetis qui multa iam Indiae didicerant, cetera +inquirere promptum fuit. Gallorum Brittonum indefessa +sedulitas, Anglorum audacia coepto non defuisset. Ipsi +Batavi multo magis desperata aggressi sunt.</p> + +<p>Nulla igitur aequitatis ratio, ne probabilis quidem ulla +sententia a Lusitanis stat. Omnes enim qui mare volunt +imperio alicuius subici posse, id ei attribuunt qui proximos +portus et circumiacentia litora in dicione habet.<a id="FNanchor_107a" href="#Footnote_107a" class="fnanchor">[107a]</a> At Lusitani +in illo immenso litorum tractu paucis exceptis praesidiis nihil +habent quod suum possint dicere.</p> + +<p>Deinde vero etiam qui Mari imperaret, nihil tamen posset +ex usu communi deminuere, sicut Populus Romanus arcere +neminem potuit, quo minus in litore imperi Romani cuncta +faceret, quae iure gentium permittebantur.<a id="FNanchor_108a" href="#Footnote_108a" class="fnanchor">[108a]</a> Et si quicquam +eorum prohibere posset, puta piscaturam qua dici quodammodo +potest pisces exhauriri, at navigationem non posset, +per quam mari nihil perit.</p> + +<p>Cui rei argumentum est longe certissimum, quod ex +Doctorum sententia ante retulimus, etiam in terra, quae cum +populis, tum hominibus singulis in proprietatem attributa +est, iter tamen, certe inerme et innoxium, nullius gentis</p> + </div> + + <div class="textcol"> +<div class="chapter"></div> + +<p class="noindent">have been accomplished what the Portuguese showed could +be done, because there were many nations with no less ardor +than theirs to engage in commerce and to learn of foreign +things. The Venetians, who already knew much about +India, were ready to push their knowledge farther; the indefatigable +zeal of the French of Brittany, and the boldness +of the English would not have failed to make such an attempt; +indeed the Dutch themselves have embarked upon +much more desperate enterprises.</p> + +<p>Therefore the Portuguese have neither just reason nor +respectable authority to support their position, for all those +persons who assume that the sea can be subjected to the +sovereignty of any one assign it to him who holds in his +power the nearest ports and the circumjacent shores.<a id="FNanchor_107" href="#Footnote_107" class="fnanchor">[107]</a> But +in all that great extent of coast line reaching to the East +Indies the Portuguese have nothing which they can call +their own except a few fortified posts.</p> + +<p>And then even if a man were to have dominion over the +sea, still he could not take away anything from its common +use, just as the Roman people could not prevent any one +from doing on the shores of their dominions all those things +which were permitted by the law of nations.<a id="FNanchor_108" href="#Footnote_108" class="fnanchor">[108]</a> And if it were +possible to prohibit any of those things, say for example, +fishing, for in a way it can be maintained that fish are exhaustible, +still it would not be possible to prohibit navigation, +for the sea is not exhausted by that use.</p> + +<p>The most conclusive argument on this question by far +however is the one that we have already brought forward +based on the opinions of eminent jurists, namely, that even +over land which had been converted into private property +either by states or individuals, unarmed and innocent passage +is not justly to be denied to persons of any country, +exactly as the right to drink from a river is not to be</p> + </div> + + +<hr class="page x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_44"></a>[44]</span></p> + + <div class="textcol" lang="la"> +<p class="noindent">hominibus iuste negari; sicut et potum ex flumine. Ratio +apparet, quia cum unius rei naturaliter usus essent diversi, +eum dumtaxat gentes divisisse inter se videntur, qui sine +proprietate commode haberi non potest, contra autem eum +recepisse, per quem domini condicio deterior non esset futura.</p> + +<p>Omnes igitur vident eum qui alterum navigare prohibeat +nullo iure defendi, cum eundem etiam iniuriarum teneri +Vlpianus dixerit;<a id="FNanchor_109a" href="#Footnote_109a" class="fnanchor">[109a]</a> alii autem etiam interdictum utile prohibito +competere existimaverint.<a id="FNanchor_110a" href="#Footnote_110a" class="fnanchor">[110a]</a></p> + +<p>Et sic Batavorum intentio communi iure nititur, cum +fateantur omnes, permissum cuilibet in mari navigare etiam +a nullo Principe impetrata licentia; quod Legibus Hispanicis +diserte expressum est.<a id="FNanchor_111a" href="#Footnote_111a" class="fnanchor">[111a]</a></p> + </div> + + <div class="textcol"> +<div class="chapter"></div> + +<p class="noindent">denied. The reason is clear, because, inasmuch as one and +the same thing is susceptible by nature to different uses, the +nations seem on the one hand to have apportioned among +themselves that use which cannot be maintained conveniently +apart from private ownership; but on the other +hand to have reserved that use through the exercise of which +the condition of the owner would not be impaired.</p> + +<p>It is clear therefore to every one that he who prevents +another from navigating the sea has no support in law. +Ulpian has said<a id="FNanchor_109" href="#Footnote_109" class="fnanchor">[109]</a> that he was even bound to pay damages, +and other jurists have thought that the injunction <i lang="la">utile +prohibito</i> could also be brought against him.<a id="FNanchor_110" href="#Footnote_110" class="fnanchor">[110]</a></p> + +<p>Finally, the relief prayed for by the Dutch rests upon a +common right, since it is universally admitted that navigation +on the sea is open to any one, even if permission is not +obtained from any ruler. And this is <ins class="corr" id="tn-44" title="Transcriber’s Note—Original text: 'specificially'"> +specifically</ins> expressed +in the Spanish laws.<a id="FNanchor_111" href="#Footnote_111" class="fnanchor">[111]</a></p> + </div> + + +<hr class="page x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_45"></a>[45]</span></p> + + <div class="textcol" lang="la"> +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CAPVT_VI">CAPVT VI</h2> + +<p class="center"><i>Mare aut ius navigandi proprium non esse +Lusitanorum titulo donationis +Pontificiae</i></p> + +<p>Donatio Pontificis Alexandri, quae a Lusitanis mare aut +ius navigandi solis sibi vindicantibus, cum inventionis +deficiat titulus, secundo loco adduci potest, satis ex iis quae +ante dicta sunt vanitatis convincitur. Donatio enim nullum +habet momentum in rebus extra commercium positis. Quare +cum mare aut ius in eo navigandi proprium nulli hominum +esse possit, sequitur neque dari a Pontifice neque a Lusitanis +accipi potuisse. Praeterea cum supra relatum sit ex omnium +sani iudicii hominum sententia Papam non esse dominum +temporalem totius orbis, ne Maris quidem esse satis intelligitur; +quamquam etsi id concederetur, tamen ius annexum +Pontificatui in Regem aliquem aut populum pro parte nulla +transferri debuisset. Sicut nec Imperator posset Imperi +provincias in suos usus convertere, aut pro suo arbitrio +alienare.<a id="FNanchor_112a" href="#Footnote_112a" class="fnanchor">[112a]</a></p> + +<p>Illud saltem nemo negaturus est, cui aliquid sit frontis, +cum ius disponendi in temporalibus Pontifici nemo concedat, +nisi forte quantum eius rerum spiritualium necessitas requirit, +ista autem de quibus nunc agimus, mare scilicet et ius +navigandi, lucrum et quaestum merum, non pietatis negotium</p> + </div> + + <div class="textcol"> +<div class="chapter"></div> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI</h2> + +<p class="center"><i>Neither the Sea nor the right of navigation thereon belongs +to the Portuguese by virtue of title based on the +Papal Donation</i></p> + +<p>The Donation of Pope Alexander, inasmuch as the title +based on discovery is seen to be deficient, may next be invoked +by the Portuguese to justify their exclusive appropriation +of the sea and the right of navigation thereon. But +from what has been said above, that Donation is clearly +convicted of being an act of empty ostentation. For a +Donation has no effect on things outside the realm of trade. +Wherefore since neither the sea nor the right of navigating +it can become the private property of any man, it follows +that it could not have been given by the Pope, nor accepted +by the Portuguese. Besides, as has been mentioned above, +following the opinion of all men of sound judgment, it is +sufficiently well recognized that the Pope is not the temporal +lord of the earth, and certainly not of the sea. Even +if it be granted for the sake of argument that such were +the case, still a right attaching to the Pontificate ought not +to be transferred wholly or in part to any king or nation. +Similarly no emperor could convert to his own uses or +alienate at his own pleasure the provinces of his empire.<a id="FNanchor_112" href="#Footnote_112" class="fnanchor">[112]</a></p> + +<p>Now, inasmuch as no one concedes to the Pope in temporal +matters a <i lang="la">jus disponendi</i>, except perhaps in so far as +it is demanded by the necessity of spiritual matters, and +inasmuch as the things now under discussion, namely, the +sea and the right of navigating it, are concerned only with +money and profits, not with piety, surely no one can have</p> + </div> + + +<hr class="page x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_46"></a>[46]</span></p> + + <div class="textcol" lang="la"> +<p class="noindent">respiciant, sequi nullam hac in re fuisse illius potestatem. +Quid, quod ne Principes quidem, hoc est, domini temporales +possunt ullo modo a navigatione aliquem prohibere, cum si +quod habent ius in mari id sit tantum iurisdictionis ac protectionis? +Etiam illud notissimum est apud omnes, ad ea +facienda quae cum lege Naturae pugnant, nullam esse Papae +auctoritatem.<a id="FNanchor_113a" href="#Footnote_113a" class="fnanchor">[113a]</a> Pugnat autem cum lege Naturae, ut mare +aut eius usum quisquam habeat sibi proprium, ut iam satis +demonstravimus. Cum denique ius suum auferre alicui Papa +minime possit, quae erit facti istius defensio, si tot populos +immerentes, indemnatos, innoxios ab eo iure quod ad ipsos +non minus quam ad Hispanos pertinebat uno verbo voluit excludere?</p> + +<p>Aut igitur dicendum est nullam esse vim eiusmodi pronuntiationis, +aut quod non minus credibile est, eum Pontificis +animum fuisse, ut Castellanorum et Lusitanorum inter +se certamini intercessum voluerit, aliorum autem iuri nihil +diminutum.</p> + </div> + + <div class="textcol"> +<div class="chapter"></div> + +<p class="noindent">the face to insist that the Pope had any jurisdiction here. +What of the fact that not even rulers, that is to say, +temporal lords, can prohibit any one from navigation, since +if they have any right at all upon the sea it is merely one of +jurisdiction and protection! It is also a fact universally +recognized that the Pope has no authority to commit acts +repugnant to the law of nature.<a id="FNanchor_113" href="#Footnote_113" class="fnanchor">[113]</a> But it is repugnant to +the law of nature, as we have already proved beyond a +doubt, for any one to have as his own private property +either the sea or its use. Finally, since the Pope is wholly +unable to deprive any one of his own rights, what defense +will there be for that Donation of his, if by a word he intended +to exclude so many innocent, uncondemned, and +guiltless nations from a right which belongs no less to them +than to the Spaniards?</p> + +<p>Therefore, either it must be affirmed that a pronunciamento +of this sort has no force, or, as is no less credible, that +it was the desire of the Pope to intercede in the quarrel +between the Spaniards and the Portuguese, and that he had +no concomitant intention of violating the rights of others.</p> + </div> + + +<hr class="page x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_47"></a>[47]</span></p> + + <div class="textcol" lang="la"> +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CAPVT_VII">CAPVT VII</h2> + +<p class="center"><i>Mare aut ius navigandi proprium non esse +Lusitanorum titulo praescriptionis +aut consuetudinis</i></p> + +<p>Vltimum iniquitatis patrocinium in praescriptione solet +esse aut consuetudine. Et huc igitur Lusitani se conferunt; +sed utrumque illis praesidium certissima iuris ratio praecludit. +Nam praescriptio a iure est civili, unde locum habere +non potest inter reges, aut inter populos liberos;<a id="FNanchor_114a" href="#Footnote_114a" class="fnanchor">[114a]</a> multo +autem minus ubi ius naturae aut gentium resistit, quod iure +civili semper validius est. Quin et ipsa lex civilis praescriptionem +hic impedit.<a id="FNanchor_115a" href="#Footnote_115a" class="fnanchor">[115a]</a> Vsucapi enim, aut praescriptione +acquiri prohibentur, quae in bonis esse non possunt, deinde +quae possideri vel quasi possideri nequeunt, et quorum +alienatio prohibita est. Haec autem omnia de mari et usu +maris vere dicuntur.</p> + +<p>Et cum publicae res, hoc est populi alicuius nulla temporis +possessione quaeri posse dicantur, sive ob rei naturam, +sive ob eorum privilegium adversus quos praescriptio ista +procederet, quanto iustius humano generi, quam uni populo +id beneficium dandum fuit in rebus communibus? Et hoc est</p> + </div> + + <div class="textcol"> +<div class="chapter"></div> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII</h2> + +<p class="center"><i>Neither the Sea nor the right of navigation thereon belongs +to the Portuguese by title of prescription or +custom</i></p> + +<p>The last defense of injustice is usually a claim or plea +based on prescription or on custom. To this defense therefore +the Portuguese have resorted. But the best established +reasoning of the law precludes them from enjoying the +protection of either plea.</p> + +<p>Prescription is a matter of municipal law; hence it cannot +be applied as between kings, or as between free and +independent nations.<a id="FNanchor_114" href="#Footnote_114" class="fnanchor">[114]</a> It has even less standing when it is +in conflict with that which is always stronger than the +municipal law, namely, the law of nature or nations. Nay, +even municipal law itself prevents prescription in this case.<a id="FNanchor_115" href="#Footnote_115" class="fnanchor">[115]</a> +For it is impossible to acquire by usucaption or prescription +things which cannot become property, that is, which are not +susceptible of possession or of quasi-possession, and which +cannot be alienated. All of which is true with respect to the +sea and its use.</p> + +<p>And since public things, that is, things which are the +property of a nation, cannot be acquired by mere efflux +of time, either because of their nature, or because of the +prerogatives of those against whom such prescription would +act, is it not vastly more just that the benefits accruing from +the enjoyment of common things should be given to the +entire human race than to one nation alone? On this point</p> + </div> + + +<hr class="page x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_48"></a>[48]</span></p> + + <div class="textcol" lang="la"> +<p class="noindent">quod Papinianus scriptum reliquit,<a id="FNanchor_116a" href="#Footnote_116a" class="fnanchor">[116a]</a> ‘praescriptionem longae +possessionis ad obtinenda loca iurisgentium publica concedi +non solere’; eiusque rei exemplum dat in litore, cuius pars +imposito aedificio occupata fuerat. Nam eo diruto, et +alterius aedificio in eodem loco postea exstructo, exceptionem +opponi non posse; quod deinde similitudine rei publicae illustrat, +nam et si quis in fluminis diverticulo pluribus annis +piscatus sit, postea, interrupta scilicet piscatione, alterum +eodem iure prohibere non posse.</p> + +<p>Apparet igitur Angelum et qui cum Angelo dixerunt<a id="FNanchor_117a" href="#Footnote_117a" class="fnanchor">[117a]</a> +Venetis et Genuensibus per praescriptionem ius aliquod in +sinum maris suo litori praeiacentem acquiri potuisse, aut +falli, aut fallere, quod sane Iurisconsultis nimium est frequens, +cum sanctae professionis auctoritatem, non ad +rationes et leges, sed ad gratiam conferunt potentiorum. +Nam Martiani quidem responsum, de quo et ante egimus, +si recte cum Papiniani verbis comparetur,<a id="FNanchor_118a" href="#Footnote_118a" class="fnanchor">[118a]</a> non aliam accipere +potest interpretationem, quam eam quae et Iohanni olim et +Bartolo probata est, et nunc a doctis omnibus recipitur:<a id="FNanchor_119a" href="#Footnote_119a" class="fnanchor">[119a]</a> ut +scilicet ius prohibendi procedat quamdiu durat occupatio,</p> + </div> + + <div class="textcol"> +<div class="chapter"></div> + +<p class="noindent">Papinian has said:<a id="FNanchor_116" href="#Footnote_116" class="fnanchor">[116]</a> ‘Prescription raised by long possession +is not customarily recognized as valid in the acquisition of +places known to international law as “public”’. As an example, +to illustrate this point, he cites a shore some part of +which had been occupied by means of a building constructed +on it. But if this building should be destroyed, and some +one else later should construct a building on the same spot, +no exception could be taken to it. Then he illustrates the +same point by the analogous case of a <i lang="la">res publica</i>. If, for +example, any one has fished for many years in a branch of +a river, and has then stopped fishing there, after that he +cannot prevent any one else from enjoying the same right +that he had.</p> + +<p>Wherefore it appears that Angeli<a id="FNanchor_117" href="#Footnote_117" class="fnanchor">[117]</a> and his followers who +have said that the Venetians and Genoese were able to acquire +by prescription certain specific rights in the gulfs of +the sea adjacent to their shores, either are mistaken, or are +deceiving others; a thing which happens all too frequently +with jurists when they exercise the authority of their sacred +profession not for justice and law, but in order to gain +the gratitude of the powerful. There is also an opinion +of Marcianus, already cited above in another connection, +which, when carefully compared with the words of Papinian,<a id="FNanchor_118" href="#Footnote_118" class="fnanchor">[118]</a> +can have no other interpretation than the one formerly +adopted by Johannes and Bartolus,* and now accepted by +all learned men,<a id="FNanchor_119" href="#Footnote_119" class="fnanchor">[119]</a> namely, that the <i lang="la">jus prohibendi</i> is in effect +only while occupation lasts; it loses its force if occupation</p> + </div> + + +<hr class="page x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_49"></a>[49]</span></p> + + <div class="textcol" lang="la"> +<p class="noindent">non autem si ea omissa sit; omissa enim non prodest, nec si +per mille annos fuisset continuata, ut recte animadvertit +Castrensis. Et quamvis hoc voluisset Martianus, quod +minime credendus est cogitasse, in quo loco occupatio conceditur, +in eodem praescriptionem concedi, tamen absurdum +erat quod de flumine publico dictum erat ad Mare commune, +et quod de diverticulo ad sinum proferre, cum haec praescriptio +usum qui est Iuregentium communis, impeditura +sit, illa autem publico usui non admodum noceat. Alterum +autem Angeli argumentum quod ex aquaeductu sumitur,<a id="FNanchor_120a" href="#Footnote_120a" class="fnanchor">[120a]</a> +eodem Castrensi monstrante, ut a quaestione alienissimum, +ab omnibus merito exploditur.</p> + +<p>Falsum igitur est talem praescriptionem etiam eo tempore +gigni, cuius initium omnem memoriam excedat. Vbi +enim lex omnem omnino tollit praescriptionem, ne istud +quidem tempus admittitur, hoc est, ut Felinus loquitur,<a id="FNanchor_121a" href="#Footnote_121a" class="fnanchor">[121a]</a> materia +impraescriptibilis tempore immemoriali non fit praescriptibilis. +Fatetur haec vera esse Balbus;<a id="FNanchor_122a" href="#Footnote_122a" class="fnanchor">[122a]</a> sed Angeli +sententiam receptam dicit hac ratione, quia tempus extra +memoriam positum idem valere creditur privilegio, cum +titulus amplissimus ex tali tempore praesumatur. Apparet +hinc non aliud illos sensisse, quam si pars aliqua reipublicae, +puta Imperi Romani, supra omnem memoriam usa esset tali +iure, ei dandam praescriptionem hoc colore, quasi Principis</p> + </div> + + <div class="textcol"> +<div class="chapter"></div> + +<p class="noindent">cease; and occupation once interrupted, even if it had been +continuous for a thousand years, loses its rights, as Paul de +Castro† justly observes. And even if Marcianus had meant—which +certainly was not in his mind at all—that acquisition +by prescription is to be recognized wherever occupation is +recognized, still it would have been absurd to apply what +had been said about a public river to the common sea, or +what had been said about an inlet or a river branch to a +bay, since in the latter case prescription would hinder the +use of something common to all by the law of nations, and +in the former case would work no great injury to public use. +Moreover, another argument brought forward by Angeli +based on the use of aqueducts,<a id="FNanchor_120" href="#Footnote_120" class="fnanchor">[120]</a> has quite properly been rejected +by every one, being, as de Castro pointed out, entirely +aside from the point.</p> + +<p>* [Bartolus de Saxoferrato (1314-1357) the most famous of the Post-glossators, +was called by many of his biographers ‘Optimus auriga in hac civili +sapientia’.]</p> + +<p>† [The celebrated Italian jurist (?-1420 or 1437) of whom Cujas said: “Si +vous n’avez pas Paul de Castro, vendez votre chemise pour l’acheter.” (Note from +page 55 of the French translation of Grotius by de Grandpont.)]</p> + +<p>It is not true then that such prescription rises even at a +time beyond the period of the memory of man. For since +the law absolutely denies all prescription, not even immemorial +time has any effect on the question; that is, as +Felinus<a id="FNanchor_121" href="#Footnote_121" class="fnanchor">[121]</a> says, things imprescriptible by nature do not become +prescriptible by the mere efflux of immemorial time. +Balbus admits the truth of these arguments,<a id="FNanchor_122" href="#Footnote_122" class="fnanchor">[122]</a> but says that +the opinion of Angeli is to be accepted on the ground that +time immemorial is believed to have the same validity as +prerogative for setting up a title, since a perfect title is +presumed from such efflux of time. Hence it appears that +the jurists thought if some part of a state, say of the Roman +empire for example, at a period before the memory of man +had exercised such a right, that a title by prescription would</p> + </div> + + +<hr class="page x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_50"></a>[50]</span></p> + + <div class="textcol" lang="la"> +<p class="noindent">concessio praeiisset. Quare cum nemo sit dominus totius +generis humani, qui ius illud adversus homines omnes homini, +aut populo alicui potuisset concedere, sublato illo colore, +necesse est etiam praescriptionem interimi. Et sic ex illorum +etiam sententia inter reges aut populos liberos prodesse +nihil potest lapsus infiniti temporis.</p> + +<p>Vanissimum autem et illud est quod Angelus docuit, +etiamsi ad dominium praescriptio proficere non potest, tamen +dandam esse possidenti exceptionem. Nam Papinianus +disertis verbis exceptionem negat:<a id="FNanchor_123a" href="#Footnote_123a" class="fnanchor">[123a]</a> et aliter non potuit sentire, +cum ipsius saeculo praescriptio nihil esset aliud quam +exceptio. Verum igitur est quod et leges Hispanicae exprimunt<a id="FNanchor_124a" href="#Footnote_124a" class="fnanchor">[124a]</a> +in his rebus quae communi hominum usui sunt +attributae, nullius omnino temporis praescriptionem procedere, +cuius definitionis illa praeter ceteras ratio reddi potest, +quod qui re communi utitur, ut communi uti videtur, non +autem iure proprio, et ita praescribere non magis quam fructuarius +potest vitio possessionis.<a id="FNanchor_125a" href="#Footnote_125a" class="fnanchor">[125a]</a></p> + +<p>Altera haec etiam non contemnenda est, quod in praescriptione +temporis cuius memoria non exstat, quamvis titulus +et bona fides praesumantur, tamen si re ipsa appareat titulum +omnino nullum dari posse, et sic manifesta sit fides mala, +quae in populo maxime quasi uno corpore perpetua esse</p> + </div> + + <div class="textcol"> +<div class="chapter"></div> + +<p class="noindent">have to be admitted on that ground, exactly as if there had +been a previous grant from a Prince. But inasmuch as +there is no one who is sovereign of the whole human race +with competence to grant to any man or to any nation such +a right against all other men, with the annihilation of that +pretext, title by prescription is also necessarily destroyed. +Therefore the opinion of the jurists is that not even an infinite +lapse of time is able to set up a right as between kings +or independent nations.</p> + +<p>Moreover Angeli brought forward a most foolish argument, +affirming that even if prescription could not create +ownership, still an exception ought to be made in favor of +a possessor. Papinian however in unmistakable words says +there is no exception,<a id="FNanchor_123" href="#Footnote_123" class="fnanchor">[123]</a> nor could he think otherwise, because +in his day prescription was itself an exception. It is therefore +true, as expressed also in the laws of Spain,<a id="FNanchor_124" href="#Footnote_124" class="fnanchor">[124]</a> that prescription +based on no matter how immemorial a time, sets +up no title to those things which are recognized as common +to the use of mankind. One reason among others which +can be given for this definition is that any one who uses a +<i lang="la">res communis</i> does so evidently by virtue of common and +not private right, and because of the imperfect character of +possession he can therefore no more set up a legal title by +prescription than can a usufructuary.<a id="FNanchor_125" href="#Footnote_125" class="fnanchor">[125]</a></p> + +<p>A second reason not to be overlooked is that although a +title and good faith are presumed in a prescriptive right +created by the efflux of immemorial time, nevertheless if +it appears from the nature of the thing itself that no title +at all can be established, and if thus there becomes evident +bad faith—a thing held to be permanent in a nation as well +as in an individual—then prescription fails because of a</p> + </div> + + +<hr class="page x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_51"></a>[51]</span></p> + + <div class="textcol" lang="la"> +<p class="noindent">censetur, et ex duplici defectu praescriptio corruit.<a id="FNanchor_126a" href="#Footnote_126a" class="fnanchor">[126a]</a> Tertia +vero, quia res haec est merae facultatis, quae non praescribitur, +ut infra demonstrabimus.</p> + +<p>Sed nullus est finis argutiarum. Inventi sunt qui in hoc +argumento a praescriptione consuetudinem distinguerent, ut +illa scilicet exclusi, ad hanc confugerent. Discrimen autem +quod hic statuunt sane ridiculum est: ex praescriptione aiunt +ius unius quod ab eo aufertur alteri applicari;<a id="FNanchor_127a" href="#Footnote_127a" class="fnanchor">[127a]</a> sed cum aliquod +ius ita alicui applicatur ut alteri non auferatur, tum +dici consuetudinem; quasi vero cum ius navigandi quod communiter +ad omnes pertinet, exclusis aliis ab uno usurpatur, +non necesse sit omnibus perire quantum uni accedit. Errori +huic ansam dederunt Pauli verba non recte accepta, qui cum +de iure proprio maris ad aliquem pertinente loqueretur,<a id="FNanchor_128a" href="#Footnote_128a" class="fnanchor">[128a]</a> +fieri hoc posse dixit Accursius per privilegium aut consuetudinem: +quod additamentum ad Iurisconsulti textum nullo +modo accedens mali potius coniectoris esse videtur quam boni +interpretis. Mens Pauli supra explicata est. Ceterum illi +si vel sola Vlpiani verba,<a id="FNanchor_129a" href="#Footnote_129a" class="fnanchor">[129a]</a> quae paulo ante praecedunt, satis +considerassent, longe aliud dicturi erant. Fatetur enim ut +quis ante aedes meas piscari prohibeatur, esse quidem</p> + </div> + + <div class="textcol"> +<div class="chapter"></div> + +<p class="noindent">double defect.<a id="FNanchor_126" href="#Footnote_126" class="fnanchor">[126]</a> Also a third reason is that we have under +consideration a merely facultative right which is not prescriptible, +as we shall show below.*</p> + +<p>* [See <a href="#CHAPTER_XI">chapter XI</a>.]</p> + +<p>But there is no end to their subtilties. There are jurists +who in this case would distinguish custom from prescription, +so that if they are debarred from the one, they may fall +back upon the other. But the distinction which they set up +is most absurd. They say that the right of one person +which is taken away from him is given to another by prescription;<a id="FNanchor_127" href="#Footnote_127" class="fnanchor">[127]</a> +but that when any right is given to any one in +such a way that it is not taken away from any one else, +then it is called custom. As if indeed the right of +navigation, which is common to all, upon being usurped +by some one to the exclusion of all others, would not +necessarily when it became the property of one be lost +to all!</p> + +<p>This error receives support from misinterpretation of +what Paulus has to say about a private right of possession +on the sea.<a id="FNanchor_128" href="#Footnote_128" class="fnanchor">[128]</a> Accursius† said that such a right could be acquired +by privilege or custom. But this addition which in +no way agrees with the text of the jurist seems to be rather +the interpretation of a mischievous guesser than of a faithful +interpreter. The real meaning of the words of Paulus +has been already explained. Besides, if more careful consideration +had been given to the words of Ulpian<a id="FNanchor_129" href="#Footnote_129" class="fnanchor">[129]</a> which +almost immediately precede those of Paulus, a very different +assertion would have been made. For Ulpian acknowledges +that if any one is prohibited from fishing in front of</p> + </div> + + +<hr class="page x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_52"></a>[52]</span></p> + + <div class="textcol" lang="la"> +<p class="noindent">usurpatum;<a id="FNanchor_130a" href="#Footnote_130a" class="fnanchor">[130a]</a> hoc est receptum consuetudine, sed nullo iure, +ideoque iniuriarum actionem prohibito non denegandam.</p> + +<p>Contemnit igitur hunc morem, et usurpationem vocat, ut +et inter Christianos Doctores Ambrosius.<a id="FNanchor_131a" href="#Footnote_131a" class="fnanchor">[131a]</a> Et merito. Quid +enim clarius quam non valere consuetudinem, quae iuri +naturae, aut gentium ex adverso opponitur?<a id="FNanchor_132a" href="#Footnote_132a" class="fnanchor">[132a]</a> Consuetudo +enim species est iuris positivi, quod legi perpetuae obrogare +non potest. Est autem lex illa perpetua ut Mare omnibus +usu commune sit. Quod autem in praescriptione diximus, +idem in consuetudine verum est, si quis eorum qui diversum +tradiderunt sensus excutiat, non aliud reperturum, quam +consuetudinem privilegio parari. Atqui adversus genus +humanum concedendi privilegium nemo habet potestatem; +quare inter diversas respublicas consuetudo ista vim non +habet.</p> + +<p>Verum omnem hanc quaestionem diligentissime tractavit +Vasquius,<a id="FNanchor_133a" href="#Footnote_133a" class="fnanchor">[133a]</a> decus illud Hispaniae, cuius nec in explorando +iure subtilitatem, nec in docendo libertatem umquam desideres. +Is igitur posita thesi: ‘Loca publica et iure gentium +communia praescribi non posse’, quam multis firmat auctoribus; +exceptiones deinde subiungit ab Angelo et aliis confictas, +quas supra retulimus. Haec autem examinaturus recte +iudicat istarum rerum veritatem pendere a vera iuris, tam +naturae quam gentium cognitione. Ius enim naturae cum a</p> + </div> + + <div class="textcol"> +<div class="chapter"></div> + +<p class="noindent">my house, such prohibition is a usurpation of right,<a id="FNanchor_130" href="#Footnote_130" class="fnanchor">[130]</a> allowed, +it is true, by custom, but based on no law, and that an action +for damages could not be denied the person thus prohibited +from fishing.</p> + +<p>† [Franciscus (?) Accursius (?-1259) (a pupil of the famous Monarcha +juris Azzo), with whose name the Glossa Magna is almost synonymous. He was +called Advocatorum Idolum.]</p> + +<p>He therefore condemns this practice, and calls it a +usurpation; of the Christian jurists Ambrose<a id="FNanchor_131" href="#Footnote_131" class="fnanchor">[131]</a> does likewise, +and both are right. For what is clearer than that custom +is not valid when it is diametrically opposed to the law of +nature or of nations?<a id="FNanchor_132" href="#Footnote_132" class="fnanchor">[132]</a> Indeed, custom is a sort of affirmative +right, which cannot invalidate general or universal law. +And it is a universal law that the sea and its use is common +to all. Moreover what we have said about prescription +applies with equal truth and force to custom; and if any +one should investigate the opinions of those who have differed +upon this matter, he would find no other opinion +but that custom is established by privilege. No one has +the power to confer a privilege which is prejudicial to the +rights of the human race; wherefore such a custom has no +force as between different states.</p> + +<p>This entire question however has been most thoroughly +treated by Vasquez,<a id="FNanchor_133" href="#Footnote_133" class="fnanchor">[133]</a> that glory of Spain, who leaves nothing +ever to be desired when it comes to subtle examination +of the law or to the exposition of the principles of liberty. +He lays down this thesis: ‘Places public and common to all +by the law of nations cannot become objects of prescription’. +This thesis he supports by many authorities, and then he +subjoins the objections fabricated by Angeli and others, +which we have enumerated above. But before examining +these objections he makes the just and reasonable statement +that the truth of all these matters depends upon a true conception +both of the law of nature and the law of nations.</p> + </div> + + +<hr class="page x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_53"></a>[53]</span></p> + + <div class="textcol" lang="la"> +<p class="noindent">divina veniat providentia, esse immutabile. Huius autem +iuris naturalis partem esse ius gentium, primaevum quod +dicitur, diversum a iure gentium secundario sive positivo, +quorum posterius mutari potest. Nam si qui mores cum iure +gentium primaevo repugnent, hi non humani sunt ipso iudice, +sed FERINI, corruptelae et abusus, non leges et usus. +Itaque nullo tempore praescribi potuerunt, nulla lata lege +iustificari, nullo multarum etiam gentium consensu, hospitio, +et exercitatione stabiliri, quod exemplis aliquot et Alphonsi +Castrensis Theologi Hispani testimonio confirmat.<a id="FNanchor_134a" href="#Footnote_134a" class="fnanchor">[134a]</a></p> + +<p>‘Ex quibus apparet’, inquit, ‘quam suspecta sit sententia +eorum, quos supra retulimus, existimantium Genuenses, aut +etiam Venetos posse non iniuria prohibere alios navigare per +Gulfum aut pelagus sui maris, quasi aequora ipsa praescripserint, +id quod non solum est contra leges,<a id="FNanchor_135a" href="#Footnote_135a" class="fnanchor">[135a]</a> sed etiam est contra +ipsum ius naturae, aut gentium primaevum, quod mutari +non posse diximus. Quod sit contra illud ius constat, quia +non solum maria aut aequora eo iure communia erant sed +etiam reliquae omnes res immobiles. Et licet ab eo iure +postea recessum fuerit ex parte, puta quoad dominium et +proprietatem terrarum, quarum dominium iure Naturae commune, +distinctum et divisum, sicque ab illa communione segregatum +fuit; tamen<a id="FNanchor_136a" href="#Footnote_136a" class="fnanchor">[136a]</a> diversum fuit et est in dominio maris,</p> + </div> + + <div class="textcol"> +<div class="chapter"></div> + +<p class="noindent">For, since the law of nature arises out of Divine Providence, +it is immutable; but a part of this natural law is the primary +or primitive law of nations, differing from the secondary or +positive law of nations, which is mutable. For if there are +customs incompatible with the primary law of nations, then, +according to the judgment of Vasquez, they are not customs +belonging to men, but to wild beasts, customs which are +corruptions and abuses; not laws and usages. Therefore +those customs cannot become prescriptions by mere lapse +of time, cannot be justified by the passage of any law, cannot +be established by the consent, the protection, or the +practice even of many nations. These statements he confirms +by a number of examples, and particularly by the +testimony of Alphonse de Castro<a id="FNanchor_134" href="#Footnote_134" class="fnanchor">[134]</a> the Spanish theologian.</p> + +<p>‘It is evident therefore’, he says, ‘how much to be suspected +is the opinion of those persons mentioned above, who +think that the Genoese or the Venetians can without injustice +prohibit other nations from navigating the gulfs or bays +of their respective seas, as if they had a prescriptive right to +the very water itself. Such an act is not only contrary to +the laws,<a id="FNanchor_135" href="#Footnote_135" class="fnanchor">[135]</a> but is contrary also to natural law or the primary +law of nations, which we have said is immutable. And this +is seen to be true because by that same law not only the seas +or waters, but also all other immovables were <i lang="la">res communes</i>. +And although in later times there was a partial abandonment +of that law, in so far as concerns sovereignty and +ownership of lands—which by natural law at first were +held in common, then distinguished and divided, and thus +finally separated from the primitive community of use;—nevertheless<a id="FNanchor_136" href="#Footnote_136" class="fnanchor">[136]</a> +it was different as regards sovereignty over the +sea, which from the beginning of the world down to this</p> + </div> + + +<hr class="page x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_54"></a>[54]</span></p> + + <div class="textcol" lang="la"> +<p class="noindent">quod ab origine Mundi, ad hodiernum usque diem est, fuitque +semper in communi, nulla ex parte immutatum, ut est +notum’.</p> + +<p>‘Et quamvis ex LVSITANIS magnam turbam saepe +audiverim in hac esse opinione ut eorum Rex ita praescripserit +navigationem INDICI Occidentalis (forte Orientalis) +eiusdemque VASTISSIMI MARIS, ita ut reliquis gentibus +aequora illa transfretare non liceat, et ex nostrismet HISPANIS +VVLGVS in eadem opinione fere esse videtur, ut +per VASTISSIMVM IMMENSVMQVE PONTVM ad +Indorum regiones quas potentissimi Reges nostri subegerunt +reliquis mortalium navigare praeterquam Hispanis ius +minime sit, quasi ab eis id ius praescriptum fuerit, tamen +istorum omnium non minus INSANAE sunt opiniones, +quam eorum qui quoad Genuenses et Venetos in eodem fere +SOMNIO esse adsolent, quas sententias INEPTIRE vel +ex eo dilucidius apparet, quod istarum nationum singulae +contra seipsas nequeunt praescribere: hoc est, non respublica +Venetiarum contra semetipsam, non respublica Genuensium +contra semetipsam, non Regnum Hispanicum contra semetipsum, +non Regnum Lusitanicum contra semetipsum.<a id="FNanchor_137a" href="#Footnote_137a" class="fnanchor">[137a]</a> Esse +enim debet differentia inter agentem et patientem’.</p> + +<p>‘Contra reliquas vero nationes longe minus praescribere +possunt, quia ius praescriptionum est mere civile, ut fuse +ostendimus supra. Ergo tale ius cessat cum agitur inter +principes vel populos, superiorem non recognoscentes in temporalibus. +Iura enim mere civilia cuiuscumque regionis,</p> + </div> + + <div class="textcol"> +<div class="chapter"></div> + +<p class="noindent">very day is and always has been a <i lang="la">res communis</i>, and which, +as is well known, has in no wise changed from that status.</p> + +<p>‘And although’, he continues, ‘I have often heard that +a great many Portuguese believe that their king has a prescriptive +right over the navigation of the vast seas of the +West Indies (probably the East Indies too) such that other +nations are not allowed to traverse those waters; and although +the common people among our own Spaniards seem +to be of the same opinion, namely, that absolutely no one +in the world except us Spaniards ourselves has the least +right to navigate the great and immense sea which stretches +to the regions of the Indies once subdued by our most powerful +kings, as if that right has been ours alone by prescription; +although, I repeat, I have heard both these things, +nevertheless the belief of all those people is no less extravagantly +foolish than that of those who are always cherishing +the same delusions with respect to the Genoese and Venetians. +Indeed the opinions of them all appear the more +manifestly absurd, because no one of those nations can +erect a prescription against itself; that is to say, not the +Venetian republic, nor the Genoese republic, nor the kingdom +of Spain nor of Portugal can raise prescriptions against +rights they already possess by nature.<a id="FNanchor_137" href="#Footnote_137" class="fnanchor">[137]</a> For the one who +claims a prescriptive right and the one who suffers by the +establishment of such a claim must not be one and the same +person.</p> + +<p>‘Against other nations they are even much less competent +to raise a prescription, because the right of prescription +is only a municipal right, as we have shown above at +some length. Therefore such a right ceases to have any +effect as between rulers or nations who do not recognize a +superior in the temporal domain. For so far as the merely +municipal laws of any place are concerned, they do not</p> + </div> + + +<hr class="page x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_55"></a>[55]</span></p> + + <div class="textcol" lang="la"> +<p class="noindent">quoad exteros populos, nationes, vel etiam homines singulos, +non magis sunt in consideratione, quam si re vera esset tale +ius, aut numquam fuisset, et ad ius commune gentium primaevum +vel secundarium recurrendum est, eoque utendum, +quo iure talem maris praescriptionem et usurpationem admissam +non fuisse satis constat. Nam, et hodie usus aquarum +communis est, non secus quam erat ab origine Mundi. Ergo +et in aequoribus et aquis nullum ius est aut esse potest humano +generi, praeterquam quoad usum communem. Praeterea +de iure naturali et divino est illud praeceptum, ut <em>Quod +tibi non vis fieri, alteri non facias</em>. Vnde cum navigatio nemini +possit esse nociva nisi ipsi naviganti, par est ut nemini possit, +aut debeat impediri, ne in re sua natura libera, sibique minime +noxia navigantium libertatem impediat, et laedat contra dictum +praeceptum et contra regulam praesertim cum omnia +intelligantur esse permissa, quae non reperiuntur expressim +prohibita.<a id="FNanchor_138a" href="#Footnote_138a" class="fnanchor">[138a]</a> Quinimo non solum contra ius naturale esset, +velle impedire talem navigationem, sed etiam tenemur contrarium +facere, hoc est, prodesse iis quibus possumus, cum id +sine damno nostro fieri potest’.</p> + +<p>Quod cum multis auctoritatibus tam divinis quam humanis +confirmasset, subiungit postea:<a id="FNanchor_139a" href="#Footnote_139a" class="fnanchor">[139a]</a> ‘Ex superioribus +etiam apparet suspectam esse sententiam Iohannis Fabri, +Angeli, Baldi, et Francisci Balbi, quos supra retulimus, existimantium +loca iuris gentium communia, et si acquiri non +possint praescriptione, posse tamen acquiri consuetudine,</p> + </div> + + <div class="textcol"> +<div class="chapter"></div> + +<p class="noindent">affect foreign peoples, nations, or even individuals, any +more than if they did not exist or never had existed. Therefore +it was necessary to have recourse to the common law +of nations, primary as well as secondary, and to use a law +which clearly had not admitted any such prescription and +usurpation of the sea. For today the use of the waters is +common, exactly as it has been since the creation of the +world. Therefore no man has a right nor can acquire a +right over the seas and waters which would be prejudicial +to their common use. Besides, there is both in natural and +divine law that famous rule: ‘Whatsoever ye would that +men should not do to you, do not ye even so to them’. +Hence it follows, since navigation cannot harm any one +except the navigator himself, it is only just that no one +either can or ought to be interdicted therefrom, lest nature, +free in her own realm, and least hurtful to herself, be found +impeding the liberty of navigation, and thus offending +against the accepted precept and rule that all things are +supposed to be permitted which are not found expressly +forbidden.<a id="FNanchor_138" href="#Footnote_138" class="fnanchor">[138]</a> Besides, not only would it be contrary to natural +law to wish to prevent such free navigation, but we are +even bound to do the opposite, that is, bound to assist such +navigation in whatever way we can, when it can be done +without any prejudice to ourselves’.</p> + +<p>After Vasquez had established his point by the help of +many authorities both human and divine, he added:<a id="FNanchor_139" href="#Footnote_139" class="fnanchor">[139]</a> ‘It +appears then, from what has gone before that the opinion +held by Johannes Faber, Angeli, Baldus, and Franciscus +Balbus, whom we have cited above, is not to be trusted, because +they think that places common by the law of nations, +even if not open to acquisition by prescription, can nevertheless +be acquired by custom; but this is entirely false, and</p> + </div> + + +<hr class="page x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_56"></a>[56]</span></p> + + <div class="textcol" lang="la"> +<p class="noindent">quod omnino FALSVM est, eaque traditio CAECA ET +NVBILA est, OMNIQVE RATIONIS LVMINE +CARENS, legemque verbis non rebus imponens.<a id="FNanchor_140a" href="#Footnote_140a" class="fnanchor">[140a]</a> In exemplis +enim de Mari Hispanorum, LVSITANORVM, +Venetorum, Genuensium, et reliquorum, constat consuetudine +ius tale navigandi, et alios navigare prohibendi non +magis acquiri quam praescriptione.<a id="FNanchor_141a" href="#Footnote_141a" class="fnanchor">[141a]</a> Vtroque enim casu ut +apparet, eadem est ratio. Et quia per iura et rationes supra +relatas id esset contra naturalem aequitatem, nec ullam +induceret utilitatem, sed solam laesionem, sicque ut lege expressa +introduci non possent, ita etiam nec lege tacita, qualis +est consuetudo.<a id="FNanchor_142a" href="#Footnote_142a" class="fnanchor">[142a]</a> Et tempore id non iustificaretur, sed potius +deterius et iniurius in dies fieret’.</p> + +<p>Ostendit deinde ex prima terrarum occupatione posse +populo ut venandi ius, ita piscandi in suo flumine competere, +et postquam illa semel ab antiqua communione separata +sunt, ita ut particularem applicationem admittant, praescriptione +temporis eius, cuius initi memoria non exstet, quasi +tacita populi concessione acquiri posse. Hoc autem per praescriptionem +contingere, non per consuetudinem, quia solius +aequirentis condicio melior fiat, reliquorum vero deterior. Et +cum tria enumerasset quae requiruntur, ut ius proprium in +flumine piscandi praescribatur:</p> + +<p>‘Quid autem’, subdit, ‘quoad mare? Et in eo magis est</p> + </div> + + <div class="textcol"> +<div class="chapter"></div> + +<p class="noindent">is a teaching which is both obscure and vague, which lacks +the faintest glimmer of reasonableness, and which sets up a +law in word but not in fact.<a id="FNanchor_140" href="#Footnote_140" class="fnanchor">[140]</a> For it is well established from +the examples taken from the seas of the Spaniards, Portuguese, +Venetians, Genoese, and others, that an exclusive +right of navigation and a right of prohibiting others from +navigation is no more to be acquired by custom than by +prescription.<a id="FNanchor_141" href="#Footnote_141" class="fnanchor">[141]</a> And it is apparent that the reason is the +same in both cases. And since according to the laws and +reasons adduced above this would be contrary to natural +equity and would not bring benefit but only injury, therefore +as it could not be introduced by an express law, neither +could it be introduced by a tacit or implied law, and that +is what custom is.<a id="FNanchor_142" href="#Footnote_142" class="fnanchor">[142]</a> And far from justifying itself by any +lapse of time, it rather becomes worse, and every day more +injurious’.</p> + +<p>Vasquez next shows that from the time of the earliest +occupation of the earth every people possessed the right +of hunting in its own territory, and of fishing in its own +rivers. After those rights were once separated from the +ancient community of rights in such a way that they admitted +of particular attachments, they could be acquired +by prescription based upon such an efflux of time that “the +memory of its beginning does not exist,” as if by the +tacit permission of a nation. This comes about, however, +by prescription and not by custom, because only the condition +of him who acquires is bettered, while that of all other +persons is made worse. Then after Vasquez had enumerated +three conditions which are requisite in order that a private +right of fishing in a river may become a right by prescription, +he continues as follows:</p> + +<p>‘But what are we to say as regards the sea? There is</p> + </div> + + +<hr class="page x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_57"></a>[57]</span></p> + + <div class="textcol" lang="la"> +<p class="noindent">quod etiam concursus istorum trium non sufficeret ad acquirendum +ius. Ratio differentiae inter mare ex una parte, +et terram et flumina ex altera, quia illo casu ut olim ita et +hodie, et semper, tam quoad piscandum quam quoad navigandum +mansit integrum ius gentium primaevum, neque +umquam fuit a communione hominum separatum, et alicui, +vel aliquibus applicatum. Posteriore autem casu, nempe in +terra vel fluminibus aliud fuit, ut iam disseruimus’.</p> + +<p>‘Sed quare ius gentium secundarium, ut eam separationem +quoad terras et flumina facit, quoad mare facere +desiit? respondeo, quia illo casu expediebat. Constat enim +quod si multi venentur, aut piscentur in terra vel flumine, +facile nemus feris, et flumen piscibus evacuatum redditur, +id quod in mari non est. Item fluminum navigatio facile +deterior fit et impeditur per aedificia, quod in mari non est. +Item per aquaeductus facile evacuatur flumen, non ita in +mari;<a id="FNanchor_143a" href="#Footnote_143a" class="fnanchor">[143a]</a> ergo in utroque non est par ratio’.</p> + +<p>‘Nec ad rem pertinet, quod supra diximus, communem +esse usum aquarum, fontium etiam et fluminum. Nam intelligitur +quoad bibendum et similia, quae fluminis dominium +aut ius habenti vel minime vel levissime nocent.<a id="FNanchor_144a" href="#Footnote_144a" class="fnanchor">[144a]</a> Minima +enim in consideratione non sunt. Pro nostris sententiis facit, +quia iniqua nullo tempore praescribuntur, et ideo lex iniqua +nullo tempore praescribitur, aut iustificatur’. Mox: ‘Et</p> + </div> + + <div class="textcol"> +<div class="chapter"></div> + +<p class="noindent">more to say about it, because even the combination of the +three conditions mentioned is not sufficient here for the acquisition +of such a right. The reason for the difference between +the sea on one hand and land and rivers on the other, +is that in the case of the sea the same primitive right of +nations regarding fishing and navigation which existed in +the earliest times, still today exists undiminished and always +will, and because that right was never separated from the +community right of all mankind, and attached to any person +or group of persons. But in the latter case, that of the land +and rivers, it was different, as we have already set forth.</p> + +<p>‘But why, it is asked, does the secondary law of nations +which brings about this separation when we consider lands +and rivers cease to operate in the same way when we consider +the sea? I reply, because in the former case it was +expedient and necessary. For every one admits that if a +great many persons hunt on the land or fish in a river, +the forest is easily exhausted of wild animals and the river +of fish, but such a contingency is impossible in the case +of the sea. Again, the navigation of rivers is easily lessened +and impeded by constructions placed therein, but this is not +true of the sea. Again, a river is easily emptied by means +of aqueducts but the sea cannot be emptied by any such +means.<a id="FNanchor_143" href="#Footnote_143" class="fnanchor">[143]</a> Therefore there is not equal reason on both sides.</p> + +<p>‘Neither does what we have said above about the common +use of waters, springs, and rivers, apply in this case, +for common use is recognized in them all for purposes of +drinking and the like, such usages namely as do not injure +at all or in the slightest degree him who owns a river or +has some other right in one.<a id="FNanchor_144" href="#Footnote_144" class="fnanchor">[144]</a> These are trifles for which we +have no time. What makes for our contention is the fact +that no lapse of time will give a prescriptive right to anything +unjust. Therefore an unjust law is not capable of</p> + </div> + + +<hr class="page x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_58"></a>[58]</span></p> + + <div class="textcol" lang="la"> +<p class="noindent">quae sunt impraescriptibilia ex legis dispositione, nec per +mille annos praescriberentur’; quod innumeris doctorum +testimoniis fulcit.<a id="FNanchor_145a" href="#Footnote_145a" class="fnanchor">[145a]</a></p> + +<p>Nemo iam non videt, ad usum rei communis intercipiendum +nullam quantivis temporis usurpationem prodesse. Cui +adiungendum est etiam eorum qui dissentiunt auctoritatem +huic quaestioni non posse accommodari. Illi enim de Mediterraneo +loquuntur, nos de Oceano; illi de sinu, nos de immenso +mari, quae in ratione occupationis plurimum differunt. +Et quibus illi indulgent praescriptionem, illi litora mari continua +possident, ut Veneti et Genuenses, quod de Lusitanis +dici non posse modo patuit.</p> + +<p>Immo et si prodesse posset tempus, ut quidam posse +putant in publicis quae sunt, populi, tamen non ea adsunt +quae necessario requiruntur. Primum enim docent omnes +desiderari, ut is qui praescribit huiusmodi actum, eum exercuerit +non longo dumtaxat tempore, sed memoriam excedente; +deinde ut tanto tempore eundem actum nemo alius +exercuerit, nisi concessione illius, vel clandestine; praeterea +ut alios uti volentes prohibuerit, scientibus quidem et patientibus</p> + </div> + + <div class="textcol"> +<div class="chapter"></div> + +<p class="noindent">erecting a prescriptive right or of being justified by efflux of +time’. A little farther on Vasquez says: ‘Things which are +imprescriptible by the disposition of the law, may not become +objects of prescription even after the lapse of a thousand +years’. This statement he supports by countless citations +from the jurists.<a id="FNanchor_145" href="#Footnote_145" class="fnanchor">[145]</a></p> + +<p>Every one perceives that no usurpation no matter how +long continued is competent to intercept the use of a <i lang="la">res +communis</i>. And it must also be added, that the authority +of those who hold dissenting opinions cannot possibly be +applied to the question here at issue. For they are talking +about the Mediterranean, we are talking about the Ocean; +they speak of a gulf, we of the boundless sea; and from the +point of view of occupation these are wholly different things. +And too, those peoples, to whom the authorities just mentioned +concede prescription, the Venetians and Genoese for +example, possess a continuous shore line on the sea, but +it is clear that not even that kind of possession can be claimed +for the Portuguese.</p> + +<p>Further, even if mere lapse of time, as some think, could +establish a right by prescription over public property, still +the conditions absolutely indispensable for the creation of +such a right are in this case absent. The conditions demanded +are these: first, all jurists teach that he who sets +up a prescriptive right of this sort shall have been in actual +possession not only for a considerable period, but from time +immemorial; next, that during all that time no one else +shall have exercised the same right of possession unless by +permission of that possessor or clandestinely; besides that, +it is necessary that he shall have prevented other persons +wishing to use his possession from so doing, and that such +measures be a matter of common knowledge and done by +the suffrance of those concerned in the matter. For even if</p> + </div> + + +<hr class="page x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_59"></a>[59]</span></p> + + <div class="textcol" lang="la"> +<p class="noindent">iis ad quos ea res pertinebat; nam etsi exercuisset semper, +et quosdam exercere volentes prohibuisset semper, non +tamen omnes, quia alii fuerunt prohibiti, alii vero libere +exercuerunt, id quidem non sufficeret, ex Doctorum sententia.</p> + +<p>Apparet autem debere haec omnia concurrere, tum quia +praescriptioni publicarum rerum lex inimica est, tum ut +videatur praescribens iure suo non autem communi usus, +idque non interrupta possessione.</p> + +<p>Cum autem tempus postulatur, cuius initi non exstet +memoria, non semper sufficit, ut optimi interpretes ostendunt, +probare saeculi lapsum; sed constare oportet famam rei a +maioribus ad nos transmissam, ita ut nemo supersit qui contrarium +viderit, aut audierit. Occasione rerum Africanarum +in ulteriora primum Oceani inquirere coeperunt regnante +Iohanne Lusitani,<a id="FNanchor_146a" href="#Footnote_146a" class="fnanchor">[146a]</a> anno salutis millesimo quadringentesimo +septuagesimo septimo. Viginti post annis sub Rege +Emanuele promontorium Bonae spei praeternavigatum est, +seriusque multo ventum Malaccam, et insulas remotiores, ad +quas Batavi navigare coeperunt anno millesimo quingentesimo +nonagesimo quinto, non dubie intra annum centesimum. +Iam vero etiam eo quod intercessit tempore aliorum +usurpatio adversus alios etiam omnes impedivit praescriptionem, +Castellani ab anno millesimo quingentesimo decime +nono possessionem Lusitanis maris circa Moluccas ambiguam</p> + </div> + + <div class="textcol"> +<div class="chapter"></div> + +<p class="noindent">he had continuously exercised his right of possession, and +had always prevented from using his possession <em>some</em> of +those who wished to do so, but not <em>all</em>; then, because <em>some</em> +had been prevented from exercising and <em>others</em> freely allowed +to exercise that use, that kind of possession according +to the opinion of the jurists, is not sufficient to establish +a right by prescription.</p> + +<p>It is clear therefore that all these conditions should be +present, both because law is opposed to the prescription of +public things, and in order that he who sets up such a +prescription may seem to have used his own private right, +not a public right, and that too by continuous possession.</p> + +<p>Now, inasmuch as time beyond the period of the memory +of man is demanded for the creation of a prescriptive right, +it is not always sufficient, as the best commentators point +out, to prove the lapse of a hundred years, but the tradition +handed down to us by our ancestors ought to be undisputed, +provided no one is left alive who has seen or heard anything +to the contrary. It was during the reign of King John,<a id="FNanchor_146" href="#Footnote_146" class="fnanchor">[146]</a> in +the year of our Lord 1477, at the time of the wars in Africa, +that the Portuguese began to push their discoveries first +into the more distant parts of the Ocean. Twenty years +later, during the reign of King Emmanuel, they rounded +the Cape of Good Hope, and somewhat later yet, reached +Malacca, and the islands beyond, the very islands, indeed, to +which the Dutch began to sail in the year 1595, that is, +well within a hundred years of the time that the Portuguese +first arrived. And in truth even in that interval, the usurpation +of rights there by other parties had interrupted the +competence of everybody else to create a prescriptive right. +For example, from the year 1519, the Spaniards rendered +the possession by the Portuguese of the sea around the +Moluccas a very uncertain one. Even the French and</p> + </div> + + +<hr class="page x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_60"></a>[60]</span></p> + + <div class="textcol" lang="la"> +<p class="noindent">fecere. Galli etiam et Angli non clanculum, sed via aperta +eo perruperunt. Praeterea accolae totius tractus Africani, +aut Asiatici partem maris quisque sibi proximam piscando +et navigando perpetuo usurparunt, numquam a Lusitanis +prohibiti.</p> + +<p>Conclusum igitur sit, ius nullum esse Lusitanis quo +aliam quamvis gentem a navigatione Oceani ad Indos prohibeant.</p> + </div> + + <div class="textcol"> +<div class="chapter"></div> + +<p class="noindent">English made their way to those newly discovered places +not secretly, but by force of arms. And besides these, the +inhabitants of the entire coast of Africa and Asia constantly +used for fishing and navigation that part of the sea +nearest their own several coasts, and were never interdicted +from such use by the Portuguese.</p> + +<p>The conclusion of the whole matter therefore is that the +Portuguese are in possession of no right whereby they may +interdict to any nation whatsoever the navigation of the +Ocean to the East Indies.</p> + </div> + + +<hr class="page x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_61"></a>[61]</span></p> + + <div class="textcol" lang="la"> +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CAPVT_VIII">CAPVT VIII</h2> + +<p class="center"><i>Iure gentium inter quosvis liberam +esse mercaturam</i></p> + +<p>Quod si dicant Lusitani cum Indis commercia exercendi +ius quoddam proprium ad se pertinere, eisdem fere omnibus +argumentis refellentur. Repetemus breviter et aptabimus.</p> + +<p>Iure Gentium hoc introductum est, ut cunctis hominibus +inter se libera esset negotiandi facultas, quae a nemine +posset adimi.<a id="FNanchor_147a" href="#Footnote_147a" class="fnanchor">[147a]</a> Et hoc, sicut post dominiorum distinctionem +continuo necessarium fuit, ita originem videri potest antiquiorem +habuisse. Subtiliter enim Aristoteles μεταβλητικὴν +dixit, ἀναπλήρωσιν τῆς κατὰ φύσιν αὐταρκείας,<a id="FNanchor_148a" href="#Footnote_148a" class="fnanchor">[148a]</a> hoc est, +negotiatione suppleri id quod naturae deest, quo commode +omnibus sufficiat. Oportet igitur communem esse iure +gentium non tantum privative, sed et positive, ut dicunt +magistri, sive affirmative.<a id="FNanchor_149a" href="#Footnote_149a" class="fnanchor">[149a]</a> Quae autem illo modo sunt iuris +gentium, mutari possunt: quae hoc modo, non possunt. Id +ita intelligi potest.</p> + +<p>Dederat natura omnia omnibus. Sed cum a rerum +multarum usu, quas vita desiderat humana, locorum intervallo +homines arcerentur, quia ut supra diximus, non omnia ubique</p> + </div> + + <div class="textcol"> +<div class="chapter"></div> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII</h2> + +<p class="center"><i>By the Law of Nations trade is free to all persons +whatsoever</i></p> + +<p>If however the Portuguese claim that they have an +exclusive right to trade with the East Indies, their claim +will be refuted by practically all the same arguments which +already have been brought forward. Nevertheless I shall +repeat them briefly, and apply them to this particular +claim.</p> + +<p>By the law of nations the principle was introduced that +the opportunity to engage in trade, of which no one can +be deprived,<a id="FNanchor_147" href="#Footnote_147" class="fnanchor">[147]</a> should be free to all men. This principle, +inasmuch as its application was straightway necessary after +the distinctions of private ownerships were made, can therefore +be seen to have had a very remote origin. Aristotle, +in a very clever phrase, in his work entitled the Politics,<a id="FNanchor_148" href="#Footnote_148" class="fnanchor">[148]</a> has +said that the art of exchange is a completion of the independence +which Nature requires. Therefore trade ought to +be common to all according to the law of nations, not only +in a negative but also in a positive, or as the jurists say, +affirmative sense.<a id="FNanchor_149" href="#Footnote_149" class="fnanchor">[149]</a> The things that come under the former +category are subject to change, those of the latter category +are not. This statement is to be explained in the following +way.</p> + +<p>Nature had given all things to all men. But since men +were prevented from using many things which were desirable +in every day life because they lived so far apart,</p> + </div> + + +<hr class="page x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_62"></a>[62]</span></p> + + <div class="textcol" lang="la"> +<p class="noindent">proveniunt, opus fuit traiectione; nec adhuc tamen permutatio +erat, sed aliis vicissim rebus apud alios repertis suo +arbitrio utebantur; quo fere modo apud Seres dicitur rebus +in solitudine relictis sola mutantium religione peragi commercium.<a id="FNanchor_150a" href="#Footnote_150a" class="fnanchor">[150a]</a></p> + +<p>Sed cum statim res mobiles monstrante necessitate, quae +modo explicata est, in ius proprium transissent, inventa +est permutatio, qua quod alteri deest ex eo quod alteri +superest suppleretur.<a id="FNanchor_151a" href="#Footnote_151a" class="fnanchor">[151a]</a> Ita commercia victus gratia inventa +ex Homero Plinius probat.<a id="FNanchor_152a" href="#Footnote_152a" class="fnanchor">[152a]</a> Postquam vero res etiam +immobiles in dominos distingui coeperunt, sublata undique +communio non inter homines locorum spatiis discretos tantum, +verum etiam inter vicinos necessarium fecit commercium; +quod ut facilius procederet, nummus postea adventus +est, dictus ἀπὸ τοῦ νόμου quod institutum sit civile.<a id="FNanchor_153a" href="#Footnote_153a" class="fnanchor">[153a]</a></p> + +<p>Ipsa igitur ratio omnium contractuum universalis, +ἡ μεταβλητική a natura est; modi autem aliquot singulares +ipsumque pretium, ἡ χρηματιστική ab instituto;<a id="FNanchor_154a" href="#Footnote_154a" class="fnanchor">[154a]</a> quae vetustiores +iuris interpretes non satis distinxerunt. Fatentur</p> + </div> + + <div class="textcol"> +<div class="chapter"></div> + +<p class="noindent">and because, as we have said above, everything was not +found everywhere, it was necessary to transport things from +one place to another; not that there was yet an interchange +of commodities, but that people were accustomed to make +reciprocal use of things found in one another’s territory +according to their own judgment. They say that trade +arose among the Chinese in about this way. Things were +deposited at places out in the desert and left to the good +faith and conscience of those who exchanged things of their +own for what they took.<a id="FNanchor_150" href="#Footnote_150" class="fnanchor">[150]</a></p> + +<p>But when movables passed into private ownership (a +change brought about by necessity, as has been explained +above), straightway there arose a method of exchange by +which the lack of one person was supplemented by that of +which another person had an over supply.<a id="FNanchor_151" href="#Footnote_151" class="fnanchor">[151]</a> Hence commerce +was born out of necessity for the commodities of life, +as Pliny shows by a citation from Homer.<a id="FNanchor_152" href="#Footnote_152" class="fnanchor">[152]</a> But after immovables +also began to be recognized as private property, +the consequent annihilation of universal community of use +made commerce a necessity not only between men whose +habitations were far apart but even between men who were +neighbors; and in order that trade might be carried on more +easily, somewhat later they invented money, which, as the +derivation of the word shows, is a civic institution.<a id="FNanchor_153" href="#Footnote_153" class="fnanchor">[153]</a></p> + +<p>Therefore the universal basis of all contracts, namely +exchange, is derived from nature; but some particular kinds +of exchange, and the money payment itself, are derived from +law;<a id="FNanchor_154" href="#Footnote_154" class="fnanchor">[154]</a> although the older commentators on the law have not +made this distinction sufficiently clear. Nevertheless all</p> + </div> + + +<hr class="page x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_63"></a>[63]</span></p> + + <div class="textcol" lang="la"> +<p class="noindent">tamen omnes proprietatem rerum, saltem mobilium a iure +gentium primario prodire, itemque contractus omnes quibus +pretium non accedit.<a id="FNanchor_155a" href="#Footnote_155a" class="fnanchor">[155a]</a> Philosophi<a id="FNanchor_156a" href="#Footnote_156a" class="fnanchor">[156a]</a> τῆς μεταβλητικῆς quam +translationem vertere licebit, genera statuunt duo: τὴν +ἐμπορικιὴν καὶ τὴν καπηλικήν quarum ἐμπορική quae ut vox +ipsa indicat inter gentes dissitas, ordine naturae prior est, et +sic a Platone ponitur.<a id="FNanchor_157a" href="#Footnote_157a" class="fnanchor">[157a]</a> Καπηλική eadem videtur esse quae +παράστασις<a id="FNanchor_158a" href="#Footnote_158a" class="fnanchor">[158a]</a> Aristoteli, tabernaria sive stataria negotiatio +inter cives. Idem Aristoteles<a id="FNanchor_159a" href="#Footnote_159a" class="fnanchor">[159a]</a> τὴν ἐμπορικήν dividit in +ναυκληρίαν et φορτηγίαν quarum haec terrestri itinere, illa +maritimo merces devehit. Sordidior autem est καπηλική +contra honestior ἐμπορική et maritima maxime, quia multa +multis impertit.<a id="FNanchor_160a" href="#Footnote_160a" class="fnanchor">[160a]</a></p> + +<p>Vnde navium exercitionem ad summam rempublicam +pertinere dicit Vlpianus; institorum non eundem esse usum; +quia illa omnino secundum naturam necessaria est. Aristoteles:<a id="FNanchor_161a" href="#Footnote_161a" class="fnanchor">[161a]</a> +ἔστι γὰρ ἡ μεταβλητικὴ πάντων, ἀρξαμένη τὸ μὲν +πρῶτον ἐκ τοῦ κατὰ φύσιν, τῷ τὰ μὲν πλείω, τὰ δὲ ἐλάττω +τῶν ἱκανῶν ἔχειν τοὺς ἀνθρώπους, ‘est enim translatio rerum +omnium coepta ab initio, ab eo quod est secundum naturam, +cum homines partim haberent plura, quam sufficerent, +partim etiam pauciora’. Seneca:<a id="FNanchor_162a" href="#Footnote_162a" class="fnanchor">[162a]</a> ‘quae emeris, vendere; +gentium ius est’.</p> + +<p>Commercandi igitur libertas ex iure est primario gentium,</p> + </div> + + <div class="textcol"> +<div class="chapter"></div> + +<p class="noindent">authorities agree that the ownership of things, particularly +of movables, arises out of the primary law of nations, and +that all contracts in which a price is not mentioned, are derived +from the same source.<a id="FNanchor_155" href="#Footnote_155" class="fnanchor">[155]</a> The philosophers<a id="FNanchor_156" href="#Footnote_156" class="fnanchor">[156]</a> distinguish +two kinds of exchange using Greek words which we shall +take the liberty to translate as ‘wholesale’ and ‘retail’ +trade. The former, as the Greek word shows, signifies +trade or exchange between widely separated nations, and it +ranks first in the order of Nature, as is shown in Plato’s +Republic.<a id="FNanchor_157" href="#Footnote_157" class="fnanchor">[157]</a> The latter seems to be the same kind of exchange +that Aristotle calls by another Greek word<a id="FNanchor_158" href="#Footnote_158" class="fnanchor">[158]</a> which +means retail or shop trade between citizens. Aristotle +makes a further division of wholesale trade into overland +and overseas trade.<a id="FNanchor_159" href="#Footnote_159" class="fnanchor">[159]</a> But of the two, retail trade is the more +petty and sordid, and wholesale the more honorable; but +most honorable of all is the wholesale overseas trade, because +it makes so many people sharers in so many things.<a id="FNanchor_160" href="#Footnote_160" class="fnanchor">[160]</a></p> + +<p>Hence Ulpian says that the maintenance of ships is the +highest duty of a state, because it is an absolutely natural +necessity, but that the maintenance of hucksters has not the +same value. In another place Aristotle says: “For the art +of exchange extends to all possessions, and it arises at first +in a natural manner from the circumstance that some have +too little, others too much.”<a id="FNanchor_161" href="#Footnote_161" class="fnanchor">[161]</a> And Seneca is also to be cited +in this connection for he has said that buying and selling is +the law of nations.<a id="FNanchor_162" href="#Footnote_162" class="fnanchor">[162]</a></p> + +<p>Therefore freedom of trade is based on a primitive right +of nations which has a natural and permanent cause; and</p> + </div> + + +<hr class="page x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_64"></a>[64]</span></p> + + <div class="textcol" lang="la"> +<p class="noindent">quod naturalem et perpetuam causam habet, ideoque +tolli non potest, et si posset non tamen posset nisi omnium +gentium consensu: tantum abest ut ullo modo gens aliqua +gentes duas inter se contrahere volentes iuste impediat.</p> + </div> + + <div class="textcol"> +<div class="chapter"></div> + +<p class="noindent">so that right cannot be destroyed, or at all events it may +not be destroyed except by the consent of all nations. For +surely no one nation may justly oppose in any way two nations +that desire to enter into a contract with each other.</p> + </div> + + +<hr class="page x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_65"></a>[65]</span></p> + + <div class="textcol" lang="la"> +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CAPVT_IX">CAPVT IX</h2> + +<p class="center"><i>Mercaturam cum Indis propriam non +esse Lusitanorum titulo +occupationis</i></p> + +<p>Primum inventio aut occupatio hic locum non habet, +quia ius mercandi non est aliquid corporale, quod possit +apprehendi; neque prodesset Lusitanis etiamsi primi hominum +cum Indis habuissent commercia, quod tamen non +potest non esse falsissimum. Nam et cum initio populi in +diversa iere, aliquos necesse est primos fuisse mercatores, +quos tamen ius nullum acquisivisse certo est certius. Quare +si Lusitanis ius aliquod competit, ut soli cum Indis negotientur, +id exemplo ceterarum servitutum, ex concessione +oriri debuit aut expressa aut tacita, hoc est praescriptione; +neque aliter potest.</p> + </div> + + <div class="textcol"> +<div class="chapter"></div> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX</h2> + +<p class="center"><i>Trade with the East Indies does not belong to the +Portuguese by title of occupation</i></p> + +<p>Neither discovery nor occupation [which have been +fully treated in Chapters II and V], is to be invoked on +the point here under consideration, because the right of +carrying on trade is not something corporal, which can be +physically seized; nor would discovery or occupation help +the case of the Portuguese even if they had been the very +first persons to trade with the East Indies, although such +a claim would be entirely untenable and false. For since +in the beginning peoples set out along different paths, it +was necessary that some become the first traders, nevertheless +it is absolutely certain that those traders did not +on that account acquire any rights. Wherefore if the Portuguese +have any right by virtue of which they <em>alone</em> may +trade with the East Indies, that right like other servitudes +ought to arise from concession, either express or tacit, that +is to say, from prescription. Otherwise no such right can +exist.</p> + </div> + + +<hr class="page x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_66"></a>[66]</span></p> + + <div class="textcol" lang="la"> +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CAPVT_X">CAPVT X</h2> + +<p class="center"><i>Mercaturam cum Indis propriam non esse +Lusitanorum titulo donationis +Pontificiae</i></p> + +<p>Concessit nemo, nisi forte Pontifex, qui non potuit.<a id="FNanchor_163a" href="#Footnote_163a" class="fnanchor">[163a]</a> +Nemo enim quod suum non est concedere potest. At Pontifex, +nisi totius Mundi temporalis sit Dominus, quod +negant sapientes, ius etiam commerciorum universale sui iuris +dicere non potest. Maxime vero cum res sit ad solum +quaestum accommodata, nihilque ad spiritualem procurationem +pertinens, extra quam cessat, ut fatentur omnes, Pontificia +potestas. Praeterea si Pontifex solis illud Lusitanis +ius tribuere vellet idemque adimere hominibus ceteris, duplicem +faceret iniuriam: Primum Indis, quos ut extra Ecclesiam +positos Pontifici nulla ex parte subditos esse diximus. +His igitur cum nihil quod ipsorum est adimere possit Pontifex, +etiam ius illud quod habent cum quibuslibet negotiandi +adimere non potuit. Deinde aliis hominibus omnibus Christianis +et non Christianis, quibus idem illud ius adimere non +potuit sine causa indicta. Quid quod ne temporales quidem +Domini in suis imperiis prohibere possunt commerciorum +libertatem, uti rationibus et auctoritatibus ante demonstratum +est?</p> + +<p>Sicut et illud confitendum est, contra ius perpetuum +naturae gentiumque, unde ista libertas originem sumpsit in +omne tempus duratura, nullam valere Pontificis auctoritatem.</p> + </div> + + <div class="textcol"> +<div class="chapter"></div> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_X">CHAPTER X</h2> + +<p class="center"><i>Trade with the East Indies does not belong to the Portuguese +by virtue of title based on the Papal +Donation</i></p> + +<p>No one has granted it except perhaps the Pope, and +he did not have the power.<a id="FNanchor_163" href="#Footnote_163" class="fnanchor">[163]</a> For no one can give away +what he does not himself possess. But the Pope, unless he +were the temporal master of the whole world, which sensible +men deny, cannot say that the universal right in respect +of trade belongs to him. Especially is this true since +trade has to do only with material gains, and has no concern +at all with spiritual matters, outside of which, as all +admit, Papal power ceases. Besides, if the Pope wished +to give that right to the Portuguese alone, and to deprive +all other men of the same right, he would be doing a double +injustice. In the first place, he would do an injustice to the +people of the East Indies who, placed as we have said +outside the Church, are in no way subjects of the Pope. +Therefore, since the Pope cannot take away from them +anything that is theirs, he could not take away their right +of trading with whomsoever they please. In the second +place, he would do an injustice to all other men both Christian +and non-Christian, from whom he could not take that +same right without a hearing. Besides, what are we to say +of the fact that not even temporal lords in their own dominions +are competent to prohibit the freedom of trade, as +has been demonstrated above by reasonable and authoritative +statements?</p> + +<p>Therefore it must be acknowledged, that the authority +of the Pope has absolutely no force against the eternal law +of nature and of nations, from whence came that liberty +which is destined to endure for ever and ever.</p> + </div> + + +<hr class="page x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_67"></a>[67]</span></p> + + <div class="textcol" lang="la"> +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CAPVT_XI">CAPVT XI</h2> + +<p class="center"><i>Mercaturam cum Indis non esse Lusitanorum +propriam iure praescriptionis aut +consuetudinis</i></p> + +<p>Restat praescriptio, seu consuetudinem mavis dicere.<a id="FNanchor_164a" href="#Footnote_164a" class="fnanchor">[164a]</a> +Sed nec huius nec illius vim esse aliquam inter liberas nationes, +aut diversarum gentium Principes, nec adversus ea +quae primigenio iure introducta sunt, cum Vasquio ostendimus. +Quare et hic ut ius mercandi proprium fiat, quod +proprietatis naturam non recipit, nullo tempore efficitur. +Itaque nec titulus hic adfuisse potest, nec bona fides, quae +cum manifesto desinit, praescriptio secundum Canones non +ius dicetur, sed iniuria.</p> + +<p>Quin et ipsa mercandi quasi possessio non ex iure proprio +contigisse videtur, sed ex iure communi quod ad omnes +aequaliter pertinet; sicut contra, quod aliae nationes cum +Indis contrahere forte neglexerunt, id non Lusitanorum +gratia fecisse existimandi sunt, sed quia sibi expedire crediderunt; +quod nihil obstat quo minus ubi suaserit utilitas, id +facere possint, quod antea non fecerint. Certissima enim +illa regula a doctoribus traditur,<a id="FNanchor_165a" href="#Footnote_165a" class="fnanchor">[165a]</a> in his quae sunt arbitrii +seu merae facultatis, ita ut per se actum tantum facultatis +eius, non autem ius novum operentur, nec praescriptionis +nec consuetudinis titulo annos etiam mille valituros: quod et</p> + </div> + + <div class="textcol"> +<div class="chapter"></div> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XI">CHAPTER XI</h2> + +<p class="center"><i>Trade with the East Indies does not belong to the Portuguese +by title of prescription or custom</i></p> + +<p>Last of all, prescription, or if you prefer the term, +custom.<a id="FNanchor_164" href="#Footnote_164" class="fnanchor">[164]</a> We have shown that according to Vasquez, +neither prescription nor custom had any force as between +free nations or the rulers of different peoples, or any force +against those principles which were introduced by primitive +law. And here as before, mere efflux of time does not bring +it to pass that the right of trade, which does not partake +of the nature of ownership, becomes a private possession. +Now in this case neither title nor good faith can be shown, +and inasmuch as good faith is clearly absent, according to +legal rules prescription will not be called a right, but an +injury.</p> + +<p>Nay, the very possession involved in trading seems not +to have arisen out of a private right, but out of a public +right which belongs equally to all; so on the other hand, +because nations perhaps neglected to trade with the East +Indies, it must not be presumed that they did so as a favor +to the Portuguese, but because they believed it to be to their +own best interests. But nothing stands in their way, when +once expediency shall have persuaded them, to prevent them +from doing what they had not previously done. For the +jurists<a id="FNanchor_165" href="#Footnote_165" class="fnanchor">[165]</a> have handed down as incontestable the principle that +where things arbitrable or facultative are such that they produce +nothing more than the facultative act <i lang="la">per se</i>, but do +not create a new right, that in all such cases not even a thousand +years will create a title by prescription or custom.</p> + </div> + + +<hr class="page x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_68"></a>[68]</span></p> + + <div class="textcol" lang="la"> +<p class="noindent">affirmative et negative procedit, ut docet Vasquius. Nec +enim quod libere feci facere cogor, nec quod non feci +omittere.</p> + +<p>Alioquin quid esset absurdius quam ex eo quod singuli +non possumus cum singulis semper contrahere, salvum +nobis in posterum non esse ius cum illis, si usus tulerit, contrahendi? +Idem Vasquius et illud rectissime, ne infinito +quidem tempore effici, ut quid necessitate potius, quam +sponte factum videatur.</p> + +<p>Probanda itaque Lusitanis foret coactio, quae tamen +ipsa cum hac in re iuri naturae sit contraria, et omni hominum +generi noxia, ius facere non potest.<a id="FNanchor_166a" href="#Footnote_166a" class="fnanchor">[166a]</a> Deinde illa +coactio durasse debuit per tempus, cuius initii non exstet +memoria; id vero tantum hinc abest, ut ne centum quidem +anni exierint, ex quo tota fere negotiatio Indica penes +Venetos fuit, per Alexandrinas traiectiones.<a id="FNanchor_167a" href="#Footnote_167a" class="fnanchor">[167a]</a> Debuit etiam +talis esse coactio, cui restitum non sit. At restiterunt Galli +et Angli, aliique. Neque sufficit aliquos esse coactos, sed ut +omnes coacti sint requiritur, cum per unum non coactum servetur +in causa communi libertatis possessio. Arabes autem +et Sinenses a saeculis aliquot ad hunc usque diem perpetuo +cum Indis negotiantur.</p> + +<p>Nihil prodest ista usurpatio.</p> + </div> + + <div class="textcol"> +<div class="chapter"></div> + +<p class="noindent">This, as Vasquez points out, acts both affirmatively and +negatively. For I am not compelled to do what I have +hitherto done of my own free will, nor am I compelled to +stop doing what I have never done.</p> + +<p>What moreover could be more absurd <ins class="corr" id="tn-68" title="Transcriber’s Note—Original text: 'more absurd then'"> +than</ins> to deduce +from the fact that we as individuals are not able always to +conclude a bargain with other individuals, that there is not +preserved to us for the future the right of bargaining with +them if opportunity shall have offered? The same Vasquez +has also most justly said that not even the lapse of infinite +time establishes a right which seems to have arisen from +necessity rather than choice.</p> + +<p>Therefore in order to establish a prescriptive right to +the trade with the East Indies the Portuguese would be +compelled to prove coercion. But since in such a case as this +coercion is contrary to the law of nature and obnoxious to +all mankind, it cannot establish a right.<a id="FNanchor_166" href="#Footnote_166" class="fnanchor">[166]</a> Next, that coercion +must needs have been in existence for so long a time that +“the memory of its beginning does not exist”; that, however, +is so far from being the case that not even a hundred +years had elapsed since the Venetians controlled nearly +the entire trade with the East Indies, carrying it via Alexandria.<a id="FNanchor_167" href="#Footnote_167" class="fnanchor">[167]</a> +Again, the coercion ought to have been such that +it was not resisted; but the English and the French and +other nations besides, did resist it. Finally, it is not sufficient +that <em>some</em> be coerced, but it is indispensable that <em>all</em> +be coerced, because the possession of freedom of trade is +preserved to all by a failure to use coercion upon even one +person. Moreover, the Arabians and the Chinese are at the +present day still carrying on with the people of the East +Indies a trade which has been uninterrupted for several +centuries.</p> + +<p>Portuguese usurpation is worthless.</p> + </div> + + +<hr class="page x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_69"></a>[69]</span></p> + + <div class="textcol" lang="la"> +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CAPVT_XII">CAPVT XII</h2> + +<p class="center"><i>Nulla aequitate niti Lusitanos in +prohibendo commercio</i></p> + +<p>Ex his quae dicta sunt satis perspicitur eorum caeca +aviditas, qui, ne quemquam in partem lucri admittant, illis +rationibus conscientiam suam placare student, quas ipsi +magistri Hispanorum qui in eadem sunt causa manifestae +vanitatis convincunt.<a id="FNanchor_168a" href="#Footnote_168a" class="fnanchor">[168a]</a> Omnes enim qui in rebus Indicis usurpantur +colores iniuste captari quantum ipsis licet, satis +innuunt, adduntque numquam eam rem serio Theologorum +examine probatam. Illa vero querela quid est iniquius, quod +dicunt Lusitani quaestus suos exhauriri copia contra licentium? +Inter certissima enim Iuris enuntiata est, nec in dolo +eum versari, nec fraudem facere, ne damnum quidem alteri +dare videri, qui iure suo utitur; quod maxime verum est, si non +ut alteri noceatur, sed rem suam augendi animo quippiam +fiat.<a id="FNanchor_169a" href="#Footnote_169a" class="fnanchor">[169a]</a> Inspici enim debet id quod principaliter agitur, non +quod extrinsecus in consequentiam venit. Immo si proprie +loquimur cum Vlpiano, non ille damnum dat, sed lucro quo +adhuc alter utebatur eum prohibet.</p> + +<p>Naturale autem est et summo iuri atque etiam aequitati</p> + </div> + + <div class="textcol"> +<div class="chapter"></div> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XII">CHAPTER XII</h2> + +<p class="center"><i>The Portuguese prohibition of trade has no foundation +in equity</i></p> + +<p>From what has been said thus far it is easy to see the +blind cupidity of those who in order not to admit any one +else to a share in their gains, strive to still their consciences +by the very arguments which the Spanish jurists, interested +too in the same case, show to be absolutely empty.<a id="FNanchor_168" href="#Footnote_168" class="fnanchor">[168]</a> For they +intimate as clearly as they can that as regards India all the +pretexts employed, are far fetched and unjust. They add +that this right was never seriously approved by the swarm +of theologians. Indeed, what is more unjust than the +complaint made by the Portuguese that their profits +are drained off by the number of their competitors? An +incontrovertible rule of law lays down that a man who +uses his own right is justly presumed to be contriving +neither a deceit nor a fraud, in fact not even to be doing any +one an injury. This is particularly true, if he has no intention +to harm any one, but only to increase his own property.<a id="FNanchor_169" href="#Footnote_169" class="fnanchor">[169]</a> +For what ought to be considered is the chief and ultimate +intent not the irrelevant consequence. Indeed, if we may +with propriety agree with Ulpian, he is not doing an injury, +but he is preventing some one from getting a profit which +another was previously enjoying.</p> + +<p>Moreover it is natural and conformable to the highest +law as well as equity, that when a gain open to all is concerned +every person prefers it for himself rather than for</p> + </div> + + +<hr class="page x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_70"></a>[70]</span></p> + + <div class="textcol" lang="la"> +<p class="noindent">conveniens, ut lucrum in medio positum suum quisque malit +quam alterius, etiam qui ante perceperat.<a id="FNanchor_170a" href="#Footnote_170a" class="fnanchor">[170a]</a> Quis ferat +querentem opificem quod alter eiusdem artis exercitio ipsius +commoda evertat? Batavorum autem causa eo est iustior, +quia ipsorum hac in parte utilitas cum totius humani generis +utilitate coniuncta est, quam Lusitani eversum eunt.<a id="FNanchor_171a" href="#Footnote_171a" class="fnanchor">[171a]</a> Neque +hoc recte dicetur ad aemulationem fieri, ut in re simili ostendit +Vasquius: aut enim plane hoc negandum est, aut asseverandum +non ad bonam modo, verum etiam ad optimam aemulationem +fieri, iuxta Hesiodum:<a id="FNanchor_172a" href="#Footnote_172a" class="fnanchor">[172a]</a> ἀγαθὴ δ’ Ἔρις ἥδε βροτοῖσι +‘bona lis mortalibus haec est’. Nam etiam si quis pietate +motus, inquit ille, frumentum in summa penuria vilius +venderet, impediretur improba duritie eorum hominum, qui +saeviente penuria suum carius fuerant vendituri. Verum +est talibus modis minui aliorum reditus: nec id negamus, +ait, ‘sed minuuntur cum universorum hominum commodo: +ET VTINAM omnium PRINCIPVM et TYRRANORVM +ORBIS reditus ita minuerentur’.</p> + +<p>Quid ergo tam iniquum videri potest, quam Hispanos +vectigalem habere Terrarum Orbem, ut nisi ad illorum +nutum nec emere liceat nec vendere?<a id="FNanchor_173a" href="#Footnote_173a" class="fnanchor">[173a]</a> In cunctis civitatibus +dardanarios odio atque etiam poenis prosequimur; nec ullum +tam nefarium vitae genus videtur, quam ista annonae +flagellatio.<a id="FNanchor_174a" href="#Footnote_174a" class="fnanchor">[174a]</a> Merito quidem. Naturae enim faciunt</p> + </div> + + <div class="textcol"> +<div class="chapter"></div> + +<p class="noindent">another, even if that other had already discovered it.<a id="FNanchor_170" href="#Footnote_170" class="fnanchor">[170]</a> Who +would countenance an artisan who complained that another +artisan was taking away his profits by the exercise of the +same craft? But the cause of the Dutch is the more reasonable, +because their advantage in this matter is bound up +with the advantage of the whole human race, an advantage +which the Portuguese are trying to destroy.<a id="FNanchor_171" href="#Footnote_171" class="fnanchor">[171]</a> Nor will it be +correct to say, that this is done in rivalry, as Vasquez shows +in a similar case. For clearly we must either deny this or +affirm that it is done not only in honorable but in most honorable +rivalry, for, as Hesiod says, ‘This rivalry is honorable +for mortal men’.<a id="FNanchor_172" href="#Footnote_172" class="fnanchor">[172]</a> For, says Vasquez, if any one should +be so moved by love for his fellow man as to offer grain at a +time of great scarcity for a lower price than usual, he would +be prevented by the wicked and hardhearted men who had +the intention of selling their grain at a higher price than +usual, because of the pinch caused by the scarcity. But, some +one will object, by such methods the profits of others will be +made less. ‘We do not deny it’, says Vasquez, ‘but they +are made less to the corresponding advantage of all other +men. And would that the profits of all Rulers and Tyrants +of this world could be thus lessened’!</p> + +<p>Indeed can anything more unjust be conceived than for +the Spaniards to hold the entire world tributary, so that it +is not permissible either to buy or to sell except at their good +pleasure?<a id="FNanchor_173" href="#Footnote_173" class="fnanchor">[173]</a> In all states we heap odium upon grain speculators +and even bring them to punishment; and in very truth +there seems to be no other sort of business so disgraceful as +that of forcing up prices in the grain market.<a id="FNanchor_174" href="#Footnote_174" class="fnanchor">[174]</a> That is not</p> + </div> + + +<hr class="page x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_71"></a>[71]</span></p> + + <div class="textcol" lang="la"> +<p class="noindent">iniuriam, quae in commune fecunda est:<a id="FNanchor_175a" href="#Footnote_175a" class="fnanchor">[175a]</a> neque vero censeri +debet in usus paucorum reperta negotiatio, sed ut quod +alteri deest alterius copia pensaretur, iusto tamen compendio +omnibus proposito, qui laborem ac periculum transferendi +in se suscipiunt.</p> + +<p>Hoc ipsum igitur quod in republica, id est, minore +hominum conventu, grave et perniciosum iudicatur, in +magna illa humani generis societate ferendumne est? +ut scilicet totius mundi monopolium faciant populi Hispani? +Invehitur Ambrosius in eos qui maria claudunt,<a id="FNanchor_176a" href="#Footnote_176a" class="fnanchor">[176a]</a> +Augustinus in eos qui itinera obstruunt; Nazianzenus in<a id="FNanchor_177a" href="#Footnote_177a" class="fnanchor">[177a]</a> +coemptores suppressoresque mercium, qui ex inopia aliorum +soli quaestum faciunt, et ut ipse facundissime loquitur +καταπραγματεύονται τῆς ἐνδείας. Quin et divini sapientis +sententia publicis diris devovetur sacerque habetur, qui +alimenta supprimendo vexat annonam: ὅ συνέχων σῖτον +δημοκατάρατος.</p> + +<p>Clament igitur Lusitani quantum, et quam diu libebit: +‘Lucra nostra deciditis’. Respondebunt Batavi: ‘Immo +nostris invigilamus. Hocne indignamini in partem nos +venire ventorum et maris? Et quis illa vobis lucra mansura +promiserat? Salvum est vobis, quo nos contenti sumus’.</p> + </div> + + <div class="textcol"> +<div class="chapter"></div> + +<p class="noindent">to be wondered at, for such speculators are doing an injury +to nature, who, as Aristotle says, is fertile for all alike.<a id="FNanchor_175" href="#Footnote_175" class="fnanchor">[175]</a> +Accordingly it ought not to be supposed that trade was invented +for the benefit of a few, but in order that the lack of +one would be counterbalanced by the oversupply of another, +a fair return also being guaranteed to all who take upon +themselves the work and the danger of transport.</p> + +<p>Is the same thing then which is considered grievous and +pernicious in the smaller community of a state to be put up +with at all in that great community of the human race? +Shall the people of Spain, forsooth, assume a monopoly of +all the world? Ambrose inveighs against those who interfere +with the freedom of the sea;<a id="FNanchor_176" href="#Footnote_176" class="fnanchor">[176]</a> Augustine against those +who obstruct the overland routes; and Gregory of Nazianzus<a id="FNanchor_177" href="#Footnote_177" class="fnanchor">[177]</a> +against those who buy goods and hold them, and thus (as he +eloquently says) make profits for themselves alone out of +the helplessness and need of others. Indeed in the opinion +of this wise and holy man any person who holds back grain +and thus forces up the market price ought to be given over +to public punishment and be adjudged worthy of death.</p> + +<p>Therefore the Portuguese may cry as loud and as long +as they shall please: ‘You are cutting down our profits’! +The Dutch will answer: ‘Nay! we are but looking out for +our own interests! Are you angry because we share with +you in the winds and the sea? Pray, who had promised +that you would always have those advantages? You are +secure in the possession of that with which we are quite +content’.</p> + </div> + + +<hr class="page x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_72"></a>[72]</span></p> + + <div class="textcol" lang="la"> +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CAPVT_XIII">CAPVT XIII</h2> + +<p class="center"><i>Batavis ius commercii Indicani qua +pace, qua indutiis, qua bello +retinendum</i></p> + +<p>Quare cum et ius et aequum postulet, libera nobis ita +ut cuiquam esse Indiae commercia, superest, ut sive cum +Hispanis pax, sive indutiae fiunt, sive bellum manet, +omnino eam, quam a natura habemus libertatem tueamur. +Nam ad pacem quod attinet, notum est eam esse duorum +generum: aut enim pari foedere, aut impari coitur. Graeci<a id="FNanchor_178a" href="#Footnote_178a" class="fnanchor">[178a]</a> +istam vocant συνθήκην ἐξ ἴσου hanc σπονδὰς ἐξ ἐπιταγμάτων +illa virorum est, haec ingeniorum servilium. Demosthenes +in oratione de libertate Rhodiorum:<a id="FNanchor_179a" href="#Footnote_179a" class="fnanchor">[179a]</a> καί τοι χρὴ τοὺς βουλομένους +ἐλευθέρους εἶναι τὰς ἐκ τῶν ἐπιταγμάτων συνθήκας +φεύγειν, ὡς ἐγγὺς δουλείας οὔσας, ‘eos qui volunt esse +liberi oportet omnes condiciones quibus leges imponuntur +ita fugere tamquam quae proximae sunt servituti’. +Tales autem sunt omnes quibus pars altera in iure +suo imminuitur, iuxta Isocratis definitionem<a id="FNanchor_180a" href="#Footnote_180a" class="fnanchor">[180a]</a> vocantis +τὰ τοὺς ἑτέρους ἐλαττοῦντα παρὰ τὸ δίκαιον. Si enim, ut +inquit Cicero,<a id="FNanchor_181a" href="#Footnote_181a" class="fnanchor">[181a]</a> ‘suscipienda bella sunt ob eam causam, ut sine +iniuria in pace vivatur’, sequitur eodem auctore*, pacem +esse vocandam, non pactionem servitutis, sed tranquillam +libertatem; quippe cum et Philosophorum et Theologorum</p> + </div> + + <div class="textcol"> +<div class="chapter"></div> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XIII">CHAPTER XIII</h2> + +<p class="center"><i>The Dutch must maintain their right of trade with the East +Indies by peace, by treaty, or by war</i></p> + +<p>Wherefore since both law and equity demand that trade +with the East Indies be as free to us as to any one else, +it follows that we are to maintain at all hazards that freedom +which is ours by nature, either by coming to a peace +agreement with the Spaniards, or by concluding a treaty, or +by continuing the war. So far as peace is concerned, it is +well known that there are two kinds of peace, one made on +terms of equality, the other on unequal terms. The Greeks<a id="FNanchor_178" href="#Footnote_178" class="fnanchor">[178]</a> +call the former kind a compact between equals, the latter +an enjoined truce; the former is meant for high souled +men, the latter for servile spirits. Demosthenes in his +speech on the liberty of the Rhodians<a id="FNanchor_179" href="#Footnote_179" class="fnanchor">[179]</a> says that it was +necessary for those who wished to be free to keep away +from treaties which were imposed upon them, because such +treaties were almost the same as slavery. Such conditions +are all those by which one party is lessened in its own right, +according to the definition of Isocrates.<a id="FNanchor_180" href="#Footnote_180" class="fnanchor">[180]</a> For if, as Cicero +says,<a id="FNanchor_181" href="#Footnote_181" class="fnanchor">[181]</a> wars must be undertaken in order that people may +live in peace unharmed, it follows that peace ought to mean +not an agreement which entails slavery, but an undisturbed +liberty, especially as peace and justice according to</p> + </div> + + +<hr class="page x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_73"></a>[73]</span></p> + + <div class="textcol" lang="la"> +<p class="noindent">complurium<a id="FNanchor_182a" href="#Footnote_182a" class="fnanchor">[182a]</a> iudicio pax et iustitia nominibus magis quam +re differant, sitque pax non qualiscumque, sed ordinata +concordia.</p> + +<p>* [Philippica XII, 14: cum iis facta pax non erit pax, sed pactio servitutis.]</p> + +<p>Indutiae autem si fiunt satis apparet ex ipsa indutiarum +natura non debere medio earum tempore condicionem +cuiusquam deteriorem fieri, cum ferme interdicti uti possidetis +instar obtineant.</p> + +<p>Quod si in bellum trudimur hostium iniquitate, debet +nobis causae aequitas spem ac fiduciam boni eventus addere. +Nam<a id="FNanchor_183a" href="#Footnote_183a" class="fnanchor">[183a]</a> ὑπὲρ ὧν ἄν ἐλαττῶνται μεχρὶ δυνατοῦ πάντες πολεμοῦσι, +περὶ δὲ τοῦ πλεονεκτεῖν οὐχ οὕτως, ‘pro his in +quibus iniuria afficiuntur omnes quantum omnino +possunt depugnant: at propter alieni cupiditatem non +item’; quod et Alexander Imperator ita expressit: τὸ μὲν +ἄρχειν ἀδίκων ἒργων οὐκ ἀγνώμονα ἔχει τὴν πρόκλησιν, τὸ δὲ +τοὺς ὀχλοῦντας ἀποσείεσθαι ἔκ τε τῆς ἀγαθῆς συνειδήσεως ἔχει +τὸ θαῤῥαλέον, καὶ ἐκ τοῦ μὴ ἀδικεῖν ἀλλ’ ἀμύνασθαι ὑπάρχει +τὸ εὔελπι, ‘eius a quo coepit iniuria, provocatio maxime +invidiosa est; at cum depelluntur aggressores, sicut bona +conscientia fiduciam secum fert, ita quia de vindicanda non +de inferenda iniuria laboratur, spes etiam adsunt optimae’.</p> + +<p>Si ita necesse est, perge gens mari invictissima, nec +tuam tantum, sed humani generis libertatem audacter +propugna.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> +<div class="poetry"> + <div class="verse indent0"><i>Nec te, quod classis centenis remigat alis,</i></div> + <div class="verse indent2"><i>Terreat: INVITO labitur illa MARI:</i></div> + <div class="verse indent0"><i>Quodve vehunt prorae Centaurica saxa minantes,</i></div> + <div class="verse indent2"><i>Tigna cava et pictos experiere metus.</i></div> + <div class="verse indent0"><i>Frangit et attollit vires in milite causa;</i></div> + <div class="verse indent2"><i>Quae nisi iusta subest, excutit arma pudor.</i><a id="FNanchor_184a" href="#Footnote_184a" class="fnanchor">[184a]</a></div> +</div> +</div> + </div> + + <div class="textcol"> +<div class="chapter"></div> + +<p class="noindent">the opinion of many philosophers and theologians<a id="FNanchor_182" href="#Footnote_182" class="fnanchor">[182]</a> differ +more in name than in fact, and as peace is a harmonious +agreement based not on individual whim, but on well +ordered regulations.</p> + +<p>If however a truce is arranged for, it is quite clear from +the very nature of a truce, that during its continuance no +one’s condition ought to change for the worse, inasmuch as +both parties stand on the equivalent of a <i lang="la">uti possidetis</i>.</p> + +<p>But if we are driven into war by the injustice of our +enemies, the justice of our cause ought to bring hope and +confidence in a happy outcome. “For,” as Demosthenes +has said, “every one fights his hardest to recover what he +has lost; but when men endeavor to gain at the expense of +others it is not so.”<a id="FNanchor_183" href="#Footnote_183" class="fnanchor">[183]</a> The Emperor Alexander has expressed +his idea in this way: ‘Those who begin unjust deeds, +must bear the greatest blame; but those who repel aggressors +are twice armed, both with courage because of their +just cause, and with the highest hope because they are not +doing a wrong, but are warding off a wrong’.</p> + +<p>Therefore, if it be necessary, arise, O nation unconquered +on the sea, and fight boldly, not only for your own liberty, +but for that of the human race. “Nor let it fright thee +that their fleet is winged, each ship, with an hundred oars. +The sea whereon it sails will have none of it. And though +the prows bear figures threatening to cast rocks such as +Centaurs throw, thou shalt find them but hollow planks +and painted terrors. ’Tis his cause that makes or mars a +soldier’s strength. If the cause be not just, shame strikes +the weapon from his hands.”<a id="FNanchor_184" href="#Footnote_184" class="fnanchor">[184]</a></p> + </div> + + +<hr class="page x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_74"></a>[74]</span></p> + + <div class="textcol" lang="la"> +<p>Si iusta multi, et ipse Augustinus,<a id="FNanchor_185a" href="#Footnote_185a" class="fnanchor">[185a]</a> arma crediderunt eo +nomine suscipi, quod per terras alienas iter innoxium negaretur, +quanto illa erunt iustiora, quibus maris, quod +naturae lege commune est, usus communis et innoxius postulatur? +Si iuste oppugnatae sunt gentes quae in suo solo +commercia aliis interdicebant, quid illae quae populos ad se +nihil pertinentes per vim distinent, ac mutuos earum commeatus +intercludunt? Si res ista in iudicio agitaretur, dubitari +non potest quae a viro bono expectari deberet sententia, +ait Praetor:<a id="FNanchor_186a" href="#Footnote_186a" class="fnanchor">[186a]</a> ‘Quo minus illi in flumine publico +navem agere, ratem agere, quove minus per ripam exonerare +liceat, vim fieri veto’. De mari et litore in eandem formam +dandum interdictum docent interpretes, exemplo Labeonis, +qui cum interdiceret Praetor:<a id="FNanchor_187a" href="#Footnote_187a" class="fnanchor">[187a]</a> ‘Ne quid in flumine publico +ripave eius facias, quo statio iterve navigio deterius sit, fiat’; +simile dixit interdictum competere in mari:<a id="FNanchor_188a" href="#Footnote_188a" class="fnanchor">[188a]</a> ‘Ne quid in +mari inve litore facias, quo portus, statio, iterve navigio +deterius sit, fiat’.</p> + +<p>Immo et post prohibitionem, si quis scilicet in mari +navigare prohibitus sit, aut non permissus rem suam vendere, +aut re sua uti, iniuriarum eo nomine competere +actionem Vlpianus respondit.<a id="FNanchor_189a" href="#Footnote_189a" class="fnanchor">[189a]</a> Theologi insuper et qui +tractant casus, quos vocant, conscientiarum, concordes tradunt,</p> + </div> + + <div class="textcol"> +<div class="chapter"></div> + +<p>If many writers, Augustine himself<a id="FNanchor_185" href="#Footnote_185" class="fnanchor">[185]</a> among them, believed +it was right to take up arms because innocent passage +was refused across foreign territory, how much more +justly will arms be taken up against those from whom the +demand is made of the common and innocent use of the sea, +which by the law of nature is common to all? If those +nations which interdicted others from trade on their own +soil are justly attacked, what of those nations which separate +by force and interrupt the mutual intercourse of peoples +over whom they have no rights at all? If this case +should be taken into court, there can be no doubt what +opinion ought to be anticipated from a just judge. The +praetor’s law says:<a id="FNanchor_186" href="#Footnote_186" class="fnanchor">[186]</a> ‘I forbid force to be used in preventing +any one from sailing a ship or a boat on a public river, or +from unloading his cargo on the bank’. The commentators +say that the injunction must be applied in the same manner +to the sea and to the seashore. Labeo, for example, in +commenting on the praetor’s edict,<a id="FNanchor_187" href="#Footnote_187" class="fnanchor">[187]</a> ‘Let nothing be done in +a public river or on its bank, by which a landing or a channel +for shipping be obstructed’, said there was a similar interdict +which applied to the sea, namely,<a id="FNanchor_188" href="#Footnote_188" class="fnanchor">[188]</a> ‘Let nothing be done on +the sea or on the seashore by which a harbor, a landing, or +a channel for shipping be obstructed’.</p> + +<p>Nay more, after such a prohibition, if, namely, a man be +prevented from navigating the sea, or not allowed to sell or +to make use of his own wares and products, Ulpian says +that he can bring an action for damages on that ground.<a id="FNanchor_189" href="#Footnote_189" class="fnanchor">[189]</a> +Also the theologians and the casuists agree that he who +prevents another from buying or selling, or who puts his</p> + </div> + + +<hr class="page x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_75"></a>[75]</span></p> + + <div class="textcol" lang="la"> +<p class="noindent">eum qui alterum vendere aut emere impediat, utilitatemve +propriam publicae ac communi praeponat, aut ullo +modo alterum in eo quod est iuris communis impediat, ad +restitutionem teneri omnis damni viri boni arbitrio.</p> + +<p>Secundum haec igitur vir bonus iudicans, Batavis libertatem +commerciorum adiudicaret, Lusitanos et ceteros, qui +eam libertatem impediunt, vetaret vim facere, et damna +restituere iuberet. Quod autem in iudicio obtineretur, id +ubi iudicium haberi non potest, iusto bello vindicatur. +Augustinus:<a id="FNanchor_190a" href="#Footnote_190a" class="fnanchor">[190a]</a> ‘Iniquitas partis adversae iusta ingerit bella’. +Et Cicero:<a id="FNanchor_191a" href="#Footnote_191a" class="fnanchor">[191a]</a> ‘Cum sint duo genera decertandi, unum per +disceptationem, alterum per vim, confugiendum ad posterius, +si uti non licet priore’. Et Rex Theodoricus: ‘Veniendum +tunc ad arma, cum locum apud adversarium iustitia non +potest reperire’. Et quod proprius est nostro argumento,<a id="FNanchor_192a" href="#Footnote_192a" class="fnanchor">[192a]</a> +Pomponius eum qui rem omnibus communem cum incommodo +ceterorum usurpet, MANV PROHIBENDVM +respondit. Theologi quoque tradunt, sicuti pro rerum +cuiusque defensione bellum recte suscipitur, ita non minus +recte suscipi, pro usu earum rerum quae naturali iure debent +esse communes. Quare ei qui itinera praecludat, evectionemque +mercium impediat, etiam non expectata ulla publica +auctoritate, <em>via facti</em>, ut loquuntur, posse occurri.</p> + +<p>Quae cum ita sint, minime verendum est, ne aut Deus</p> + </div> + + <div class="textcol"> +<div class="chapter"></div> + +<p class="noindent">private interests before the public and common interests, +or who in any way hinders another in the use of something +which is his by common right, is held in damages to +complete restitution in an amount fixed by an honorable +arbitrator.</p> + +<p>Following these principles a good judge would award +to the Dutch the freedom of trade, and would forbid the +Portuguese and others from using force to hinder that freedom, +and would order the payment of just damages. But +when a judgment which would be rendered in a court +cannot be obtained, it should with justice be demanded in a +war. Augustine<a id="FNanchor_190" href="#Footnote_190" class="fnanchor">[190]</a> acknowledges this when he says: ‘The +injustice of an adversary brings a just war’. Cicero +also says:<a id="FNanchor_191" href="#Footnote_191" class="fnanchor">[191]</a> “There are two ways of settling a dispute; +first, by discussion; second, by physical force; we must +resort to force only in case we may not avail ourselves +of discussion.” And King Theodoric says: ‘Recourse +must then be had to arms when justice can find no lodgment +in an adversary’s heart’. Pomponius, however, has +handed down a decision which has more bearing on our argument<a id="FNanchor_192" href="#Footnote_192" class="fnanchor">[192]</a> +than any of the citations already made. He declared +that the man who seized a thing common to all to the +prejudice of every one else must be forcibly prevented from +so doing. The theologians also say that just as war is +righteously undertaken in defense of individual property, +so no less righteously is it undertaken in behalf of the use +of those things which by natural law ought to be common +property. Therefore he who closes up roads and hinders +the export of merchandise ought to be prevented from so +doing <i lang="la">via facti</i>, even without waiting for any public +authority.</p> + +<p>Since these things are so, there need not be the slightest</p> + </div> + + +<hr class="page x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_76"></a>[76]</span></p> + + <div class="textcol" lang="la"> +<p class="noindent">eorum conatus secundet, qui ab ipso institutum ius naturae +certissimum violant, aut homines ipsi eos inultos patiantur, +qui solo quaestus sui respectu communem humani generis +utilitatem oppugnant.</p> + </div> + + <div class="textcol"> +<div class="chapter"></div> + +<p class="noindent">fear that God will prosper the efforts of those who violate +that most stable law of nature which He himself has instituted, +or that even men will allow those to go unpunished +who for the sake alone of private gain oppose a common +benefit of the human race.</p> + </div> + + +<hr class="page x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_77"></a>[77]</span></p> + + <div class="textcol" lang="la"> +<h2><span class="hidden">(APPENDIX)</span></h2> + +<p class="negin2">CVM SVB HOC TEMPVS PLVRIMAE REGIS HISPANIARVM +LITTERAE IN MANVS NOSTRAS VENISSENT, QVIBVS IPSIVS +ET LVSITANORVM INSTITVTVM MANIFESTE DETEGITVR, +OPERAE PRETIVM VISVM EST EX IIS, QUAE PLERAEQVE +EODEM ERANT ARGVMENTO, BINAS IN LATINVM SERMONEM +TRANSLATAS EXHIBERE.</p> + +<p>Domine Martine Alphonse de Castro, Prorex amice, ego +Rex multam tibi salutem mitto:</p> + +<p>Cum hisce litteris perveniet ad te exemplum typis impressum +Edicti quod faciendum curavi, quo, ob rationes quas +expressas videbis, aliasque meis rebus conducentes prohibeo +commercium omne externorum in ipsis partibus Indiae +aliisque regionibus transmarinis. Quandoquidem res haec +est momenti atque usus maximi, et quae effici summa cum +industria debeat, impero tibi, ut simulatque litteras has et +edictum acceperis, publicationem eius omni diligentia procures +in omnibus locis ac partibus istius imperi, idque ipsum +quod edicto continetur exsequaris sine ullius personae exceptione, +cuiuscumque qualitatis, aetatis, condicionisve sit, +citra omnem moram atque excusationem, procedasque ad +impletionem mandati via merae exsecutionis, nullo admisso +impedimento, appellatione, aut gravamine in contrarium, +cuiuscumque materiae generis aut qualitatis. Iubeo itaque +hoc ipsum impleri per eos ministros ad quos exsecutio pertinet, +iisque significari, non modo eos qui contra fecerint +malam operam mihi navaturos, sed eosdem me puniturum +privatione officiorum in quibus mihi serviunt.</p> + +<p>Quia autem relatum est mihi commorari in istis partibus</p> + </div> + + <div class="textcol"> +<div class="chapter"></div> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="APPENDIX">APPENDIX</h2> + +<p class="center"><em>Two letters of Philip III, King of Spain</em></p> + +<p>As several letters of the King of Spain have come of +late into our hands, in which his design and that of the +Portuguese is clearly disclosed, it seemed worth while to +translate into Latin two of them which had particular bearing +upon the controversy at issue, and to append them here.</p> + + +<p class="p1 center fs80">LETTER I</p> + +<p class="center"><i>To Don Martin Alfonso de Castro, our beloved viceroy, I, +the King, send many greetings:</i></p> + +<p>Together with this letter will come to you a copy printed +in type of an edict which I have taken much pains to draw +up, by which, for reasons which you will see expressed, and +for other reasons which are consonant with my interests, I +prohibit all commerce of foreigners in India itself, and in +all other regions across the seas. As this matter is of the +greatest importance and serviceableness, and ought to be +carried out with the highest zeal, I command you, as soon +as you shall have received this letter and edict, to further +with all diligence its publication in all places and districts +under your jurisdiction, and to carry out the provisions of +the edict without exception of any person whatsoever, no +matter what his quality, age, or condition, and without delay +and excuse, and to proceed to the fulfilment of this command +with the full power of your authority, no delay, +appeal, or obstacle to the contrary, being admitted, of any +kind, sort, or quality.</p> + +<p>Therefore I order that this duty be discharged by those</p> + </div> + + +<hr class="page x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_78"></a>[78]</span></p> + + <div class="textcol" lang="la"> +<p class="noindent">externos multos variarum nationum, Italos, Gallos, Germanos, +Belgas, quorum pars maior, quantum intelligimus, +eo venit per Persida et Turcarum imperium, non per hoc +regnum, adversus quos si ex huius Edicti praescripto ac +rigore procedatur, posse inde nonnullas difficultates sequi, +si illi ad Mauros inimicos perfugiant, vicinisque munitionum +mearum dispositionem indicent, rationesque monstrent quae +rebus meis nocere possent, exsequi te hoc edictum volo prout +res et tempus ferent, atque ea uti prudentia, qua illae difficultates +evitentur, curando ut omnes externos in potestate +tua habeas eosque custodias pro cuiusque qualitate, ita ut +adversus imperium nostrum nihil valeant attentare, utque +ergo omnino eum finem consequar quem hoc Edicto mihi +proposui.</p> + +<p>Scriptae Vlyssipone XXVIII Novembris, Anno +MDCVI. Subsignatum erat Rex. Inscriptio. Pro Rege. +Ad Dominum Martinum Alfonsum de Castro Consiliarium +suum, et suum Proregem Indiae.</p> + + +<p>Prorex amice Rex multam salutem tibi mitto:</p> + +<p>Etsi pro certo habeo tua praesentia, iisque viribus cum +quibus in partes austrinas concessisti, perduelles Hollandos,</p> + </div> + + <div class="textcol"> +<div class="chapter"></div> + +<p class="noindent">officers to whom its execution belongs, and that they be informed +that not only will those who disobey serve me ill, +but that I will punish them by depriving them of the offices +in which they now serve me.</p> + +<p>Further, inasmuch as it has been reported to me that +within your jurisdiction there are sojourning many foreigners +of different nations, Italians, French, Germans, and +men of the Low Countries, the larger part of whom as we +know came there by way of Persia and Turkey, and not +through our realm; and inasmuch as, if this edict be rigidly +enforced against those persons to the letter, some inconveniences +might follow, if they should escape to the Moors, +our enemies, and make known to our neighbors the disposition +of my forces, and thus show ways that they might +be able to harm my dominion: Therefore, I wish you to +carry out the provisions of this edict as the exigencies of +circumstances and occasion demand, and to use all prudence +necessary in order to avoid those difficulties, taking +especial pains to keep all foreigners in your power, and to +guard them in accordance with their individual rank, so that +they may have no opportunity to attempt anything prejudicial +to our power, that thus I may attain fully that end +which I have set forth in this edict.</p> + +<p>Given at Lisbon, on the 28th of November in the year +of our Lord, 1606. Signed by the king, and addressed: For +the king, to Don Martin Alfonso de Castro, his Councillor, +and Viceroy for the East Indies.</p> + + +<p class="p1 center fs80">LETTER II</p> + +<p><i>To our beloved viceroy, I, the King send many greetings:</i></p> + +<p>Although I consider it absolutely certain that your presence +and the forces which you took with you into those +Eastern regions, guarantee that our enemies, the Dutch,</p> + </div> + + +<hr class="page x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_79"></a>[79]</span></p> + + <div class="textcol" lang="la"> +<p class="noindent">qui illic haerent, nec minus indigenas qui eis receptum praebent, +ita castigatos fore, ut nec hi, nec illi tale quicquam in +posterum audeant; expediet tamen, ad res tuendas, ut iustam +classem, eique operi idoneam, cum tu Goam redibis, in istis +Maris partibus relinquas, eiusque imperium et summam +praefecturam mandes Andreae Hurtado Mendosae, aut si +quem ei muneri aptiorem iudicabis, quemadmodum pro tuo +in me affectu confido, ea in re non aliud te respecturum +quam quod rebus meis erit utilissimum.</p> + +<p>Scriptae Madritii XXVII Ian. MDCVII. Signatum +Rex. Inscriptio. Pro Rege. Ad Dominum Martinum Alfonsum +de Castro suum Consiliarium, et suum Proregem +Indiae.</p> + </div> + + <div class="textcol"> +<div class="chapter"></div> + +<p class="noindent">who infest those quarters as well as the natives who give +them a welcome reception, will be so thoroughly punished +that neither the one nor the other will ever dare such practices +in the future: still it will be expedient for the protection +of our interests, that, when you shall return to Goa, +you leave in those parts of the sea a fleet large and capable +enough to do the business, and also that you delegate the +supreme command of that fleet to Andrea Hurtado de +Mendoza, or to any one else whom you shall consider better +fitted for this post. I rely upon your affection for me, +knowing that in this matter you will do nothing but what +will be most useful to my interests.</p> + +<p>Given at Madrid the 27th day of January in the year +of our Lord 1607. Signed by the king, and addressed: For +the king, to Don Martin Alfonso de Castro, his Councillor, +and Viceroy for the East Indies.</p> + </div> + + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_80"></a>[80]</span><br> + <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_81"></a>[81]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak fs120" id="INDEX">INDEX</h2> + +<p class="pad4 fs80"><em>References are to pages of text and translation alike.</em></p> + + +<ul class="index"> +<li class="ifrst">Accursius, biographical note, <a href="#Page_52">51, n. †</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">cited, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Agamemnon, mention of, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Agreements, when not binding, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Air, common to all, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">nature of, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Alciatus, A., biographical note, <a href="#Footnote_16">10 n. 2.</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Alexander, Emperor, quoted, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Alexander the Great, mention of, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Alexander VI, Pope, reference to, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Alexandria, mention of, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Ambrose, St., biographical note, <a href="#Footnote_89">33 n. 5;</a></li> +<li class="isub1">cited, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">quoted, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Amorites, mention of, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Andocides, cited, <a href="#Footnote_178">72 n. 1.</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Angelus Aretinus, biographical note, <a href="#Footnote_117">48 n. 2;</a></li> +<li class="isub1">reference to, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Apollinaris, mention of, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Aquinas, Thos., biographical note, <a href="#Footnote_26">13 n. 4;</a></li> +<li class="isub1">mention of, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Arabians, mention of, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Arbitration, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Archidiaconus, cited, <a href="#Footnote_189">74 n. 5.</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Aristotle, cited, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">quoted, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Art of exchange, definition of, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Athenaeus, reference to, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Athenians, mention of, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Augustine, St., cited, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">quoted, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">reference to, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Augustus, mention of, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Avienus, quoted, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Ayala, reference to, <a href="#Footnote_35">16 n. 5.</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Aztecs, mention of, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li> + + +<li class="ifrst">Balbus, J. F., biographical note, <a href="#Footnote_122">49 n. 3;</a></li> +<li class="isub1">cited, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">mention of, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><ins class="corr" id="tn-80" title="Transcriber’s Note—Original text: 'Baldis'"> +Baldus</ins> de Ubaldis, biographical note, <a href="#Footnote_14">9 n. 7;</a></li> +<li class="isub1">mention of, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Bartolus, biographical note, <a href="#Page_49">48 n. *;</a></li> +<li class="isub1">cited, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">reference from, <a href="#Footnote_40">19 n. 2.</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Bennett, C. E., translation from, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Bernhardus, St., reference from, <a href="#Footnote_33">16 n. 3.</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Boëthius, quoted, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">du Bois, <a href="#SIL">see Silvius</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Bolognese, mention of, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Butler, translation from, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</li> + + +<li class="ifrst">Cadiz, mention of, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Caelius Antipater, cited, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Caietanus, T. (Cajetan), biographical note, <a href="#Footnote_42">19 n. 4;</a></li> +<li class="isub1">reference to, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Cape of Good Hope, mention of, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Castrensis, A. de, biographical note, <a href="#Footnote_134">53 n. 1;</a></li> +<li class="isub1">cited, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Castrensis, P. de (de Castro), biographical note, <a href="#Page_49">49 n. †;</a></li> +<li class="isub1">reference from, <a href="#Footnote_44">22 n. 1.</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Castro, M. C. de, letters to, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Celsus, cited, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Ceylon, mention of, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Charles V, Emperor, reference to, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Chinese, mention of, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Cicero, cited, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">quoted, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">reference to, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Cinus, cited, <a href="#Footnote_155">63 n. 1.</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Claudius, Emperor, mention of, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Clemens Alexandrinus, cited, <a href="#Footnote_182">73 n. 1.</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Coercion, Portuguese, in case of East Indies, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Columella, reference to, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Comines, P. de, biographical note, <a href="#Footnote_68">28 n. 3.</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Commerce, origin of, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Common ownership, definition of, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Common right, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Community of use, annihilation of, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Connanus, F. de, biographical note, <a href="#Footnote_18">12 n. 2.</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Conscience, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Contract, nature of, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Cornelius Nepos, cited, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Council of Spain, mention of, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Council of Toledo, mention of, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Covarruvias, D., biographical note, <a href="#Footnote_10">9 n. 3.</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Crown properties, in sea and river, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Custom, established by privilege, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> + + +<li class="ifrst">Demosthenes, cited, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">quoted, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Divine law, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Donation of Pope Alexander VI, reference to, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Donellus, H. (Doneau), biographical note, <a href="#Footnote_18">12 n. 2.</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Dryden, J., translations from, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Duarenus, biographical note, <a href="#Footnote_63">27 n. 4.</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Dutch, answer to Portuguese, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">East India trade to be maintained by, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">navigation by, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">reasonable claims of, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li> + + +<li class="ifrst">East Indies, mention of, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">not chattels of Portuguese, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_82"></a>[82]</span>Portuguese claim of exclusive right to trade in, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Portuguese not first in, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">right of trade to be kept with, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">way is free to, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Emmanuel, King of Portugal, mention of, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">English, mention of, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Ennius, quoted, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Equity, chapter on, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Estius, biographical note, <a href="#Footnote_12">9 n. 5.</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Exchange, art of, defined, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">derivation of, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Exhaustion, question of, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Expediency, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>.</li> + + +<li class="ifrst">Faber, J., biographical note, <a href="#Footnote_91">34 n. 2;</a></li> +<li class="isub1">reference to, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Fachinham, N., biographical note, <a href="#Footnote_125">50 n. 3.</a></li> + +<li class="indx" id="FEL">Felinus, M. S., biographical note, <a href="#Footnote_121">49 n. 2;</a></li> +<li class="isub1">cited, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Fishing, an ancient national right, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">free to all, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">not legal to prevent, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">revenues from, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">a servitude, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Fleets, maintenance of, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Free navigation, chapter on, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Freedom of trade, basis of, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">chapter on, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Dutch should have, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">French, mention of, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">navigation by, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li> + + +<li class="ifrst">Gaius Caesar, mention of, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Genoese, mention of, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Gentilis, A., biographical note, <a href="#Footnote_5">8 n. 2.</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Goa, mention of, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Gorcum, H. v., cited, <a href="#Footnote_192">75 n. 3.</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Gordianus, Fab. Claud., biographical note, <a href="#Footnote_17">12 n. 1;</a></li> +<li class="isub1">mention of, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Grandpont, A. G. de., <a href="#Page_xi">xi</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Greeks, reference to, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Gregory, mention of, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx" id="GRE">Gregory of Nazianzus, cited, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Guicciardini, cited, <a href="#Footnote_167">68 n. 2.</a></li> + + +<li class="ifrst">Hanno, reference to, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Harris, E. I., translations from, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Hercules, mention of, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Hermogenianus, quoted, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Hesiod, quoted, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">reference to, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Homer, cited, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Horace, quoted, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Hugo, reference from, <a href="#Footnote_33">16 n. 3.</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Hunting, an ancient national right, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li> + + +<li class="ifrst">India, mention of, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Inner sea, as distinguished from outer sea, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Innocentius, reference from, <a href="#Footnote_40">19 n. 2.</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Innocent passage, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">International rights, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Isernia, A., biographical note, <a href="#Page_36">36 n. *.</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Isocrates, cited, <a href="#Footnote_178">72 n. 1,</a> <a href="#Footnote_179">2</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Israelites, mention of, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li> + + +<li class="ifrst">James, H. R., translation from, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Jason, cited, <a href="#Footnote_137">54 n. 1.</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Java, mention of, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">John, King of Portugal, mention of, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Jowett, B., translation from, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Jurisdiction, distinguished from ownership, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li> + + +<li class="ifrst">Labeo, quoted, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Law of Human Society, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Law of Nations, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">right conception of, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Law of Nature, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">right conception of, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Law of property, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Legitimate rulers, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Leo, Emperor, cited, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Lucullus, mention of, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li> + + +<li class="ifrst">Mair, A. W., translation from, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Malacca, mention of, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Marcianus, cited, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">reference to, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Martial, quoted, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Martin, J. C., <a href="#Page_xii">xii</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Megarians, mention of, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Mendoza, A. H. de, mention of, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Miller, W., translations from, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Milton, quoted, <a href="#Page_11">11 n. *.</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Moluccas, mention of, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Monopoly, question of, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Morocco, mention of, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> + + +<li class="ifrst">Natural Law, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Navigation, Dutch, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">free to all, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, + <a href="#Page_56">56</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Portuguese, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">prescriptive right claimed by Portuguese, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">protection of, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Nazianzenus, <a href="#GRE">see Gregory of Nazianzus</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Neratius, reference to, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Nonius Marcellus, quoted, <a href="#Footnote_18">12 n. 2.</a></li> + + +<li class="ifrst">Occupation, definition of, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">mention of, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">not to affect common use, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Oldradus (Oldrado de Ponte), biographical note, <a href="#Footnote_189">74 n. 5.</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Osorius, H., biographical note, <a href="#Footnote_146">59 n. 1.</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Outer sea, as distinguished from inner sea, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Ovid, quoted, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Ownership, common, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">private, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">transition to, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li> + + +<li class="ifrst">Panormitanus, cited, <a href="#Footnote_165">67 n. 2.</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Papal Donation, chapters on, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Papinian, cited, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_83"></a>[83]</span>quoted, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Paul III, Pope, reference to, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Paulus, cited, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Personal right, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Peter, St., mention of, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Philip III of Spain, letters of, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Pickard-Cambridge, translation from, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Pirates, treatment of, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Placentinus, quoted, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Plato, cited, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Plautus, quoted, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Pliny, cited, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">quoted, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Plutarch, reference to, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Polus Lucanus, cited, <a href="#Footnote_182">73 n. 1.</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Pomponius, cited, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Pomponius Mela, quoted, <a href="#Footnote_103">40 n. 1.</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Pope, The, no right in temporal matters, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">no authority against law of nature and of nations, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Portuguese, arrogant pretensions of, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">claim of exclusive right to trade, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">claim to ocean, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">desire for profits, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">mention of, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">not first in East Indies, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Prescription, acquisition by, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">chapters on, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">definition of, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">failure of, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">immemorial time no help to, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">reference to, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Pretexts for war, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Private possessions, reference to, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Privative right, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Propertius, quoted, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Property, origin of, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Ptolemaeus, cited, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Public opinion, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Public territory, origin of, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li> + + +<li class="ifrst">Quintilian, quoted, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li> + + +<li class="ifrst">Revenues, on fisheries, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Right of innocent passage, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Right of navigation, not Portuguese because of Papal Donation, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Rivalry, comment on, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Roman Church, mention of, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li> + + +<li class="ifrst">Sandeus, <a href="#FEL">see Felinus</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Saracens, reference to, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Scaevola, mention of, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Scott, J. B., Introductory note by, <a href="#Page_v">v</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Sea, The, common to all, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, + <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">defined by law of nations, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">nature of, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">not exhausted by use, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">not merchandise, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">not Portuguese by Papal Donation, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">not subject to servitude, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">sovereignty of, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Seashore, common to all, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">how to be used, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">right of Roman people to, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Seneca, cited, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">quoted, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Shahan, Bishop, <a href="#Page_xii">xii</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Sigonius, C., biographical note, <a href="#Footnote_9">9 n. 2.</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Silvestris, cited, <a href="#Footnote_113">46 n. 1.</a></li> + +<li class="indx" id="SIL">Silvius, F., biographical note, <a href="#Footnote_36">17 n. 1;</a></li> +<li class="isub1">reference from, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Smith, K. F., <a href="#Page_xi">xi</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Sovereignty, grant by reason of, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">matter of positive law, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Papal Donation gives no right to, chapter on, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">a particular proprietorship, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">by right of conquest, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">by right of discovery, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">title to, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">universal, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Spaniards, arrogance of, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">claim to ocean, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">mention of, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Strabo, quoted, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Sylvius, <a href="#SIL">see Silvius</a>.</li> + + +<li class="ifrst">Tacitus, quoted, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Temporal possessions, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Theodoric, King, quoted, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Thucydides, cited, <a href="#Footnote_178">72 n. 1;</a></li> +<li class="isub1">quoted, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Title by prescription, destroyed, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Tolls, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Torquemada, <a href="#TUR">see Turre Cremata</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Trade, freedom of, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">origin of, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Portuguese claim to right of, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Trajan, mention of, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx" id="TUR">Turre Cremata, reference from, <a href="#Footnote_33">16 n. 3.</a></li> + + +<li class="ifrst">Ulpian, cited, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, + <a href="#Page_74">74</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">reference to, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Use, definition of, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">sea not exhausted by, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">things susceptible to universal, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Usurpation, definition of, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Portuguese worthless, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Uti possidetis</i>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</li> + + +<li class="ifrst">Varro, reference to, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Vasquius, F. M. (Vasquez), biographical note, <a href="#Footnote_133">52 n. 4;</a></li> +<li class="isub1">cited, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">quoted, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Venetians, mention of, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, + <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Vergil, quoted, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">reference to, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Victoria, F. de, biographical note, <a href="#Footnote_10">9 n. 3;</a></li> +<li class="isub1">reference to, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li> + + +<li class="ifrst">War, pretexts for, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Water, common to all, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">West Indies, claimed by Portuguese, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Willoughby, W. W., <a href="#Page_xii">xii</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">World monopoly, question of, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li> + + +<li class="ifrst">Zuarius, R., biographical note, <a href="#Footnote_111">44 n. 3.</a></li> +</ul> + + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<h2 class="nobreak" id="FOOTNOTES1">FOOTNOTES:</h2> +</div> + + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_A" href="#FNanchor_A" class="label">[A]</a> For the freedom of the seas and the relation of Grotius to the doctrine, +see Ernest Nys’s <cite lang="fr">Les Origines du Droit International</cite> (1894), pp. 379-387, and +the same author’s <cite lang="fr">Etudes de Droit International et de Droit Politique</cite>, 2<sup>e</sup> série +(1901), <cite lang="fr">Une Bataille de Livres</cite>, pp. 260-272. For an account in English see +Walker’s <cite>History of the Law of Nations</cite>, Vol. I (1899), pp. 278-283.</p> + +<p>For an interesting sketch of the illustrious author of the <cite>Mare Liberum</cite>, see +Motley’s <cite>The Life and Death of John of Barneveld</cite>, Vol. II, Chap. XXII; +for an analysis of Grotius’ views on the law of nations, see Hallam’s <cite>Introduction +to the Literature of Europe</cite> (4th edition), Vol. II, Part III, Chap. +IV, Sec. III; for an account of Grotius as a humanist, see Sandys’ <cite>History +of Classical Scholarship</cite> (1908), Vol. II, pp. 315-319.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_B" href="#FNanchor_B" class="label">[B]</a> <cite lang="la">Hugonis Grotii De Jure Praedae</cite>, edited, with an introduction, by H. G. +Hamaker, and published at The Hague in 1868 by Martinus Nijhoff.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_C" href="#FNanchor_C" class="label">[C]</a> In support of the view that Grotius appeared as counsel in cases arising +out of captures made by vessels in the service of the Dutch East India Company, +and that the treatise, <cite lang="la">De Jure Praedae</cite>, is a legal brief, see R. Fruin’s <cite lang="nl">Een +Onuitgegeven Werk van Hugo De Groot</cite> in <cite lang="de">Verspreide Geschriften</cite>, Vol. III, +pp. 367-445. The following passages are quoted from this remarkable essay:</p> + +<p>“While busy with the sale of the goods [of the captured merchantman +<i>Catherine</i>, which had been unloaded in the Amsterdam arsenal], the process of +adjudicating the booty before the admiralty court was conducted in the usual +forms. Claimants: Advocate General of Holland, the Board of eight Aldermen, +and Admiral Heemskerck; ... on Thursday, September 9, 1604, final sentence +was rendered, and ‘the merchantman together with the goods taken from it +were declared forfeited and confiscated’” (pp. 389-390).</p> + +<p>“Hulsius in some measure replaces what the fire at the Marine Arsenal +has robbed us of; among other records he has preserved for us in his <cite lang="de">Achte +Schiffart</cite> the sentence pronounced in this matter by the admiralty, and of which +we have knowledge from no other sources. From it we learn the grounds upon +which the claimants demanded the adjudication of the booty. These grounds +are the same twelve which De Groot discusses in his book.... This concordance +can be explained on the ground that De Groot must have had acquaintance with +the sentence; but he was not a man merely to repeat what others had before him +witnessed. I should be inclined to feel that in the process he had served as +counsel for the Company, and that he himself was one of the authors of the +written claim upon which the sentence was based. It would not then be surprising +if in his book he should develop at greater length and throw light upon +what had already been set forth in the claim” (pp. 390-391).</p> + +<p>“I cannot state definitely that Hugo De Groot was persuaded by the Directors +to write such an argument; I have been unable to discover any evidence to +that end. That he was in close relations with the Company, he himself says in +a letter of later date, addressed to his brother. Nor can there be any doubt +that in writing his work he made use of the archives of the United Company and +of its predecessor. If the supposition, which I have elsewhere ventured to make +is correct, that is to say, that in the conduct of the case he appeared as advocate +for the Company, it would then appear most probable that, after consultation +with the directors, he set about writing his book, which was to be a second plea +in their behalf” (p. 403).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_D" href="#FNanchor_D" class="label">[D]</a> For the account which Grotius himself gives of the incident, see his <cite lang="la">Annales +et Historiae de Rebus Belgicis ab Obitu Philippi Regis usque ad Inducias Anni</cite> +1609, written in 1612, but first published in 1658, Book 1, p. 429.</p> + +<p>For a fuller account of the circumstances under which the treatise on the +law of prize was written, see Hamaker’s edition of the <cite lang="la">De Jure Praedae</cite>, pp. +vii-viii. The distinguished historian and scholar, Robert J. Fruin, after an +exhaustive examination of the evidence, informed Hamaker that Grotius was +retained by the Company to prepare the commentary on the law of prize. The +English translation of Hamaker’s exact statement reads as follows: “Fruin is +of the opinion that he [Grotius] undertook this work at the instance of the +Company, and that he appeared in it as their spokesman.”</p> + +<p>For an analysis of the commentary <cite lang="la">De Jure Praedae</cite> and the circumstances +under which it was written, see Jules Basdevant’s study on Grotius, pp. 131-137, +155-179, in Pillet’s <cite lang="fr">Les Fondateurs du Droit International</cite> (1904).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_E" href="#FNanchor_E" class="label">[E]</a> Selden’s <cite>Mare Clausum</cite> was not the only defense of England, nor was the +<cite>Mare Liberum</cite> the only lance which Grotius broke for the freedom of the seas. +In 1613 William Welwod, professor of Civil Law at the University of Aberdeen, +published a little book entitled <cite>An Abridgement of all the Sea-Lawes</cite>, in which +he maintained the English side of the question, of which Title XXVII, pp. 61-72, +deals with the community and property of the seas. Two years later Welwod +published a second work, this time in Latin, entitled <cite lang="la">De Dominio Maris Juribusque +ad Dominium praecipue Spectantibus Assertia Brevis ac Methodica</cite>.</p> + +<p>Grotius prepared, but did not publish, a reply to Welwod’s first attack, +entitled <cite lang="la">Defensio Capitis Quinti Maris Liberi Oppugnati a Gulielmo Welwodo +Juris Civilis Professore, Capite XXVII ejus Libri Scripti Anglica Sermone cui +Titulum Fecit Compendium Legum Maritimarum</cite>. It was discovered at the +same time as the commentary <cite lang="la">De Jure Praedae</cite> and was published in 1872 in +Muller’s <cite lang="nl">Mare Clausum, Bijdrage tot de geschiedenis der rivaliteit van Engeland +en Nederland in de zeventiende eeuw</cite>.</p> + +</div> + + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<h2 class="nobreak" id="FOOTNOTES2">FOOTNOTES:</h2> +</div> + + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_1a" href="#FNanchor_1a" class="label">[1a]</a> Panegyricus 29, 2: quod genitum esset usquam, id apud omnes natum esse +videtur.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_2a" href="#FNanchor_2a" class="label">[2a]</a> Vergil, Georgica II, 109.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_3a" href="#FNanchor_3a" class="label">[3a]</a> Vergil, Aeneis VI, 847-853.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_4a" href="#FNanchor_4a" class="label">[4a]</a> Naturales Quaestiones III, IV.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_5a" href="#FNanchor_5a" class="label">[5a]</a> Institutes II, 1 (De rerum divisione, § 1); Digest I, 8, 4 (eod. tit., L. +Nemo igitur); cf. Gentilis, De jure belli I, 19; cf. Code IV, 63, 4 (De commerciis, +L. Mercatores).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_6a" href="#FNanchor_6a" class="label">[6a]</a> Vergil, Aeneis I, 539-540.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_7a" href="#FNanchor_7a" class="label">[7a]</a> Vergil, Aeneis VII, 229-230.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_8a" href="#FNanchor_8a" class="label">[8a]</a> Diodorus Siculus XI; Plutarch, Pericles XXIX, 4.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_9a" href="#FNanchor_9a" class="label">[9a]</a> Sigonius, De regno Italiae.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_10a" href="#FNanchor_10a" class="label">[10a]</a> Victoria, De Indis II, n. 1-7; Covarruvias, in c. Peccatum, § 9, n. 4, ibi +Quinta.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_11a" href="#FNanchor_11a" class="label">[11a]</a> Numbers XXI, 21-26.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_12a" href="#FNanchor_12a" class="label">[12a]</a> Augustinus, Locutionum IV (de Numeris), 44; Et Estius, c. ult. 23, 4, 2.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_13a" href="#FNanchor_13a" class="label">[13a]</a> Sophocles, Trachiniae.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_14a" href="#FNanchor_14a" class="label">[14a]</a> Baldus de Ubaldis, Consilia III, 293.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_15a" href="#FNanchor_15a" class="label">[15a]</a> Tacitus, Historiae IV, 64.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_16a" href="#FNanchor_16a" class="label">[16a]</a> Andreas Alciatus, Commentaria VII, 130; Covarruvias in c. Peccatum, p. +2 § 9; Bartolus on Code I, 11 (De paganis, L. 1).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_17a" href="#FNanchor_17a" class="label">[17a]</a> Code VIII, 40, 13 (De fideiussoribus, L. Si Barsagoram).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_18a" href="#FNanchor_18a" class="label">[18a]</a> Nonius Marcellus, De varia significatione sermonum, in verbo ‘occupare’ +(p. 562, Lindsay); cf. Connanus, Commentarii juris civilis III, 3; cf. Donellus, +Commentarii de jure civili IV, 10.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_19a" href="#FNanchor_19a" class="label">[19a]</a> Institutes II, 1, 13 (De rerum divisione, § Illud quaesitum est).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_20a" href="#FNanchor_20a" class="label">[20a]</a> Digest XLI, 2, 3 (De adquirenda possessione, § Neratius).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_21a" href="#FNanchor_21a" class="label">[21a]</a> Epistulae I, 1, 44-45.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_22a" href="#FNanchor_22a" class="label">[22a]</a> Pliny, Naturalis historia VI, 22.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_23a" href="#FNanchor_23a" class="label">[23a]</a> Digest XLI, 1, 3 (De adquirendo rerum dominio).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_24a" href="#FNanchor_24a" class="label">[24a]</a> Covarruvias in c. Peccatum § 10, n. 2, 4, 5.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_25a" href="#FNanchor_25a" class="label">[25a]</a> De potestate civili I, 9.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_26a" href="#FNanchor_26a" class="label">[26a]</a> Thomas Aquinas, Summa II. II, q. 10, a. 12.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_27a" href="#FNanchor_27a" class="label">[27a]</a> De Indis I, n. 4-7, 19.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_28a" href="#FNanchor_28a" class="label">[28a]</a> Vasquius, Preface (n. 5) to Controversiae illustres.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_29a" href="#FNanchor_29a" class="label">[29a]</a> Cf. Osorium.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_30a" href="#FNanchor_30a" class="label">[30a]</a> Institutes II, 1, 40 (De rerum divisione, § Per traditionem).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_31a" href="#FNanchor_31a" class="label">[31a]</a> Luke XII, 14; John XVIII, 36; Victoria, De Indis I, n. 25.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_32a" href="#FNanchor_32a" class="label">[32a]</a> Victoria XVI, n. 27.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_33a" href="#FNanchor_33a" class="label">[33a]</a> Vasquius, Controversiae illustres, c. 21; Turre Cremata II, c. 113; Hugo on +Dist. XCVI, C. VI (Cum ad verum); Bernhardus, De consolatione ad +<ins class="corr" id="fn-33a" title="Transcriber’s Note—Original text: 'Eugenium II'"> +Eugenium III</ins>; Victoria, De Indis I, n. 27; Covarruvias in c. Peccatum § 9, n. 7.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_34a" href="#FNanchor_34a" class="label">[34a]</a> Matthew XVII, 27; XX, 26; John VI, 15.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_35a" href="#FNanchor_35a" class="label">[35a]</a> Victoria, De Indis I, n. 28, 30; Covarruvias on +I <ins class="corr" id="fn-35a" title="Transcriber’s Note—Original text: 'Corinthinas V'"> +Corinthians V</ins> in fine; +Thomas Aquinas, Summa II. II, q. 12, a. 2; Ayala, De Jure I, 2, 29.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_36a" href="#FNanchor_36a" class="label">[36a]</a> Thomas Aquinas, Summa II. II, q. 66, a. 8; Silvius, De infidelibus § 7; +Innocentius on Decretales Gregorii Papae IX, III, 34, 8 (De voto, c. Quod super +his); Victoria, De Indis I, n. 31.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_37a" href="#FNanchor_37a" class="label">[37a]</a> De Indis I, n. 31.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_38a" href="#FNanchor_38a" class="label">[38a]</a> Vasquius, Controversiae illustres, c. 24; Victoria, De Indis II, n. 10.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_39a" href="#FNanchor_39a" class="label">[39a]</a> De consolatione philosophiae IV, carmen 4, 7-10.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_40a" href="#FNanchor_40a" class="label">[40a]</a> Thomas Aquinas, Summa II. II, q. 10, a. 8; Dist. XLV, C. V (De Iudeis), +C. III (Qui sincera); Innocentius, cf. <a href="#Footnote_36a">note 1, page 17</a>; Bartolus on Code I, 11, 1 +(De paganis); Covarruvias in c. Peccatum, § 9, 10; Ayala, De Jure I, 2, 28.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_41a" href="#FNanchor_41a" class="label">[41a]</a> Matthew X, 23.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_42a" href="#FNanchor_42a" class="label">[42a]</a> On Thomas Aquinas, Summa II. II, q. 4, 66, a. 8.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_43a" href="#FNanchor_43a" class="label">[43a]</a> Victoria, De Indis II, 1.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_44a" href="#FNanchor_44a" class="label">[44a]</a> Castrensis on Digest I, 1, 5 (De iustitia et iure, L. Ex hoc iure); Dist. I, +C. VII (Ius naturale).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_45a" href="#FNanchor_45a" class="label">[45a]</a> Vasquius, Controversiae illustres, c. 1, n. 10; Lib. VI, V, 12, 3 (De +verborum significatione, c. Exiit, qui seminat); Clem. V, 11 (De verborum significatione, +c. Exivi de paradiso).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_46a" href="#FNanchor_46a" class="label">[46a]</a> Sermones II, 2, 129-130.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_47a" href="#FNanchor_47a" class="label">[47a]</a> Avienus, Aratus 302-303 [promisca quetura V; promiscaque cura A; iura +peragros; praestiterat Buhlius, Breyzig].</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_48a" href="#FNanchor_48a" class="label">[48a]</a> Seneca, Octavia 413-414.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_49a" href="#FNanchor_49a" class="label">[49a]</a> Avienus, Aratus 302.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_50a" href="#FNanchor_50a" class="label">[50a]</a> Digest VII, 5 (De usu fructu earum rerum, quae usu consumuntur vel +minuuntur); Extravag. XIV, 3 et 5 (De verborum significatione, c. Ad conditorem, +et c. Quia quorundam); Thomas Aquinas, Summa II. II, q. 78.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_51a" href="#FNanchor_51a" class="label">[51a]</a> Thyestes 203-204 (F. CXXII).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_52a" href="#FNanchor_52a" class="label">[52a]</a> De beneficiis VII, 12, 3.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_53a" href="#FNanchor_53a" class="label">[53a]</a> Ps. Quintilianus, Declamatio XIII (Pro paupere).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_54a" href="#FNanchor_54a" class="label">[54a]</a> Cicero, De officiis I.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_55a" href="#FNanchor_55a" class="label">[55a]</a> Digest I, 1, 5 (De iustitia et iure, L. Ex hoc iure).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_56a" href="#FNanchor_56a" class="label">[56a]</a> Vergil, Georgica I, 139-140; Ovid, Metamorphoses I, 121.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_57a" href="#FNanchor_57a" class="label">[57a]</a> Ovid, Metamorphoses I, 135-136.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_58a" href="#FNanchor_58a" class="label">[58a]</a> Ovid, Metamorphoses I, 134 (exsultavere, Magnus).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_59a" href="#FNanchor_59a" class="label">[59a]</a> De beneficiis VII, 4, 3.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_60a" href="#FNanchor_60a" class="label">[60a]</a> Octavia 431-432.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_61a" href="#FNanchor_61a" class="label">[61a]</a> De officiis I, 21.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_62a" href="#FNanchor_62a" class="label">[62a]</a> Thucydides I, 139, 2.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_63a" href="#FNanchor_63a" class="label">[63a]</a> Duarenus on Digest I, 8 (De divisione rerum).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_64a" href="#FNanchor_64a" class="label">[64a]</a> De officiis I, 51.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_65a" href="#FNanchor_65a" class="label">[65a]</a> De officiis I, 52.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_66a" href="#FNanchor_66a" class="label">[66a]</a> Ovid, Metamorphoses VI, 349-351 (aquis, 349, and ad publica, 351, Merkel).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_67a" href="#FNanchor_67a" class="label">[67a]</a> Digest VIII, 4, 13 (Communia praediorum, L. Venditor).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_68a" href="#FNanchor_68a" class="label">[68a]</a> Digest XLI, 1, 14 (De adquirendo rerum dominio, L. Quod in litore); +Comines, Memoirs III, 2; Donellus IV, 2; Digest XLI, 3, 49 (De usucapionibus).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_69a" href="#FNanchor_69a" class="label">[69a]</a> Digest I, 8, 10 (De divisione rerum, L. Aristo).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_70a" href="#FNanchor_70a" class="label">[70a]</a> Cicero, Loco citato. [Pro Sex. Roscio Amerino 26, 72].</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_71a" href="#FNanchor_71a" class="label">[71a]</a> Institutes II, 1, 1 et 5 (De rerum divisione, § Et quidem naturali; +§ Litorum); Digest I, 8, 1, 2, 10 (De rerum divisione); Digest XLI, 1, 14 et 50 +(De adquirendo rerum dominio, L. Quod in litore, et L. Quamvis); Digest XLVII, +10, 13 (De iniuriis, L. Iniuriarum § si quis me); Digest XLIII, 8, 3 (Ne quid in +loco publico, L. Litora) et 4-7.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_72a" href="#FNanchor_72a" class="label">[72a]</a> 975, 977, 985 (IV, 3).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_73a" href="#FNanchor_73a" class="label">[73a]</a> Donellus IV, 2.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_74a" href="#FNanchor_74a" class="label">[74a]</a> Digest XXXIX, 2, 24 (De damno infecto, L. Fluminum); other references +same as note 1, page 29.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_75a" href="#FNanchor_75a" class="label">[75a]</a> Donellus IV, 2 et 9; also references in note 1, page 29.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_76a" href="#FNanchor_76a" class="label">[76a]</a> Digest I, 8, 4 (De divisione rerum, L. Nemo igitur); XLIII, 8, 3 (Ne quid +in loco publico, L. Litora).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_77a" href="#FNanchor_77a" class="label">[77a]</a> Horace, Carmina III, i, 33-34.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_78a" href="#FNanchor_78a" class="label">[78a]</a> Digest XLIII, 8, 3 (as in note 1); 8, 2 (eod. tit., L. Praetor, § Adversus).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_79a" href="#FNanchor_79a" class="label">[79a]</a> Digest XLIII, 12, 1 (De fluminibus, L. Ait praetor, § Si in mari).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_80a" href="#FNanchor_80a" class="label">[80a]</a> Pliny, Naturalis historia IX, 54, 170.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_81a" href="#FNanchor_81a" class="label">[81a]</a> Martial, Epigrammata X, 30, 19-20.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_82a" href="#FNanchor_82a" class="label">[82a]</a> De Nabuthe, cap. 3.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_83a" href="#FNanchor_83a" class="label">[83a]</a> Digest XLVII, 10, 14 (De iniuriis, L. Sane si maris).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_84a" href="#FNanchor_84a" class="label">[84a]</a> Cf. <a href="#Footnote_76a">note 1, page 31</a>.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_85a" href="#FNanchor_85a" class="label">[85a]</a> Digest XLIV, 3, 7 (De diversis, L. Si quisquam).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_86a" href="#FNanchor_86a" class="label">[86a]</a> Digest XLI, 3, 45 (De usucapionibus, L, Praescriptio).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_87a" href="#FNanchor_87a" class="label">[87a]</a> Digest XLVII, 10, 13 (De iniuriis, L. Iniuriarum, § Si quis me).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_88a" href="#FNanchor_88a" class="label">[88a]</a> Novella Leonis, 102, 103, 104; cf. Cuiacium XIV, 1.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_89a" href="#FNanchor_89a" class="label">[89a]</a> Hexameron V, 10, 27.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_90a" href="#FNanchor_90a" class="label">[90a]</a> Donellus IV, 6.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_91a" href="#FNanchor_91a" class="label">[91a]</a> Joannes Faber on Institutes II, 1 (§ Litorum); Digest XIV, 2, 9 (De Lege +Rhodia, L. Ἀξίωσις).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_92a" href="#FNanchor_92a" class="label">[92a]</a> Digest XLIII, 8, 3 (Ne quid in loco publico, L. Litora).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_93a" href="#FNanchor_93a" class="label">[93a]</a> Digest V, 1, 9 (De iudiciis, L. Insulae); XXXIX, 4, 15 (De publicanis, +L. Caesar); Gloss. on Digest I, 8, 2 (De divisione rerum, L. Quaedam); Institutes +II, 1; Baldus on Quaedam (above).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_94a" href="#FNanchor_94a" class="label">[94a]</a> Baldus, Quibus modis feudi amittuntur, c. In principio, 2 col; Code XI, +13, 1; Angelus on Digest XLVII, 10, 14 (De iniuriis, L. Sane); Digest VIII, 4, 13 +(Communia praediorum, L. Venditor fundi) et 4 (L. Caveri).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_95a" href="#FNanchor_95a" class="label">[95a]</a> C. Quae sint Regalia, in Feudis.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_96a" href="#FNanchor_96a" class="label">[96a]</a> Balbus, De praescriptionibus IV, 5; 1, q. 6, n. 4.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_97a" href="#FNanchor_97a" class="label">[97a]</a> Digest XLVII, 10, 13 (De iniuriis, L. Iniuriarum, § 7, v. conductori); +XLIII, 9, 1 (De loco publico fruendo).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_98a" href="#FNanchor_98a" class="label">[98a]</a> <a href="#Footnote_95">Cf. note 1</a>.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_99a" href="#FNanchor_99a" class="label">[99a]</a> Ennius: ‘Nihilo minus ipsi lucet, cum illi accenderit’. Vahlen,<a id="FNanchor_100ax" href="#Footnote_100a" class="fnanchor">[100a]</a> Fab. Inc. +398 (Telephus?).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_100a" href="#FNanchor_100a" class="label">[100a]</a> Cicero, De officiis I, 51.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_101a" href="#FNanchor_101a" class="label">[101a]</a> Seneca, De beneficiis III, 28 [IV, 28].</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_102a" href="#FNanchor_102a" class="label">[102a]</a> Johannes Faber on Institutes II, 1, 5 (De rerum divisione, § Litorum).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_103a" href="#FNanchor_103a" class="label">[103a]</a> Pliny, Naturalis historia II, 69; VI, 27 [(31) Vol. 1, pp. 482-488 Mayhoff]; +Pomponius Mela, De situ orbis III.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_104a" href="#FNanchor_104a" class="label">[104a]</a> Pliny, Naturalis historia VI, 20 (23).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_105a" href="#FNanchor_105a" class="label">[105a]</a> Geographica II et XVII.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_106a" href="#FNanchor_106a" class="label">[106a]</a> Pliny, Naturalis historia XII, 19 [VI, 23].</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_107a" href="#FNanchor_107a" class="label">[107a]</a> Gloss. on Lib. VI, I, 6, 3 (De electione, c. Ubi periculum, § Porro); on +Digest II, 12, 3 (De feriis, L. Solet [Grotius has Licet]).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_108a" href="#FNanchor_108a" class="label">[108a]</a> Digest I, 8, 4 (De divisione rerum, L. Nemo igitur); Gentilis, De jure +belli I, 19.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_109a" href="#FNanchor_109a" class="label">[109a]</a> Digest XLIII, 8, 2 (Ne quid in loco publico, L. Praetor ait, § Si quis in +mari).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_110a" href="#FNanchor_110a" class="label">[110a]</a> Gloss. on Digest XLIII, 14 (Ut in flumine publico).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_111a" href="#FNanchor_111a" class="label">[111a]</a> Baldus on Digest I, 8, 3 (De divisione rerum, L. Item lapilli); Zuarius, +Consilia duo de usu maris I, 3, part. tit. 28, L. 10 et 12.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_112a" href="#FNanchor_112a" class="label">[112a]</a> Victoria, De Indis I (II?), n. 26.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_113a" href="#FNanchor_113a" class="label">[113a]</a> Silvestris, In verbo Papa. n. 16.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_114a" href="#FNanchor_114a" class="label">[114a]</a> Vasquius, Controversiae illustres, c. 51.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_115a" href="#FNanchor_115a" class="label">[115a]</a> Donellus, V, 22 et seq.; Digest XVIII, 1, 6 (De contrahenda emptione, L. +Sed Celsus); XLI, 3, 9 (De usucapionibus, L. Usucapionem), 25 (L. Sine); +Lib. VI, V, 12 (De regulis iuris, Reg. Sine possessione); Digest L, 16, 28 (De +verborum significatione, L. ‘Alienationis’); XXIII, 5, 16 (De fundo dotali, L. +Si fundum).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_116a" href="#FNanchor_116a" class="label">[116a]</a> Digest XLI, 3, 45 (De usucapionibus); Code VIII, 11, 6 (De operis publicis, +L. Praescriptio); XI, 43, 9 (De aquaeductu, L. Diligenter); Digest XLIII, 11, 2 +(De via publica, L. Viam); XLI, 3, 49 (De usucapionibus, L. ult.).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_117a" href="#FNanchor_117a" class="label">[117a]</a> Consilia 286; Thema tale est: inter caetera capitula pacis.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_118a" href="#FNanchor_118a" class="label">[118a]</a> Digest XLIV, 3, 7 (De diversis temporalibus praescriptionibus, L. Si +quisquam).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_119a" href="#FNanchor_119a" class="label">[119a]</a> Duarenus, De usucapionibus, c. 3; Cuiacius on Digest XLI, 3, 49 (De +usucapionibus, L. ult.); Donellus V, 22 on Digest XLI, 1, 14 (De adquirendo +rerum dominio, L. Quod in litore).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_120a" href="#FNanchor_120a" class="label">[120a]</a> Code XI, 43, 4 (De aquaeductu, L. Usum aquae); cf. eod. tit., L. Diligenter; +cf. Digest XLIII, 20, 3 (De aqua cottidiana et aestiva, L. Hoc iure, § Ductus +aquae).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_121a" href="#FNanchor_121a" class="label">[121a]</a> On Decretales Gregorii Papae IX, II, 26, 11 (De praescriptionibus, c. +Accedentes).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_122a" href="#FNanchor_122a" class="label">[122a]</a> De praescriptionibus IV, 5, q. 6, n. 8.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_123a" href="#FNanchor_123a" class="label">[123a]</a> On Digest XLI, 3, 49 (De usucapionibus, L. ult.).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_124a" href="#FNanchor_124a" class="label">[124a]</a> Par. 3, tit. 29, I. 7 in c. Placa.; Zuarius, Consilia, num. 4.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_125a" href="#FNanchor_125a" class="label">[125a]</a> Fachinham VIII, c. 26 et c, 33; Duarenus, De praescriptionibus, parte 2, § 2, +n. 8; § 8, n. 5 et 6.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_126a" href="#FNanchor_126a" class="label">[126a]</a> Fachinham VIII, c. 28.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_127a" href="#FNanchor_127a" class="label">[127a]</a> Angelus Aretinus in rubr. Digest I, 8 (De divisione rerum); Balbus, l. c., +n. 2; cf. Vasquium, Controversiae illustres c. 29, n. 38.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_128a" href="#FNanchor_128a" class="label">[128a]</a> On Digest XLVII, 10, 14 (De iniuriis, L. Sane).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_129a" href="#FNanchor_129a" class="label">[129a]</a> Digest XLVII, 10, 13 (De iniuriis, L. Iniuriarum, § ult.)</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_130a" href="#FNanchor_130a" class="label">[130a]</a> Cf. Gloss. eodem loco.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_131a" href="#FNanchor_131a" class="label">[131a]</a> De officiis ministrorum I, 28; Gentilis I, 19 (sub finem).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_132a" href="#FNanchor_132a" class="label">[132a]</a> Auth. Ut nulli Iudicum § 1, c. cum tanto de consuetudine.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_133a" href="#FNanchor_133a" class="label">[133a]</a> Controversiae illustres c. 89, n. 12 et seq.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_134a" href="#FNanchor_134a" class="label">[134a]</a> De potestate legis poenalis II, 14, part. 572.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_135a" href="#FNanchor_135a" class="label">[135a]</a> Digest XLI, 1, 14 (De adquirendo rerum dominio, L. Quod in litore); XLI, +3 (De usucapionibus, L. fin. in prin.); Institutes II, 1, 2 (De rerum divisione, +§ Flumina, v. omnibus); Digest XLIV, 3, 7 (De diversis temporalibus praescriptionibus, +L. Si quisquam); XLVII, 10, 14 (De iniuriis, L. Sane si maris).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_136a" href="#FNanchor_136a" class="label">[136a]</a> Digest I, 1, 5 (De iustitia et iure, L. Ex hoc iure); Institutes I, 2 (De iure +naturali et gentium et civili, § 2, v. ius autem gentium).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_137a" href="#FNanchor_137a" class="label">[137a]</a> Digest XLI, 3, 4, 26 (27) (De usucapionibus, L. Sequitur § Si viam); +Institutes IV, 6, 14 (De actionibus, § Sic itaque); Ut dictis juribus et L. cum +filio, ubi multa per Bartolum et Jason on Digest XXX, 11 (De Legatis I, L. Cum +filio; part. I in pr. qu. 3 et 4).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_138a" href="#FNanchor_138a" class="label">[138a]</a> Digest I, 5, 4 (De statu hominum, L. Libertas); Institutes I, 3, 1 (De iure +personarum, § Et libertas); Digest XLIII, 29, 1 et 2 (De homine libero exhibendo); +XLIV, 5, 1 (Quarum rerum actio non datur, L, Iusiurandum, § Quae +onerandae); Code III, 28, 35 (De inofficioso testamento, L. Si quando, § Illud, +v. adstringendos); Digest IV, 6, 28 (Ex quibus causis maiores, L. Nec non, +§ ‘Quod eius’).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_139a" href="#FNanchor_139a" class="label">[139a]</a> Code III, 44, 7 (De religiosis et sumptibus funerum, L. Statuas).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_140a" href="#FNanchor_140a" class="label">[140a]</a> Code VI, 43 (Communia de legatis, Contra L. 2, cum vulgatis).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_141a" href="#FNanchor_141a" class="label">[141a]</a> Digest IX, 2, 32 (Ad legem Aquiliam, L. Illud).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_142a" href="#FNanchor_142a" class="label">[142a]</a> Dist. IV, C II (Erit autem lex); Digest I, 3, 1 et 2 (De legibus), 32 (eod. tit., +L. De quibus, cum seq.); Decretales Gregorii Papae IX, II, 26, 20 (De praescriptionibus, +c. Quoniam).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_143a" href="#FNanchor_143a" class="label">[143a]</a> Digest XLIII, 13 (Ne quid in flumine publico fiat).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_144a" href="#FNanchor_144a" class="label">[144a]</a> Digest IV, 4, 3 (De minoribus, L. 3, § Scio); Vasquius, De successionum +progressu I, 7.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_145a" href="#FNanchor_145a" class="label">[145a]</a> Balbus, De praescriptionibus 5 in pr. in qu. 11, illius 5, quaest. pr. Gl. in +cap. inter caetera 16, q. 3; Castrensis, De potestate legis poenalis II, 14; +Balbus, and Angelus, on Code VII, 39, 4 (De praescriptione XXX vel XL +annorum, L. Omnes).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_146a" href="#FNanchor_146a" class="label">[146a]</a> Osorius, De rebus Emmanuelis regis Lusitaniae I.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_147a" href="#FNanchor_147a" class="label">[147a]</a> Digest I, 1, 5 (De iustitia et iure, L. Ex hoc iure); et ibi Bartolus.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_148a" href="#FNanchor_148a" class="label">[148a]</a> Aristotle, Politica I, 9 (1257<sup>a</sup> 30).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_149a" href="#FNanchor_149a" class="label">[149a]</a> Cf. Covarruvias in c. Peccatum, § 8.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_150a" href="#FNanchor_150a" class="label">[150a]</a> Pomponius Mela, De situ orbis III, 7.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_151a" href="#FNanchor_151a" class="label">[151a]</a> Digest XVIII, 1, 1 (De contrahenda emptione, L. Origo).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_152a" href="#FNanchor_152a" class="label">[152a]</a> Naturalis historia XXXIII, 1.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_153a" href="#FNanchor_153a" class="label">[153a]</a> Aristotle, Ethica Nicomachea 5, 5, 11 (1133<sup>a</sup> 20): οὐ φύσει ἀλλὰ νόμῳ ἐστί; +Politica I, 9 (1257<sup>b</sup> 10).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_154a" href="#FNanchor_154a" class="label">[154a]</a> Dist. I, C. VII (Ius naturale); Aristotle, l. c.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_155a" href="#FNanchor_155a" class="label">[155a]</a> Castrensis ex Cino et aliis n. 20 et 28 on Digest I, 1, 5 (De iustitia et iure, +L. Ex hoc iure).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_156a" href="#FNanchor_156a" class="label">[156a]</a> Plato, Sophista 223<sup>d</sup>.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_157a" href="#FNanchor_157a" class="label">[157a]</a> Plato, Republic II (p. 371) cited in Digest L, 11, 2 (De nundinis).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_158a" href="#FNanchor_158a" class="label">[158a]</a> Politica I, 11 (1258<sup>b</sup> 22-23).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_159a" href="#FNanchor_159a" class="label">[159a]</a> καὶ ταύτης μέρη τρία, ναυκληρία, φορτηγία, παράστασις are the exact words.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_160a" href="#FNanchor_160a" class="label">[160a]</a> Cicero, De officiis I, 150-151; Aristotle, Politica I, 9.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_161a" href="#FNanchor_161a" class="label">[161a]</a> L. c. (1257<sup>a</sup> 14-17).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_162a" href="#FNanchor_162a" class="label">[162a]</a> De beneficiis V, 8.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_163a" href="#FNanchor_163a" class="label">[163a]</a> Cf. <a href="#CAPVT_III">cap. III</a> et <a href="#CAPVT_VI">VI</a>.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_164a" href="#FNanchor_164a" class="label">[164a]</a> Cf. <a href="#CAPVT_VII">cap. VII</a>.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_165a" href="#FNanchor_165a" class="label">[165a]</a> Gloss. et Bartolus on Digest XLIII, 11, 2 (De via publica, L. Viam +publicam); Balbus 4, 5 pr. qu. 1; Panormitanus on Decretales Gregorii Papae +IX, III, 8, 10 (De concessione praebendae, c. Ex parte Hastenen.); Digest XLI, +2, 41 (De adquirenda possessione, L. Qui iure familiaritatis); Covarruvias in +c. possessor. 2, § 4; Vasquius, Controversiae illustres c. 4, n. 10 et 12.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_166a" href="#FNanchor_166a" class="label">[166a]</a> Vasquius, l. c. n. 11.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_167a" href="#FNanchor_167a" class="label">[167a]</a> Guicciardini, Storia d’Italia XIX.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_168a" href="#FNanchor_168a" class="label">[168a]</a> Vasquius, Controversiae illustres c. 10, n. 10; Victoria, De Indis I, 1, +n. 3; Digest VI, 1, 27 (De rei vindicatione, L. Sin autem, § penult.) L, 17, 55 et +151 (De diversis regulis, L. Nullus videtur, et L. Nemo damnum); XLII, 8, 13 +(Quae in fraudem creditorum, L. Illud constat); XXXIX, 2, 24 (De damno +infecto, L. Fluminum, § ult.); Bartolus on Digest XLIII, 12, 1 (De fluminibus, +L, 1, § 5); Castrensis on Code III, 34, 10 (De servitutibus, L. Si tibi); Digest +XXXIX, 3, 1 (De aqua, L. Si cui, § Denique).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_169a" href="#FNanchor_169a" class="label">[169a]</a> Vasquius, Controversiae illustres c. 4, n. 3 et seq.; Digest XXXIX, 2, 26 +(De damno infecto, L. Proculus).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_170a" href="#FNanchor_170a" class="label">[170a]</a> Vasquius, l. c.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_171a" href="#FNanchor_171a" class="label">[171a]</a> Vasquius, l. c. n. 5.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_172a" href="#FNanchor_172a" class="label">[172a]</a> Εργα καὶ Ἡμέραι 24.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_173a" href="#FNanchor_173a" class="label">[173a]</a> Code IV, 59 (De monopoliis, L. 1).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_174a" href="#FNanchor_174a" class="label">[174a]</a> Caietanus on Thomas Aquinas, Summa II. II, q. 77, a. 1, ad 3.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_175a" href="#FNanchor_175a" class="label">[175a]</a> Aristotle, Politica I, 9.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_176a" href="#FNanchor_176a" class="label">[176a]</a> Hexameron V, 10, 4, q. 44.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_177a" href="#FNanchor_177a" class="label">[177a]</a> In funere Basilii.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_178a" href="#FNanchor_178a" class="label">[178a]</a> Thucydides, Isocrates, Andocides.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_179a" href="#FNanchor_179a" class="label">[179a]</a> Isocrates, Archidamos 51.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_180a" href="#FNanchor_180a" class="label">[180a]</a> Panegyricus 176.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_181a" href="#FNanchor_181a" class="label">[181a]</a> De officiis I, 35.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_182a" href="#FNanchor_182a" class="label">[182a]</a> Polus Lucanus apud Stobaeum, De iustitia (III, p. 362 Wachsmut-Hense); +Clemens Alexandrinus, Stromateis; Augustinus, De civitate Dei IV, 15.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_183a" href="#FNanchor_183a" class="label">[183a]</a> Demosthenes, De libertate Rhodiorum XV, 10 (p. 193 R.).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_184a" href="#FNanchor_184a" class="label">[184a]</a> Propertius IV, vi, 47-52.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_185a" href="#FNanchor_185a" class="label">[185a]</a> De civitate Dei V, 1.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_186a" href="#FNanchor_186a" class="label">[186a]</a> Digest XLIII, 14, 1 (Ut in flumine publico navigare liceat).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_187a" href="#FNanchor_187a" class="label">[187a]</a> Digest XLIII, 12, 1 (De fluminibus, L. 1, in principio).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_188a" href="#FNanchor_188a" class="label">[188a]</a> Digest XLIII, 12, 1 (De fluminibus, L. 1, § Si in mari aliquid).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_189a" href="#FNanchor_189a" class="label">[189a]</a> Digest XLIII, 8, 2 (Ne quid in loco publico, L. 2, § Si quis); XLVII, 10, +13 et 24 (De iniuriis, L. Iniuriarum actio, et L. Si quis proprium); Silvestris, +In verbo ‘restitutio’, 3 sub finem; Oldradus et Archidiaconus on Digest XLVIII, +12, 2 (De lege Iulia de annona), and XLVII, 11, 6 (De extraordinariis criminibus. +L. Annonam).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_190a" href="#FNanchor_190a" class="label">[190a]</a> De civitate Dei IV.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_191a" href="#FNanchor_191a" class="label">[191a]</a> De officiis I, 34.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_192a" href="#FNanchor_192a" class="label">[192a]</a> Digest XLI, 1, 50 (De adquirendo rerum dominio, L. Quamvis quod in +litore); Henricus von Gorcum, De bello justo 9.</p> + +</div> + + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<h2 class="nobreak" id="FOOTNOTES3">FOOTNOTES:</h2> +</div> + + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_1" href="#FNanchor_1" class="label">[1]</a> Panegyric 29, 2.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_2" href="#FNanchor_2" class="label">[2]</a> Georgics II, 109 [Dryden’s translation, II, 154].</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_3" href="#FNanchor_3" class="label">[3]</a> Aeneid VI, 847-853 [Dryden’s translation, VI, 1168-1169].</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_4" href="#FNanchor_4" class="label">[4]</a> Natural Questions III, IV.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_5" href="#FNanchor_5" class="label">[5]</a> Institutes II, 1; Digest I, 8, 4; cf. Gentilis, De jure belli I, 19; cf. Code +IV, 63, 4 [Grotius refers particularly to his famous predecessor Albericus +Gentilis (1552-1608), an Italian who came to England and was appointed +to the chair of Regius Professor of Civil Law at Oxford. He published his De +Jure Belli in 1588].</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_6" href="#FNanchor_6" class="label">[6]</a> Aeneid I, 539-540 [Dryden’s translation, I, 760-763].</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_7" href="#FNanchor_7" class="label">[7]</a> Aeneid VII, 229-230 [Dryden’s translation, VII, 313-314].</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_8" href="#FNanchor_8" class="label">[8]</a> Diodorus Siculus XI; Plutarch, Pericles XXIX, 4. [The Athenian decree +prohibiting the Megarians from trading with Athens or any part of the +Athenian Empire was one of the leading causes of the Peloponnesian War.]</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_9" href="#FNanchor_9" class="label">[9]</a> Carlo Sigonio [(1523-1584), an Italian humanist, in his work] On the +Kingdom of Italy.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_10" href="#FNanchor_10" class="label">[10]</a> Victoria, De Indis II, n. 1-7; Covarruvias, in c. Peccatum, § 9, n. 4, +ibi Quinta [Franciscus de Victoria (1480-1546), the famous Spanish Scholastic, +a Dominican, and Professor of Theology at Salamanca from 1521 until his +death. His thirteen Relectiones (De Indis is no. V) were published (‘vitiosa et +corrupta’) in 1557 after his death; the 1686 Cologne edition is held to be the +best.</p> + +<p>Diego Covarruvias (1512-1577), styled the Bartolo of Spain. He should +probably be credited with formulating the reform decrees of the Council of +Trent. The 5 vol. Antwerp 1762 edition of his works is the best.]</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_11" href="#FNanchor_11" class="label">[11]</a> Numbers XXI, 21-26.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_12" href="#FNanchor_12" class="label">[12]</a> Locutionum IV (on Numbers), 44; Estius, c. ult. 23, 4, 2 [Estius (?-1613) +was a Dutch commentator on the Epistles of St. Paul and on the works of St. +Augustine].</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_13" href="#FNanchor_13" class="label">[13]</a> [Grotius refers to the Trachiniae of Sophocles, but probably from memory, +for there is no such reference in that play.]</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_14" href="#FNanchor_14" class="label">[14]</a> Baldus de Ubaldis, Consilia III, 293 [Baldus (1327-1406) was a pupil of +the great Bartolus].</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_15" href="#FNanchor_15" class="label">[15]</a> Histories IV, 64 [In connection with the revolt of Civilis].</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_16" href="#FNanchor_16" class="label">[16]</a> Andrea Alciati, Commentaria VII, 130; Covarruvias in c. Peccatum, p. 2 +§ 9; Bartolus on Code I, 11 [Alciati (1492-1550) was made Comes Palatinus by +the Emperor Charles V, and offered a Cardinal’s hat by Pope Paul III, which +he refused, but he did become a Protonotarius Apostolicus].</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_17" href="#FNanchor_17" class="label">[17]</a> Code VIII, 40, 13 [Probably Fabius Claudius Gordianus Fulgentius (468-533), +a Benedictine monk, one of the Latin Fathers].</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_18" href="#FNanchor_18" class="label">[18]</a> Nonius Marcellus, On the various significations of speech, under the word +‘occupare’; cf. Connan, Commentaries on the civil law III, 3; Donellus [Doneau], +Commentaries on the civil law IV, 10. [François de Connan (1508-1551), a +French jurisconsult, a pupil of Alciati; Hugues Doneau (1527-1591) a famous +jurisconsult, who wrote many volumes of commentaries on the Digest and the +Code.]</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_19" href="#FNanchor_19" class="label">[19]</a> Institutes II, 1, 13.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_20" href="#FNanchor_20" class="label">[20]</a> Digest XLI, 2, 3.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_21" href="#FNanchor_21" class="label">[21]</a> Letters I, 1, 44-45 [Francis’s translation, English Poets XIX, 726].</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_22" href="#FNanchor_22" class="label">[22]</a> Pliny, Natural History, VI, 22.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_23" href="#FNanchor_23" class="label">[23]</a> Digest XLI, 1, 3.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_24" href="#FNanchor_24" class="label">[24]</a> Covarruvias in c. Peccatum § 10, n. 2, 4, 5.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_25" href="#FNanchor_25" class="label">[25]</a> De potestate civili I, 9.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_26" href="#FNanchor_26" class="label">[26]</a> Summa II. II, q. 10, a. 12 [Thomas Aquinas (1227-1274), one of the most +famous of the Schoolmen and Theologians, spoken of often as Aquila Theologorum, +and Doctor Angelicus].</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_27" href="#FNanchor_27" class="label">[27]</a> De Indis I, n. 4-7, 19.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_28" href="#FNanchor_28" class="label">[28]</a> Vasquius, Preface (n. 5) to Controversiae illustres.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_29" href="#FNanchor_29" class="label">[29]</a> [Grotius cites Osorius, but gives no reference.]</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_30" href="#FNanchor_30" class="label">[30]</a> Institutes II, 1, 40.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_31" href="#FNanchor_31" class="label">[31]</a> Luke XII, 14; John XVIII, 36; Victoria, De Indis I, n, 25.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_32" href="#FNanchor_32" class="label">[32]</a> Victoria XVI, n. 27.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_33" href="#FNanchor_33" class="label">[33]</a> Vasquius, Controversiae illustres, c. 21; Torquemada II, c. 113; Hugo on +Dist. XCVI, C. VI; St. Bernard, Admonitory epistle to Pope Eugene III, book 2; +Victoria, De Indis I, n. 27; Covarruvias in c. Peccatum § 9, n. 7.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_34" href="#FNanchor_34" class="label">[34]</a> Matthew XVII, 27; XX, 26; John VI, 15.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_35" href="#FNanchor_35" class="label">[35]</a> Victoria, De Indis I, n. 28, 30; Covarruvias on I Corinthians V, at the +end; Thomas Aquinas, Summa II. II, q. 12, a. 2; Ayala, De Jure I, 2, 29 [Best +edition of Ayala is in The Classics of International Law, Carnegie Institution of +Washington, 2 vol., 1912].</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_36" href="#FNanchor_36" class="label">[36]</a> Thomas Aquinas, Summa II. II, q. 66, a. 8; Silvius, De infidelibus § 7; +Innocent on the Decretals of Pope Gregory IX, III, 34, 8; Victoria, De Indis I, +n. 81. [Franciscus Silvius, or Sylvius, or du Bois (1581-1649), was a Belgian +theologian.]</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_37" href="#FNanchor_37" class="label">[37]</a> De Indis I, n. 31.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_38" href="#FNanchor_38" class="label">[38]</a> Vasquius, Controversiae illustres, c. 24; Victoria, De Indis II, n. 10.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_39" href="#FNanchor_39" class="label">[39]</a> On the Consolation of Philosophy IV, 4, 7-10 [H. R. James’ translation, +page 194].</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_40" href="#FNanchor_40" class="label">[40]</a> Thomas Aquinas, Summa II. II, q. 10, a. 8; Dist. XLV, C. V, C. III; +Innocent, see <a href="#Footnote_36">note 1, page 17</a>; Bartolus on Code I, 11, 1; Covarruvias in c. +Peccatum, § 9, 10; Ayala, De Jure I, 2, 28.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_41" href="#FNanchor_41" class="label">[41]</a> Matthew X, 23.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_42" href="#FNanchor_42" class="label">[42]</a> On Thomas Aquinas, Summa II. II, q. 4, 66, a. 8 [Thomas de Cajetan +(1469-1534), an Italian cardinal, wrote voluminous commentaries on Thomas +Aquinas, Aristotle, and the Bible].</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_43" href="#FNanchor_43" class="label">[43]</a> Victoria, De Indis II, 1.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_44" href="#FNanchor_44" class="label">[44]</a> Paul de Castro on Digest I, 1, 5; Dist. I, C. VII.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_45" href="#FNanchor_45" class="label">[45]</a> Vasquius, Controversiae illustres, c. 1, n. 10; Lib. VI, V, 12, 3; Clem. V, 11.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_46" href="#FNanchor_46" class="label">[46]</a> Satires II, 2, 129-130.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_47" href="#FNanchor_47" class="label">[47]</a> Aratus 302-303.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_48" href="#FNanchor_48" class="label">[48]</a> Octavia 413-414 [Translation by E. I. Harris (Act II, Scene 1)].</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_49" href="#FNanchor_49" class="label">[49]</a> Aratus 302.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_50" href="#FNanchor_50" class="label">[50]</a> Digest VII, 5; Extravagantes of Pope John XXII, XIV, 3 and 5; Thomas +Aquinas, Summa II. II, q. 78.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_51" href="#FNanchor_51" class="label">[51]</a> 203-204 [E. I. Harris’ translation (Act II, Scene 1)].</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_52" href="#FNanchor_52" class="label">[52]</a> De beneficiis VII, 12, 3.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_53" href="#FNanchor_53" class="label">[53]</a> Speech XIII, In behalf of the poor man.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_54" href="#FNanchor_54" class="label">[54]</a> De officiis I.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_55" href="#FNanchor_55" class="label">[55]</a> Digest I, 1, 5.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_56" href="#FNanchor_56" class="label">[56]</a> Vergil, Georgics I, 139-140 [Dryden’s translation I, 211]; Ovid, Metamorphoses +I, 121.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_57" href="#FNanchor_57" class="label">[57]</a> Ovid, Metamorphoses I, 135-136 [Dryden’s translation I (English Poets +XX, 432)].</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_58" href="#FNanchor_58" class="label">[58]</a> Ovid, Metamorphoses I, 134.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_59" href="#FNanchor_59" class="label">[59]</a> De beneficiis VII, 4, 3.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_60" href="#FNanchor_60" class="label">[60]</a> Octavia 431-432 [Grotius here takes a slight liberty with the context].</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_61" href="#FNanchor_61" class="label">[61]</a> De officiis I, 21 [Walter Miller’s (Loeb) translation, page 23].</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_62" href="#FNanchor_62" class="label">[62]</a> History I, 139, 2.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_63" href="#FNanchor_63" class="label">[63]</a> Duaren [a French humanist (1509-1559)], on Digest I, 8.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_64" href="#FNanchor_64" class="label">[64]</a> De officiis I, 51 [Walter Miller’s (Loeb) translation, page 55].</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_65" href="#FNanchor_65" class="label">[65]</a> De officiis I, 52.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_66" href="#FNanchor_66" class="label">[66]</a> Metamorphoses VI, 349-351.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_67" href="#FNanchor_67" class="label">[67]</a> Digest VIII, 4, 13.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_68" href="#FNanchor_68" class="label">[68]</a> Digest XLI, 1, 14; Comines, Memoirs III, 2; Donellus IV, 2; Digest XLI, +3, 49. [Philippe de Comines (1445-1509), a French historian, and one of the +negotiators of the treaty of Senlis (1493).]</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_69" href="#FNanchor_69" class="label">[69]</a> Digest I, 8, 10.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_70" href="#FNanchor_70" class="label">[70]</a> Pro Sex. Roscio Amerino 26, 72.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_71" href="#FNanchor_71" class="label">[71]</a> Institutes II, 1, 1 and 5; Digest I, 8, 1, 2, 10; XLI, 1, 14 and 50; XLVII, +10, 13; XLIII, 8, 3, and 4-7.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_72" href="#FNanchor_72" class="label">[72]</a> Act IV, Scene 3 (975, 977, 985).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_73" href="#FNanchor_73" class="label">[73]</a> Donellus IV, 2.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_74" href="#FNanchor_74" class="label">[74]</a> Digest XXXIX, 2, 24; other references same as note 1, page 29.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_75" href="#FNanchor_75" class="label">[75]</a> Donellus IV, 2 and 9; also references in note 1, page 29.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_76" href="#FNanchor_76" class="label">[76]</a> Digest I, 8, 4; XLIII, 8, 3.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_77" href="#FNanchor_77" class="label">[77]</a> Odes III, i, 33-34 [Bennett’s (Loeb) translation, page 171].</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_78" href="#FNanchor_78" class="label">[78]</a> Digest XLIII, 8, 3; 8, 2.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_79" href="#FNanchor_79" class="label">[79]</a> Digest XLIII, 12, 1.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_80" href="#FNanchor_80" class="label">[80]</a> Pliny, Natural History IX, 54, 170.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_81" href="#FNanchor_81" class="label">[81]</a> Epigrams X, 30, 19-20.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_82" href="#FNanchor_82" class="label">[82]</a> De Nabuthe, cap. 3.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_83" href="#FNanchor_83" class="label">[83]</a> Digest XLVII, 10, 14.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_84" href="#FNanchor_84" class="label">[84]</a> See <a href="#Footnote_76">note 1, page 31</a>.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_85" href="#FNanchor_85" class="label">[85]</a> Digest XLIV, 3, 7.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_86" href="#FNanchor_86" class="label">[86]</a> Digest XLI, 3, 45.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_87" href="#FNanchor_87" class="label">[87]</a> Digest XLVII, 10, 13.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_88" href="#FNanchor_88" class="label">[88]</a> Novels of Leo, 102, 103, 104; See also Cujas XIV, 1.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_89" href="#FNanchor_89" class="label">[89]</a> Hexameron V, 10, 27 [St. Ambrose (c. 333-397), Bishop of Milan, is meant].</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_90" href="#FNanchor_90" class="label">[90]</a> Donellus IV, 6.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_91" href="#FNanchor_91" class="label">[91]</a> On Institutes II, 1; Digest XIV, 2, 9 [Johannes Faber (c. 1570-c. 1640) +was Bishop of Vienna, and Court preacher to Emperor Ferdinand. He was +known popularly as ‘Malleus Haereticorum’].</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_92" href="#FNanchor_92" class="label">[92]</a> Digest XLIII, 8, 3.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_93" href="#FNanchor_93" class="label">[93]</a> Digest V, 1, 9; XXXIX, 4, 15; Glossators on Digest I, 8, 2; Institutes +II, 1; Baldus on L. Quaedam, in Digest I, 8, 2.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_94" href="#FNanchor_94" class="label">[94]</a> Baldus, Quibus modis feudi amittuntur, chapter beginning In principio, +second column; Code XI, 13, 1; Angeli on Digest XLVII, 10, 14; Digest VIII, +4, 13 and 4.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_95" href="#FNanchor_95" class="label">[95]</a> C. Quae sint Regalia, in Feudis.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_96" href="#FNanchor_96" class="label">[96]</a> Balbus, De praescriptionibus IV, 5; 1, q. 6, n. 4.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_97" href="#FNanchor_97" class="label">[97]</a> Digest XLVII, 10, 13; XLIII, 9, 1.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_98" href="#FNanchor_98" class="label">[98]</a> See <a href="#Footnote_95">note 1</a>.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_99" href="#FNanchor_99" class="label">[99]</a> [Quoted in Cicero, De officiis I, 51, and here taken from Walter Miller’s +(Loeb) translation, page 55.]</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_100" href="#FNanchor_100" class="label">[100]</a> Cicero, De officiis I, 51.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_101" href="#FNanchor_101" class="label">[101]</a> Seneca, De beneficiis IV, 28.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_102" href="#FNanchor_102" class="label">[102]</a> Johannes Faber on Institutes II, 1, 5.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_103" href="#FNanchor_103" class="label">[103]</a> Pliny, Natural History II, 69; VI, 27; Pomponius Mela, De situ orbis III.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_104" href="#FNanchor_104" class="label">[104]</a> Natural History VI, 20.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_105" href="#FNanchor_105" class="label">[105]</a> Geography II and XVII.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_106" href="#FNanchor_106" class="label">[106]</a> Natural History VI, 23.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_107" href="#FNanchor_107" class="label">[107]</a> Glossators on Lib. VI, I, 6, 3; on Digest II, 12, 3.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_108" href="#FNanchor_108" class="label">[108]</a> Digest I, 8, 4; Gentilis, De jure belli I, 19.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_109" href="#FNanchor_109" class="label">[109]</a> Digest XLIII, 8, 2.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_110" href="#FNanchor_110" class="label">[110]</a> Glossators on Digest XLIII, 14.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_111" href="#FNanchor_111" class="label">[111]</a> Baldus on Digest I, 8, 3; Zuarius, Consilia duo de usu maris I, 3, 28, L. 10 +and 12. [Rodericus Zuarius, Consilia published in 1621].</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_112" href="#FNanchor_112" class="label">[112]</a> Victoria, De Indis I, n. 26.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_113" href="#FNanchor_113" class="label">[113]</a> Silvestris, In verbo Papa. n. 16.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_114" href="#FNanchor_114" class="label">[114]</a> Vasquius, Controversiae illustres, c. 51.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_115" href="#FNanchor_115" class="label">[115]</a> Donellus, V. 22 ff.; Digest XVIII, 1, 6; XLI, 3, 9, 25; Lib. VI, V, 12 +(Reg. Sine possessione); Digest L, 16, 28; XXIII, 5, 16.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_116" href="#FNanchor_116" class="label">[116]</a> Digest XLI, 3, 45; Code VIII, 11, 6; XI, 43, 9; Digest XLIII, 11, 2; +XLI, 3, 49.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_117" href="#FNanchor_117" class="label">[117]</a> Consilia 286 [Angelus Aretinus a Gambellionibus (?-1445), a voluminous +commentator on the Digest and the Institutes].</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_118" href="#FNanchor_118" class="label">[118]</a> Digest XLIV, 3, 7.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_119" href="#FNanchor_119" class="label">[119]</a> Duren, De usucapionibus, c. 3; Cujas on Digest XLI, 3, 49; Donellus +V, 22 on Digest XLI, 1, 14.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_120" href="#FNanchor_120" class="label">[120]</a> Code XI, 43, 4; cf. XI, 43, 9; cf. Digest XLIII, 20, 3.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_121" href="#FNanchor_121" class="label">[121]</a> On the Decretals of Pope Gregory IX, II, 26, 11 [Felinus Maria Sandeus +(c. 1427-1503), Bishop of Lucca].</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_122" href="#FNanchor_122" class="label">[122]</a> De praescriptionibus IV, 5, q. 6, n. 8 [Johannes Franciscus Balbus, a priest +and jurisconsult at Muentz-hof].</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_123" href="#FNanchor_123" class="label">[123]</a> On Digest XLI, 3, 49.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_124" href="#FNanchor_124" class="label">[124]</a> Par. 3, tit. 29, I. 7 in c. Placa.; Zuarius, Consilia, num. 4.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_125" href="#FNanchor_125" class="label">[125]</a> Fachinham VIII, c. 26 and c. 33; Duaren, De praescriptionibus, parte 2, § 2, +n. 8; § 8, n. 5 and 6, [Nicholas Fachinham (?-1407), a Franciscan, who taught +Theology at Oxford.]</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_126" href="#FNanchor_126" class="label">[126]</a> Fachinham VIII, c. 28.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_127" href="#FNanchor_127" class="label">[127]</a> Angelus Aretinus on Digest I, 8; Balbus, De praescriptionibus IV, 5, q. +6, n. 2; see Vasquius, Controversiae illustres c. 29, n. 38.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_128" href="#FNanchor_128" class="label">[128]</a> On Digest XLVII, 10, 14.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_129" href="#FNanchor_129" class="label">[129]</a> Digest XLVI, 10, 13.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_130" href="#FNanchor_130" class="label">[130]</a> Glossators on the reference in note 4, page 51.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_131" href="#FNanchor_131" class="label">[131]</a> De officiis ministrorum I, 28; Gentilis I, 19.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_132" href="#FNanchor_132" class="label">[132]</a> Auth. Ut nulli Iudicum § 1, c. cum tanto de consuetudine.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_133" href="#FNanchor_133" class="label">[133]</a> Controversiae illustres c. 89, n. 12 ff. [Ferdinand Manchaea Vasquez (1509-1566) +the famous Spanish jurisconsult, who held many high honors of the realm].</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_134" href="#FNanchor_134" class="label">[134]</a> De potestate legis poenalis II, 14, part 572 [Alphonse de Castro (?-1558). +Theologian at Salamanca, confessor to the Emperor Charles V.].</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_135" href="#FNanchor_135" class="label">[135]</a> Digest XLI, 1, 14; XLI, 3; Institutes II, 1, 2; Digest XLIV, 3, 7; XLVII, +10, 14.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_136" href="#FNanchor_136" class="label">[136]</a> Digest I, 1, 5; Institutes I, 2, § 2.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_137" href="#FNanchor_137" class="label">[137]</a> Digest XLI, 3, 4, 26 (27); Institutes IV, 6, 14; Bartolus and Jason on +Digest XXX, 11.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_138" href="#FNanchor_138" class="label">[138]</a> Digest I, 5, 4; Institutes I, 3, 1; Digest XLIII, 29, 1-2; XLIV, 5, 1; +Code III, 28, 35; Digest IV, 6, 28.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_139" href="#FNanchor_139" class="label">[139]</a> Code III, 44, 7.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_140" href="#FNanchor_140" class="label">[140]</a> Code VI, 43.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_141" href="#FNanchor_141" class="label">[141]</a> Digest IX, 2, 32.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_142" href="#FNanchor_142" class="label">[142]</a> Dist. IV, C. II; Digest I, 3, 1-2, 32; Decretals of Pope Gregory IX, II, 26, 20.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_143" href="#FNanchor_143" class="label">[143]</a> Digest XLIII, 13.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_144" href="#FNanchor_144" class="label">[144]</a> Digest IV, 4, 3; Vasquius, De successionum progressu I, 7.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_145" href="#FNanchor_145" class="label">[145]</a> Balbus, De praescriptionibus 5, 11; 16, 3; Alphonse de Castro, De potestate +legis poenalis II, 14; Balbus and Angelus on Code VII, 39, 4.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_146" href="#FNanchor_146" class="label">[146]</a> Osorius, De rebus Emmanuelis regis Lusitaniae I [Hieronymus Osorius +(1506-1580) was known as the Portuguese Cicero].</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_147" href="#FNanchor_147" class="label">[147]</a> Digest I, 1, 5.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_148" href="#FNanchor_148" class="label">[148]</a> I, 9 (1257<sup>a</sup> 30).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_149" href="#FNanchor_149" class="label">[149]</a> Cf. Covarruvias in c. Peccatum, § 8.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_150" href="#FNanchor_150" class="label">[150]</a> Pomponius Mela, De situ orbis III, 7.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_151" href="#FNanchor_151" class="label">[151]</a> Digest XVIII, 1, 1.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_152" href="#FNanchor_152" class="label">[152]</a> Natural History XXXIII, 1.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_153" href="#FNanchor_153" class="label">[153]</a> Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics 5, 5, 11 (1133<sup>a</sup> 20); Politics I, 9 (1257<sup>b</sup> 10) +[Nummus—νόμος. The fact that this is an incorrect derivation does not of +course affect the argument].</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_154" href="#FNanchor_154" class="label">[154]</a> Dist. I, C. VII; Aristotle, see <a href="#Footnote_153">note 4 above</a>.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_155" href="#FNanchor_155" class="label">[155]</a> Castrensis from Cinus and others on Digest I, 1, 5.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_156" href="#FNanchor_156" class="label">[156]</a> Plato, Sophista 223<sup>d</sup>.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_157" href="#FNanchor_157" class="label">[157]</a> II (p. 371) cited in Digest L, 11, 2.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_158" href="#FNanchor_158" class="label">[158]</a> Politics I, 11 (1258<sup>b</sup> 22-23).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_159" href="#FNanchor_159" class="label">[159]</a> [The text here is somewhat expanded.]</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_160" href="#FNanchor_160" class="label">[160]</a> Cicero, De officiis I, 150-151; Aristotle, Politics I, 9.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_161" href="#FNanchor_161" class="label">[161]</a> Politics I, 9 (1257<sup>a</sup> 14-17) [Jowett’s translation, Vol. I, page 15].</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_162" href="#FNanchor_162" class="label">[162]</a> De beneficiis V, 8 [Not a quotation, but a summing up of the chapter].</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_163" href="#FNanchor_163" class="label">[163]</a> See <a href="#CHAPTER_III">chapters III</a> and <a href="#CHAPTER_VI">VI</a>.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_164" href="#FNanchor_164" class="label">[164]</a> See <a href="#CHAPTER_VII">chapter VII</a>.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_165" href="#FNanchor_165" class="label">[165]</a> On Digest XLIII, 11, 2; Balbus 4, 5 pr. qu. 1; Panormitanus on the Decretals +of Pope Gregory IX, III, 8, 10; Digest XLI, 2, 41; Covarruvias in c. possessor. +2, § 4; Vasquius, Controversiae illustres c. 4, n. 10 and 12.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_166" href="#FNanchor_166" class="label">[166]</a> Vasquius, Controversiae illustres c. 4, n. 11.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_167" href="#FNanchor_167" class="label">[167]</a> Guicciardini, Storia d’Italia XIX.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_168" href="#FNanchor_168" class="label">[168]</a> Vasquius, Controversiae illustres c. 10, n. 10; Victoria, De Indis I, 1, n. 3; +Digest VI, 1. 27; L, 17, 55, 151; XLII, 8, 13; XXXIX, 2, 24; Bartolus on Digest +XLIII, 12, 1; Castrensis on Code III, 34, 10; Digest XXXIX, 3, 1.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_169" href="#FNanchor_169" class="label">[169]</a> Vasquius, Controversiae illustres c. 4, n. 3 ff.; Digest XXXIX, 2, 26.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_170" href="#FNanchor_170" class="label">[170]</a> Vasquius, same reference.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_171" href="#FNanchor_171" class="label">[171]</a> Vasquius, same reference, n. 5.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_172" href="#FNanchor_172" class="label">[172]</a> In his Works and Days [The entire passage as translated by A. W. Mair +(Oxford translation, page 1) is: “For when he that hath no business looketh on +him that is rich, he hasteth to plow and to array his house: and neighbour +vieth with neighbour hasting to be rich: good is this Strife for men.”].</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_173" href="#FNanchor_173" class="label">[173]</a> Code IV, 59.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_174" href="#FNanchor_174" class="label">[174]</a> Cajetan on Thomas Aquinas, Summa II. II, q. 77, a. 1, ad 3.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_175" href="#FNanchor_175" class="label">[175]</a> Politics I, 9.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_176" href="#FNanchor_176" class="label">[176]</a> Hexameron V, 10, 4, q. 44.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_177" href="#FNanchor_177" class="label">[177]</a> In funere Basilii.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_178" href="#FNanchor_178" class="label">[178]</a> Thucydides, Isocrates, Andocides.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_179" href="#FNanchor_179" class="label">[179]</a> Isocrates, Archidamos 51 [Grotius probably quoted here from memory].</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_180" href="#FNanchor_180" class="label">[180]</a> Panegyric 176.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_181" href="#FNanchor_181" class="label">[181]</a> De officiis I, 35.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_182" href="#FNanchor_182" class="label">[182]</a> Polus Lucanus apud Stobaeum, De iustitia; Clemens Alexandrinus, Stromateis; +Augustine, City of God IV, 15.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_183" href="#FNanchor_183" class="label">[183]</a> On the liberty of the Rhodians XV, 10 [Pickard-Cambridge’s translation I, +page 59].</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_184" href="#FNanchor_184" class="label">[184]</a> Propertius IV, vi, 47-52 [Butler’s (Loeb) translation, page 305].</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_185" href="#FNanchor_185" class="label">[185]</a> City of God V, 1.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_186" href="#FNanchor_186" class="label">[186]</a> Digest XLIII, 14, 1.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_187" href="#FNanchor_187" class="label">[187]</a> Digest XLIII, 12, 1.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_188" href="#FNanchor_188" class="label">[188]</a> Digest XLIII, 12, 1.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_189" href="#FNanchor_189" class="label">[189]</a> Digest XLIII, 8, 2; XLVII, 10, 13 and 24; Silvestris, on the word ‘restitutio’; +Oldradus and Archidiaconus on Digest XLVIII, 12, 2, and XLVII, 11, 6 +[Oldrado de Ponte (?-1335), a Bologna canonist. Archidiaconus is probably the +Italian decretalist Guido Bosius.]</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_190" href="#FNanchor_190" class="label">[190]</a> City of God IV.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_191" href="#FNanchor_191" class="label">[191]</a> De officiis I, 34 [Walter Miller’s (Loeb) translation, page 37].</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_192" href="#FNanchor_192" class="label">[192]</a> Digest XLI, 1, 50; Heinrich von Gorcum, De bello justo 9.</p> + +</div> + + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"></div> + +<div class="p4 transnote"> +<a id="TN"></a> +<p><strong>TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE</strong></p> + +<p>Footnote <a href="#Footnote_100a">[100a]</a> is referenced twice, from <a href="#Page_38">page 38</a> and from the +prior Footnote <a href="#Footnote_99a">[99a]</a>.</p> + +<p>Obvious typographical errors and punctuation errors have been +corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences within +the text and consultation of external sources.</p> + +<p>Some hyphens in words have been silently removed, some added, +when a predominant preference was found in the original book.</p> + +<p>Except for those changes noted below, all misspellings in the text, +and inconsistent or archaic usage, have been retained.</p> + +<p> +<a href="#fn-33a">Pg 16 (Fn 33a)</a>: ‘Eugenium II;’ replaced by ‘Eugenium III;’.<br> +<a href="#fn-35a">Pg 16 (Fn 35a)</a>: ‘Corinthinas V,’ replaced by ‘Corinthians V,’.<br> +<a href="#tn-31">Pg 31</a>: ‘praetors was able’ replaced by ‘praetors were able’.<br> +<a href="#tn-44">Pg 44</a>: ‘this is specificially’ replaced by ‘this is specifically’.<br> +<a href="#tn-68">Pg 68</a>: ‘more absurd then’ replaced by ‘more absurd than’.<br> +<a href="#tn-80">Pg 80</a> (Index): ‘Baldis’ replaced by ‘Baldus’.<br> +</p> +</div> + +<div style='text-align:center'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 75962 ***</div> +</body> +</html> + |