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+
+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 75948 ***
+
+
+
+  Transcriber’s Notes
+
+  Words, letters and phrases printed in boldface or italics in the
+  source document have been transcribed between =equal signs= and
+  _underscores_ respectively. Small capitals have been transcribed
+  as ALL CAPITALS. Phrases between ~tildes~ represent side notes. ^o
+  stands for a superscript o.
+
+  More Transcriber’s Notes may be found at the end of this text.
+
+
+
+
+  THE
+  BOOK OF WONDERS
+
+
+[Illustration: HOW MAN BURROWS UNDER THE WATER
+
+This is a picture of a section of one of the world’s greatest tunnels,
+showing how man has learned to construct great tubes of steel beneath
+the surface of the water and land, in which to run the swiftly moving
+trains which carry him rapidly from place to place.]
+
+
+
+
+  THE
+  BOOK OF WONDERS
+
+  GIVES PLAIN AND SIMPLE ANSWERS TO THE
+  THOUSANDS OF EVERYDAY QUESTIONS
+  THAT ARE ASKED AND WHICH ALL SHOULD
+  BE ABLE TO, BUT CANNOT ANSWER
+
+  FULLY ILLUSTRATED WITH HUNDREDS OF EDUCATIONAL PICTURES
+  WHICH STIMULATE THE MIND AND GIVE A
+  BIRD’S EYE VIEW OF THE
+
+  WONDERS OF NATURE
+  and the
+  WONDERS PRODUCED BY MAN
+
+  Edited and Arranged by
+  RUDOLPH J. BODMER
+
+
+  Fully Indexed
+
+  1915
+  PRESBREY SYNDICATE, INC.
+  456 Fourth Avenue
+  NEW YORK
+
+
+
+
+  Copyright, 1914
+  BY
+  PRESBREY SYNDICATE, Inc.
+
+
+
+
+Introduction
+
+
+No truly great book needs an explanation of its aim and purpose. A
+great book just grows, as has this Book of Wonders.
+
+It began with the attempt of a father to answer the natural questions
+of the active mind of a growing boy. It developed into a nightly search
+for plain, understandable answers to such questions as “What makes
+it night?” “Where does the wind begin?” “Why is the sky blue?” “Why
+does it hurt when I cut my finger?” “Why doesn’t it hurt when I cut my
+hair?” “Why does wood float?” “Why does iron sink?” “Why doesn’t an
+iron ship sink?” on through the maze of thousands of puzzling questions
+which occur to the child’s mind. It has grown until the answers to
+the mere questions cover practically the entire range of every-day
+knowledge, and has been arranged in such a form that any child may now
+find the answer to his own inquiries.
+
+As the mind of the child matures, the questions naturally drift toward
+the things which the genius of man has provided for his comfort and
+pleasure. We have become so accustomed to the use and benefits of these
+wonders produced by man that we generally leave out of our books the
+stories of our great industries, and yet the mind of the child wonders
+and inquires about them. We have so long worn clothes made of wool or
+cotton, that we have forgotten the wonder there is in making a bolt
+of cloth. Every industry has a fascinating story equal to that of the
+silkworm, which moves its head sixty-five times a minute while spinning
+his thousand yards of silk.
+
+Can you tell What happens when we telephone? How a telegram gets
+there? What makes an automobile go? How man learned to tell time? How
+a moving-picture is made? How a camera takes a picture? How rope is
+made? How the light gets into the electric bulb? How glass is made?
+How the music gets into the piano? and hundreds of others that embrace
+the captivating tales of how man has made use of the wonders of nature
+and turned them to his advantage and comfort? The Book of Wonders does
+this with illuminating pictures which stimulate the mind and give a
+bird’s-eye view of each subject step by step.
+
+Where shall such a book begin? Shall it begin with the Story of How
+Man Learned to Light a Fire--he could not cook his food, see at night,
+or keep warm without a fire; or should it begin with How Man Learned to
+Shoot--he could not protect himself against the beasts of the forest,
+and, therefore, could not move about, till the soil or obtain food to
+cook until he knew how to shoot or destroy.
+
+What was the vital thing for man to know before he could really become
+civilized? Some means, of course, by which the things he learned--the
+knowledge he had acquired--could be handed down to those who came after
+him so that they might go on with the intelligence handed down to them.
+This required some means of recording his knowledge. Man had to learn
+to write. Without writing there could be no Book of Wonders, and the
+book, then, begins naturally with the Story of Mow Man Learned to Write.
+
+  THE EDITOR.
+
+[Illustration: WRITING BY MEXICAN INDIANS THOUGHT TO BE MORE THAN TEN
+THOUSAND YEARS OLD.]
+
+
+
+
+How Man Learned to Write
+
+
+It is a long time between the day of the cave-dwellers, with their
+instruments of chipped stone, and the present day of the pen. Yet wide
+apart as are these points of time, the trend of development can with
+but few obstacles be traced.
+
+The story of the pen is a natural sequence of ideas between the first
+piece of rock scratched upon rock by prehistoric man, and the bit of
+metal which now so smoothly records our thoughts.
+
+There was a time in the unwritten history of man when necessity
+prompted the invention of weapons, and the minds of these primitive men
+were concentrated upon this point. But the arts of war did not take up
+their entire time; some time must have been given to other pursuits.
+As the mind developed, and as an aid to memory, we find them carving,
+engraving, incising upon the rocks their hieroglyphics, which took the
+form of figures of men, habitations, weapons, and the animals of their
+period.
+
+[Illustration: THE STYLUS]
+
+
+How Did Writing First Come About?
+
+An apparently difficult question to answer, since without writing there
+can be no record of its origin, and without records no facts; yet the
+deduction is so clear that the answer is simple. Somewhere far, far
+back in the dawn of the world, back in the beginning of human history,
+in the epoch which we have now named the Quaternary Period, man lived
+in a dense wilderness surrounded by the wildest and most ferocious
+beasts. His home was a cave, exposed to the dangers incidental to that
+time and his surroundings, and he was of necessity compelled to look
+about for means of defense. With this idea in mind, he found that by
+striking one stone against another he knocked off chips, which chips
+could be used as arrow-heads, spears and axes. Following along these
+lines he discovered that by rubbing one of these chips against another
+there was left a mark, which was the first imitation of writing; that
+the sharper the edge of the chip, the deeper was the scratch, and
+consequently the more distinct the mark.
+
+[Illustration: EARLIEST WAYS OF WRITING
+
+THE FIRST IMITATION OF WRITING]
+
+Next it was discovered that certain stones, such as flint, serpentine
+and chalcedony, marked more readily than others; that the elongated
+chip was handled with more facility; that by rubbing one stone against
+another the finest possible points and edges might be obtained. Thus in
+the Age of Stone was the long, tapering instrument of stone, the first
+pen, the Stylus, originated.
+
+Then came the time, known as the Bronze Age, when men learned to
+hammer metal into shapes, and metal having many advantages over stone,
+the stylus of stone gave way to one of iron. So we find that in the
+time of the Egyptians, about fourteen or fifteen centuries B.C., an
+iron stylus was in use for marking on soapstone, limestone and waxed
+surfaces. An improvement in this metal stylus was that the blunt end
+was convex and smooth, the purpose of which was to erase and smooth
+over irregularities. In some cases it was pointed with diamonds, which
+gave it greater cutting properties. The iron stylus was also used by
+the Egyptians of that period, as well as in later times, with a mallet,
+after the manner of the modern chisel (which indeed it resembled) for
+cutting out inscriptions on their monuments.
+
+[Illustration: THE BRUSH]
+
+~WRITING FLUIDS HELPED DEVELOPMENT~
+
+In course of time a marking fluid was discovered, and this made
+necessary a writing instrument which could spread characters on
+parchment, tree-bark, etc. Thus it was found that by putting together
+a small bunch of hairs, arranging them in the shape of an acute cone,
+and fastening them together in some manner, an instrument could be
+made which would carry fluid in its path, and thus make a mark of the
+desired shape. The hair best adapted for the purpose was found to be
+camel’s hair, while that of the badger and sable was also used. A tube
+cut from a stalk of grass answered for a holder. The hairs were held
+together by a piece of thread which was then drawn through the tube,
+thus making the first writing instrument to be used in conjunction with
+ink, the Brush.
+
+[Illustration: HOW THE CHINESE IMPROVED METHODS]
+
+Just when the Brush came into existence is not definitely known, but
+with this instrument the great Chinese philosopher Confucius wrote his
+marvelous philosophy. The Brush as a writing instrument is generally
+associated with the Chinese, because the Chinese use this instrument
+even to the present day, it being especially adapted to their letters
+and mode of writing. We have now a pen (brush), as well as an ink, but
+the material upon which the people of that age wrote, in lieu of paper,
+was still very crude, parchment and tree-bark being most commonly used.
+
+[Illustration: THE QUILL]
+
+~THE EARLIEST FORMS OF PAPER~
+
+Just as the discovery of an ink wrought a change from the Stylus to
+the Brush, so the advent of papyrus, a paper made from the papyrus
+plant, which was much finer and more economical than parchment, brought
+with it a pen better adapted for this material. It was found that
+the Reed, or Calamo, as it was called, which grew on the marshes on
+the shores of Egypt, Armenia and the Persian Gulf, if cut into short
+lengths and trimmed down to a point, made an admirable pen for this
+newly discovered paper. This was the true ancient representative and
+precursor of the modern pen. The use of the Reed can be traced to a
+remote antiquity among the civilized nations of the East, where Reeds
+are in use now as instruments for writing.
+
+[Illustration: HOW THE MONKS DID THEIR WRITING]
+
+The introduction of a finer paper rendered necessary a finer instrument
+of writing, and the quill of the goose, swan, and, for very fine
+writing, of the crow, was found to be well adapted. Immense flocks of
+geese were raised, chiefly for their quills. The earliest specific
+allusion to the quill occurs in the writings of St. Isadore de Seville,
+seventh century, although it is believed to have been in use at an
+earlier period. The quill was used for many centuries. Most of the
+writing during its reign was done in the monasteries by the monks, and
+in the eighteenth century, when quill-making became quite an art,
+every monk and every teacher was expected to be proficient in the art
+of making a pen from a quill. The preliminary process of preparing the
+quills was first to sort them according to their quality, dry in the
+hot sand, then clean them of the outer skin, and harden by dipping in
+a boiling solution of alum and diluted nitric acid. During the last
+century many efforts were made to improve the quill, its great defect
+being speedy injury from use. Ruby points were fitted to the nib, but
+this was found impracticable on account of the delicacy of the work.
+Joseph Bramah devised, in 1809, a machine for cutting the quill into
+separate nibs for use in holders, thus making several pens from one
+quill and anticipating the form of the modern pen.
+
+[Illustration: THE STEEL TUBE PEN]
+
+[Illustration: THE FIRST STEEL PEN]
+
+The quill held sway as writing instrument for many years, and with
+it the greatest masterpieces in literature have been written. Many
+attempts, however, had been made to supersede the quill by a pen not so
+easily injured by use, but it was not until about 1780 that, after much
+experimenting and numerous failures, Mr. Samuel Harrison introduced the
+first metallic pen.
+
+~THE INVENTION OF THE PEN~
+
+This pen was made as follows:
+
+A sheet of steel was rolled in the form of a tube. One end was cut and
+trimmed to a point after the manner of the quill, the seam where both
+edges of the tube met forming the slit of the pen. This was soon after
+improved upon by cutting a rough blank out of a thin sheet of steel,
+which blank was filed into form about the nib, rounded, and with a
+sharp chisel marked inside where the slit was to be in the finished
+pen. After tempering, the nib was ground and shaped to a point
+suitable for fine or broad writing, as required.
+
+[Illustration: THE MODERN STEEL PEN]
+
+[Illustration: THE MODERN WRITING PEN]
+
+Once started, the steel pen made rapid strides in improvement. Mr.
+James Perry, in 1824, started in England the manufacture of pens on a
+large scale, and to him as well as Gillott is due the many improvements
+which followed.
+
+Perry was the first to manufacture “slip” steel pens, up to this time
+the pen and holder being one piece.
+
+    “In times of yore, when each man cut his quill
+    With little Perryian skill;
+    What horrid, awkward, bungling tools of trade
+    Appeared the writing instruments, home made!”
+
+~THE MODERN WAY OF WRITING~
+
+The steel pen of the present day has reached the pinnacle of
+perfection, and the method of manufacture of this little but mighty
+instrument of writing, though of extreme interest, is practically
+unknown by the general public. To explain in detail the development
+from the rough steel to the finished pen would needs make a book
+in itself. And as it has been our intention to dwell, not upon the
+manufacture of the pen, but to trace its history and development from
+its most crude form, the Stylus, to the perfect and smooth-writing
+steel pen of to-day, we will close our story with the well-worn epigram
+of old, grim Cardinal Richelieu:
+
+    “Beneath the rule of men entirely great,
+    The Pen is mightier than the Sword!”
+
+
+How a Steel Pen is Made
+
+  In the picture on the following page, we see the various processes
+  required in making a steel pen, together with a description of each
+  process:
+
+[Illustration: HOW A STEEL PEN IS MADE
+
+  N^o. 1. ROLLED STEEL.
+
+  N^o. 2. SCRAP.
+
+  N^o. 3. BLANKS.
+
+  N^o. 4. MARKING.
+
+  N^o. 5. PIERCING.
+
+  N^o. 6. ANNEALING.
+
+  N^o. 7. RAISING.
+
+  N^o. 8. HARDENING.
+
+  N^o. 9. TEMPERING.
+
+  N^o. 10. SCOURING.
+
+  N^o. 11. GRINDING.
+
+  N^o. 12. SLITTING.
+
+  N^o. 13. No. 1. COLLEGE PEN No. 5. SCHOOL PEN.
+  (FINISHED PENS.)
+  COLORING AND VARNISHING.
+
+  The pictures herewith printed are by the courtesy of the Spencerian
+  Pen Company
+
+  _Raw Material._--The sheet steel is cut into strips of a convenient
+  length and width, and then rolled cold to the exact gauge necessary,
+  according to the pen to be manufactured.
+
+  _Cutting the Blank._--This is a mechanical operation, and is effected
+  with the aid of a screw press, in which a pair of tools corresponding
+  with the shape of the pen has been fixed. On pulling a lever the
+  screw descends, driving the punch into the bed, which cuts a blank
+  with a scissors-like action, from the strip of steel.
+
+  _Marking the Name._--This is done by means of a punch fixed in
+  the hammer of a stamp, worked by the foot. The blanks are rapidly
+  introduced between guides fixed on the bed of the stamp, and as
+  soon as the hammer has fallen the blank is thrown out and a new one
+  introduced.
+
+  _Piercing._--The tools for this operation are of a delicate
+  character. The blanks are fed by hand, as above explained, and the
+  hole punched by a screw press. This is a most important process; the
+  pierce hole and slide slits determine the elasticity and regulate the
+  flow of the ink on the pen.
+
+  _Annealing or Softening._--The blanks are still moderately hard and
+  before raising, it is necessary to soften them by heating to a dull
+  red, and allowing them to gradually cool.
+
+  _Raising._--The operator places one of the soft blanks on a die to
+  which guides are affixed to keep it in position; then by moving the
+  handle of the press, the screw descends, forcing a die which rounds
+  the blank into the form of a pen.
+
+  _Hardening._--The pen is now too soft, and is hardened by heating and
+  the immersing in oil while hot, after which it is thoroughly cleansed
+  from all grease.
+
+  _Tempering._--The pens are now hard but very brittle, and in order
+  to correct this defect they are placed in an iron cylinder, and kept
+  revolving over a gas or charcoal fire until they acquire a proper
+  temper.
+
+  _Scouring._--After soaking in diluted sulphuric acid, the pens are
+  placed in iron cylinders containing fine stone and water, or fine
+  sand, and revolved for several hours. When taken from these cylinders
+  they are bright and smooth.
+
+  _Grinding._--This is a process performed by hand on a “bob,” or
+  wooden wheel covered with leather and dressed with emory, revolving
+  at high speed. A light touch on the emory wheel grinds off the
+  surface between the pierce hole and the point, to obtain proper
+  action and to assist the flow of ink.
+
+  _Slitting._--This is a hand process performed with a press, the
+  cutters being as sharp as razors. The pen is placed in position by
+  means of guides, and must be cut with utmost precision from the
+  pierce hole to the point, the point must be divided exactly in the
+  middle, the least variation making the pen defective.
+
+  _Coloring and Varnishing._--The pens having been polished to a bright
+  silver color are placed in an iron cylinder and kept revolving over
+  a gas or charcoal fire until the tint required is produced. They are
+  then immersed in a bath of shellac varnish, and afterwards dried in
+  an oven.
+
+  _Examination._--Every steel pen passing through the factory is most
+  carefully examined before being boxed, and should the least fault be
+  found, it is at once rejected.]
+
+
+Why Does a Pencil Write?
+
+You can use a pencil to write with or to make marks, because the pencil
+wears off if you are scratching it on a surface that is rough enough
+to make it do so. Writing, you know, is only a way of making marks in
+such a manner as to make them mean something. You cannot write with a
+pencil on a pane of glass, because the glass is so smooth that when
+you move the pencil over its surface, the pencil will not wear off. To
+prove to yourself that the tip of the pencil constantly wears off when
+you write, you have only to recall that when you write with it a pencil
+keeps getting shorter and shorter. A slate-pencil will wear down short
+by merely writing with it, but a lead-pencil must be sharpened--that
+is, you must keep cutting away the wood in order to get at the lead
+inside.
+
+
+Why Can’t I Write on Paper With a Slate-pencil?
+
+You cannot do so, because it takes something with a rougher surface
+than paper to wear off the point of a slate-pencil. A slate is used to
+write on with slate-pencils, because slate wears off the end of the
+pencil easily, and also because you can rub out the writing on a slate
+with water. Lead-pencils are used for writing on paper, but you must
+have a rough surface on the paper to write on even with a lead-pencil.
+Some kinds of papers have such a smooth surface that you cannot write
+on them with a lead-pencil.
+
+
+How Does a Pen Write?
+
+Writing with a pen, however, is quite different from writing with any
+kind of pencil, because in writing with ink we do not wear off the end
+of the pen, but have the ink flow from the pen. For this purpose we
+must have a surface that will absorb the ink from the pen, and draw
+the ink down off the pen and make it flow. A slate has no power of
+absorption and therefore cannot draw the ink. A piece of blotting paper
+is the best kind of paper for absorbing ink, but it is too much so for
+writing purposes. For writing with ink we need a comparatively hard
+surfaced paper that has absorbent qualities, but not too absorbent.
+
+
+
+
+How Does a Blotter Take Up the Ink of a Blot?
+
+
+It is because the blotter has a very excellent ability to absorb some
+liquids. The thinner the liquid the more easily the blotter will absorb
+it. Ink is thin--being mostly water--the blotter is of a loose texture
+and has a rough surface. This gives the blotter the ability to pick up
+the ink, just as a sponge would do. A sponge has what is called the
+power of capillary attraction and so has the blotter.
+
+
+
+
+Where Does Chalk Come From?
+
+
+Deposits of chalk are found on some shores of the sea. A piece of chalk
+such as the teacher uses to illustrate something on the blackboard
+at school consists of the remains of thousands of tiny creatures
+that at one time lived in the sea. All of their bodies excepting the
+chalk--called carbonate of lime in scientific language--has disappeared
+and the chalk that was left was piled up where it fell at the bottom
+of the ocean, each particle pressing against the other with the water
+pressing over it all until it became almost solid. It took thousands of
+years to make these chalk deposits of the thickness in which they are
+found. Later on, through changes in the earth’s surface, the mountain
+of chalk was raised until it stood out of the water and thus became
+accessible to man and school teachers.
+
+
+
+
+How Did Men Learn to Talk?
+
+
+Talking and the words used came into being through the desire of men
+to communicate with each other. Before words became known and used
+man talked to those about him by the use of signs, gestures and other
+movements of the body. Even to-day when men meet who cannot talk the
+same language they will be seen trying to come to an understanding by
+the use of signs and gestures and generally with fair results. The
+need of more signs and gestures to express a constantly increasing
+number of objects and thoughts led to the introduction of sounds or
+combination of sounds made with the vocal cords to accompany certain
+signs and gestures. In this way man eventually developed a very
+considerable faculty for expressing himself. Sign by sign, gesture
+by gesture and sound by sound language was slowly developed. A man
+would be trying to explain something to another by sign or gesture
+and to make it more clear would make a sound or combination of sounds
+to put more expression into his efforts. Finally the other man would
+understand what was meant and he would tell some one else, using the
+same signs, gestures and sounds. Later on it would develop that to
+express thus any certain thought, act or the name of a thing, all of
+the people in the community would make this same combination of sounds,
+signs and gestures to express the same thing. Finally the gestures
+and signs would be dropped and it was found that people understood
+perfectly what was meant when only the sound or combination of sounds
+was produced. That made a word. All the other words were made in the
+same way, one at a time, until we had enough words to express all the
+ordinary things and the combination of words became a language. The
+children learned the language by hearing their parents talk it, and
+that is how men learned to talk.
+
+
+
+
+How Did Shaking the Head Come to Mean “No”?
+
+
+The origin of this method of indicating “No” is found in the result of
+the mother’s efforts in the animal kingdom of trying to feed her young.
+A mother animal would be trying to get her young to accept the food she
+brought them and tried to put it in their mouths. Perhaps, however, the
+young animal had had sufficient food or did not fancy the kind of food
+offered. The natural thing to do under the circumstances would be to
+close the mouth tight and shake the head from side to side to prevent
+the mother from forcing the food into the mouth. Thus we get the closed
+lips and the shaking the head from side to side to mean “No.” In other
+words, that kind of a way of saying “No” came from an effort to say “I
+don’t want any.”
+
+
+
+
+How Did a Nod Come to Mean “Yes”?
+
+
+The idea of nodding to mean “Yes” comes from the opposite of the action
+which, as just described, indicates a “No.”
+
+When the young animal was anxious to accept the offered food, it made
+an effort to get at the food quickly. Hence, the pushing forward of the
+head and the open mouth (always more or less opened when you nod to
+indicate “Yes”) and an expression of gladness. You will notice if you
+see anyone nod the head to indicate “Yes” that the lips are open rather
+than closed, and that there is always a smile or an indication of a
+smile to accompany it. In other words, the nod to mean “Yes” is only
+another way of saying “I shall be pleased.”
+
+
+
+
+Why Do We Count in Tens?
+
+
+When man even in his uncivilized state found it necessary to count, the
+only implements at hand were his fingers and toes, and as he had ten
+toes and ten fingers, he naturally began counting in tens, and has been
+doing so ever since.
+
+When we to-day count on our fingers we confine ourselves to our fingers
+leaving our toes stay in our shoes, where they naturally belong. But
+the first men who counted used both fingers and toes, and so he was
+able to count twenty before he had to begin over again, while little
+children to-day, when they count with their fingers, must begin where
+they started after they reach ten.
+
+
+
+
+What Does Man Mean by Counting Himself?
+
+
+The expression “counting himself” was originated by the first man who
+counted. Such a man would count all of his fingers and toes and the
+result would be twenty. Then, so that he would remember the number of
+times he had counted himself, he made a mark some place each time he
+reached twenty. The mark he made was a mere scratch in the dirt or on a
+hoe or something else. To make a scratch you merely, of course, score
+the surface of whatever you happen to be scratching on, and that is how
+it happened that the word “score” in our language to-day means as a
+term in counting, twenty.
+
+There has been a great effort made to change our system of counting in
+tens to one where you count in twelves. That would fit in very well
+with our system of measuring which is based on the foot of twelve
+inches, and of our calendar for recording the passage of time which has
+twelve months. There are many arguments in favor of this change, among
+the principal of which is the fact that it would make our problems of
+division much easier, for our ten can be evenly divided by but two of
+our single figures, two and five, whereas twelve can be evenly divided
+by four of our single figures, viz., two, three, four and six. It is
+believed that sooner or later the system of counting by twelve instead
+of ten will be adopted by the entire world for counting everything. As
+it is now we do part of our counting by one system and part of it by
+another.
+
+
+
+
+Where Did All the Names of People Originate?
+
+
+There is no scientific plan by which people get their names. There is
+not much except curious interest to be gleaned from the study of how
+people got their names.
+
+In the earliest days of the world, or at least as soon as men had
+learned to speak by sounds, all known persons, places and groups of
+human beings must have had names by which they could be spoken of or
+to, and by which they were recognized. The study of these names and
+of their survival in civilization enables us in certain instances to
+tell what tribes inhabited certain parts of the earth now peopled
+by descendants of an entirely different race and of another speech
+altogether. We learn such things from the names of mountains and other
+things, for instance, which still cling to them.
+
+The story of personal names is very complex, but comes from very simple
+beginnings. The oldest personal names were those which indicated a
+group of people rather than individuals who may have been actually
+related to each other or even bound together for reasons of protection
+or other convenience. In the races of Asia, Africa, Australia and
+America examination shows that groups of people who considered
+themselves to be of the same relationship, attached to themselves the
+name of some animal or other object, whether animate or inanimate, from
+which they claimed to be descended. This animal or object was called
+the “totem,” and thus the earliest and most widely spread class and
+family names are totemistic. Such groups called themselves by names
+from wolves, turtles, bears, suns, moons, birds, and other objects, and
+these people wore badges with pictures of the animal or object from
+which they took their names to identify them to other people.
+
+When, then, we come to investigate the giving of personal names among
+the tribes, we see that most uncivilized races gave a name to each
+new-born infant derived from some object or incident. So a new-born
+member of the “Sun” tribe would be named “Dawn,” and would be known
+as “Dawn” of the “Sun” tribe; or perhaps a new-born son of the tribe
+of “Wolf” would be called “Hungry,” and be known as “Hungry Wolf.” A
+member of the “Cloud” tribe would be named “Morning,” because he was
+born in the morning. He would always be known as “Morning Cloud.”
+
+Later, as society became more established and paternity became
+recognized, we find the totem name give way to a gentile name.
+Among the Greeks and Romans the system was early adopted and proved
+satisfactory. Thus we have Caius Julius Caesar. Caius indicates that
+he is Roman; Julius is the gentile name given him and the Caesar a sort
+of hereditary nickname. On the other hand, the early Greeks began the
+system of introducing a local name instead of the gentile name. Thus
+Thucydides (obtained from the grandfather), the son of Olorus, of the
+Deme (township) of Halimusia.
+
+~HOW DIFFERENT NAMES ORIGINATED~
+
+This was all right and suited the purposes of the Greeks and Romans,
+who had plenty of time to give full explanations in this way. But
+in Europe, for instance, civilization demanded more speed, and the
+increase of population demanded more names, so that nicknames and names
+indicating personal descriptions and peculiarities came into use. Such
+names as Long, Short, Small, Brown, White, Green and others of the
+same kind came from this source, and as families grew these surnames
+stuck to the family and parents gave their children Christian names
+to further distinguish them as individuals. Other surnames such as
+Fowler, Sadler, Smith, Farmer, etc., became attached to people because
+of the occupations in which they were engaged, and yet other names
+were derived from places. The owner of an extensive estate would be
+designated by a Christian name which might be George (after his King)
+and then to indicate his landownership, von (meaning of) Wood, making
+the combination of George von Wood, meaning George, the owner of the
+place called Wood. On the other hand, he might have working for him a
+laborer who lived at the place and, if his name was Hiram, they would,
+to indicate where he belonged, put the Wood after the Hiram; but, lest
+there be confusion as to his class, they would put an At before the
+Wood and make him Hiram Atwood, indicating his Christian name, where he
+worked and the fact that he was not a landowner.
+
+Many other names were invented in similar manner. When Adams became so
+common that there would likely be confusion on account of there being
+so many of them, a son of one of the Adams family would add to the name
+the fact that he was a son by writing his name Adamson, and thus start
+a new family name. Thus, in the same way also came Willson, Clarkson,
+and other names of that kind.
+
+For a long time the Jews had only one word for a name, such as Isaac,
+Jacob, Moses, etc. They became so numerous that it was impossible to
+distinguish them, and so a commission was named to give surnames to
+all the Jews in addition to their other names. As the race was then,
+as now, held in derision by the rulers of many nations into which the
+tribe had become scattered, the people who had charge of the naming of
+the Jews took advantage of the opportunity to make sport of them, and
+gave them such names as
+
+Rosenstock (Rose bush),
+
+Rosenszweig (Rose twig),
+
+Rosenbaum (Rose tree),
+
+Blumenstock (Flower bush),
+
+Blumenthal (Flower valley),
+
+etc., etc.
+
+Our Christian names are from similar sources, and while many of them
+are well selected because of their beautiful meanings, there are many
+of them which mean nothing as words as they were only invented for the
+purpose of giving a new name to a new child.
+
+
+
+
+Why Can You Blow Out a Candle?
+
+
+When you light a candle it burns, because the lighted wick heats the
+wax sufficiently to turn it into gases, which mix with the oxygen in
+the air and produce fire in the form of light. You know it is not easy
+to light a candle quickly. You must hold the lighted match to the wick
+until the wax begins to melt and change to gases. As long as the wax
+continues hot enough to melt and turn to gas the candle will burn until
+all burned up; but if there is a break in the continuous process of
+changing the wax to gas, the light will go out. Now, when you blow at
+the lighted candle, you blow the gases which feed the flame away from
+the lighted wick, and this makes a break in the continuous flow of gas
+from the wax to taper, and the light goes out.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+The Story in a Photograph
+
+
+How Does a Camera Take a Picture?
+
+When we look upon the surface of a mirror we see the image of ourself
+and our surroundings. The extent of the view depends upon the size of
+the mirror and the distance we are standing from it.
+
+If we hold the mirror close to our face we see only the face, or
+perhaps but a portion of it, and the farther away we are the more
+the mirror will reflect, only, of course, the various images will be
+smaller. The mirror reflecting exactly what the eye sees, without doubt
+had a great influence in inducing the experiments that resulted in the
+process we call photography.
+
+The taking of a photograph with a camera may in a way be compared
+with the action of your eyes, when you gaze upon your reflection in a
+mirror, or look at any object or view. Any object in a light strong
+enough to render it visible will reflect rays of light from every point.
+
+Now, the eye contains a lens very similar in form to that used in a
+camera. This lens collects the rays of light reflected from the object
+looked at and brings them to a focus in the back of the eye, forming an
+image or picture of whatever we see, just as the mirror collects the
+rays of light and reflects them back through the lens of the eye.
+
+Certain nerves transmit the impression of the image so focused in the
+back of the eye to the brain and we experience the sensation of sight.
+
+
+What Is the Eye of the Camera?
+
+The lens is the eye of the camera, and the process we call photography
+is the method employed to make permanent the image the eye or lens of
+the camera presents to a sensitive surface within the camera.
+
+Fig. 1 shows a simple form of camera, it being merely a light tight box
+with a lens fitted to the front, and a means for holding a sensitive
+plate at the back, the plate being placed at just the right distance to
+focus the rays of light admitted through the lens in exactly the same
+manner as the rays of light pass through the lens of the eye and come
+to a focus in the back part of the eye.
+
+Now, if we could look inside the camera we would note that the image
+was inverted, or upside down.
+
+Fig. 2 will explain this.
+
+The rays of light from “A” pass in a straight line through the lens
+“B” until they are interrupted by “C,” upon which they strike, forming
+an upside down image of the object “A.” But, you exclaim, “we do not
+see things upside down.” No, we do not, because some mental process
+readjusts this during the passing of the impression from the eye to our
+brain.
+
+Let us suppose we have our camera loaded with its sensitive plate or
+film. We select some object or view we wish to photograph, uncover
+the lens for an instant, and let the light impress the image upon the
+sensitive surface of the plate or film. Now, how are we going to make
+this image permanent?
+
+If we were to examine the creamy yellow strip of film upon which the
+picture was taken there would seemingly be no difference between its
+present appearance and before the snapshot was made.
+
+Now let us suppose that this strip of film is a little trundle bed, and
+in it tucked securely away from the light are many hundreds of little
+chaps called silver bromides, little roly-poly fellows lying just as
+close together as possible, and protected by a coverlet of pure white
+gelatine.
+
+~HOW A PHOTOGRAPH IS DEVELOPED~
+
+Until the sudden flash of light in their faces when the picture was
+taken, they have been content to lie still and sleep soundly. Now
+they are seized with a strange unrest, and each little atom is eager
+to do his part in showing your picture to the world. Alone they are
+powerless, but they have, all unbeknown to them, some powerful chemical
+friends, who, organized and aided by the photographer, will bring
+about their transformation. These chemicals, with the help of the
+photographer, form themselves into a society called the developer.
+
+The photographer takes just so many of the tiny feathery crystals of
+pyro, just so many of the clear little atoms of sulphite of soda, and
+just so many little crystals of carbonate of soda, and tumbles them
+all into a beaker of clear cold water. Unaided by each other, any one
+of these chemicals would be powerless to help their little bromide
+of silver friends. The first of these chemicals to go to work is the
+carbonate of soda.
+
+He tiptoes softly over to the trundle bed and gently begins turning
+back the gelatine covers over the little bromide of silver chaps, so
+that Pyro can find them in the dark.
+
+It is Pyro’s mission to transform the little silver bromides into
+silver metal, but he is rather an impulsive chap, so he is accompanied
+by sulphite of soda, who warns him not to be too rough, and whose sole
+mission is to strain his eagerness to help his friends.
+
+“Go slow now,” says Sulphite, “don’t frighten the little silver
+bromides, or else you’ll make them cuddle up in heaps, and the picture
+won’t be as nice as if you wake them up gently and each little bromide
+stayed just where he belonged.”
+
+After all the little silver bromides that the light shone on have been
+transformed into metallic silver by the developer, another chemical
+friend has to step in and carry away all the little bromides that were
+not awakened by the flash of light.
+
+This friend’s name is “Hypo,” and in a few minutes he has carried away
+all the little bromides that are still sleeping, so that the trundle
+bed with the now awakened and transformed silver bromides will, after
+washing and drying, be called a negative, and ready to print your
+pictures from.
+
+If we take this negative, as it is called, and hold it up to the
+light, we will see that everything is reversed, not only from right to
+left, but also that whatever is white or light in color is dark in the
+negative, and that what would correspond to the darker parts of our
+picture are the lightest in the negative, and it is from these facts
+that we give it the name negative.
+
+Now, to get our picture as it should be, we must place this negative in
+contact with a sheet of coated paper that is also sensitive to light.
+
+So we place the negative and the sheet of sensitive paper in what is
+called a printing frame, with the negative uppermost, so that the light
+may shine through the negative, and impress the image upon the sheet of
+sensitive paper. Now, it stands to reason that if the lightest parts of
+our picture are the darkest in the negative that less light can pass
+through such portions of the negative in a given time, so that with the
+proper exposure to light the image upon the sheet of sensitive paper
+will be a correct picture of whatever the lens saw.
+
+[Illustration: The swiftest thing that the human race has ever put into
+motion is the steel projectile of a twelve-inch gun. No human eye can
+follow its flight. Released at a pressure of forty thousand pounds to
+the square inch--in a heat at which diamonds melt and carbon boils--it
+hurls through the air at the rate of twenty-five miles a minute, and
+reaches the mark _ahead of its own sound_! (Pictures and story by
+courtesy of McClure’s Magazine.)]
+
+
+TWENTY-FIVE MILES A MINUTE
+
+AN EXCLUSIVE STORY, ILLUSTRATED WITH A SERIES OF REMARKABLE PHOTOGRAPHS
+TAKEN WITH THE FASTEST CAMERA IN THE WORLD
+
+BY CLEVELAND MOFFETT
+
+~HOW SHOOTING SHELLS ARE PHOTOGRAPHED~
+
+One of the most progressive branches of our military service is the
+Department of Coast Defenses, which, under the far-seeing guidance of
+General E. M. Weaver, holds our shores and harbors in a state of alert
+preparedness against foreign aggression. At Hampton Roads sits the
+Coast Artillery Board, composed of officers and consulting engineers
+to whom are referred all problems relating to coast artillery, and who
+have the responsibility of testing all new instruments proposed for
+artillery use. The purpose of this article is to describe one among
+several notable achievements of the Hampton Roads Coast Artillery
+School, this particular work having been done by Captain F. J. Behr of
+the Coast Artillery Corps, who, after years of effort, has recently
+developed a system that makes it possible to take pictures of the
+swiftest moving bodies, the great steel projectiles of our biggest
+guns--to seize them with the camera’s eye as they hurl through the air
+at enormous velocities or at the very moment of their emergence from
+the gun muzzles, and to preserve these images, never seen before, for
+military study and comparison. Captain Behr was ably assisted in this
+work by Engineer J. A. Wilson.
+
+[Illustration: THE FASTEST CAMERA IN THE WORLD
+
+  The big gun, equipped with the fastest camera shutter in the world,
+  about to be fired and the shell photographed.
+
+For years a young officer of the Coast Artillery has been trying to
+devise a camera so incredibly swift that it will record every stage of
+this lightning flight from the gun-barrel to the target. At last he has
+succeeded. His photographs--some of them taken one hundred thousandth
+of a second apart--have revealed remarkable and unsuspected facts to
+the military world. The story of his invention had never before been
+told.]
+
+
+Reckoning in Millionths of a Second.
+
+Some of the increments and decrements of time involved in the series of
+photographs herewith published (several of them for the first time) are
+as small as one ten-thousandth part of a second. And Captain Behr has
+devised a method of taking photographs of projectiles as they arrive at
+a steel target and penetrate the target, inch by inch, that involves
+increments or decrements of time as small as the one hundred-thousandth
+part of a second. To the uninitiated it seems incredible that such
+infinitesimal divisions of time can be used in practical calculations;
+but every trained physicist knows that in wireless work scientists of
+to-day speak casually of experiments that take account of _two-tenths
+or one-tenth of a millionth part of a second_!
+
+[Illustration: THE PROJECTILE EMERGING FROM MORTAR
+
+In this photograph--the first of a remarkable series showing five
+stages of a moving projectile--the half-ton projectile seems to be
+standing still, but really it is traveling at the rate of 900 miles an
+hour. The gunners here work in concrete pits 34 feet high. Underneath
+the mounts are the powder magazines. Each pit has four mortars usually
+served by an entire Coast Artillery Company. The projectiles are the
+same as those used in the twelve-inch guns, but less powder is required
+because mortar projectiles are hurled high in the air, not straight at
+a vessel, and deliver their destructive blows downward from a great
+height.]
+
+[Illustration: THE SMOKE RINGS WHICH APPEAR
+
+This second photograph shows the projectile almost entirely out of the
+mortar. Its sharp nose may be seen above the “gas-ring” forming at its
+upper end. These “gas-rings,” or “smoke-rings,” come without warning,
+and only occasionally, perhaps once in eight or ten shots. They rise
+swiftly to the height of fifty or a hundred feet, growing larger
+and larger, and giving forth a weird, shrieking sound like a second
+projectile. Some insist that these “smoke-rings” are as hard as steel,
+owing to the enormous compression of their composing gases, and the
+story is told of a bird caught in the path of one of them and torn to
+pieces.]
+
+What happened to the projectile after it leaves the gun, or after
+the discharge of the gun, and before the projectile has had time to
+issue from the gun-barrel? What is the action at the muzzle of gases
+generated? What shape do these gases assume as they leave the gun? What
+causes the much-discussed “gas-rings” that sometimes form when a mortar
+is fired, and oftener do not form? What phenomena attend the arrival
+of the projectile at a solid steel target? Is the steel actually fused
+by the heat of impact? Is it vaporized? Or what? These are some of
+the questions that Captain Behr set himself to solve, or to help in
+solving, as he worked out his methods of rapid photography. His aims
+were strictly military, but his results make fascinating appeal to the
+general imagination. Fancy doing anything in the one hundred-thousandth
+part of a second!
+
+[Illustration: THE PROJECTILE HIDDEN BY THE SMOKE CONE
+
+In the third photograph the smoke-cone is almost perfect and gives the
+famous “powder-puff” effect. It still hides the projectile, although
+the latter is traveling at a velocity that would take it from New York
+to Chicago in one hour. At night the “gas-rings” present a startling
+and fascinating appearance, burning with a reddish orange glow, and
+whirling with a complicated double motion, strange opalescent balls,
+like rings of Saturn. A study of these photographs--the first record
+ever made of the “gas-rings”--has led some experts to the conclusion
+that the cause of the rings is defective ramming of the projectile.]
+
+[Illustration: THE PROJECTILE EMERGING FROM SMOKE CONE
+
+The fourth photograph shows the projectile emerging from the smoke-cone
+about thirty feet above the muzzle of the mortar. The men who fire
+these mortars from the mortar-pits never see the distant target or
+vessel they are firing at, but point their mortars according to
+directions transmitted to them (usually by telephone) from observers at
+distant stations. And so great a degree of precision has been attained
+that, on certain practice occasions at Hampton Roads, a record of nine
+hits out of ten shots has been scored on a moving target five miles out
+in the ocean. This picture shows the smoke-cone as first seen by the
+human eye.]
+
+Captain Behr’s general idea was to utilize some phenomena connected
+with the discharge to actuate, by electrical connections, a mechanism
+that would work a rapid shutter in a properly placed camera. The
+phenomenon of concussion was tried first--the smash of air against a
+little swinging door; but this was much too slow. The projectile was
+hundreds of yards away before the camera had registered its picture.
+And that chance was gone!
+
+[Illustration: THE PROJECTILE HIGH IN THE AIR
+
+In the fifth photograph the projectile is seen entirely clear of the
+smoke-cone and well started on its long flight. Climbing into the sky
+at this steep angle, it will reach a height of from three to six miles
+before it begins to descend. There are harbors on our coasts guarded by
+so many guns and mortars that if these were fired simultaneously they
+could hurl against a given small area a converging rain of projectiles
+aggregating more than fifty tons in their combined mass. A minute later
+they could hurl another fifty tons against the same small area; and so
+on as long as the ammunition lasted.]
+
+In the next trial, several months later, Captain Behr arranged to
+have the electrical connections made or broken by the movement of the
+gun-carriage itself in recoiling; but the result was unsatisfactory.
+Nor was he more fortunate at the succeeding target practice, when,
+having placed the apparatus farther forward on the parapet, he had the
+camera demolished by the force of the concussion and several blades of
+the rapid shutter broken. He was satisfied, now, that his effort to
+actuate the camera mechanism from the gun-carriage would never give the
+requisite precision in results, and he saw that he must work with a
+device functioning more reliably.
+
+In the months that followed before the next target practice, the
+Captain did some experimenting, and finally determined making the
+projectile itself displace a length of piano-wire fixed across the
+muzzle of the gun, and thus actuate the electrical system and operate
+the shutter. In this way he eliminated troublesome variables of
+recoil, elasticity of the carriage, etc., leaving to determine only
+the time element of the electrical system to function. This result was
+admirable, and, after taking several similar pictures, the captain
+found that he could now operate with great precision--that is, he could
+get the same phase of the discharge with almost identical shapes of
+gas-cone and smoke-cloud, and he could get these every time.
+
+In the fall of 1912 Captain Behr succeeded in obtaining a series of
+extremely rapid photographs showing a twelve-inch mortar battery in
+action. In taking these pictures the camera was placed on an elevation
+about ten feet above the concrete floor and about sixty feet back of
+the mortars. The electrical device for working the shutter was actuated
+by the mortar itself in its recoil. These pictures were taken in about
+one five-thousandth of a second--which is the more remarkable as the
+last two were taken in the shade after 4.30 A.M. The first three were
+taken about noon, in the sunshine, as the shadows show.
+
+So great was the precision of the electrical device as to render
+possible the photographic recording of these mortar projectiles,
+moving at great velocities, in almost any desired position after the
+discharge, say two feet away from the muzzle, or six feet away, or
+twenty feet away, or right at the muzzle, as shown in the first mortar
+picture, where the great projectile has been caught in its flight half
+way out of the mortar.
+
+
+Pictures Never Seen By the Human Eye.
+
+~A CAMERA THAT IS FASTER THAN THE EYE~
+
+It is interesting to note that of these five mortar pictures,
+representing five phases of the firing, only the last two are ever
+seen by the human eye. The far swifter camera, acting in about one
+five-thousandth of a second, has caught all these phases as reproduced
+here; but, to the ordinary observer standing by, the first visible
+impression after firing is that of the smoke-cone as developed in
+Number Four. The strange “powder-puff” effect shown in Number Three is
+never seen; nor the earlier effects in Numbers One and Two. Nor is any
+sound heard by an observer or by the gun crew until the third or fourth
+phase has been reached. This is a matter of simple calculation.
+
+Sound travels through the air very slowly as compared with light, and
+in Numbers One, Two, and Three, although the crashing explosion has
+taken place and the projectile is already started on its long journey,
+the men (even the lanyard man, who is nearest), have heard nothing,
+since the sound-waves have not yet had time to reach their ears. Nor
+has the mortar itself had time to recoil, as it does presently, down
+into the well in the floor of the pit.
+
+The men aboard the towing vessels that drag the floating targets during
+gun and mortar practice would seem to be in a dangerous position, since
+the tow-line is not more than two hundred yards long for guns and
+five hundred yards long for mortars, and a very slight error in aim
+or adjustment might cause a deviation of several hundred yards when
+the range is eight or ten thousand yards. As a matter of fact, such
+errors do not occur, and a gun-pointer who would make a right or left
+deviation from the target of ten yards, or at the most fifteen yards
+at a distance of five miles, would be considered unfit for his job.
+In one or two rare instances a towing vessel has been struck when a
+projectile has fallen short and then ricochetted to the right, as it
+invariably does owing to its rotation in that direction. The rifling of
+the gun-barrel causes this rotation.
+
+[Illustration: This shows one of Captain Behr’s earliest efforts to
+photograph the projectile from a twelve-inch gun. The man on the
+platform has been adjusting the electrical connections that actuate
+the camera mechanism. The halo effect at the muzzle of the gun is due
+to compressed air caused by the forward rush of the projectile. The
+projectile has not yet emerged from the muzzle of the gun. On the right
+is the place where the “Merrimac” and the “Monitor” had their famous
+fight.]
+
+Sometimes these great projectiles ricochet several times, and go
+bounding over the water as a pebble skips along the surface of a
+mill-pond, only there may be the distance of a mile or more between
+these giant leaps.
+
+
+The Projectile Travels Faster Than the Sound It Makes.
+
+A strange phenomenon is witnessed by the observer on a towing vessel as
+he looks, rather uneasily perhaps, toward the distant shore battery,
+that seems to be firing straight at him. First there is a flash and
+a puff of smoke; then nothing for a period of seconds, while the
+projectile is on its way; then suddenly a great splash as the mass of
+iron strikes the water. Up to this moment there has been no sound of
+the discharge, no sound of the projectile, since it travels faster than
+the sound-waves; but now, _after_ it has buried itself in the ocean, is
+heard its own unmistakable voice, a low, buzzing _um-m-m-m_ approaching
+from the shore. The projectile itself has arrived _before_ the sound
+that it makes in transit, and the sound arrives afterward. Last of all
+is heard the boom of the discharge.
+
+[Illustration: A GUN THAT PHOTOGRAPHED ITS OWN SHOT
+
+In this beautiful picture the hurling projectile was itself the
+photographer: that is, in passing out of the gun-barrel, it broke a
+length of piano-wire stretched across the muzzle and thus automatically
+closed an electrical circuit that actuated the camera mechanism. And so
+rapid was the shutter that the great shot hurled forth in the discharge
+photographed here has not yet had time to issue from the smoke-cone,
+where it is still hidden.]
+
+Owing to the great velocity of gun projectiles, it is almost impossible
+for an observer near the target to see them as they approach; but a
+trained eye can discern the slower moving mortar projectiles as they
+drop out of the sky, shrieking as they come, curving downward from a
+height of four or five miles, half a ton falling from a height of four
+or five miles.
+
+[Illustration: EXPLODING A SUBMARINE MINE
+
+This photograph illustrates another important form of coast
+defense--the submarine mine. A target about 5 by 5 feet, with a red
+flag at its apex, is towed across the mine-field, the mines being
+exploded electrically from a shore station several miles away. The
+methods of laying and exploding these mines are carefully kept secrets.
+In this case a charge of five hundred pounds of the newest explosive
+was used. Fragments of the shattered target and mine-buoy are seen at
+the right of the picture. Tons of water are hurled into the air by
+these explosions, and hundreds of fish are killed or stunned.]
+
+It is difficult to realize what an enormous force is released when one
+of these twelve-inch guns is discharged. The pressure inside of the
+gun behind the projectile is between thirty-five and forty thousand
+pounds to the square inch. No engine or machine made by man produces
+anything like this pressure. The boiler pressure in steam-engines,
+or in big turbines driven by superheated steam, does not exceed two
+hundred or three hundred pounds to the square inch. The huge hydraulic
+presses that would crumple up a steel girder do not exert a pressure
+of more than one thousand pounds to the square inch. The only reason
+a gun-barrel can resist this pressure (forty thousand pounds to the
+square inch) is that it is built up in a series of concentric steel
+hoops or tubes shrunk one over the other until there is a resistance
+capacity of from seventy thousand to ninety thousand pounds to the
+square inch. Even at rest, the barrels of these great guns are under
+such enormous compression, from being thus squeezed within these outer
+steel coverings, that, if the retaining steel jackets were suddenly
+cut, the tubes would blow themselves into pieces from the violent
+reaction of release.
+
+Not only does this smokeless powder, burning inside these guns,
+produce enormous pressure, but it generates inconceivably great heat.
+Water boils at 100° Centigrade; iron melts at 1400°; platinum and
+the most resistant metals at 2900°; while the hottest thing on earth
+is the temperature of the electric arc, in which carbon boils. This
+temperature is between 3000° and 4000° Centigrade, and is believed to
+be the same as that of these great powder chambers when the gun is
+fired. Thus a diamond, the hardest substance known, would melt in the
+barrel of a twelve-inch gun at the moment of discharge. The consequence
+is that at each discharge of a big gun a thin skin of metal inside
+the barrel is literally fused, and this leads to rapid erosion of
+the softened surfaces under the tearing pressure of gases generated.
+The rifling is worn away; the band over the projectile becomes
+loose-fitting; and soon the huge gun, that has cost such a great sum,
+is rendered unfit for service. The life of a twelve-inch gun is only
+450 rounds, that is, the gun would be worn out if fired every three
+minutes for a single day. After that a new life may be given it by
+boring out the inner tube and putting in a new steel lining.
+
+
+A Secret for Which Foreign Governments Would Pay Millions.
+
+A few words may be added about the formidable smokeless powder used in
+these great guns. This powder, in spite of its terrible power, is of
+innocent appearance, and a small stick of it may be held safely in the
+hand while it burns with a vivid yellowish flame. There is no danger
+of its exploding or detonating like gun-cotton, and yet it is made
+from gun-cotton, treated by a colloiding process that is one of our
+jealously guarded military secrets. There are foreign governments that
+would give millions to know exactly how this powder is made and how it
+is preserved for years without deterioration. The recent destruction of
+two ships of the French navy was due, it is believed, to deterioration
+of their smokeless powder.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+Why Do Some Eyes In a Picture Seem to Follow Us?
+
+
+If a person’s picture is taken with the eyes of the person looking
+directly into the lens or opening of the camera, then the eyes in
+the picture will always be directly on and appear to follow whoever
+is looking at it. This is also true of paintings. If a subject being
+painted is posed so as to look directly at the painter, and the artist
+paints the picture with the eyes so pointed, then the eyes of the
+picture will follow you. When you are looking at a picture of a person
+and the eyes do not follow you, you will know at once that he was not
+looking at the camera or artist when the picture was being taken or
+painted.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+Where Does a Light Go When It Goes Out?
+
+
+~WHY YOU CAN BLOW OUT A CANDLE~
+
+To understand the answer to this question fully you will first have to
+learn what light is, and particularly that it is not the flame from
+the gas jet or of the lamp or candle that is actually the light, but
+that light consists of rays or waves in the ether, which is constantly
+in all space and even in our bodies, coming from the something that
+is burning. This in the instance above mentioned would be the gas
+burning as it comes out of the gas jet, the oil in the lamp as it comes
+up through the wick or the flame of the candle. We are apt to call
+a lighted gas jet a lamp, or a candle, light, because it is steady.
+Really, however, there is no such thing as keeping light in a room in
+an actual sense, for rays of light travel from the substance which
+produces them faster than anything else we know of in the world. The
+first thing a light wave does when it is once created is to go some
+place, and it does this at the rate of 186,000 miles per second. If it
+cannot penetrate the walls of the room it is either reflected back in
+the direction from which it came or transformed by the objects which it
+strikes into some other kind of energy.
+
+When you look at the rays coming from a gas jet, you do not see one ray
+for more than, say the millionth part of a second, but because these
+rays of light come so fast one after the other from the burning jet and
+spread in all directions, they seem to be continuous.
+
+So you see that the rays of light are going away as fast as they are
+coming from the gas jet. They either go on as light or, as said above,
+are changed into other forms of energy when they strike things they
+cannot penetrate in the form of light, or rather one thing, which is
+heat. A large part of it goes into the air in the room in the form of
+heat, as you well know, now that it is called to your attention. Some
+of it goes into the furniture and some of it is changed into another
+form of heat, which, combining with the chemicals in other things it
+mixes with, changes their appearance and usefulness. As, for instance,
+the carpets and hangings in the room, the colors of which become faded
+when exposed to light rays too much. The heat from the light rays is
+responsible for the fading of colors in our garments as well.
+
+When you “put out the light,” as we say, or turn off the gas, you cut
+off the source of light. Really, then, our expression that “the light
+goes out” is only true while the gas is lighted, for from the flaming
+gas jet the light is going out all the time, whereas when the gas is
+turned off no light is being produced, and when you turn off the gas
+you do not turn out the light, but only that which makes light.
+
+
+
+
+Why Does a Fire Go Out?
+
+
+Fire will go out naturally when there is nothing left to burn, or it
+will go out if it cannot secure enough oxygen out of the air to keep it
+going. In the first case it dies what we might call a “natural death,”
+and in the latter case the fire practically suffocates. The fire in
+the open fireplace, if it has plenty of air, will burn up everything
+burnable that it can reach. The stones of the fireplace or other parts
+of a stove will not burn, because they have already been burned, and
+you cannot burn anything a second time, if all of the oxygen in it was
+burned out of it the first time.
+
+Now, then, to burn up a thing, you must first start a fire under it,
+and then keep a constant draft of air playing on it from beneath, or
+the fire will die out. The more difficult a thing is to burn, the more
+important it is that you have plenty of draft. If the ashes accumulate
+under the fire the air cannot go through them in sufficient quantity
+and the fire will go out. Other things which prevent the current of air
+from going up through the fire will cause it to go out. That is why we
+close the lower door of the furnace, to keep the fire from burning out.
+When we shut off the draft of air from below, the fire in the furnace
+burns slowly, i. e., it just hangs on, so to speak.
+
+
+
+
+Why Does a Lamp Give a Better Light With the Chimney On?
+
+
+When a lamp is burning without a chimney it generally smokes. That
+is because the oil which is coming up through the wick is being only
+partially burned. The carbon, which is about one-half of what the oil
+contains, is not being burned at all, and goes off into the air in
+little black specks with the gases which are thrown off. The reason
+the carbon is not burned when the chimney is off is that there is not
+sufficient oxygen from the air combining with it, as it is separated
+from the oil in the partial combustion that is going on. To make the
+carbon in the oil burn you must mix it with plenty of oxygen at a
+certain temperature, and this can only be done by forcing sufficient
+oxygen through the flame to bring the heat of the flame to the point
+where the carbon will combine with it and burn. When you put the
+chimney on the lamp you create a draft which forces more oxygen through
+the flame, brings the heat up to the proper temperature and enables the
+carbon to combine with it and burn. When you take the chimney off again
+the heat goes down, when the draft is shut off and the lamp smokes
+again.
+
+The chimney also protects the flame of the lamp from drafts from the
+sides and above, and helps to make a brighter light, because a steady
+light is brighter than a flickering one.
+
+The draft created by the chimney also forces the gases produced by the
+burning oil up and away from the flame. Some of these gases have a
+tendency to put out a light or a fire.
+
+
+
+
+Does Light Weigh Anything?
+
+
+To get at the answer to this question we must go back to the definition
+of light. Light is a wave in the ether and contains no particles of
+matter. It, therefore, does not weigh anything at all.
+
+When men had studied light thoroughly, however, they came to the
+conclusion that it must have the power of pressure, which, from the
+standpoint of results, would amount to the same thing as having weight.
+They reasoned that if you had a perfect balance and let sunlight shine
+down on one of the sides of the balance, that side should go down under
+the pressure of light. In their first experiments along this line men
+failed to show that under such conditions the side of the balance on
+which the light shone did go down, but by continuous experiments it was
+proved finally that the light did exert a sufficient pressure to cause
+the scales to go down, and in effect this is the same as having weight;
+but this has been found to be a common property of rays of various
+kinds, including heat, and we, therefore, do not speak of this quality
+as weight, but as the power of radiating pressure.
+
+
+
+
+Why Does a Stick Seem to Bend When Put in Water?
+
+
+When light passes from one medium to another, as for example from glass
+or water to air, or from air or glass to water, the rays of light
+change their course, thus making them seem to be bent or broken. The
+rays of light from the part of the stick in the water take a different
+direction from the rays from the part which is out of the water, giving
+the appearance of breaking or bending at the place where the air and
+water meet. It is, of course, the light rays which are bent and not the
+object itself.
+
+This bending or changing of the path of light rays is called
+refraction. If you place a coin in a glass of water so that it may be
+viewed obliquely, you can apparently see two coins, a small one through
+the surface of the water and another apparently magnified through the
+side of the glass.
+
+This is due only to the absolute principle that rays of light change
+their direction in passing from one thing to another, and on this
+principle of the rays of light our optical instruments, including the
+microscope, the telescope, the camera and eyeglasses are based.
+
+
+
+
+What Makes the Stars Twinkle?
+
+
+I might tell you, just to show how clever I am, that stars do not
+twinkle at all, and leave you with that for an answer. But since they
+really do seem to twinkle, and that is what causes your question,
+I will tell you. As we have already learned in our talks about the
+stars and the sky in general, the stars are suns which are constantly
+throwing off light, just as our sun gives us light, and when this light
+strikes the air which surrounds the earth it meets many objects--little
+particles of dust and other things always floating about in it. The
+light comes to us in the form of rays from the stars and some of
+these rays strike particles of various kinds in the air and are thus
+interfered with. If you are looking at a lighted window some distance
+away and there are a lot of boys and girls or men and women running
+past the window, one after the other, rapidly, it will make the
+light in the window appear to twinkle. The twinkling is due to the
+interference which the rays of light encounter while traveling toward
+the eye.
+
+
+
+
+Why Does an Onion Make the Tears Come?
+
+
+That is nature’s way of protecting the eyes from the smarting which the
+onion would cause in your eyes if the tears did not come quickly and
+overcome the bad effect so produced. Tears are provided for washing the
+ball of your eyes. Every time you wink a little tear is released from
+under the eyelid, and the wink spreads it all over the eyeball. This
+washes down the front of the eyeball and cleanses it of all dust and
+other things that fly at the eye from the air. Then the tear runs along
+a little channel, much like a trough, at the lower part of the eye,
+and out through a little hole in the eye, and in this case the tear is
+really only an eye-wash. Many things, but more often sadness or injured
+feelings, start the tears coming so fast from under the eyelid that the
+little trough at the bottom and the hole in the corner of the eye are
+too small to hold them or carry them off, so they roll over the edge of
+the lower eyelid and down the face. These are what we call tears. Among
+other things that will cause tear-glands to cause an over-supply of
+eye-wash to come down, are onions. What they give off is very trying to
+the eyes, and so, just as soon as the something which an onion throws
+off hits the eyeball, the nerves of the eye telegraph the brain to turn
+on the tears quickly, and they come in a little deluge and counteract
+the bad effect of the onion.
+
+[Illustration: SOME REMARKABLE PICTURES WITH A FAST CAMERA]
+
+[Illustration]
+
+[Illustration]
+
+[Illustration]
+
+[Illustration]
+
+[Illustration: THE CAVE MAN OF PREHISTORIC TIMES WHO UNCONSCIOUSLY
+INVENTED AMMUNITION]
+
+
+
+
+The First Missile
+
+
+~HOW MAN LEARNED TO SHOOT~
+
+A naked savage found himself in the greatest danger. A wild beast,
+hungry and fierce was about to attack him. Escape was impossible.
+Retreat was cut off. He must fight for his life--but how?
+
+Should he bite, scratch or kick? Should he strike with his fist? These
+were the natural defences of his body, but what were they against the
+teeth, the claws and the tremendous muscles of his enemy? Should he
+wrench a dead branch from a tree and use it for a club? That would
+bring him within striking distance to be torn to pieces before he could
+deal a second blow.
+
+There was but a moment in which to act. Swiftly he seized a jagged
+fragment of rock from the ground and hurled it with all his force at
+the blazing eyes before him; then another, and another, until the
+beast, dazed and bleeding from the unexpected blows, fell back and gave
+him a chance to escape. He knew that he had saved his life, but there
+was something else which his dull brain failed to realize.
+
+He had invented arms and ammunition!
+
+In other words, he had needed to strike a harder blow than the blow of
+his fist, at a greater distance than the length of his arm, and his
+brain showed him how to do it. After all, what is a modern rifle but a
+device which man has made with his brain permitting him to strike an
+enormously hard blow at a wonderful distance? Firearms are really but a
+more perfect form of stone-throwing, and this early Cave Man took the
+first step that has led down the ages.
+
+This strange story of a development has been taking place slowly
+through thousands and thousands of years, so that today you are able to
+take a swift shot at distant game instead of merely throwing stones.
+
+[Illustration: THE SLING MAN IN ACTION
+
+PRACTICE DEVELOPED SOME WONDERFUL MARKSMEN AMONG THE USERS OF THIS
+PRIMITIVE WEAPON]
+
+We do not know the name of the man who invented the sling. Possibly
+he did not even have a name, but in some way he hit upon a scheme
+for throwing stones farther, harder, and straighter than any of his
+ancestors.
+
+The men and women in the Cave Colony suddenly found that one
+bright-eyed young fellow, with a little straighter forehead than the
+others, was beating them all at hunting. During weeks he had been going
+away mysteriously, for hours each day. Now, whenever he left the camp
+he was sure to bring home game, while the other men would straggle back
+for the most part empty-handed.
+
+Was it witchcraft? They decided to investigate.
+
+Accordingly, one morning several of them followed at a careful distance
+as he sought the shore of a stream where water-fowl might be found.
+Parting the leaves, they saw him pick up a pebble from the bank and
+then to their surprise, take off his girdle of skin and place the stone
+in its center, holding both ends with his right hand.
+
+Stranger still, he whirled the girdle twice around his head, then
+released one end so that the leather strip flew out and the stone shot
+straight at a bird in the water.
+
+The mystery was solved. They had seen the first slingman in action.
+
+The new plan worked with great success, and a little practice made
+expert marksmen. We know that most of the early races used it for
+hunting and in war. We find it shown in pictures made many thousands of
+years ago in ancient Egypt and Assyria. We find it in the Roman Army
+where the slingman was called a “funditor.”
+
+Surely, too, you remember the story of David and Goliath when the young
+shepherd “prevailed over the Philistine with a sling and with a stone.”
+
+Yet slings had their drawbacks. A stone slung might kill a bird or even
+a man, but it was not very effective against big game.
+
+What was wanted was a missile to pierce a thick hide.
+
+Man had begun to make spears for use in a pinch, but would you like
+to tackle a husky bear or a well-horned stag with only a spear for a
+weapon?
+
+No more did our undressed ancestors. The invention of the greatly
+desired arm probably came about in a most curious way.
+
+Long ages ago man had learned to make fire by patiently rubbing two
+sticks together, or by twirling a round one between his hands with its
+point resting upon a flat piece of wood.
+
+[Illustration: THE “LONG BOW” IN SHERWOOD FOREST
+
+ONE OF ROBIN HOOD’S FAMOUS BAND ENCOUNTERS A SAVAGE TUSKER AT CLOSE
+RANGE]
+
+In this way it could be made to smoke, and finally set fire to a tuft
+of dried moss, from which he might get a flame for cooking. This was
+such hard work that he bethought him to twist a string of sinew about
+the upright spindle and cause it to twirl by pulling alternately at
+the two string ends, as some savage races still do. From this it was
+a simple step to fasten the ends of the two strings to a bent piece
+of wood, another great advantage since now but one hand was needed to
+twirl the spindle, and the other could hold it in place. This was the
+“bow-drill” which also is used to this day.
+
+But bent wood is apt to be springy. Suppose that while one were
+bearing on pretty hard with a well-tightened string, in order to bring
+fire quickly, the point of the spindle should slip from its block.
+Naturally, it would fly away with some force if the position were just
+right.
+
+[Illustration: DEER STALKING WITH THE CROSSBOW
+
+THIS COMPACT ARM WITH ITS SMALL BOLT AND GREAT POWER WAS POPULAR WITH
+MANY SPORTSMEN]
+
+There was one man who stopped short when he lost his spindle, for a
+red-hot idea shot suddenly through his brain.
+
+Once or twice he chuckled to himself softly. Thereupon he arose and
+began to experiment. He chose a longer, springier piece of wood, bent
+it into a bow, and strung it with a longer thong. He placed the end of
+a straight stick against the thong, drew it strongly back, and released
+it.
+
+The shaft whizzed away with force enough to delight him, and lo, there
+was the first Bow-and-Arrow!
+
+Armed with his bow-and-arrow, man now was lord of creation. No longer
+was it necessary for him to huddle with his fellows in some cave to
+avoid being eaten by prowling beasts. Instead he went where he would
+and boldly hunted the fiercest of them. In other words, his brain was
+beginning to tell, for though his body was still no match for the lion
+and the bear, he had thought out a way to conquer them.
+
+Also he was better fed with a greater variety of game. And now, free
+to come and go wherever he might find it, he was able to spread into
+various lands and so to organize the tribes and nations which at last
+gave us civilization and history.
+
+A new weapon now came about through warfare. Man has been a savage
+fighting animal through pretty much all his history, but while he tried
+to kill the other fellow, he objected to being killed himself.
+
+Therefore he took to wearing armor. During the Middle Ages he piled on
+more and more, until at last one of the knights could hardly walk, and
+it took a strong horse to carry him. When such a one fell, he went over
+with a crash like a tin-peddler’s wagon, and had to be picked up again
+by some of his men. Such armor would turn most of the arrows. Hence
+invention got at work again and produced the Crossbow and its bolt. We
+have already learned how the tough skin of animals brought about the
+bow; now we see that man’s artificial iron skin caused the invention of
+the crossbow.
+
+What was the Crossbow? It was the first real hand-shooting machine. It
+was another big step toward the day of the rifle. The idea was simple
+enough. Wooden bows had already been made as strong as the strongest
+man could pull, and they wished for still stronger ones--steel ones.
+How could they pull them? At first they mounted them upon a wooden
+frame and rested one end on the shoulder for a brace. Then they took to
+pressing the other end against the ground, and using both hands. Next,
+it was a bright idea to put a stirrup on this end, in order to hold it
+with the foot.
+
+Still they were not satisfied. “Stronger, stronger!” they clamored;
+“give us bows which will kill the enemy farther away than he can shoot
+at us! If we cannot set such bows with both arms let us try our backs!”
+So they fastened “belt-claws” to their stout girdles and tugged the bow
+strings into place with their back and leg muscles.
+
+
+
+
+Who First Discovered the Power of Gunpowder?
+
+
+Probably the Chinese, although all authorities do not agree. Strange,
+is it not, that a race still using crossbows in its army should have
+known of explosives long before the Christian Era, and perhaps as far
+back as the time of Moses? Here is a passage from their ancient Gentoo
+Code of Laws: “The magistrate shall not make war with any deceitful
+machine, or with poisoned weapons, or with cannons or guns, or any kind
+of firearms.” But China might as well have been Mars before the age of
+travel. Our civilization had to work out the problem for itself.
+
+It all began through playing with fire. It was desired to throw fire on
+an enemy’s buildings, or his ships, and so destroy them.
+
+Burning torches were thrown by machines, made of cords and springs,
+over a city wall, and it became a great study to find the best burning
+compound with which to cover these torches. One was needed which would
+blaze with a great flame and was hard to put out.
+
+Hence the early chemists made all possible mixtures of pitch, resin,
+naphtha, sulphur, saltpeter, etc.; “Greek fire” was one of the most
+famous.
+
+Many of these were made in the monasteries. The monks were pretty much
+the only people in those days with time for study, and two of these
+shaven-headed scientists now had a chance to enter history. Roger Bacon
+was the first. One night he was working his diabolical mixture in the
+stone-walled laboratory, and watched, by the flickering lights, the
+progress of a certain interesting combination for which he had used
+pure instead of impure saltpeter.
+
+Suddenly there was an explosion, shattering the chemical apparatus and
+probably alarming the whole building. That explosion proved the new
+combination was not fitted for use as a thrown fire; it also showed the
+existence of terrible forces far beyond the power of all bow-springs,
+even those made of steel.
+
+Roger Bacon thus discovered what was practically gunpowder, as far
+back as the thirteenth century, and left writings in which he
+recorded mixing 11.2 parts of the saltpeter, 29.4 of charcoal, and
+29 of sulphur. This was the formula developed as the result of his
+investigations.
+
+Berthold Schwartz, a monk of Freiburg, studied Bacon’s works and
+carried on dangerous experiments of his own, so that he is ranked with
+Bacon for the honor. He was also the first one to rouse the interest of
+Europe in the great discovery.
+
+[Illustration: THE “KENTUCKY RIFLE” WITH ITS FLINT-LOCK WAS ACCURATE
+BUT MUST BE MUZZLE-CHARGED]
+
+~THE FIRST REAL FIRE ARMS~
+
+And then began the first crude, clumsy efforts at gunmaking. Firearms
+were born.
+
+Hand bombards and culverins were among the early types. Some of these
+were so heavy that a forked support had to be driven into the ground,
+and two men were needed, one to hold and aim, the other to prime and
+fire.
+
+Improvements kept coming, however. Guns were lightened and bettered in
+shape. Somebody thought of putting a flash pan, for the powder, by the
+side of the touch-hole, and now it was decided to fasten the slow-match
+in a movable cock upon the barrel, and ignite it with a trigger. These
+matches were fuses of some slow-burning fiber, like tow, which would
+keep a spark for a considerable time. Formerly they had to be carried
+separately, but the new arrangement was a great convenience and made
+the match-lock. The cock, being curved like a snake, was called the
+“serpentine.”
+
+About the time sportsmen were through wondering at the convenience
+of the match-lock, they began to realize its inconvenience. They
+found that they burned up a great deal of fuse, and were hard to keep
+lighted. Both statements were true, so inventors racked their brains
+again for something better. They all knew you could bring sparks with
+flint and steel, and that seemed an idea worth working on. A Nuremberg
+inventor, in 1515, hit on the wheel-lock. In this a notched steel
+wheel was wound up with a key like a clock. Flint or pyrite was held
+against the jagged edge of the wheel by the pressure of the serpentine.
+You pulled the trigger, then “whirr,” the wheel revolved, a stream of
+sparks flew off into the flash-pan, and the gun was discharged.
+
+[Illustration: WHEEL-LOCK RIFLE]
+
+This gun worked beautifully, but it was expensive. Wealthy sportsmen
+could afford them, and so for the first time firearms began to be used
+for hunting. Some of these sixteenth and seventeenth century nabobs had
+such guns of beautiful workmanship, so wrought and carved and inlaid,
+that they must have cost a small fortune. You will find them in many
+large museums to this day.
+
+But now the robbers had their turn. There are two stories of the
+invention of the flint-lock. Both deal with robbers, both have good
+authority, and both may be true, for inventions sometimes are made
+independently in different places.
+
+One story runs that the flint-lock which was often styled “Lock à la
+Miquelet,” from the Spanish word, “Miquelitos”--marauders--told its
+origin in its name. The other is, that the flint-lock was invented in
+Holland by gangs of thieves, whose principal business was to steal
+poultry.
+
+In either case the explanation is easy. The match-lock showed its fire
+at night and wouldn’t do for thieves, the wheel-lock was too expensive,
+so again necessity became the mother of a far-reaching invention.
+
+Everybody knows what the flint-lock was like. You simply fastened a
+flake of flint in the cock and snapped it against a steel plate. This
+struck off sparks which fell into the flash-pan and fired the charge.
+
+It was so practical that it became the form of gun for all uses; thus
+gunmaking began to be a big industry. Invented early in the seventeenth
+century, it was used by the hunters and soldiers of the next two
+hundred years. Old people remember when flint-locks were plentiful
+everywhere. In fact, they are still being manufactured and are sold
+in some parts of Africa and the Orient. One factory in Birmingham,
+England, is said to produce about twelve hundred weekly, and Belgium
+shares in their manufacture. Some of the Arabs use them to this day in
+the form of strange-looking guns with long, slender muzzles and very
+light, curved stocks.
+
+There were freak inventors in the flint-lock period just as there are
+to-day. Some of them wrestled with the problem of repeating guns,
+and put together a number of barrels, even seven in the case of one
+carbine. Others tried revolving chambers, like our revolvers, and still
+others, magazine stocks. Pistols came into use in many interesting
+shapes, but these were too practical to be considered freaks.
+
+~WHY WE CALL THEM PISTOLS~
+
+Pistols, by the way, are named from the town of Pistola, Italy, where
+they are said to have been invented and first used.
+
+We must not forget that rifling was invented about the time that the
+wheel-lock appeared, and had a great deal to do with the improvement
+of shooting. Austrians claim its invention for Casper Zollner, of
+Vienna, who cut straight grooves in the barrel’s bore. His gun is said
+to have been used for the first time in 1498, but the Italians seem
+to have still better warrant as these significant words appear in old
+Latin Italian, under date of July 28th, 1476, in the inventory of the
+fortress of Guastalla: “Also one iron gun made with a twist like a
+snail shell.” The rifling made the bullet spin like a top as it flew
+through the air, thus greatly improving its precision.
+
+In the year 1807 the Rev. Alexander John Forsythe, LL.D., got his
+patent papers for something far better than even the steady old flint.
+He had invented the percussion system. In some form this has been used
+ever since. Which is to say that when the hammer of your gun falls, it
+doesn’t explode the powder, although it seems to. Instead it sets off a
+tiny portion of a very sensitive chemical compound called the “primer,”
+and the explosion of this “primer” makes the powder go off. Of course,
+the two explosions come so swiftly that your ear hears only a single
+bang.
+
+Primers were tried in different forms called “detonators,” but the
+familiar little copper cap was the most popular. No need to describe
+them. Millions are still made to be used on old-fashioned nipple guns,
+even in this day of fixed ammunition.
+
+But now we come to another great development, the Breech-loader.
+
+[Illustration: THE MODERN AUTOMATIC RIFLE
+
+THE MODERN SPORTSMAN WITH HIS AUTOMATIC RIFLE IS PREPARED FOR ALL
+EMERGENCIES]
+
+Perhaps you have had to handle an old muzzle-loader. It was all right
+so long as you knew of nothing better, but think of it now that you
+have your beautiful breech-loader. Do you remember how sometimes you
+overloaded, and the kick made your shoulder lame for a week? Or how,
+when you were excited you shot away your ramrod? The gun fouled too,
+and was hard to clean, the nipples broke off, the caps split, and the
+breeches rusted so that you had to take them to a gunsmith. Yes, in
+spite of the game it got, it was a lot of trouble, now you come to
+think of it. How different it all is now!
+
+[Illustration: ASSEMBLING REPEATING SHOTGUNS AND RIFLES]
+
+Breech-loaders were hardly new. King Henry VIII of England, he of the
+many wives, had a match-lock arquebus of this type dated 1537. Henry IV
+of France even invented one for his army, and others worked a little
+on the idea from time to time. But it wasn’t until fixed ammunition
+came into use that the breech-loader really came to stay--and that
+was only the other day. You remember that the Civil War began with
+muzzle-loaders and ended with breech-loaders.
+
+[Illustration: ASSEMBLING AUTO SHOTGUNS]
+
+[Illustration: SOME OF THE SHOOTING TESTS]
+
+Houiller, the French gunsmith, hit on the great idea of the cartridge.
+If you were going to use powder, ball and percussion primer to get your
+game, why not put them all into a neat, handy, gas-tight case?
+
+
+THE FIRST AMERICAN MADE GUNS
+
+~HOW THE FIRST AMERICAN GUN WAS MADE~
+
+Two men, a smith and his son, both named Eliphalet Remington, in
+1816, were working busily one day at their forge in beautiful Ilion
+Gorge, when, so tradition says, the son asked his father for money to
+buy a rifle, and met with a refusal. The request was natural for the
+surrounding hills were full of game. The father must have had his own
+reasons for refusing, but it started the manufacture of guns in America.
+
+Eliphalet, Jr., closed his firm jaws tightly, and began collecting
+scrap iron on his own account. This he welded skillfully into a
+gun-barrel, walked fifteen miles to Utica to have it rifled, and
+finally had a weapon of which he might well be proud.
+
+[Illustration: TYPES OF CARTRIDGES]
+
+In reality, it was such a very good gun that soon the neighbors ordered
+others like it, and before long the Remington forge found itself hard
+at work to meet the increasing demand. Several times each week the
+stalwart young manufacturer packed a load of gun-barrels upon his back,
+and tramped all the way to Utica where a gunsmith rifled and finished
+them. At this time there were no real gun-factories in America,
+although gunsmiths were located in most of the larger towns. All
+gun-barrels were imported from England or Europe.
+
+
+A VISIT TO A CARTRIDGE FACTORY
+
+~HOW AMMUNITION IS MADE~
+
+One of the first shocks you get when you start your visit through a
+cartridge factory is the matter-of-fact way in which the operatives,
+girls in many cases, handle the most terrible compounds. We stop, for
+example, where they are making primers to go in the head of your loaded
+shell, in order that it may not miss fire when the bunch of quail
+whirrs suddenly into the air from the sheltering grasses. That grayish
+pasty mass is wet fulminate of mercury. Suppose it should dry a trifle
+too rapidly. It would be the last thing you ever did suppose, for there
+is force enough in that double handful to blow its surroundings into
+fragments. You edge away a little, and no wonder, but the girl who
+handles it shows no fear as she deftly but carefully presses it into
+moulds which separate it into the proper sizes for primers. She knows
+that in its present moist condition it cannot explode.
+
+[Illustration: INSPECTING METALLIC SHELLS]
+
+[Illustration: EXAMINING PAPER SHELLS]
+
+[Illustration: WEIGHING BULLETS]
+
+Or, perhaps, we may be watching one of the many loading machines.
+There is a certain suggestiveness in the way the machines are separated
+by partitions. The man in charge takes a small carrier of powder from a
+case in the outside wall and shuts the door, then carefully empties it
+into the reservoir of his machine, and watches alertly while it packs
+the proper portions into the waiting shells. He looks like a careful
+man, and needs to be. You do not stand too close.
+
+[Illustration: SHOOTING ROOM OF BALLISTICS DEPARTMENT]
+
+[Illustration: CHRONOGRAPH FOR MEASURING]
+
+The empty carrier then passes through a little door at the side of the
+building, and drops into the yawning mouth of an automatic tube. In the
+twinkling of an eye it appears in front of the operator in one of the
+distributing stations, where it is refilled, and returned to its proper
+loading machine, in order to keep the machine going at a perfectly
+uniform rate; while at the same time it allows but a minimum amount
+of powder to remain in the building at any moment. Each machine has
+but just sufficient powder in its hopper to run until a new supply can
+reach it. Greater precaution than this cannot be imagined, illustrating
+as it does that no effort has been spared to protect the lives of the
+operators.
+
+[Illustration: PUTTING METAL HEADS ON PAPER SHOT SHELLS]
+
+It is remarkable that, in an output of something like four million per
+day, every cartridge is perfect.
+
+Such things are not accidental. The secret is, inspection.
+
+~TESTING MATERIALS AND PRODUCTS~
+
+Let us see what that means. It means laboratory tests to start with.
+Here are brought many samples of the body paper, wad paper, metals,
+waterproofing mixture, fulminate of mercury, sulphur, chlorate of
+potash, antimony sulphide, powder, wax, and other ingredients, and
+even the operating materials such as coal, grease, oil, and soaps.
+In the laboratory we see expert chemists and metallurgists with
+their test-tubes, scales, Bunsen burners, retorts, tensile machines,
+microscopes, and other scientific looking apparatus, busily hunting
+for defects.
+
+For example, one marker is examining a supply of cupro-nickel, such as
+is used in jacketing certain bullets. A corner of each strip is first
+bent over at right angles, then back in the other direction until it
+is doubled, then straightened. It does not show the slightest sign of
+breaking or cracking, in spite of the severe treatment, therefore it is
+perfect. Let but the least flaw appear, and the shipment is rejected.
+
+[Illustration: WHAT A SHOT TOWER LOOKS LIKE
+
+  SHOT TOWER--TALLEST BUILDING IN CONNECTICUT]
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  LARGEST CARTRIDGE EQUALS MORE
+  THAN 1,000,000 OF SMALLEST
+  (HELD ON HAND)]
+
+Two large iron cylinders descend in the center, coming down through the
+ceiling from above; we are invited to look through an open port in one
+of these.
+
+We see nothing but the whitened opposite wall, against which a light
+burns.
+
+It appears absolutely empty, though within it is raining such a swift
+shower of invisible metal that if we were to stretch our hands into the
+apparently vacant space they would be torn from our arms.
+
+A large water tank below is churned into foam with the impact of the
+falling shot, and as we look downward we make out finally the haze of
+motion. It is so interesting that we take the elevator and rise ten
+stories to the source of the shower.
+
+Here high in the air are the large caldrons where many pigs of lead,
+with the proper alloy, are melted into a sort of metallic soup. This
+is fed into small compartments containing sieves or screens, through
+the meshes of which the shining drops appear and then plunge swiftly
+downward.
+
+But this only begins the process. Taken from the water tanks and
+hoisted up again, the shot pellets, in a second journey down, through
+complicated devices, are sorted, tumbled, polished, graded, coated with
+graphite, and finally stored.
+
+  The pictures shown in this story were prepared especially to
+  illustrate this story of “How Man Learned to Shoot” by the
+  Searchlight Library for the Remington Arms Company.
+
+[Illustration: FORGING A MONSTER GUN
+
+  Photo by Bethlehem Steel Co.
+
+This photograph shows gun ingots after being “stripped” and “cored.”]
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  Photo by Bethlehem Steel Co.
+
+This photograph shows a gun ingot in the process of being forged under
+forging press.]
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  Photo by Bethlehem Steel Co.
+
+This photograph shows a gun being fired at the Proving Grounds for
+test.]
+
+
+
+
+The Parts of a Big Gun
+
+
+~THINGS TO KNOW ABOUT A BIG GUN~
+
+Before going into a description of the manufacture of a big gun it
+would be well to understand the following definitions:
+
+The “breech” of a gun is its rear-end, or that end into which the
+projectile and powder charge are loaded.
+
+The “muzzle” of a gun is its forward end.
+
+By “calibre” is meant the inside diameter of the gun in inches. A
+5-inch gun is one of “minor calibre,” and one of 14-inches a gun of
+“major calibre.”
+
+The length of a gun is never expressed in inches or feet, but in the
+_number of times_ that its calibre is divisible into its length; thus,
+when we say a 12-inch 50-calibre gun, we mean a gun of 12 inches in
+diameter, and 12 times 50, or 600 inches long.
+
+The “bore” is the hole extending through the center of the gun, from
+the rear face of the liner to its forward end.
+
+The “powder chamber” is the rear part of the bore, and extends from the
+face of the breech plug when closed to the point where the “rifling”
+begins. The powder chamber is slightly larger in diameter than the rest
+of the bore.
+
+The “rifling” is the name given to the spiral grooves which are cut
+into the surface of the bore of the gun, and give to the projectile its
+rotary motion when the gun is fired.
+
+With the advent of “iron-clads” and heavily armored fortresses, it
+became necessary to increase the power of the guns in use, until to-day
+a 14-inch gun of 45 calibres fires a projectile weighing 1400 pounds,
+with an initial velocity of 2600 feet per second. An idea of this
+initial velocity may be better obtained by comparison when you realize
+that a train going sixty miles an hour is only traveling at the rate
+of 88 feet per second. Now, in order to produce such wonderful power in
+a gun, great pressure must be generated in the bore, and it was soon
+found that a one-piece gun, whether cast or forged, could not withstand
+such pressures.
+
+To begin with, we may consider this one-piece gun, or any gun, as a
+tube which must withstand a great pressure from within, so that when
+a gun is designed care must be taken to see that the material from
+which it is constructed is strong enough to withstand this pressure.
+And not only must the gun be sufficiently strong, but it must not
+be too heavy, so that you see you cannot go on forever increasing
+the thickness of the walls of this tube. Besides, it is generally
+acknowledged that a simple tube or cylinder cannot be made with walls
+of sufficient thickness to withstand from within a _continued_ pressure
+per square inch greater than the tenacity of a square-inch bar of the
+same material; in other words, if the tensile strength of a metal is
+only twelve tons per square inch, no gun of that metal, however thick
+its walls, could withstand a pressure of twenty tons per square inch,
+and the modern big guns are tested at that great a pressure. And if we
+look further into this matter of pressures we find that when a gun is
+fired the pressure exerts itself in two ways; it tends to burst the gun
+longitudinally or down the middle, and it tends to pull the gun apart
+in the direction of its length. Of course, some method of strengthening
+this one-piece gun was sought after, with the result that to-day guns
+are either “_built-up_” or “_wire-wound_.”
+
+A “built-up” gun is one made of several layers, each layer being
+separately constructed and then assembled together. The order of
+assemblage differs somewhat with the different calibres, but the method
+of assemblage is essentially the same, that is, the outside layers are
+heated and shrunk on the inner ones. This question will be treated at
+greater length later on.
+
+A “wire-wound” gun is one in which the necessary additional strength
+is obtained by winding wire around an inner tube of steel, each layer
+being wound with a different tension of the wire; this type of gun
+has found great favor with foreign manufacturers. In this country,
+however, the “built-up” system is used almost exclusively, and so this
+description will deal with the manufacture of a “built-up” gun.
+
+[Illustration: HOW A BIG GUN WOULD LOOK IF YOU WERE TO CUT IT IN TWO
+
+Sketch Showing Construction of a Modern “Built-up” Gun.
+
+_A_, HOOP; _B_, HOOP; _C_, JACKET; _D_, TUBE; _E_, LINER; _F_, HOOP.]
+
+A modern “built-up” gun is composed of a _liner_, a _tube_, a _jacket_
+and _hoops_.
+
+The _liner_ is in one piece and extends the entire length of the bore
+and carries the “rifling” and the powder chamber.
+
+The _tube_ is in one piece and envelops the liner for its entire
+length. Formerly the _tube_ carried the “rifling” and powder chamber,
+but due to the wearing out of the “rifling” with constant firing, a
+liner was decided on, so that now when the “rifling” becomes worn, the
+liner can be removed and a new one substituted.
+
+The _jacket_ is usually in two pieces and is shrunk on the tube; it
+extends the entire length, and its rear end is threaded in the inside
+for the attachment of the “breech bushing.”
+
+_Hoops_ are shrunk on over the jacket and in a big gun are sometimes as
+many as six or seven in number.
+
+The liner, tube, jacket and hoops are made of the finest quality of
+open hearth steel, and the steel must conform to specifications set by
+the government.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  Photo by Bethlehem Steel Co.
+
+This photograph shows a mould for a gun ingot under hydraulic press for
+fluid compression.]
+
+The chemical composition having been determined, the necessary elements
+are weighed out and the whole charged into an open hearth furnace. When
+the furnace is ready to be tapped the molten metal is run into a large
+ladle, which in turn is taken by a crane to the casting pit, where the
+mould is filled. The ingots for the large calibre guns run from 42-inch
+to 48-inch in diameter, and after being poured they are immediately
+run under a hydraulic press, where they are subjected to a pressure
+of about six tons per square inch to drive out the gases, and then
+lowered to about 1500 pounds pressure per square inch for a certain
+length of time during the cooling. This pressure tends to make the
+ingot solid, by expelling the gases, which would cause blow-holes, and
+by preventing “piping” and “segregation.” When a metal cools, the top
+and sides cool first, and this outer layer shrinks and pulls away from
+the centre, with the result that a cavity or “pipe” would be formed,
+but the hydraulic pressure forces fluid metal into this cavity and
+so prevents the “pipe.” The cooling also causes the various elements
+to solidify separately, and they tend to break away from the mass
+and collect at the centre; this is called “segregation,” and is also
+partially prevented by fluid compression. A solid ingot, however, is
+obtained, and this is absolutely necessary.
+
+After the ingot has cooled sufficiently it is “_stripped_,” that is,
+it is removed from the mould, and then it is sent to the shop to have
+the “discard,” or extra length, cut off. When the ingot is cast, an
+extra amount of metal is poured into the mould to permit this discard,
+the theory being that the poorer metal, together with gases and other
+impurities, rise to the top. The government specifications require that
+there shall be a 20% discard from the upper end and a 3% discard from
+the lower end. The discard having been cut off, the ingot is “cored,”
+that is, its centre is bored out, the diameter of the hole depending on
+the size of the ingot.
+
+[Illustration: TAKING THE BORE OF A BIG GUN
+
+  Photo by Bethlehem Steel Co.
+
+This photograph shows gun ingot in boring mill being cored.]
+
+The ingot is now ready for the “forge,” and on its receipt in the forge
+shop it is placed in a furnace to be heated; and here great care must
+be exercised to prevent setting up any additional strains in the ingot.
+When the ingot was cooling just after casting the metal tended to flow
+from the centre; the interior is still in a condition of strain, and if
+the cold ingot is now placed in a hot furnace, cracks are apt to form
+in the centre, causing the forging to later break in service.
+
+However, the ingot having been properly heated, it is ready for either
+the forging hammer or the press. The present-day practice, though, is
+to forge the ingot under a press forge, as the working of the metal
+causes a certain flow, and as a certain amount of time is necessary
+for this flow, the continued pressure and slow motion of the press
+allows the molecules of the metal to adjust themselves more easily,
+and a better and more homogeneous forged ingot is produced than if the
+forging had been done with a hammer.
+
+When forging a hollow ingot, a mandrel, merely a cylindrical steel
+shaft, is placed through the hole in the ingot and the ingot forged
+on the mandrel, thereby not only is the outside diameter of the ingot
+decreased, but the length of the ingot is increased. The usual practice
+is to continue the forging until the original thickness of the walls
+of the ingot is decreased one-half and until the ingot is within two
+inches of the required finished diameters. The ingot is now known as a
+“forging,” and the lower end of each ingot as cast will be the breech
+end of the forging that is made from it.
+
+The next process is that of “annealing.” This consists in heating the
+forging to a red heat and then allowing it to cool very slowly, and
+is usually done by hauling the fires in the furnace after the correct
+temperature has been attained and permitting both to cool off together.
+This process is to relieve the strains set up in the metal during
+forging, and further, it alters the molecular condition of the steel,
+making a finer and more homogeneous forging.
+
+[Illustration: HOW THE GUN TUBE IS TEMPERED
+
+  Photo by Bethlehem Steel Co.
+
+This photograph shows a gun tube ready to be lowered into oil bath for
+“oil tempering.”]
+
+After annealing, the forging is ready to go to the machine shop to
+be rough bored and turned. The forging is set in a lathe, the breech
+end being held by jaws on the face-plate and the muzzle end by a
+“pot-centre,” a large iron ring having several radial arms screwed
+through it. The lathe can now be turned and the forging centered by
+screwing in or out on the jaws of the face-plate or the radial arms of
+the “pot-centre.” When centered, several surfaces are turned on the
+forging for “steady rests” and then all is in readiness for the turning
+and boring.
+
+In both operations of “turning” and “boring,” the work revolves while
+the cutting tools are fed along. Turning is very simple and usually
+several tools are cutting at the same time, but boring is a more
+delicate operation, because the workman cannot see what he is doing.
+And in boring, either a “hog bit” or a “packed bit” is used; a “hog
+bit” is a half cylinder of cast iron fitted with one cutting tool and
+used for rough cuts, while a “packed bit” is a full cylinder of wood
+with metal framing and carrying two tools 180° apart and used for
+finishing cuts.
+
+The forging, having been rough machined, is now ready to receive its
+heat treatment in order to give to the steel its required physical
+characteristics. Every piece of steel used in gun manufacture must
+conform to certain specifications as regard both its physical and
+chemical characteristics. The chemical analysis was made at the time
+the ingot was cast; now for the treatment of the forging, prior to the
+physical test as to its tensile strength, elastic limit, elongation and
+contraction.
+
+The “tensile strength” of a metal is the unit-stress required to break
+that metal into parts. If a round bar ten inches in cross-section area
+will fracture under a strain of 120 tons, its tensile strength is 120 ÷
+10 or 12 tons per square inch. Tensile strength is usually expressed in
+pounds per square inch.
+
+The “elastic limit” of a metal is the unit-stress required to first
+produce a permanent deformation of the metal. If a bar of metal be
+subjected to an increasing strain, up to a certain point that metal
+will be perfectly elastic, resuming its normal shape when the strain
+is removed; at the first permanent set or deformation, however,
+the elastic limit of that metal has been reached. Elastic limit is
+expressed in pounds per square inch.
+
+By “elongation” is meant the increase in length in a bar when its
+tensile strength is reached. If a bar 10 inches long after rupture
+measures 11.8 inches, its elongation is 18%.
+
+By “contraction” is meant the decrease in cross-section area in a bar
+when its tensile strength is reached. If a bar 1 square inch in area
+after rupture is only .75 of a square inch in area, its contraction is
+25%.
+
+These definitions being understood, a brief description of the heat
+treatment can be taken up, because it is after this treatment that
+standard bars are taken from the forgings to undergo the physical
+tests. The first step consists in “tempering” or hardening the metal.
+The piece to be tempered is placed in an upright position in a high
+furnace and uniformly heated to the required temperature. It is then
+lifted from the furnace through an opening in the top and carried by a
+crane to an oil tank of suitable depth and plunged into the oil. This
+rapid cooling or “tempering in oil” is facilitated by having the oil
+tank surrounded by a water bath, so arranged that a supply of cold
+water is constantly in circulation to carry the heat from the mass
+as quickly as possible. This operation produces exceeding toughness,
+increases the tensile strength and raises the elastic limit of the
+metal.
+
+Now the forging is again annealed, so as to relieve any strains set
+up by tempering and to soften up the metal to the degree required by
+the specifications. It also increases materially the elongation and
+contraction. Great care must be exercised in the heat treatment, as the
+acceptance or rejection of the forging depends upon whether or not the
+test bars pass the required specifications.
+
+The forging is now submitted for test and the test bars taken. In the
+manufacture of a big gun, four test bars are taken from the breech
+end and four from the muzzle end of each forging and these bars
+sent to the physical laboratory. Quite an elaborate testing machine
+is provided, and if the bars pass the required tests the forging is
+accepted and is sent to the machine shop for finish-boring and turning.
+
+~SEARCHING FOR POSSIBLE DEFECTS~
+
+Frequently during finish-boring the work is examined to see that the
+bit is running true, and great care must be exercised to prevent its
+running out of alignment.
+
+After finish-boring every forging is “bore-searched,” that is, the bore
+is carefully examined for any cracks, flaws, streaks or discoloration.
+A special instrument called a “bore-searcher” is used and consists of
+a long wooden handle which has a mirror inclined at 45° at one end,
+together with a light to illuminate the bore, and so shielded as to
+obscure the light from the observer. (See sketch.)
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The bore is also inspected by the foreman after each boring, but the
+final “bore-searching” is done by an inspector.
+
+Now to measure accurately the inside diameters of long cylinders,
+such as are used in gun work, a special measuring device called a
+“star-gauge” is used. Its name is derived from the fact that it has
+three measuring points set at 120° apart and two measurements are
+taken, one [Illustration] and the other [Illustration], making a star
+[Illustration]. Every forging is “star-gauged” after being finish-bored
+and also the liner of the _gun_ after each assemblage operation.
+
+~PUTTING THE PARTS OF A “BUILT-UP” GUN TOGETHER~
+
+In preparation for the assembling of the different parts, the tube is
+the forging to be finished. It is bored and turned to exact dimensions
+and carefully “bore-searched” and “star-gauged.” With the data at hand
+a sketch is made showing the external diameters of the liner under the
+tube, due allowance being made for the shrinkage when assembling.
+
+The liner is next bored to within .35 of an inch of the finished
+diameter, and turned to the dimensions required by the sketch above.
+This extra metal in the bore is left until the gun is completely
+assembled and is removed in the finish-boring. The liner is then
+carefully “bore-searched” and “star-gauged” and liner and tube are
+ready for assembling.
+
+The liner is now taken to the shrinking pit and carefully aligned in an
+upright position with the breech end down.
+
+The shrinking pit is merely a well of square section with room enough
+to permit workmen to move freely about the gun when it is in position,
+and equipped with a movable table at its bottom upon which the gun
+rests. In the meantime the tube, with breech end down, is being heated
+in a hot-air furnace. This furnace is a vertical cylinder built of
+fire-brick and asbestos and so constructed that air which has been
+passed in pipes over petroleum burners can enter at the bottom, pass
+around and through the tube and out through the top to be reheated.
+This service permits a uniform heat to be transmitted to the tube and
+when the desired temperature has been attained the tube is lifted from
+the furnace by a crane, carried to the shrinking pit and carefully
+lowered over the liner. Great care must be exercised in this operation
+to prevent the tube from sticking while being lowered into place.
+Should it happen, the tube should be hoisted off at once, allowed to
+cool, any roughing of the liner be smoothed off, the tube reheated and
+a second trial made. When the tube is properly in place a cold spray
+may be turned upon any particular section where it is desired the tube
+should first grip the liner. The tube is then left to cool by itself,
+but cold water is constantly circulating through the liner.
+
+When the gun is sufficiently cool for handling purposes, it is hoisted
+out of the shrinking pit and taken to the shop for careful measurement,
+the liner being “star-gauged” to note the compression due to the
+shrinking on of the tube.
+
+The same procedure is followed in the case of the jackets and hoops,
+until the entire gun is assembled. The gun is considered completely
+“built-up” when the last hoop has been shrunk on and is now ready to be
+finished.
+
+The gun is now finish-bored, as .35 of an inch of metal was left in the
+liner in the first boring. “Packed bits” are used and the greatest care
+is exercised to keep the bit properly centered and running true. After
+this step the gun is finish-turned and the powder chamber is bored.
+
+Following this operation the gun is “bore-searched” for any defects
+that may have shown up in the finish-boring and chambering, and then
+carefully “star-gauged.” The gun is then ready to be “rifled.”
+
+[Illustration: RIFLING A BIG GUN
+
+  Photo by Bethlehem Steel Co.
+
+This photograph shows a gun in the Rifling Machine in the process of
+being rifled.]
+
+The “rifling” of a gun consists in cutting spiral grooves in the
+surface of the bore from the powder chamber to the muzzle end, and is
+done from the muzzle end. Rifling is a very difficult operation, and
+great care must be exercised that the cutting is uniform. The grooves
+are separated by raised portions called “lands,” and after “rifling,”
+these grooves and “lands” are carefully smoothed up to remove the rough
+edges or burrs caused by the cutting tools of the “rifling” machine.
+
+The necessary holes are now drilled for fitting the breech mechanism
+and the breech block fitted. This operation usually takes some little
+time, as quite a bit of hand work is necessary to insure a perfect fit.
+The “yoke,” really another “hoop,” is now put on at the breech end and
+the gun is complete.
+
+The centre of gravity of gun and breech mechanism is now determined
+by balancing on knife edges and the whole then weighed. The breech
+mechanism is also weighed and the two weights marked on the rear faces
+of the gun and breech mechanism.
+
+The gun is now fitted in its “slide,” that part of the mount which
+carries the trunnions and through which the gun recoils when it
+is fired, and after it is adjusted, all is in readiness for the
+“proof-firing” or testing of the gun.
+
+
+
+
+What Is Motion?
+
+
+There are practically but two things we see when we use our eyes.
+One of them is matter, which is a term we apply to the things we
+see, speaking of them as objects only, and the other is motion which
+we observe some of the matter to possess. Some of the things we see
+confuse us, if we bear in mind that everything is either matter or
+motion. For instance, we see light and know it is not matter and are
+confused until we understand that light is a movement of the ether
+which surrounds us and is in and outside of everything. In the same way
+we feel heat and may think it is matter thrown off by the fire, when it
+is only another kind of motion of this same ether. When we understand
+these things we see that motion is a very important and real part of
+the world.
+
+When a motion is started it will keep on going forever unless some
+other force which is able to overcome the motion stops it. When a ball
+is thrown in the air it would go on forever were it not for the law of
+gravitation which pulls it to the earth and the friction of the air on
+the ball as it goes through the air. When you stop a thrown ball you
+sometimes realize that motion is a real thing because it stings your
+hands. We do wonderful things with motion. Many things when you add
+motion to them acquire qualities which they did not possess before. For
+instance, an ordinary icicle thrown against a wooden door will break,
+but if you put it into a gun and give it sufficient motion, it will go
+right through the door. There is a story of how a man killed another
+by using an icicle as a bullet. The icicle entered the man’s body and
+killed him. Then, of course, the ice melted and no one could tell how
+the man received his wound, for no trace of anything like a bullet
+could be found. A piece of paper has no cutting qualities, but if you
+arrange a circular or square piece of paper with a rod or stick through
+the center and revolve it fast enough, you can cut many things while it
+is whirling. The motion gives it the cutting qualities. You can take a
+piece of strong rope and, by tying the ends together, making a circle
+of it, you can make it roll down the street like a steel hoop if you
+catch it just the right way and set it spinning fast enough before
+starting it on its way. A steam engine has no power to pull the train
+of cars until the wheels are set in motion. So we see that motion is a
+very important thing in the world.
+
+Motion is the cause of movements of all kinds, the power which takes
+things from one place to another.
+
+
+
+
+Is Perpetual Motion Possible?
+
+
+Perpetual motion will never be possible unless some one discovers a
+way to overcome the law of gravitation and also the certainty that
+materials will eventually wear out. Many men have tried to make a
+machine that would keep on moving forever without the application of
+any power, the consumption of fuel within itself, the fall of weights
+or the unwinding of a spring; such a machine would be absolutely
+impossible, although many people have been fooled into investing money
+in machines that appeared to have this power within themselves.
+
+
+
+
+How Can an Explosion Break Windows That Are at a Distance?
+
+
+An explosion is a sudden expansion of a substance like gunpowder or
+some elastic fluid or other substance that has the power to explode
+under certain conditions with force, and usually a loud report. Some
+explosions are comparatively mild and accompanied by a very mild noise,
+while others are very powerful and accompanied by a very loud noise.
+When an explosion occurs, the air and everything surrounding the thing
+that explodes is very much disturbed. The air surrounding the thing
+that explodes is thrown back in air waves which are powerful in the
+exact proportion in which the explosion is powerful. These air waves
+can be so suddenly thrown back against the objects in the vicinity that
+not only the windows in the buildings are broken, but often the entire
+building blown away. The explosion acts in all directions at once
+with equal force. A great hole may be torn in the earth beneath the
+explosion. If there is anything over the explosion, that is blown away
+unless its power of resistance is sufficient to withstand the power of
+the explosion. Then, also, the air surrounding on all sides is forced
+back against everything in its path.
+
+Very often this air which is suddenly forced back by the power of the
+explosion is thrown against houses at a distance. These houses may
+be so strongly built as to be able to withstand the effect of the
+explosion, but still certain parts of them, such as the windows and
+the bricks of the chimney, may not be able to withstand this sudden
+pressure of air against them and they are forced in. The wind from such
+an explosion acts on the outside of the windows just the same as though
+you stood on the outside with your hands against the windows and pushed
+them in. Anything that is thrown against a window with more force than
+the window glass can resist will break the window, and even slight
+explosions may be so powerful as to throw the air back and away from
+them with such force as to break windows at a great distance--even a
+mile or more away.
+
+
+
+
+Why Do Some Things Bend and Others Break?
+
+
+When an outside force is applied to some objects, some of them will
+bend and others break. It is due to the fact that in some things the
+particles have the faculty of sticking together or hanging on to each
+other, and it is very difficult to break them away from each other. In
+such instances, as in the case of a wire, the article will bend when
+we apply the power to it and it will not break, because the particles
+which make up the wire have the faculty of hanging on to each other. A
+piece of glass, however, can be broken right in two by the application
+of no more force than was used to bend the wire, because the particles
+which make up the glass haven’t the faculty to hang on to each other.
+If you continue to bend a wire back and forth, however, at the same
+point, it will finally break apart, because you eventually overcome the
+ability of the particles in the wire to hang on to each other.
+
+It all depends upon the hanging-on ability. Sometimes in undergoing
+different processes an article which will ordinarily only bend will
+become very brittle or breakable. A steel wire may bend but if you make
+a steel wire very hard it becomes brittle. On the other hand, glass is
+very brittle ordinarily, but if you make it very hot, you can bend it
+into any shape you wish, and thus the glass-worker makes different
+shapes to various dishes; lamp chimneys, bottles, etc., by heating
+glass and then bending it. When it becomes cool again, it also becomes
+brittle or breakable as before.
+
+
+
+
+Why Does a Ball Bounce?
+
+
+When you throw a ball against the floor in order to make it bounce the
+ball gets out of shape as soon as it comes in contact with the floor.
+As much of it as strikes the floor becomes perfectly flat, and because
+the ball has a quality known as elasticity, which means the ability to
+return to its proper shape, it returns to its shape immediately and in
+doing so forces itself back into the air and that is the bounce.
+
+Of course, the first thing we think of when we consider something
+that bounces is a ball, and in most cases a rubber ball. We are more
+familiar with the bouncing qualities of a rubber ball. Other balls,
+like standard baseballs, are not so elastic as a rubber ball filled
+with air, but a solid-rubber ball is more elastic and some golf balls
+are much more elastic than a solid-rubber ball. The principle is the
+same, when you drive a golf ball, excepting that when you bounce a ball
+on the floor the floor does the flattening and when you drive a golf
+ball, the golf club does the flattening. A baseball flies away from the
+bat for the same reason. When you meet a fast-pitched ball squarely on
+the nose with a good swing, it goes farther and faster than when you
+hit a slow-pitched ball with an equal swing, because in the case of the
+fast-pitched ball you flatten the ball out more, and it has so much
+more to do to recover its proper shape that it bounces away from the
+bat at much greater speed and goes much further unless caught than a
+slow-pitched ball under the same circumstances.
+
+
+
+
+What Makes a Ball Stop Bouncing?
+
+
+A bouncing ball, when you first throw it against the wall bounces back
+at you about as fast as you throw it, but if you do not catch it on the
+rebound, it goes to the floor again, because the law of gravitation
+which is the pulling power of the earth, pulls it down again. When it
+strikes the floor it is again flattened to a certain extent and bounces
+up again, but does not come back so high. It goes on striking the floor
+and bouncing back into the air again each time a shorter distance,
+until the force of gravity has actually overcome its tendency to bounce
+back.
+
+When you bounce a ball on the floor and it bounces up again, the motion
+of the ball through the air is affected by the friction that the
+contact with the air produces and this friction of the air overcomes
+part of the bouncing ability in the ball also.
+
+
+
+
+What Makes a Cold Glass Crack if We Put Hot Water Into It?
+
+
+Hot water will not always cause a cold glass to crack, but is very apt
+to, especially a thick glass. The very thin glasses will not crack. The
+test tubes used by chemists are made of very thin glass, and will not
+crack when hot liquids are poured into them.
+
+When a glass cracks after you have poured a hot liquid into it, it does
+so because, as soon as the hot liquid is put in, the particles of glass
+which form the inside of the glass become heated and expand. They begin
+to do this before the particles which form the outside of the glass
+become heated, and in their efforts to expand the inside particles of
+glass literally break away from the particles which form the outside,
+causing the crack. The same thing happens if you put cold water into a
+hot glass, excepting in this instance the inside particles of the glass
+contract before the particles which form the outside of the glass have
+had time to become cool and do likewise.
+
+
+
+
+What Causes the Gurgle When I Pour Water from a Bottle?
+
+
+The air trying to get in causes the gurgle. Air has one strong
+characteristic which stands out above everything else. It wants to go
+some place else all the time. When it learns of a place where there
+is no air it wants to go there above all things, and goes at it with a
+rush.
+
+Now, when you turn a bottle full of water upside down, the water comes
+out if the cork is out, of course, and as soon as the water starts out
+the air strives to get in, and every time you hear a gurgle you know
+the air is getting in. Every gurgle is a battle between the water and
+the air. Sometimes the air comes and pushes the water back enough to
+let it slide into the bottle; sometimes the water pushes the air back,
+and thus they fight back and forth. The water always gets out and the
+air always gets in. In doing so they make the gurgle.
+
+
+
+
+Where Does the Part of a Stocking Go That Was Where the Hole Comes?
+
+
+Perhaps this is a foolish question, but many boys and girls have been
+puzzled for an answer to it. When you put your stockings on they have
+no holes in the feet, and at night, when you take them off, there are
+often quite large holes in them. The answer is the same as in the case
+of the lead in the lead-pencil. The lead in the pencil wears away. You
+can see it wear away because that is what makes the marks.
+
+When a hole is coming into your stocking, the stocking on your foot
+is being rubbed between your foot and something else (probably some
+part of your shoe) and this constant rubbing will wear through the
+yarns with which the stocking is knitted. Of course, the yarns in
+the stocking are stretched somewhat when it is on your foot and the
+rubbing finally cuts through the threads and releases the tension of
+the threads of yarn, so that not always is as much stocking lost as
+the size of the hole. But, if you were to look carefully at your foot
+and inside your shoe, when you first take the stocking off and see the
+hole, you would find little particles of yarn all about.
+
+
+
+
+Why Do Coats Have Buttons On the Sleeves?
+
+
+The practice of putting buttons on coat sleeves, which serve no useful
+purpose at all and do not add to the beauty of the coat, is a relic of
+very old days.
+
+There was a time when people did not use handkerchiefs, and it was
+common practice for men to wipe their noses on their sleeves. They had
+coats also in those days, but they did not have buttons on the sleeves.
+One of the old kings finally developed the idea of dressing his
+soldiers in fancy uniforms and, as he sat in his palace and reviewed
+his troops, he noticed many of them using the sleeves of their coats as
+handkerchiefs. He immediately issued a decree that all sleeves should
+have a row of buttons sewed on them, but at a point directly opposite
+to where they are now on the sleeves. This was done to remind the
+soldiers that the sleeves of their beautiful uniforms were not to be
+used as handkerchiefs, and those who attempted to draw their sleeves in
+front of the nose were quickly reminded of the decree by the buttons
+which scratched them. And so the buttons really had a quite useful
+purpose at one time, and so also all sleeves had buttons sewed on to
+them at this place. Later on, however, when the unsightly practice had
+been cured and people had learned to use handkerchiefs, the buttons
+remained as a decoration, but their former purpose was lost sight of.
+Then some tailor or leader of fashion had the buttons set on the under
+side of the sleeves for a change, and it became the fashion to have
+them there, and the tailors have been sewing them there ever since.
+
+
+
+
+Why Has a Long Coat Buttons on the Back?
+
+
+The buttons on the back of a long coat, i. e., one with skirts, had a
+more sensible reason originally. At one time the skirts of such coats
+were made very long, and when the wearer moved quickly the tails of
+the coat flapped about the legs and interfered with progress. So an
+ingenious gentleman had buttons sewed on to the back and buttonholes
+made in the corner of his coat-tails. Then when he was in a hurry he
+simply buttoned up his skirts and went his way comfortably.
+
+[Illustration: TELEPHONE DISPLAY BOARD
+
+Showing in outline the apparatus necessary to complete the simplest
+kind of a telephone call--to a number in the same exchange]
+
+
+
+
+The Story in the Telephone
+
+
+~WHAT HAPPENS WHEN WE TELEPHONE~
+
+Mrs. Smith, at “Subscriber’s Station No. 1,” desires to telephone
+to Mrs. Jones at “Subscriber’s Station No. 2.” When she lifts her
+receiver, the movement causes a tiny white light to appear instantly on
+the switchboard at the Central Office. Directly beneath this light is
+another and larger lamp, which glows in a way to attract the operator’s
+attention immediately.
+
+The operator inserts a “plug” in a little hole on the switchboard
+called a “jack,” directly above the tiny light which appeared when Mrs.
+Smith lifted the receiver. This connects her to Mrs. Smith’s line. Then
+she pushes a listening key on the board, connecting her telephone set
+to the line. “Number, please?” she calls.
+
+Mrs. Smith gives the number; the operator repeats it to be sure there
+is no mistake, places another “plug” in a “jack” corresponding to the
+number of Mrs. Jones’ telephone and makes the connection.
+
+Each subscriber’s telephone has a particular signal on the switchboard
+to which it is connected by a pair of wires. Mrs. Smith’s wires run
+from her instrument to the nearest “cable terminal,” a gathering point
+for the wires of various telephones in her neighborhood. Here they form
+part of a group of wires going to the Central Office. These groups,
+called cables, are made up of from 50 to 600 pairs of wires, according
+to the telephone needs of the district the “terminal” serves.
+
+When the wires reach the Central Office they pass through the “cable
+vault” to the “main distributing frame,” which is the Central Office
+terminal of the cable.
+
+When the wires come to this frame they are in numbered order in the
+cable. Subscribers living next door to Mrs. Smith may have entirely
+different call numbers and yet use consecutive wires. It is the task
+of the main frame to redistribute these wires, so that they will be
+arranged according to their call numbers and to make it possible to
+connect Mrs. Smith’s line with the line of any other subscriber with
+the least possible delay. This frame has two parts: the “vertical
+side” and the “horizontal side.” Before the wires are redistributed
+they are taken to pairs of springs equipped with devices for protecting
+the lines against outside currents.
+
+[Illustration: ASKING FOR A NUMBER]
+
+After leaving the main frame they are taken to the “intermediate
+distributing frame,” the central connecting point for various branches
+of the lines going to the switchboard, signaling and other apparatus.
+From the “horizontal side” of this frame, wires go to the switchboard,
+where they terminate in little holes known as “multiple jacks.” They
+also connect with the line and position message registers, where the
+calls from each Line and the calls handled at each operator’s position
+at the switchboard are recorded. The “multiple jacks” are additional
+terminals placed at necessary intervals throughout the switchboard,
+where they can be used by operators to make connections with any other
+line on the board.
+
+From the “vertical side” of the intermediate frame Mrs. Smith’s wires
+reach the “line and cut-off relay,” an electrically controlled switch
+which turns on the light signal that appears on the switchboard
+when she lifts the receiver from the hook. This “line relay” also
+extinguishes the light when the operator makes the connection, or when
+Mrs. Smith returns the receiver to the hook.
+
+[Illustration: A TYPICAL POLE LINE, WITH CROSS ARMS, IN THE COUNTRY]
+
+The swift moving electric current that was set in motion when Mrs.
+Smith began the call, instantaneously passes through all these devices
+for safeguarding and protecting the subscriber’s telephone service. The
+light announcing Mrs. Smith’s desire to make a call is called the “line
+lamp,” and is flashing on the switchboard. Directly beneath it is the
+“pilot lamp,” which glows whenever any “line lamp” lights. With the
+“line lamp” is a “jack” or terminal, where connection can be made with
+Mrs. Smith’s line. This is the “answering jack.”
+
+[Illustration: THE CABLE VAULT INTO WHICH THE CABLES PASS WHEN THEY
+ENTER THE EXCHANGE AND FROM WHICH THEY ARE LED UPWARD TO THE MAIN
+DISTRIBUTING FRAME]
+
+When the operator sees the flashing signal of Mrs. Smith’s “line lamp,”
+she inserts one end of a pair of “connecting cords,” which are on
+the board before her, in the “answering jack” for Mrs. Smith’s line.
+These “connecting cords” are flexible conductors that put the wires
+of subscribers in electrical connection. Then she pushes forward the
+“operator’s key” directly in front of her and is connected with Mrs.
+Smith’s line.
+
+The operator ascertains the number wanted and places the other
+“connecting cord” in the “jack” corresponding to Mrs. Jones’ line. If
+she finds she cannot herself connect with Mrs. Jones’ “jack,” because
+it is on another part of the board out of her reach, she makes a
+connection with another operator who can reach Mrs. Jones’ line. The
+second operator then makes the connection with Mrs. Jones’ “multiple
+jack” and places her line in connection with Mrs. Smith’s line at the
+first operator’s position. At the same time the first operator pushes
+the operator’s key back, thus ringing Mrs. Jones’ bell.
+
+“Supervisory lamps” on the board before her, connected with the
+“connecting cords,” tell the operator when Mrs. Jones answers the
+summons. They flash when the connection is made and one goes out just
+as soon as Mrs. Jones takes the receiver from the hook to answer.
+If one of these lamps flashes and dies out alternately it tells the
+operator that either Mrs. Smith or Mrs. Jones is trying to attract her
+attention and she connects herself and ascertains the party’s wishes.
+When both subscribers “hang up,” both lights flash to indicate the
+end of the conversation. The operator then disconnects the cords from
+the subscribers’ “jacks” and presses the “message register” button
+recording the call against Mrs. Smith.
+
+[Illustration: ROUTINE OF A TELEPHONE CALL
+
+The subscriber, after looking up in the directory the desired number,
+takes the telephone off the hook, which causes a tiny electric light to
+glow in front of the operator assigned to answer his calls. (In some
+exchanges equipped with a magneto system, a drop is released by the
+turning of a crank.)]
+
+[Illustration: The arrow indicates the light as it appears on the
+switchboard. Each operator can connect a caller with any subscriber
+in that exchange, but she is assigned to answer the calls of only a
+limited number of subscribers whose signals are these lights showing at
+her particular position.]
+
+[Illustration: She takes up a brass-tipped cord, inserts the tip,
+or “plug,” into the hole, or “jack,” just above the light, at the
+same time throwing a key with the other hand in order to switch her
+transmitter line into direct communication with the caller, and says:
+“Number?”]
+
+[Illustration: The caller replies by giving the name of the exchange
+and the number he wants, as for example, “Main 1268.” The operator
+repeats the number, “One-two-six-eight,” pronouncing each digit with
+clear articulation, to insure its correctness, and, if it be from a
+subscriber in the Main Exchange, she--]
+
+[Illustration: Takes up the cord which is the team mate, or “pair,” of
+the one with which she answered the caller, locates the jack numbered
+1268, and “tests” the line by tapping the tip of the plug for a moment
+on the sleeve of the “jack” to ascertain if the line is “busy.” If no
+click sounds in her ear she--]
+
+[Illustration: Pushes in the plug and with her other hand operates a
+key on the desk. The first action connects the line of the subscriber
+called; the second rings his bell. When either party hangs up his
+receiver, a light glows on the switchboard desk, showing the operator
+that the conversation is ended.]
+
+[Illustration: THE CENTRAL TERMINAL OF YOUR TELEPHONE
+
+A MULTIPLE SWITCHBOARD]
+
+[Illustration: THE BACK OF A MULTIPLE SWITCHBOARD]
+
+[Illustration: THE BIRTHPLACE OF THE TELEPHONE, 109 COURT STREET, BOSTON
+
+On the top floor of this building, in 1875, Prof. Bell carried on his
+experiments and first succeeded in transmitting speech by electricity]
+
+
+How the Telephone Came to Be.
+
+It is hard to realize that there was once a time, not so very many
+years ago, when the telephone was regarded as a scientific toy and
+hardly anyone could be found willing to invest any money in the
+development of the telephone business.
+
+[Illustration: ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL IN 1876]
+
+[Illustration: THOMAS A. WATSON IN 1874]
+
+The story of Professor Alexander Graham Bell’s wonderful invention is
+full of romantic interest and the early days of its exploitation were
+replete with dramatic incidents.
+
+~THE MEN WHO MADE THE TELEPHONE~
+
+Young Bell had come to America in 1870 in search of health, the family
+settling at Brantford, Canada. He numbered among his forebears many
+distinguished professional men. For three generations the Bells had
+taught the laws of speech in the universities of Edinburgh, Dublin and
+London. He himself was an accomplished elocutionist and an expert in
+vocal physiology.
+
+During the year spent in Canada in regaining his health, Bell taught
+his father’s method of visible speech to a tribe of Mohawk Indians and
+began to think about the “harmonic telegraph.”
+
+In 1871 young Alexander Bell accepted an offer from the Boston Board
+of Education to teach the “visible speech” method in a school for deaf
+mutes in that city.
+
+For two years he devoted himself to the work with great success. He was
+appointed a professor in the Boston University and opened a school of
+“Vocal Physiology” which was at once successful.
+
+He might have continued his career as a teacher had it not been that
+his active brain still clung to the “harmonic telegraph” idea and his
+inventive genius demanded an outlet.
+
+[Illustration: PROF. BELL’S VIBRATING REED]
+
+So we find him in 1874 working out his idea of the “harmonic
+telegraph,” the perfection of which meant a fortune to the young
+inventor. That he never realized his goal was due to the fact that
+while experimenting, he made a discovery which led to a far greater
+invention and one that was fraught with more benefit to mankind than
+the “harmonic telegraph” could ever have been.
+
+It was while working with his faithful man Friday, Thomas A. Watson,
+in the dingy little workrooms on Court Street, Boston, that Bell got
+the inspiration which made him turn from the “harmonic telegraph” to
+devote himself to the invention which was destined to make his name
+famous--the speaking telephone.
+
+~THE FIRST SOUND OVER A WIRE~
+
+Mr. Watson has dramatically described the incident as follows:
+
+“On the afternoon of June 2, 1875, we were hard at work on the same
+old job, testing some modification of the instruments. Things were
+badly out of tune that afternoon in that hot garret, not only the
+instruments, but, I fancy, my enthusiasm and my temper, though Bell
+was as energetic as ever. I had charge of the transmitters, as usual,
+setting them squealing one after the other, while Bell was retuning
+the receiver springs one by one, pressing them against his ear as I
+have described. One of the transmitter springs I was attending to
+stopped vibrating and I plucked it to start it again. It didn’t start
+and I kept on plucking it, when suddenly I heard a shout from Bell in
+the next room, and then out he came with a rush, demanding, ‘What did
+you do then? Don’t change anything. Let me see!’ I showed him. It was
+very simple. The make-and-break points of the transmitter spring I was
+trying to start had become welded together, so that when I snapped the
+spring the circuit had remained unbroken while that strip of magnetized
+steel by its vibration over the pole of its magnet, was generating that
+marvelous conception of Bell’s--a current of electricity that varied in
+intensity precisely as the air was varying in density within hearing
+distance of that spring. That undulatory current had passed through
+the connecting wire to the distant receiver which, fortunately, was
+a mechanism that could transform that current back into an extremely
+faint echo of the sound of the vibrating spring that had generated it,
+but what was still more fortunate, the right man had that mechanism
+at his ear during that fleeting moment, and instantly recognized
+the transcendent importance of that faint sound thus electrically
+transmitted. The shout I heard and his excited rush into my room were
+the result of that recognition. The speaking telephone was born at
+that moment. Bell knew perfectly well that the mechanism that could
+transmit all the complex vibrations of one sound could do the same for
+any sound, even that of speech. That experiment showed him that the
+complex apparatus he had thought would be needed to accomplish that
+long-dreamed result was not at all necessary, for here was an extremely
+simple mechanism operating in a perfectly obvious way, that could do
+it perfectly. All the experimenting that followed that discovery, up
+to the time the telephone was put into practical use, was largely a
+matter of working out the details. We spent a few hours verifying the
+discovery, repeating it with all the differently tuned springs we had,
+and before we parted that night Bell gave me directions for making the
+first electric speaking telephone. I was to mount a small drumhead
+of gold-beater’s skin over one of the receivers, join the center of
+the drumhead to the free end of the receiving spring and arrange a
+mouthpiece over the drumhead to talk into. His idea was to force the
+steel spring to follow the vocal vibrations and generate a current of
+electricity that would vary in intensity as the air varies in density
+during the utterance of speech sounds. I followed these directions and
+had the instrument ready for its trial the very next day. I rushed it,
+for Bell’s excitement and enthusiasm over the discovery had aroused
+mine again, which had been sadly dampened during those last few weeks
+by the meagre results of the harmonic experiments. I made every part of
+that first telephone myself, but I didn’t realize while I was working
+on it what a tremendously important piece of work I was doing.
+
+[Illustration: WHAT THE FIRST TELEPHONE LOOKED LIKE
+
+ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL’S FIRST TELEPHONE]
+
+
+The First Telephone Line.
+
+“The two rooms in the attic were too near together for the test, as
+our voices would be heard through the air, so I ran a wire especially
+for the trial from one of the rooms in the attic down two flights to
+the third floor where Williams’ main shop was, ending it near my work
+bench at the back of the building. That was the first telephone line.
+You can well imagine that both our hearts were beating above the normal
+rate while we were getting ready for the trial of the new instrument
+that evening. I got more satisfaction from the experiment than Mr. Bell
+did, for shout my best I could not make him hear me, but I could hear
+his voice and almost catch the words. I rushed upstairs and told him
+what I had heard. It was enough to show him that he was on the right
+track, and before he left that night he gave me directions for several
+improvements in the telephones I was to have ready for the next trial.”
+
+Then followed many heart-breaking months of experimenting and it was
+not until the following March that the telephone was able to transmit
+a complete, intelligible sentence.
+
+[Illustration: TELEPHONE APPARATUS PATENTED IN 1876 BY PROF. BELL,
+PHOTOGRAPHED FROM THE ORIGINAL INSTRUMENTS IN THE PATENT OFFICE AT
+WASHINGTON]
+
+On February 14, 1876, Professor Bell filed at Washington his
+application for patents covering the telephone which he described as
+“an improvement in telegraphy” and on March 3, of the same year, the
+patent was allowed.
+
+That was the year of the Centennial Exposition at Philadelphia and
+Professor Bell had a working model of the telephone on exhibition.
+Tucked away in an obscure corner it had attracted but little attention,
+until on June 25th an incident occurred which had a tremendous effect
+in giving to the new invention just the sort of publicity it needed.
+
+Professor Bell himself describes the incident in the following
+interesting manner:
+
+“Mr. Hubbard and Mr. Saunders, who were financially interested in the
+telephone, wanted this instrument to be exhibited at the Centennial
+Exhibition. In those days--and I must say even up to the present time
+I am afraid to say it is true--I was not very much alive to commercial
+matters, not being a business man myself. I had a school for vocal
+physiology in Boston. I was right in the midst of examinations.
+
+“I went down to Philadelphia, growling all the time at this
+interruption to my professional work, and I appeared in Philadelphia
+on Sunday, the 25th. I was an unknown man and looked around upon the
+celebrities who were judges there, and trotted around after the judges
+at the exhibition while they examined this exhibit and that exhibit. My
+exhibit came last. Before they got to that it was announced that the
+judges were too tired to make any further examinations that day and
+that the exhibit could be examined another day. That meant that the
+telephone would not be seen, for I was not going to come back another
+day. I was going right back to Boston.
+
+~HOW AN EMPEROR SAVED THE TELEPHONE~
+
+“And that was the way the matter stood--when suddenly there was one man
+among the judges who happened to remember me by sight. That was no less
+a person than His Majesty Dom Pedro, the Emperor of Brazil. I had shown
+him what we had been doing in teaching speech to the deaf in Boston,
+had taken him around to the City School for the Deaf and shown him the
+means of teaching speech, and when he saw me there he remembered me
+and came over and shook hands and said: ‘Mr. Bell, how are the deaf
+mutes of Boston?’ I said they were very well and told him that the next
+exhibit on the program was my exhibit. ‘Come along,’ he said, and he
+took my arm and walked off with me--and, of course, where an Emperor
+led the way the other judges followed. And the telephone exhibit was
+saved.
+
+[Illustration: THE FIRST TELEPHONE SWITCHBOARD USED. EIGHT SUBSCRIBERS.]
+
+
+An Emperor Wonders.
+
+“Well, I cannot tell very much about that exhibit, although it was
+the pivotal point on which the whole telephone turned in those days.
+If I had not had that exhibition there it is very doubtful what the
+condition of the telephone would be today. But the Emperor of Brazil
+was the first one to bring that situation about at that time. I went
+off to my transmitting instrument in another part of the building, and
+a little iron box receiver was placed at the ear of the Emperor. I told
+him to hold it to his ear, and then I heard afterward what happened. I
+was not present at that end of the line. I went to the other end and
+was reciting, ‘To be or not to be, that is the question,’ and so on,
+keeping up a continuous talk.”
+
+“I heard afterward from my friend, Mr. William Hubbard, that the
+Emperor held it up in a very indifferent way to his ear, and then
+suddenly started and said, ‘My God! it speaks!’ And he put it down; and
+then Sir William Thomson took it up and one after another in the crowd
+took it up and listened. I was in another part of the building shouting
+away to the membrane telephone that was the transmitter. Suddenly I
+heard a noise of people stamping along very heavily, approaching, and
+there was Dom Pedro, rushing along at a very un-Emperor-like gait,
+followed by Sir William Thomson and a number of others, to see what I
+was doing at the other end. They were very much interested. But I had
+to go back to Boston and couldn’t wait any longer. I went that very
+night.”
+
+“Now, it so happened there, that, although the judges had heard speech
+emitted by the steel disc armature of this receiving instrument, they
+were not quite convinced that it was electrically produced. Some one
+had whispered a suspicion that it was simply the case of the thread
+telegraph, the lovers’ telegraph, as it was known in those days, and
+that the sound had been mechanically transmitted along the line from
+one instrument to the other. Of course, I did not know about it at that
+time; but when the judges asked permission to remove the apparatus
+from that location I said, ‘Certainly, do anything you like with it.’
+But I could not remain to look after it; they had to look after it
+themselves.”
+
+“My friend, Mr. William Hubbard, who had kindly come up from Boston
+to help me on this celebrated Sunday, June 25, said he would do his
+best to help them out, although he was not an electrician. He knew
+nothing whatever about the apparatus, beyond being in my laboratory
+occasionally, knowing me well. But he undertook to remove this
+apparatus and set up the line under the direction of the judges
+themselves. So they had an opportunity finally of satisfying themselves
+that speech had really been electrically reproduced.”
+
+“Sir William Thomson’s announcement was made to the world in England,
+before the British Association, and the world believed--and from that
+time dates the popular interest in the telephone.”
+
+In October, 1876, the first outdoor demonstration, in which
+conversation was carried on over a private telegraph wire, borrowed for
+the occasion, took place between Boston and Cambridge, a distance of
+two miles.
+
+In April, 1877, the first telephone line was installed between Boston
+and Somerville.
+
+A month later an enterprising Boston man put up a crude switchboard
+in his office and connected up five banks, using the system for
+telephoning in the day-time and as a protection against burglars at
+night. This was the beginning of the exchange system, all previous
+telephoning having been between two parties on the same circuit.
+
+~NINE MILLION TELEPHONES IN U. S.~
+
+Soon after exchanges sprang up in several cities, and by August of that
+year there were 778 Bell telephones in use. From this modest beginning
+the telephone has grown until on January 1, 1914, there were 13,500,000
+telephones in the world, nearly 9,000,000, or over 64 per cent being in
+the United States.
+
+[Illustration: MODERN DISTRIBUTING FRAME
+
+When the wires come to this frame they are in numbered order in the
+cable. The main frame redistributes these wires so that they are
+arranged according to their call numbers, making it possible to connect
+any wire with any other wire anywhere that telephone service is
+installed.]
+
+[Illustration: HOW THE WIRES ARE PUT UNDERGROUND
+
+Breaking Up the Asphalt Pavement. First Step in Laying an Underground
+Cable.]
+
+[Illustration: Laying Multiple Duct Tile Subway Through Which the
+Cables Will Run.]
+
+[Illustration: Feeding Cable Into Duct as It is Being Pulled Through
+Subway from the Other End.]
+
+[Illustration: A CABLE TROUBLE]
+
+The use of the telephone instrument is common, but it affords no idea
+of the magnitude of the mechanical equipment by which it is made
+effective.
+
+~UNSEEN FORCES BEHIND YOUR TELEPHONE~
+
+To give you some conception of the great number of persons and the
+enormous quantity of materials required to maintain an always-efficient
+service, various comparisons are here presented.
+
+[Illustration: TELEPHONES. Enough to string around Lake Erie--8,000,000,
+which, with equipment, cost at the factory $45,000,000.]
+
+[Illustration: WIRE. Enough to coil around the earth 621
+times--15,460,000 miles of it, worth about $100,000,000, including
+260,000 tons of copper, worth $88,000,000.]
+
+[Illustration: LEAD AND TIN. Enough to load 6,600 coal cars--being
+659,960,000 pounds, worth more than $37,000,000.]
+
+[Illustration: CONDUITS. Enough to go five times through the earth from
+pole to pole--225,778,000 feet, worth in the warehouse $9,000,000.]
+
+[Illustration: POLES. Enough to build a stockade around
+California--12,480,000 of them, worth in the lumber yard about
+$40,000,000.]
+
+[Illustration: SWITCHBOARDS. In a line would extend thirty-six
+miles--55,000 of them, which cost, unassembled, $90,000,000.]
+
+[Illustration: BUILDINGS. Sufficient to house a city of 150,000--more
+than a thousand buildings, which, unfurnished, and without land, cost
+$44,000,000.]
+
+[Illustration: PEOPLE. Equal in numbers to the entire population of
+Wyoming--150,000 employes, not including those of connecting companies.]
+
+The poles are set all over this country, and strung with wires and
+cables; the conduits are buried under the great cities; the telephones
+are installed in separate homes and offices; the switchboards housed,
+connected and supplemented with other machinery, and the whole system
+kept in running order so that each subscriber may talk at any time,
+anywhere.
+
+
+
+
+Where Does Sound Come From?
+
+
+Somebody or something causes every sound we hear. Sounds are the result
+of disturbances in the air. Sound is produced by waves in the air. The
+buzz of the bumble-bee is caused by the quick movement of his wings
+in the air. The wings themselves do not make the sound, but their
+motion causes waves or vibrations in the air which produce the sound
+of buzzing. Every motion made by anybody or anything produces waves in
+the air just like the waves you see in the water--a big movement makes
+a big wave and a tiny movement a tiny wave. When you clap your hands
+you make a disturbance in the air which causes a sound--the harder you
+clap the louder the sound. You can hear this sound and anybody else
+near can hear it. If there were no air about us, however, we would hear
+no sound, even if we could live in such a condition of things, for it
+is the air waves produced striking against the drum of our ears that
+enable us to discern sounds. When we talk we make air waves also and
+thus produce sound. If you were deaf, and talked, you could not hear
+any sound, because even when there are air waves they must still strike
+against a sounding board in order to be recognized as sound--and the
+drum of our ear is our sounding board for hearing sounds.
+
+When the air waves produced are regular we call the sound musical, and
+when they are irregular we call it noise. Some people can make musical
+sounds when they sing, while others cannot.
+
+If you take a piece of thin wire and stretch it tightly, fastening it
+at both ends, and then pull it with your finger and let go, you will
+hear a musical sound, because the vibrations produced will be regular
+and will continue for some time. If you shorten the distance on the
+wire where it is fastened at both ends and pull it as before, the
+sound produced will be in a higher key. If you take a guitar and snap
+the big G string you will produce the bass note of G. If the other
+G string (the smaller one) is in tune (if you watch the smaller one
+closely while you strike the larger one) you will notice the smaller
+one vibrate also. Sound waves of the same tone, although in different
+octaves, produce the same sounds, although in different keys.
+
+This is the principle on which the piano is made to produce music.
+Inside the piano are wires of different lengths and the keys of the
+piano are arranged to operate certain little hammers, each of which
+strikes a certain wire. Every time you strike a piano key you cause one
+of the little hammers to hit its wire--the wire then makes vibrations
+which cause air waves. The air waves strike against the sounding board
+which is located behind the wires, and being thrown back into the air,
+strike against the drum of our ears, and we can hear the note.
+
+
+
+
+Why Can We Make Sounds With Our Throats?
+
+
+The sounds we make when we talk are produced in exactly the same way
+with the exception of the little hammers. In our throats are two cords
+which we call our vocal cords. When we talk we cause these cords to
+vibrate and thus we make the sounds of our voices. The most wonderful
+part of this voice of ours is that with only two vocal cords or wires,
+we can produce practically all the notes that can be made with a piano,
+which has a wire or cord for every note, excepting that we cannot make
+so many at one time. The human throat is so wonderfully constructed
+that we can lengthen or shorten our vocal cords at will and produce,
+with two strings, in our throats as many notes as it takes the piano
+many more strings to produce.
+
+
+
+
+Why Does the Sound Stop When We Touch a Gong that Has Been Sounded?
+
+
+When we touch the gong we stop the sound waves which the gong gives
+off when it is struck. These sound waves continue after the gong has
+been struck in continuous vibrations until something stops them. When
+you touch the vibrating gong, you stop its vibrating. If you only
+touch your finger to the vibrating gong you can feel the vibrations
+which cause a little tickling sensation. Naturally when you stop these
+vibrations you stop the air waves which the vibrations cause, and thus
+also the sound of these air waves striking your ear are stopped and the
+sound ceases.
+
+
+
+
+How Can Sound Come Through a Thick Wall?
+
+
+A sound will come through a thick or thin wall only if the wall is a
+good conductor of sound. Some things are good conductors of sound and
+others are not, just as some things are good conductors of electricity
+and others are not. If a wall is built of materials all of which are
+good conductors of sound, the sound will come through it no matter how
+thick. Wood is an especially good conductor of sound. It is even better
+than air. You can stand at one end of a long log and have another
+person at the other end hold up his watch in the air, and you cannot
+hear the watch tick, but if the watch is “going” as we say, and you ask
+the person holding it to put the watch against his end of the log, and
+you then put your ear to the other end, you can hear the watch ticking
+almost as well as if you had it to your own ear. In like manner you can
+hear the scratching of a pin at the other end of the log. When you put
+your ear against a telegraph pole you can hear the hum of the wires
+while you cannot hear it through the air. All sound is produced by
+sound waves and many solids are better conductors of sound waves than
+the air.
+
+Sound waves, however, will sometimes not be heard as plainly through a
+wall, because of the fact that the wall may be made of materials which
+are not equally good conductors of sound. When a sound wave strikes a
+poor conductor it loses some of its power and the sound, although it
+may be heard through the wall, will be fainter.
+
+
+
+
+What Is Meant by Deadening a Floor or a Wall?
+
+
+By deadening a floor, for instance, we mean inserting between the
+ceiling of the room below and the floor above, or in the instance of a
+deadened wall, between the two sides of the wall, some substance like
+felt, paper or other non-conductor of sound, which will prevent the
+sound waves from passing through. This deadens them to the passing of
+sound or makes them sound-proof.
+
+
+
+
+What Makes the Sounds Like Waves in a Sea Shell?
+
+
+The sounds we hear when we hold a sea shell to the ear are not really
+the sound of the sea waves. We have come to imagine that they are
+because they sound like the waves of the sea, and knowledge that the
+shell originally came from the sea helps us to this conclusion very
+easily.
+
+
+
+
+What Are the Sounds We Hear in a Shell?
+
+
+The sounds we hear in the sea shell are really air waves or sounds made
+by air waves, because all sounds are produced by air waves.
+
+The reason you can hear these sounds in a sea shell is because the
+shell is so constructed that it forms a natural sounding box. The
+wooden part of a guitar, zither or violin is a sounding box. They have
+the faculty of picking up sounds and making them stronger. We call them
+“resonators,” because they make sounds resound. The construction of a
+sea shell makes an almost perfect resonator. A perfect resonator will
+pick up sounds which the human ear cannot hear at all and magnify them
+so that if you hold a resonator to the ear you can hear sounds you
+could not otherwise hear. Ear trumpets for the deaf are built upon this
+principle.
+
+Sometimes when you, with your ear alone, think something is absolutely
+quiet, you can pick up a sea shell and hear sounds in it. But the sea
+shell will magnify any sound that reaches it.
+
+It would be possible, of course, to take a sea shell to a place where
+it would be absolutely quiet and then there would be no sounds.
+
+There are such places, but very few of them. A room can be built which
+is absolutely sound proof.
+
+[Illustration: SIBERIAN LAMBS IN SOUTH DAKOTA]
+
+
+
+
+The Story in a Suit of Clothes
+
+
+Where Does Wool Come From?
+
+We could not write the story of a suit of clothes without dealing
+largely with the sheep, for it is only from the wool of the sheep
+that the best, warmest and most lasting garment can be made. In order
+that we may properly understand the development of the great wool and
+clothing industry in America we must supply a brief history of our
+sheep industry, for the sheep must always come before the clothing.
+
+
+Who Brought the First Sheep to America?
+
+The sheep is not a native of America, but it came here with the first
+white men. History records that Columbus on his way to this country
+stopped at the Canary Islands to take on stores. Among other things
+he loaded a number of sheep, some of which were later landed on the
+new continent. What became of this early importation history does not
+record, but it is probable that most, if not all, of them perished from
+the attack of wild animals or at the hands of the natives. However,
+when settlers began pouring into the new world many of them brought
+along their sheep, so that from the earliest colonial days the sheep
+constituted our most numerous domestic animals. This, indeed, was
+necessary, for if the colonist was to survive the rigor of our climate
+he must have an abundant supply of woolen clothing. In those days
+clothing materials were limited to wool, flax and the skins of animals,
+and, as may be supposed, wools were in very great demand. England and
+most European countries prohibited the exportation of wool, in order to
+increase the demand for the clothing which she manufactured. However,
+as our new colonist had ample time and but little money, he desired
+to make his own clothing rather than send such funds as he had to the
+mother country. Therefore, the new settler, as a matter of necessity,
+was forced to increase the domestic supply of wools.
+
+
+Who Started to Make Clothing from Wool in America?
+
+Early records reveal that shortly after the year 1600 many of the
+colonies passed laws for the purpose of encouraging the sheep industry.
+In fact, some of them went so far as to prohibit the transportation
+of sheep or wool from one colony to another. However, our new sheep
+industry prospered, and well it should, for it had the backing of every
+prominent patriot of the early days. Washington, Jefferson, Madison,
+and Franklin all were enthusiastic advocates of sheep husbandry, for
+they knew that unless a people had a large domestic supply of wool they
+could not long remain independent or hope to gain independence from
+foreign countries. In fact, at one time Washington owned as many as one
+thousand sheep, and if he lived in the present day he would be regarded
+as a sheep baron. Wool, next to food, is the most vital necessity of a
+people, for when wars come wool becomes a contraband, and all foreign
+supplies are shut off. Thus, in stimulating a domestic wool supply the
+great wisdom of our early patriots was vindicated with the coming of
+the Revolutionary War. When that great struggle came our foreign wool
+supply was shut off, but on account of the foresight of these patriots
+in encouraging home production, our colonists had a supply ample for
+most of their needs.
+
+We not only had the wool, but the housewife had learned the art of
+manufacturing wool into clothing by means of the spinning wheel, so
+that when our soldiers went forth in that great struggle, which was to
+bring to us independence, they were clad in garments made of American
+grown wool and manufactured by the good housewife during her hours of
+leisure.
+
+When affairs became tranquil, following the close of the Revolution,
+settlement, which had largely been confined to the Atlantic coast,
+pushed westward farther and farther into the wilderness. Each of
+these settlers took with him his supply of sheep, for the purpose of
+furnishing wool for clothing and meat for food. In the early days
+wool was not grown for the purpose of sale, but to be used entirely
+by the family of the producer. However, when settlement reached the
+Mississippi River, conditions changed. Wool manufacturing had then been
+established in the land, and it became customary to raise wool to sell
+to these manufacturers, who had located along the Atlantic seaboard.
+
+
+Why Does the Sheep Precede the Plow in Civilizing a Country?
+
+In all countries the sheep has been the pioneer of civilization. They
+have settled and developed practically all new lands. In fact, so
+firmly established has been this rule that it seems almost necessary
+that the sheep should precede the plow, and thus prepare land for
+agriculture. The reason for this is that the sheep is a tractable
+animal and depends on man to guide its every step. It can endure
+hardships that would destroy other forms of animal life. However, the
+maintenance of a sheep industry requires an abundance of labor, and in
+this way settlement always follows the sheep. So has it been in foreign
+countries, and so was it in this country.
+
+
+Where Does Most of Our Wool Come From?
+
+Sheep came into our western states early in the seventies, at a time
+when these states were thinly settled, but following the sheep came the
+labor incident to its care, and thus the railroads, stores, cities and
+schoolhouses found their way into the land. Originally all of our sheep
+industry was east of the Mississippi River. Then for a time it was east
+of the Missouri River. To-day west of the Missouri River we have about
+23,000,000 aged sheep, or more than one-half of the total in the United
+States. In the pioneer days the western sheep skirmished on the range
+for most of the food that it obtained. To-day conditions are different,
+and, while the sheep is on the range for a short time each year, it
+spends its summer in the National Forest, for which grazing a fee is
+paid to the Federal Government. Its winters are spent largely around
+the hay-stack of the farmer, and about fifty to sixty cents’ worth of
+hay is fed to each sheep in the West each winter. With the coming of
+spring the western sheep are divided into bands of about 1500, and each
+two bands are placed in care of three caretakers, who care for and
+protect the sheep either on the deeded land of the owner or on the land
+rented from the Federal Government.
+
+[Illustration: SHEEP COMING OUT OF FOREST]
+
+
+How Much Wool Does America Produce Yearly?
+
+So much for the history of our sheep. A few words now about wool. The
+total wool crop of the United States is approximately 300,000,000
+pounds per year. The value of this crop is around $60,000,000 annually.
+
+
+How Do We Get the Wool Off the Sheep?
+
+With the coming of spring our sheep are driven to large central plants,
+where they are shorn by the use of machines driven by electricity or
+steam power. One man shears about one hundred and fifty sheep per day.
+For this he receives eight cents per head. When the wool is taken off
+the sheep it is gathered up and carefully tied with string made of
+paper. The tied fleece is then dropped into an elevator, and is carried
+up about ten feet, where it is dropped into a large sack about three
+feet in diameter and seven feet long. In this sack there is always a
+wool tramper, who keeps tramping the fleeces down, so that about forty
+fleeces are finally put into each sack, making the weight of the sack
+approximately three hundred pounds. As these sacks are filled they are
+carefully stored in a dry shed, and, when shearing is completed, are
+hauled to the railroad station and shipped to the great wool centers of
+Boston or Philadelphia. While the bulk of the wool in the United States
+is produced west of the Missouri River, that territory manufactures
+very little wool. So the western sheepman, who is thus forced to grow
+his wool in the western states, pays about two cents a pound freight on
+it back to the eastern market, where it is sold and later manufactured
+into cloth. A part of this same clothing is then shipped west, to be
+sold to the very man, in some instances, who produced the wool out of
+which it is made.
+
+American wool, taken as a whole, is the best wool grown in the world.
+It is not as soft as some Australian wool, but all of it possesses
+a greater strength than foreign wools, and it has long since been
+determined that clothing made of American wool will give better service
+than that made of foreign wool. Of the wool used in the United States
+for the manufacturing of clothing we produce about 70 per cent and
+import about 30 per cent.
+
+
+How Much Does the Wool In a Suit of Clothes Cost?
+
+It is customary for the person who buys clothing made of wool to
+believe that the value of the wool in the cloth is what makes the
+clothing seem expensive. However, if we take a man’s suit made of
+medium-weight cloth, such as is worn in November, we find that it
+requires about nine pounds of average wool to make the suit. For this
+wool the sheepman receives an average of seventeen cents per pound, so
+that out of the entire suit the man who produces the material out of
+which the suit is made receives a total of $1.53. A suit such as is
+here described would be of all wool and free from shoddy or any wool
+substitute. It would be a suit that would be sold by the storekeeper
+at $25.00, and if you had it made by the tailor he would charge you
+$35.00. Yet the wool-grower furnished all the material out of which
+the suit was made, and received as his share but $1.53. Thus it will
+be clear to the person who buys clothing and reads these lines that no
+longer can the blame for the high cost of clothing be laid at the door
+of the wool-grower.
+
+While the wool-using population of the world is increasing very
+rapidly, the number of wool-producing sheep in the world is decreasing.
+Ordinarily this would mean that a point would be reached where the
+supply of wool would be totally inadequate to meet the needs of the
+public. However, this unfortunate possibility is being averted by the
+energy and thrift of the sheepmen in breeding sheep that produce more
+and better wool than was the case in the past. The sheep which Columbus
+brought to this country, and, in fact, all the sheep of the world in
+that day, produced wool of very coarse, inferior quality, and but very
+little of it. One hundred years ago our sheep did not average three
+pounds of wool per head, but by careful breeding and better feeding we
+have brought the average fleece up to slightly more than seven pounds.
+Of course, some sheep produce decidedly more wool than this, but the
+fact that in one hundred years we have more than doubled the amount of
+wool that a sheep produces and increased its quality very materially
+speaks well for the ingenuity and determination of our sheep producers.
+Probably as time goes on the average fleece may be still further
+increased, so that in the next twenty-five years it is not too much to
+hope that our sheep will produce on an average of one pound more wool
+than they now do.
+
+Of course, as wool comes from the sheep, it naturally contains much
+dirt. The sheep have run on the range or in the open pasture during
+much of the year, and dust and dirt has settled into the wool. Then,
+besides producing wool, the sheep excrete into the wool a fatty
+substance known as wool fat. When the fleece is taken from the sheep
+and sent to the market the first thing that the manufacturer does with
+the fleece is to wash out all this foreign matter. The foreign matter
+is of a considerable quantity, for 60 per cent of wool as it comes from
+the sheep is dirt and grease, so that only 40 per cent of the sheep’s
+fleece represents wool fibres.
+
+This wool fibre is a very delicate affair, being made up of thousands
+of little cells, one laid on top of the other. On the surface of the
+fibre are a lot of scales arranged something like the scales on a fish.
+In the process of manufacturing the scales on one fibre lock with
+scales on another fibre, and in that way the fibres are held together
+in the piece of cloth.
+
+When wool is received at the factory it is in fleeces, and each fleece
+contains different kinds of fibres--long and short--coarse and fine,
+and it is necessary that these should be sorted into different kinds
+or grades, as may be desired--perhaps six or eight different kinds,
+according to the particular uses to which the different qualities are
+to be put.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  Copyright American Woolen Company
+
+WOOL SORTING]
+
+The fleece is spread out on a table, the center of which is covered
+with wire netting, and through this netting part of the dust and other
+matter from the wool falls while the sorting is going on. Sorters tear
+with the hands the different parts of the fleece from each other and
+separate them into piles, according to their different qualities.
+
+All unwashed wool contains a fatty or greasy matter called yolk, which
+is a secretion from the skin of the sheep. The effect of this yolk is
+to prevent the fibres of the wool from matting, except at the ends,
+where, of course, it collects dust, and, forming a sort of a coating,
+really serves as a protection to the rest of the fleece while on the
+sheep’s back.
+
+After the wool is sorted it is next cleansed or scoured, in order to
+remove all this yolk, dirt and foreign matter, and this is accomplished
+by passing the wool, by means of automatic rakes, through a washing
+machine, consisting of a set of three or four vats or bowls, which
+contain a cleansing solution of warm, soapy water, until all the grease
+and dirt have been removed.
+
+Each bowl has its set of rollers, which squeezes out the water from
+the wool before it passes into the next bowl. Having passed through
+the last bowl and set of rollers the wool is carried on an apron made
+of slats on chains, to the drying chamber, called the dryer, where is
+taken out most of the moisture.
+
+The wool is now blown through pipes or carried on trucks to the carding
+room.
+
+~DIFFERENCE IN WOOLENS AND WORSTEDS~
+
+From this point the wool follows one of two different processes of
+manufacture--that of making into worsteds or that of making into
+woolens.
+
+Speaking in a general way, worsted fabrics are made of yarns in which
+the fibres all lie parallel, and woolens are made of yarns in which
+the fibres cross or are mixed. Ordinarily, worsteds are made from long
+staple wools, and woolens from short staple wools.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  Copyright American Woolen Company
+
+WOOL SCOURING]
+
+By means of the comb the fibre is still further straightened out, the
+short stock and noil, or nibs, are removed, and when the sliver comes
+from the combs most of the fibres are parallel to each other. A number
+of the slivers taken from the comb are then put through two further
+operations of gilling, and wound into a large ball, which is called a
+finished top.
+
+The next process in the manufacture of worsteds is carding. In this
+process the wool is passed between cylinders and rollers, from
+which project the ends of many small wires. These cylinders revolve
+in opposite directions. The result is the opening, separating and
+straightening of the fibres; and the wool is delivered in soft strands,
+which are taken off by the doffer comb and wound upon a wooden roll
+into the shape of a large ball, known as a card-ball or card-sliver, or
+put into a revolving can. The sliver from a number of these balls or
+cans is now taken and put through what is known as the gilling machine,
+which to a degree straightens the fibres.
+
+From the gilling machine the wool comes off in soft strands. Four
+strands are then taken to the balling machine, where is made a large
+ball, ready for the combing. It takes eighteen of these balls to make a
+set or fill up the comb.
+
+The dyeing is done in three ways--in the top, in the thread or skein
+after being spun, or in the piece after it is woven. If the wool is to
+be stock dyed--that is, dyed in the top--it is sent to the dyehouse to
+be dyed the shade required, and afterwards returned to be gilled and
+recombed ready for the drawing.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  Copyright American Woolen Company
+
+WORSTED CARDING]
+
+Up to this point there has been no twist given to the wool, nor any
+appearance of a thread. The top, the soft untwisted end, is now run
+through the drawing machine, the process sometimes consisting of nine
+distinct operations, and is drawn and redrawn until reduced to the size
+required for its special purpose; and the stock is then delivered to
+the spinning room on spools, and is called roving.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  Copyright American Woolen Company
+
+GILLING AFTER CARDING]
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  Copyright American Woolen Company
+
+COMBING]
+
+In the spinning the process of drawing continues until the twisted
+thread is reduced to the size required, which, either singly or twisted
+together in two, three or four strands, is to be used for weaving.
+
+The yarn is then very carefully inspected, and all imperfections which
+would show in the finished goods are removed, and, if it is to be dyed
+in the skein, the yarn is taken to a reel, where the skeins are made
+ready for the dyehouse.
+
+~HOW CLOTH IS MADE FROM WOOL~
+
+The threads must now be prepared for the loom, in order that the actual
+weaving may be done. The thread is used in two ways in weaving--as
+warp, which is the thread which runs lengthwise of the cloth, and as
+filling, or woof, which runs across the cloth from side to side.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  Copyright American Woolen Company
+
+GILLING AND MAKING TOP AFTER COMBING]
+
+The warp threads--the threads which run lengthwise of the cloth--are
+sized and wound upon large reels, and from these transferred to a large
+wooden roll called the warp beam, which holds all the warp threads,
+usually several thousands.
+
+The filling threads are put on shuttle bobbins and placed in the
+shuttles to be refilled by the operatives as required, and as the
+weaving progresses.
+
+The warp beam is then taken to the drawing-in room, where these several
+thousand threads are drawn through wire heddles in a frame called the
+harness, then drawn through a wire reed. The completed warp beam is now
+ready for the loom.
+
+The harnesses are placed in the loom, and by means of what is called
+the “head-motion,” part of the threads are raised and part are lowered.
+This allows the filling shuttles to pass above some threads and below
+others, filling out the pattern required.
+
+The cloth, having been made in such length as is desired, is taken from
+the loom, and, by what is known as burling and mending, any knots or
+threads woven in wrongly are removed, and any imperfections which have
+been discovered through a careful examination are corrected.
+
+The web or cloth is scoured or washed and the oil and any foreign
+matter removed.
+
+Undressed fabrics would now be fulled. This consists of running cloth
+through a fulling machine, where, moistened with a specially prepared
+soap, it is subjected to a great pressure and pounding, which aids in
+giving the required finish.
+
+There are different kinds of finishes which require different
+treatments, and it would be impracticable for us to dwell in detail
+upon this matter here.
+
+If dyed in the piece, the web or cloth is taken to the dyehouse and
+dyed. It is thoroughly rinsed, all moisture is extracted from it, and
+it is dried.
+
+After drying the cloth is run through a machine by which it is brushed
+and sheared, the brushing lifting the long fibres, and the shearing
+cutting them off at even length. The cloth is put through the press,
+which irons it out, giving it the lustre or the finish that is desired.
+It is examined again for further imperfections, and if such have
+occurred they are corrected.
+
+Measuring, weighing, rolling and tagging follow, and the cloth is
+packed and ready for the market.
+
+Woolens are made from short staple wools, known as clothing wools, and
+in the finished woolens the fibres of the yarns cross or are mingled
+together. In the case of woolens, after the scouring, it is frequently
+necessary to remove burrs or other vegetable matter from the wool. To
+accomplish this the wool is dipped in a bath of chloride of aluminum or
+sulphuric acid solution, then the moisture is extracted and the wool
+is put through a drier, where the temperature must be at least 212
+degrees. This heat carbonizes the foreign substance, but has little
+effect on the animal fibres of the wool.
+
+[Illustration: FINISHING BOX
+
+ENGLISH DRAWING
+
+  Copyright American Woolen Company
+
+GILLING
+
+ENGLISH DRAWING
+
+  Copyright American Woolen Company]
+
+Next, an ingenious machine called the burr picker removes the burr.
+
+Sometimes there is to be a blend of the wool with other stocks, and in
+that case the several different wools are mixed together.
+
+[Illustration: GILLING, FIRST OPERATION
+
+ENGLISH DRAWING
+
+  Copyright American Woolen Company
+
+REDUCER
+
+ENGLISH DRAWING
+
+  Copyright American Woolen Company]
+
+~HOW WOOLEN CLOTH IS DYED~
+
+Dyeing of woolens is done in three ways--in the wool, in the thread
+after it is spun, or in the piece after it is woven. If the wool is
+to be “dyed in the wool” it is now conveyed to the dyehouse, dyed the
+shade required, then returned to the mixing room.
+
+During the process of scouring, when the yolk was removed, a large part
+of the natural oil of the wool was also eliminated, and, in order to
+restore this lubricant, the wool is sprinkled with an oil emulsion, and
+the mixing picker thoroughly blends the wools.
+
+From here the wool goes to the cardroom, and by means of the carding
+machine the fibres are carded and drawn and delivered to the finisher
+in a broad, flat sheet. By means of the condenser it is divided into
+narrow bands, and the wool--free as yet from twist--comes out in soft
+strands. These strands or threads are called roping.
+
+[Illustration: MENDING ROOM
+
+  Copyright American Woolen Company
+
+BURLING RAISING KNOTS
+
+  Copyright American Woolen Company
+
+MENDING PERCHING
+
+  Copyright American Woolen Company]
+
+[Illustration: DRAWING IN WARP THREADS
+
+  Copyright American Woolen Co.
+
+  Copyright American Woolen Co.
+
+  Copyright American Woolen Co.
+
+WEAVING AND SCOURING]
+
+Now comes the mule spinning. The roping passes through rolls by which
+it is drawn and twisted to the size required, and wound on paper cop
+tubes or bobbins. Such of the yarn as is to be used for warp is then
+spooled from the bobbins to dresser spools. It is sized and wound upon
+large reels: from these transferred to the warp beam, as in the case of
+worsteds.
+
+The processes of drawing-in, preparation for weaving, burling and
+mending are practically the same as in the case of worsteds.
+
+~HOW THE CLOTH IS MADE PERFECT~
+
+The finishing processes of woolens, like the finishing processes of
+worsteds, vary with different fabrics, some fabrics being scoured and
+cleansed in the washers before fulling, others going to the fulling
+mill without cleansing. After fulling, the cloth is again washed
+and rinsed, and if necessary to remove any vegetable fibres it is
+carbonized.
+
+Napping or gigging raises the fibres to the nap desired. Gigging is
+done by means of a wire napping machine or teasel gig, which raises
+the ends of the fibres on the face of the cloth. The teasel is a
+vegetable product about the shape of a pine cone, and it is interesting
+to note that no mechanical contrivance has ever been invented to equal
+it for the purpose.
+
+[Illustration: SPINNING THE WOOL
+
+  Copyright American Woolen Company
+
+ENGLISH CAP SPINNING]
+
+The napping which has been raised by the teasel is sheared or cut to a
+proper length by machine. The cloth is pressed, and, if it is desired
+to finish it with lustre, it is wound upon copper cylinders and steam
+is forced through it at a high pressure.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  Copyright American Woolen Company
+
+RING TWISTING]
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  Copyright American Woolen Company
+
+BEAMING--YARN INSPECTING]
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  Copyright American Woolen Company
+
+WOOLEN MULE SPINNING]
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  Copyright American Woolen Company
+
+FINISHER WOOLEN CARDING]
+
+Next the cloth is dyed, if it is to be piece-dyed--that is, dyed in
+the piece. If the cloth is a mixture, the wool was dyed immediately
+after the scouring. In worsteds the dyeing is done either just after it
+has been subjected to the first combing processes, or the yarn is dyed
+in the skein or hank.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  Copyright American Woolen Co.
+
+PIECE DYEING
+
+  Copyright American Woolen Co.
+
+FULLING CLOTH
+
+  Copyright American Woolen Company
+
+FINISH PERCHING]
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  Copyright American Woolen Company
+
+FINISHED CLOTH, READY FOR THE TAILOR]
+
+In the dry finishing the cloth is finished with various kinds of
+finishes desired, and it is steamed, brushed, sheared and pressed.
+Another examination for any imperfections or defects follows; the cloth
+is measured, packed and tagged and is ready for the market.
+
+The difference between worsteds and woolens is principally that in the
+threads or yarns from which worsteds are made the fibres of the wool
+lie parallel, one to another, being made from combed wool, from which
+the short fibres have been removed; and woolens are made from yarns in
+which the fibres cross and are matted and intermixed. When finished
+the effect of worsteds and woolens is materially different. Upon
+examination it will be found that the worsted thread resembles a wire
+in evenness, while the woolen thread is uneven and irregular.
+
+A worsted fabric when finished has a clear, bright, well defined
+pattern, seems close and firmly woven, and is of a pronounced dressy
+effect; while woolen cloths are softer, they are more elastic, the
+colors are more blended, the threads are not so easily distinguishable
+and the general effect is duller.
+
+
+
+
+Why Can’t We See in the Dark?
+
+
+We cannot see in the dark because there is no light to see by. To
+understand this we must first understand that when we see a thing, as
+we generally say, we do not actually see the thing itself, but only the
+light coming from it. But we have become so used to saying that we see
+the thing itself that for all practical purposes we can accept that as
+true, although it is not scientifically exact. Scientifically speaking,
+we see that part of the sunlight or other light which is shining upon
+it, which the object is able to reflect.
+
+If there were no air about us we could not hear any sounds, no matter
+how much disturbance people or things created, because it requires air
+to cause the sound waves which produce sound, and air also to carry
+the sound waves to our ears. In the same way, if there is no light
+to produce light rays from any given object to our eyes, we can see
+nothing. It requires light waves to produce the reflections of objects
+to our eyes. Without light our eyes and their delicate organs are
+useless. You cannot see yourself in a mirror when the quicksilver which
+was once on the back of the glass has been removed, because there is
+then nothing to reflect the light. We can only see things when there is
+light enough about to reflect things to our eyes. When it is dark there
+is no light, and that is the reason we cannot see anything in the dark.
+
+
+
+
+Why Can Cats and Some Other Animals See in the Dark?
+
+
+They cannot see in the real dark any more than human beings. These
+animals can find their way in the dark and can see more than a human
+being, because of one distinct difference in their eyes, which may for
+them be considered an advantage. The pupils of their eyes can be made
+much larger, and they can, therefore, let more light into their eyes
+than people. The result is that when it is so dark that you cannot
+see a thing and you decide it is really dark, the cat can still see,
+because there is always a little more light left and she can open the
+pupils of her eyes and make them larger, thus letting in more light,
+and the little bit of light there is still left gets into her eyes and
+she is able to see. But in a really dark room a cat could see no more
+than you can. You see, our eyes open and shut more or less just like
+those of the cat, according to the intensity of the light. When you go
+out of the dark and shaded room into the bright sunlight and look at
+the sun, you naturally squint your eyes without deliberately intending
+to do so. This is nature’s way of preventing too much light getting
+into your eyes at one time. Gradually the pupils of your eyes contract
+and get smaller, until you can see, without squinting, anything in
+the sunlight. If, then, you were to go right back into a dark or
+shaded room, you would have to wait a moment or two before you could
+see things distinctly in the room--until the pupils of your eyes had
+dilated (become larger), so as to let in enough light to enable you to
+see normally. The eye automatically enlarges and contracts the pupil of
+the eye, to enable us to see distinctly in either light or less light
+places.
+
+
+
+
+Why Is It Difficult to Walk Straight with My Eyes Closed?
+
+
+The reason we cannot do this always is because when we walk naturally
+the steps taken by our right and left feet are not of equal length.
+This difference in the length of the steps is due to the fact that our
+legs are never exactly the same length. We think of them generally as
+of the same length, but they are not, and this will be proven if you
+measure them accurately. Now, then, the longer of the legs will always
+take a longer step than the shorter one, and so, if our eyes are shut,
+we walk in circles, unless we have something to guide us. When we
+walk with our eyes open, we are able to overcome the tendency to walk
+in circles, because our eyes help the brain to direct the legs on a
+straight course. Another reason which affects the matter is that our
+eyes are very necessary in keeping our bodies balanced on our feet, and
+it is very difficult to learn to keep the body balanced with the eyes
+closed. Now, when your eyes are closed and you attempt to walk in a
+straight line your body balances from one side to the other, and this
+fact, coupled with the first reason given, makes your course irregular.
+But, say you, the man on the tight-rope has his eyes bandaged and he
+walks a very straight line. Yes; but remember that he has a straight
+tight-rope to guide him, and all he needs is to maintain his balance.
+One can learn to walk in a straight line with the eyes closed, but it
+takes a good deal of practice, as you will learn if you try.
+
+
+
+
+Why Can’t We Sleep with Our Eyes Open?
+
+
+We cannot sleep with our eyes open, because to be asleep involves
+losing control of most of the functions of the body. When we sleep
+the brain sleeps also. Perhaps it would be stated more clearly to say
+that we cannot sleep while the part of the brain which controls our
+activities is awake. There is a part of the brain which has the power
+to open our eyes, i. e., lift the eyelids, and when that portion of the
+brain ceases to exercise its power to keep the eyes open, they go shut.
+Even when we are awake that part of our brain cannot keep our eyes
+from winking, because there is another part of the brain which sees to
+it that our eyes wink every so often. This is done for the purpose of
+washing the eye-ball, and is the answer to another of your questions
+which is given in another place in this book. When the engineer at the
+electric light plant shuts off the power all the lights go out, and
+when you go to sleep you automatically shut off the power that opens
+your eyes, and the eyes are shut. The brain is asleep also, and if it
+is not completely asleep, you are restless.
+
+
+
+
+Why Do Our Eyes Sparkle When We Are Merry?
+
+
+If you should watch very closely the eyes of a merry person when you
+see them sparkle you would probably notice that the eyelids move up and
+down more often under such conditions than ordinarily, and if you know
+what moving the eyelids up and down in front of the pupil of the eye
+does, you will have your answer.
+
+Every time the eyelid comes down it releases a little tear, which
+spreads over the eyeball and washes it clean and bright. It does this
+every time the eyelid comes down. Now, there is something about being
+merry which has the effect of making the eyelids dance up and down,
+and thus, every time the lid comes down, the ball of the eye is washed
+clean and bright, and gives it the appearance of sparkling, as we say.
+
+
+
+
+Why Do We Laugh When Glad?
+
+
+We laugh when glad because the things which make us laugh combine
+together to rouse those parts of the body which are involved in a
+good laugh to act in a certain harmony, and when this combination is
+arranged in a certain way it produces a laugh. Certain things in the
+world, whether they are funny, ludicrous, or other things that produce
+the laughing effect, cause the brain to work certain muscles and
+nerves in a combination that produces a laugh. The impression which
+reaches the brain causes these muscles and nerves to act involuntarily
+and the laugh comes. It works just like the keys of the piano. Some
+combinations of notes produce sad sounds and other combinations produce
+glad sounds, but the combination when once touched will always produce
+the same sound. It is the impressions made on the brain which start the
+proper combination, and it does this instantly. Just as a pin prick in
+the arm will at once send a “hurt” message to the brain and cause the
+brain to jerk the arm away, so a laugh-producing combination of sounds,
+or things we see, or feel, sends an impression to the brain which at
+once sends out the “laugh” order. Some things make some people laugh
+while they do not affect others at all. That is because our brains are
+not always the same in regard to recording impressions. Some things
+impress some brains one way and others entirely in a different way or
+not at all. You do not laugh so heartily the second time you hear a
+funny story, because the impression the brain receives when the story
+is told the second time is not so vivid.
+
+
+
+
+Why Do I Laugh When Tickled?
+
+
+Practically the same things happen when we are tickled, and explains
+why you laugh when tickled. When some one tickles the bottom of your
+feet or your ribs or another part of your body it produces, in most
+cases, the same effect on the brain as the laugh-producing sound or
+sight, and arouses the same combination of muscles and nerves to
+activity. It is just like pushing the button of an electric bell. When
+you push the button the contact produces the spark which sets the
+machinery of the bell in motion and the bell rings and will continue
+to ring as long as you keep your finger on the button, or until the
+spark-producing power of the battery is gone. Then, as in the case
+of the bell, you cease to laugh, because the spark that produced the
+laugh combination is gone. That is why some things tickle some people
+very much and do not affect others. Some are not so sensitive to the
+laugh-producing combination as others. After the thing that tickles you
+has been going on for some time you are not tickled into laughter any
+more, because the impression on the brain ceases to be as strong.
+
+
+
+
+Why Don’t I Laugh When I Tickle Myself?
+
+
+Your mind tells you there is no need to laugh when you tickle yourself.
+Your mind will not respond to the tickling sensation when it is aware
+that the cause of the tickle is yourself. The reflex action of the mind
+which causes laughter and squirming when some one else tickles you only
+acts when it is not conscious of the cause.
+
+The whole purpose of the sensitive organization of our skins is to
+give us information and cause action which will enable us to protect
+ourselves when any outside influence touches us. An injurious touch
+causes shock and pain, and the harmless tickle arouses the laughing and
+squirming sensation.
+
+
+
+
+What Happens When We Laugh?
+
+
+Laughter is what we call a reflex action. When something occurs to
+make us laugh, whether it is something we see, or feel, or hear, it is
+because certain sensory nerves receive an impression in one of three
+ways, carry it to the nerve centre and the nerve centre then sends
+the same impression along certain efferent nerves, which connect with
+certain muscles or glands, and excite them to activity. The action is
+practically the same as when you hold a light before a mirror. The
+rays from the light strike the surface of the mirror and are reflected
+back from the surface, lighting perhaps corners of the room, which the
+direct rays from the light could not reach, all depending upon the
+angle of reflection. Light will always reflect from a mirror that is
+exposed to it.
+
+Now, then, when you see, hear or feel anything that makes you laugh,
+the sensory nerves have only to receive the impression to bring on
+the explosion of laughter. Something touched the laugh nerves or the
+laugh trigger that caused it to go off. You can prove that it is a
+matter of impression entirely by noting that some people can listen
+to a perfectly funny story, even when told by a clever performer, and
+never crack a smile, while others burst into uncontrollable laughter,
+and he who does not even smile may be listening even more intently than
+the other--he may even be looking for a laugh. It all depends upon the
+impression that is made upon the nerves. The muscles have the power
+to express the state of gladness which is indicated by laughter when
+certain impressions pass along the nerves which operate them, just as
+they can be made to do other things when the proper cause for action is
+shown them.
+
+
+
+
+Why Do We Cry When Hurt?
+
+
+We cry when we are hurt for the same reason that we laugh when we
+are glad. The muscles and nerves, under the direction of the brain,
+produce the cry just as the muscles and nerves produce laughter,
+although they are probably, but not necessarily, a different set of
+muscles and nerves.
+
+When we are hurt in any part of our body or feelings the impression
+does not affect us until it reaches the brain. Then instantly, of
+course, the body and brain go to work to destroy the pain. The first
+thing, of course, is to give a warning to other parts of the body that
+there is a hurt, and our crying is a warning to other people that we
+are hurt. That is probably the only good that crying does. It does not
+remove the hurt--it only tells others of our troubles. We cry with the
+lower part of the brain--the only portion of the brain which is active
+in a little baby. This is why even a tiny baby can cry. Crying is the
+only thing a baby can do to give warning of its distress or discomfort.
+Later in life the upper part of the brain develops. This is the master
+of the lower part. Therefore, we do not always cry when hurt as we grow
+older, because the master brain sometimes tells the lower brain that to
+cry will not help matters in the least, even though we are inclined to
+cry. Sometimes the hurt or shock to older people is so great or sudden
+that we cry out before the controlling part of the brain has had time
+to get in its work of preventing the outcry, but we are able to stop
+crying when the master brain again secures control.
+
+
+
+
+Where Do Tears Come From?
+
+
+Tears are not made only when we cry. They seem to come only when you
+cry, because it is then that they spill over. A little part of you
+is making tears all the time, and your eyes are constantly washing
+themselves in them. You have often noticed how you wink every few
+seconds? You have often tried to keep from winking--to see how long
+you could keep from winking. Boys and girls often do that, and when
+you keep from winking what seems a long time, you notice how your eyes
+ache and feel very dry just before you have to let them wink, in spite
+of how hard you try not to, and just when you think you are not going
+to. I will tell you just what winking does for the eyes. All of the
+time your eyes are open the front, or the part you see things with, is
+exposed to the dust and dirt that fills the air at all times, although
+we cannot always see the dust. The wind, too, is constantly making them
+dry. But have you ever noticed that although you never wash the inside
+of the front of the eye, or pupil, it is always clean? Well, it is
+because your eye washes itself every time you wink. I will tell you how
+this is done. Up above each eye, inside, of course, there is a little
+gland called the tear-gland. This gland is busy all the time you are
+awake making tears. As soon as the front of your eye becomes dry, or
+if a particle of dust or anything else strikes it, the nerves you have
+there tell the brain, and almost at once the eyelid comes down with a
+tear inside of it, and so washes the front of your eye clean again. It
+does its work perfectly and as often as necessary. There is always a
+tear ready to be used in this way.
+
+
+
+
+Where Do the Tears Go?
+
+
+Let me show you. Look right down here at the inner corner of my eyelid,
+where you will see a little hole. That is where the tears get out of
+the eye, when they have washed your eyeball clean. Where do they go
+then? Did you ever notice how soon after you cry you have to blow your
+nose? The reason for that is that when the tears go through the little
+hole they run down into the nose. This making of tears and winking
+goes on all the time while you are awake, and after they wash your eye
+off they go on out through this little hole. But when you cry you make
+more tears come than you need, so many, in fact, that they cannot all
+get away through this little hole, and as there is no place else for
+them to go, and as there is no place to keep them inside the eye, they
+simply spill themselves right over the edge of your lower eyelid and
+run down your cheek.
+
+
+
+
+Story in a Barrel of Cement
+
+
+What Is Cement?
+
+The dictionary tells us that cement is “any adhesive substance which
+makes two bodies cohere.” Thus any material performing this function
+may be called cement, such, for example, as the cement used in mending
+broken china. Glue also is a form of cement. This story has to do with
+Portland cement, which is a structural or building material used in
+countless ways.
+
+
+Why Is Cement Called Portland Cement?
+
+After being wet with water it hardens into stone, and it was given the
+name “Portland” because, when first manufactured in England, and mixed
+with sand and stone, it resembled a celebrated building stone called
+Portland, which was obtained from the Isle of Portland. Compared with
+other American industries, the manufacture of Portland cement is of
+recent origin. Formerly all Portland cement was brought from foreign
+countries. After successful manufacture became established in this
+country, however, the industry advanced with great rapidity. A few
+years ago the entire United States did not use as much cement as is
+now used in any one of our large cities. At the time these facts were
+written (1914) the manufacturers were making more than 90 millions of
+barrels a year.
+
+
+What Is Cement Made Of?
+
+Portland cement is composed chiefly of lime, alumina and silica. It
+is manufactured from rocks, marl, clay and shale containing these
+ingredients. If any one of them is lacking in the raw material as it
+is taken from the earth, it is supplied during process of manufacture.
+The greatest cement district in America is in Pennsylvania, and is
+known as the “Lehigh District.” A rock containing proper constituents
+for making Portland cement was found there in vast quantities, and for
+a number of years the Lehigh District was the center of the industry.
+In time it was found that certain clays, marls and shale could also be
+manufactured into Portland cement, and thus mills have been erected
+in all sections of the United States. One of the largest companies
+in the United States found that cement could be manufactured from a
+combination of blast-furnace slag and limestone, and this is now made
+by the company in large quantities, the product being a true Portland
+cement.
+
+
+What Is Concrete?
+
+Portland cement is the strongest and most lasting of all modern mortars
+or binding materials. When mixed with sand and stone the resulting
+mixture is called concrete. Being a plastic material when first mixed,
+it cannot be used as we use brick or stone, but must be poured into
+molds or forms, which hold it in place until it hardens into rock. It
+may be cast in any form or shape, and thus it is useful for a vast
+number of purposes. It will harden under water, and time and exposure
+to the elements merely increase its strength. The most common form in
+which it is used, one familiar to everybody, is in the construction
+of sidewalks. It is used in all great engineering projects, such as
+the building of dams, bridges, retaining walls, sewers, subways and
+tunnels. Being fireproof, large quantities of it are used in buildings
+and likewise on our farms, where it is extremely valuable as an
+enduring and sanitary material.
+
+
+What Is Cement Used For?
+
+It has been said that concrete is a plastic material, meaning that
+it is soft and pliable in the sense that clay or putty are plastic.
+For this reason it is cast in forms or molds. Sometimes it is used in
+the form of plain concrete, and on other occasions it is reinforced,
+meaning that iron rods, steel bars or woven wire mesh are imbedded
+in the concrete. When we speak of a “reinforced” concrete building,
+imagine a huge wire bird cage encrusted within and without with
+concrete. Place a block, beam or column of concrete upon the ground and
+it will bear a tremendous load, meaning that it has great strength in
+compression. On the other hand, if we were to place a long beam upon
+supports at either end, leaving the greater length of it suspended and
+without support, it would carry but a small load compared with concrete
+in compression. Therefore, in making concrete beams or girders in a
+building, strong steel bars are embedded in the concrete to take up
+what are termed the tensile strains.
+
+[Illustration: WHAT A CEMENT MILL LOOKS LIKE
+
+This is a picture of a cement mill. Millions of dollars are invested in
+these great mills, which are now located in practically all sections of
+the country. Material is brought from the quarry to the mills, where it
+passes through various stages, such as grinding, burning and bagging.
+Expert chemists are employed to see that the cement is made exactly
+right. It is a very scientific matter to make a thoroughly good cement.
+There must be no guess work. Some mills are very large, the plant
+comprising a number of buildings, and some companies operate several
+mills in different localities. A single company supplied all of the
+cement used in the Panama Canal, which great project required more than
+six million barrels.]
+
+[Illustration: This picture shows a quarry in the famous Lehigh cement
+district. The giant steam shovel or excavator burrows into the hill
+like some great animal, and when the bucket is full it is dumped into
+the cars shown on the track, which convey the rock or the raw material
+to the mill.]
+
+[Illustration: WHERE THE MATERIAL IS OBTAINED
+
+This is an illustration of a method of excavating and loading marl
+and clay to be manufactured into Portland cement. The large bucket
+suspended over the cars does not gouge into the hillside as shown in
+the preceding picture, but descends like a huge steel hand, the metal
+parts opening and closing like fingers. The long derrick elevates the
+bucket and swings it over the train of cars.]
+
+[Illustration: This is a view of a powerful rock crusher, which is
+operated by the electric motor shown at the right. The cement rock is
+brought from the quarry and dumped into the machine, from which it
+issues in broken fragments, as shown in the illustration, this being
+the first or preliminary crushing process.]
+
+[Illustration: THE HUGE ROCK GRINDERS
+
+This is a view of the electric motors operating the grinding machines
+which reduce the raw material to a very fine powder. There are various
+types of mills or grinders, to which the material comes after going
+through the rock crusher. They grind it in preparation for the kilns.]
+
+[Illustration: The kiln is a very important feature of the cement
+plant. The finely ground raw material must be calcined or burned before
+it becomes Portland cement. These kilns range from 60 to 240 feet in
+length. They are slightly inclined and revolve upon rollers. The finely
+ground material enters the kiln at the upper end and travels throughout
+its length as the kiln slowly revolves. Powdered coal dust is fed into
+the kiln at the lower end, where it is ignited and generates intense
+heat. When the finely ground raw material comes into contact with the
+heat, which reaches 2800 degrees F., it is transformed into what is
+known as clinker, which issues from the lower end of the kiln and is
+passed on to other machinery, which grinds it into impalpable powder or
+Portland cement.]
+
+[Illustration: HOW CONCRETE IS MIXED
+
+This is an ingenious machine which bags and weighs the cement. The
+bags are suspended as shown, and when filled and weighed by the
+machine are placed in barrels and shipped to their destination. Every
+device of this kind that will save time and labor cheapens the cost of
+manufacture.]
+
+[Illustration: In mixing cement, sand and stone together in order that
+concrete may be obtained, it is customary to use, if the operation
+is a large one, what are known as mechanical mixers. These are large
+iron cylinders into which the three materials are put and water added.
+The cylinder or iron drum revolves until the contents are thoroughly
+mixed, when they issue from the mixer through a chute or spout. A mixer
+of this type is shown on a succeeding page describing the making of a
+concrete road. This picture shows mixing concrete by hand. The sand and
+cement are first thoroughly mixed in the dry state and subsequently the
+stone and water are added. Concrete should be thoroughly mixed in order
+that every grain of sand may be entirely coated with cement, and then
+these two combined make a rich mortar, which should surround entirely
+every piece of stone.]
+
+[Illustration: HOW CONCRETE BUILDINGS ARE MADE
+
+This picture shows how concrete houses or walls are built through the
+use of what are known as forms. In building a wall we have an inside
+and outside form, as shown in the picture, between which the concrete
+is placed. After it hardens the forms are removed. In some operations,
+such as the construction of a large factory building or great bridge,
+there is such a vast array of timber construction as to make the scene
+quite impressive, especially when bridge arches of great span and
+height are under construction.]
+
+[Illustration: This is a view of an arch built of concrete during the
+Jamestown Exposition. It is a striking illustration of how concrete
+may be used for both ornamental and practical purposes. In no field
+has concrete proved to be of more value and economy than in the
+construction of bridges, whether large or small. Some of the largest
+bridges in the world are built of concrete, and in many cases iron
+bridges are incased in concrete to keep them from rusting.]
+
+[Illustration: CONCRETE HOUSES CANNOT BURN
+
+This is a curious example of concrete construction. It is a coal
+pocket, from which locomotives are supplied with fuel. Railroad
+companies have adopted it because of its great strength and durability.]
+
+[Illustration: Just as mammoth structures are created with poured
+concrete, so we may produce the most delicate and ornamental patterns.
+These are usually cast in plaster molds and often in molds of wood or
+iron. Where undercut work is required, such as in the sun-dial shown, a
+wood or metal mold could not be removed without injury to the concrete,
+and so sculptors have invented the pliable glue mold, which can be
+easily removed and which will spring back to its original shape if
+necessary to use it a second time.]
+
+[Illustration: Concrete in dwelling construction means the elimination
+of fire danger and also cost of painting and repairs. This picture
+shows a solid concrete house, parts of which have been encrusted with
+beautiful tiles. Concrete has been successfully used in all types of
+dwellings, from the humble abode of the workingman to the palace of
+the multimillionaire. An entire house may be made of concrete, even to
+the roof and stairways, and where a dwelling is constructed of this
+material throughout, it is proof against fire and decay.]
+
+[Illustration: HOW THE FARMER USES CONCRETE
+
+This is an interesting example of concrete construction. It is a
+large water tower which will never warp, rust or decay. In this field
+concrete has been of great service, whether reservoirs are constructed
+in the form of towers or tanks. As already stated, water does not
+affect the life or strength of concrete, except to improve it.]
+
+[Illustration: This is a concrete silo. A silo made of concrete is
+merely a huge stone jar in which green food for cattle is preserved.
+The crop is gathered and placed in the silo, thus insuring abundance
+of green and wholesome food throughout dry seasons and during the
+winter. The contents of the silo is known as silage or ensilage, and is
+merely corn fodder cut when green. Concrete silos are both storm- and
+fire-proof.]
+
+[Illustration: It is usual to consider concrete in connection with
+great engineering enterprises, but nevertheless many millions of
+barrels are used each year by the farmers of the United States. This
+picture shows a clean, sanitary and durable concrete stable. In
+buildings of this character concrete is rapidly supplanting wood, which
+soon goes to decay, to say nothing of accumulation of filth.]
+
+[Illustration: HOW CONCRETE ROADS ARE BUILT
+
+MECHANICAL CEMENT MIXER]
+
+[Illustration: A CONCRETE ROAD
+
+Our two last pictures relate to an exceedingly important and rapidly
+increasing use of cement. It is the construction of concrete roads.
+The first picture shows a concrete road in course of construction.
+The mechanical mixer referred to above is shown in this picture. It
+is a self-propelling machine and mixes the concrete very rapidly. As
+it comes from the mixer in a wet and mushy mass it is placed between
+rigidly staked side forms, where it hardens into imperishable rock.
+The road is brought to its shape by working to and fro a long plank
+called a template, after which the surface of the road is troweled with
+wooden floats, giving it a texture which prevents horses and cars from
+slipping. The last picture shows a narrow concrete road in the state of
+Maryland. Wherever these roads have been built they mean much to the
+women and children of the community. They never grind up into mud or
+dust, and are as pleasant to walk upon as the sidewalks of the city.
+Children, especially, delight in them. In Wayne county, Mich., where
+they have the most celebrated concrete roads in the world, the children
+go to and from school on roller skates, and various games are played on
+the concrete road.]
+
+
+
+
+Why Don’t We Make Roads Perfectly Level?
+
+
+Roads are made with a curving upper surface, i. e., higher in the
+middle, in order that the rain will drain away from the road into the
+gutters or ditches which you find at the sides. You see water has the
+faculty of running only in one direction, and that is downward. If it
+cannot go down on one side or the other, it will collect in puddles
+and make the road impassable. For this reason we build our roads so
+they are higher in the middle than at the sides--not much higher; only
+about six inches or so--giving them just the gentle slope toward each
+side that is necessary to allow the water to run off gradually, but
+sufficiently sloping to keep the water from collecting in puddles in
+the road. Thus after the dust has been settled by the first rain that
+falls, most of the surplus rain that falls on the roads finally runs
+into the ditches at the side of the road.
+
+
+
+
+Why Are Some Roads Called Turnpikes?
+
+
+Undoubtedly the name turnpike as applied to some roads arose from the
+fact that pikes or gates were set across the roads by the keeper or
+toll-collector. In addition to collecting tolls, it was a part of the
+toll-keeper’s business to keep the road in repair. His wages and other
+expenses for doing this were received from the tolls collected from the
+people who used the road to ride on in carriages, wagons, etc. In the
+early days the toll-collector was armed with a pike, a long-handled
+weapon with a sharp iron head, which he used to prevent people who
+travelled his road from going by without giving up their toll. Later on
+a swinging gate was built across the road, which made it unnecessary to
+use the pike, though the name was retained, for no one could pass while
+the gate barred the way. When the passerby had paid his tolls, the
+toll-collector opened the gate and let him pass. If he did not pay the
+gate remained closed and the driver had to turn back or decide to pay.
+Hence comes the name turnpike. In some parts of the country they call
+these toll roads.
+
+
+
+
+What Is Dust?
+
+
+A large part of the dust we see in the roadway when the horses kick it
+up, or when an automobile passes, is made up of the pulverized dirt of
+the roadway. It becomes mixed with other things, such as the street
+deposits of animals, particles of carbon, etc. Particles of this dust
+get into our throats, and as there are many germs in it, they are very
+liable to cause sickness, especially the colds from which we suffer.
+
+
+
+
+What Becomes of the Dust?
+
+
+The dust of the roadway is generally blown away by the wind, to come
+down to earth again wherever the wind happens to carry it--on the
+lawns, the doorsteps or back to the road, perhaps. In any event, the
+rain which is certain to come sooner or later, washes this dust back
+into the soil, or into the sewers. Part of it mixes with the soil. The
+organic matter in dust helps to fertilize the soil, and is therefore
+useful. Other parts of the dust are oxidized and consumed by the
+air, through the heat of the sun. So you see the dust is continually
+changing from one thing to another.
+
+
+
+
+Are Stones Alive?
+
+
+Real stones are not alive. They do not become stones until they have
+been burned out--until they have become what is known as dead matter.
+This is meant entirely in the sense that we commonly think of the
+meaning of the word “alive,” which is to be able to breathe and grow.
+Stones can neither breathe nor grow. They belong to the inanimate
+kingdom of things on the earth. Particles of this dead matter, found in
+stones, etc., are in many cases taken up by things that are actually
+alive, and help to form the bodies of living things.
+
+The most common thing to be found in rocks and stones is what is
+called “silicon,” and we find this silicon in the straws of the wheat,
+oats and corn, and in many other things, but not in a way that can be
+detected except by chemical analysis. A great many of the things found
+in stones are found in living things, but rocks and stones are not
+alive in any sense.
+
+
+
+
+What and Why Is Smoke?
+
+
+Smoke is produced only when something which is being burned is burning
+imperfectly. If we were to put anything burnable into the fire and
+establish just the right amount of draft, and knew how to build our
+fires properly, there would be no smoke and very little ashes.
+
+In the case of the black coal smoke which we think of mostly when
+we think of smoke at all, the black portion is principally little
+unburned particles of coal which pass up the chimney with the gases
+which are thrown off when the coal is being burned. These gases would
+be invisible--they really are invisible--if it were not for the little
+particles of coal which are drawn up the chimney with them. If you look
+at the chimney from which a wood fire expels the gases you find the
+smoke very light in color--showing that not so much unburned matter is
+being thrown off. A charcoal fire makes no smoke, because the charcoal
+has had the unburnable things taken out of it beforehand, and the
+charcoal stove is almost perfect in construction from the standpoint of
+combustion.
+
+Of course, the thickness of the smoke from a coal fire is often
+increased by the fact that there are unburnable things mixed in with
+the coal, some of which also pass off through the chimney.
+
+
+
+
+Why Can’t We Burn Stones?
+
+
+We cannot burn anything that has already been burned, and a stone has
+already been burned. To understand how this is we must first find out
+what takes place when a thing is burned. When a thing is burning it
+means merely that that particular thing is taking into its system all
+of the oxygen of the air that it can combine with. When it has done
+this it cannot be burned any more. Of course, in doing this the thing
+originally burned changes its character. The elements in a candle when
+lighted mix with the oxygen in the air and disappear in the form of
+gases. The elements in coal mix when fired with oxygen and change into
+ashes, gases and smoke. A stone, however, is the result of a burning
+that has already taken place. The original element of most of the rocks
+and stones we see was silicon, and when that combines with oxygen,
+the result is some form of rock, which you may be able to break up or
+throw, but which you cannot burn again.
+
+
+
+
+What Is Fog?
+
+
+The fog which we generally think of when we speak this word is the
+fog at or on the sea or other body of water--the one that makes the
+ships stand by and blow their fog horns. A fog of this kind is nothing
+more nor less than a cloud, come right down to earth and spread out a
+little more. People who have gone up into the air in balloons and other
+airships through the clouds, say that the clouds are only fogs, and
+that above them it is as clear as it is on a sunshiny day on the water
+when there is no fog.
+
+There is another kind of fog which settles down over the land,
+especially in the cities. It is a damp mist which combines with the
+smoke and other impurities in the air and forms a black and dirty cloud
+about everything. This occurs when the upper air prevents the smoke
+which rises from a city with all its people and fires in the furnaces
+from passing up and away. The upper air acts like a blanket and keeps
+the misty, smoky air down, until the wind comes along and blows it away.
+
+
+
+
+What Becomes of the Smoke?
+
+
+There are a number of things in smoke, and when we know what they are,
+we will find a natural answer to this question. First, there are, of
+course, the little unburned particles of fuel which get carried up
+the chimney by its drawing power. These naturally fall to the ground
+of their own weight, once they get beyond the drawing power of the
+chimney and out of the current of air so formed. Some of the gases
+are already quite burned out when they pass up the chimney. There is
+a lot of carbonic acid gas which, of course, mixes with the air and
+eventually becomes food for the plants. Then there are some gases which
+are not entirely burned, and the air burns them still more until they,
+too, become carbonic acid gas, or water which is also thrown off by a
+burning fire.
+
+
+
+
+Why Does an Apple Turn Brown When Cut?
+
+
+The reason is that when you cut an apple, the exposure to the air of
+the inside of the apple causes a chemical change to take place, due to
+the effect the oxygen in the air has on what is scientifically known as
+the enzymes in the apple, or what are commonly called the “ferments.”
+When the peel is unbroken it protects the inside of the apple against
+this action by the oxygen. The brown color happens to be due to the
+chemical action. The action is similar to the action of the air on wet
+or damp iron or steel, in which case we call it rust.
+
+
+
+
+Why Does a Piece of Wood Float in Water?
+
+
+A piece of wood will float in water because it is lighter than the
+same amount of water. We do not mean that a piece of wood weighing one
+pound, for instance, would weigh any more than a pound of water, of
+course, but if you took the measurements of each you will find that
+it took less bulk to make a pound of water than of wood. If you had a
+piece of wood so shaped that it just filled a glass completely, and
+then took another glass and filled it with water, you would find that
+the glass containing the water weighed the most. Another name to give
+to this difference would be to say that the water was more dense than
+the wood. By the law of gravitation the denser thing will always go
+to the bottom, and as wood is less dense than water, it will stay at
+the top if put in water. The piece of wood has more air in it than the
+water. If you could expel the air from the piece of wood and then put
+it in water, it would sink.
+
+
+
+
+Why Does Iron Sink In Water?
+
+
+The explanation in regard to the piece of wood floating in water is the
+beginning of the answer to this question. A piece of iron is heavier
+than an equal bulk of water, and will therefore go to the bottom, as
+will all things which are more dense than water. A piece of iron has no
+air in it. The particles of a piece of iron are so close together that
+there is no room for air in it and it will therefore sink in water. A
+piece of wood from which all of the air had been expelled would also
+sink.
+
+
+
+
+Why Doesn’t an Iron Ship Sink?
+
+
+This is a very natural question for you to ask right after you were
+told why iron sinks in water. The explanation is that by making an
+iron ship in the way we do, we fix it so that it holds a lot of air in
+between the bottom and sides, making the combination of the two--the
+iron ship and the air in it--lighter than the water on which it sails.
+Men thought at one time that a ship would sink if made of iron, and
+therefore built all of their ships of wood. Finally one inventor made a
+ship of iron and it was one of the wonders of the world. When we found
+that iron ships would float if they were built to retain sufficient air
+to keep them from sinking, we made the hulls of most ships of iron for
+a time. Now, however, the best ships are made of steel, which is even
+better.
+
+If you bore a hole in the bottom of a ship, the water will run in if
+the ship is in the water, and the ship will sink, because the water
+coming in drives out the air; and when the ship is full of water,
+the water in it, with the ship itself, are heavier than the water on
+which it sails, and the ship will go down. Filling a ship with water
+makes the iron part of the ship just like a bar of iron, so far as its
+sinking qualities are concerned.
+
+Of course, an iron ship must be made long enough and broad enough so
+that when it is completed there will be sufficient air contained within
+the hull to make the combination lighter than water. Always, therefore,
+when a ship is to be built, competent engineers must go over the plans
+of the vessel and calculate the air capacity, so as to make sure she
+will float.
+
+Nowadays it would be difficult to sink a modern vessel by boring one
+small hole in the bottom, because the bottom and sides are lined with
+enclosed steel air-chambers, and a ship will keep afloat even if one
+or a number of holes are made. The reason is, of course, that when you
+bore a hole into one of these air-chambers the water rushing in will
+fill that air-chamber with water, but as there is no connection from
+the inside with the rest of the ship, the water can get no further.
+
+
+
+
+Why Does a Poker Get Hot at Both Ends if Left in the Fire?
+
+
+Both ends of the poker become heated because the poker is made of iron,
+and iron is a particularly good conductor of heat. To understand this
+we must look into the question of what a good conductor of heat is.
+In this case the particles of iron, which combined form the poker,
+are so close together that when those at the end of the poker which
+is in the fire get hot, the particles at that end hand the heat on to
+the particles next to them, and so on until the whole poker is hot.
+The difference between a thing which is a good conductor of heat and
+a thing which is not a good conductor, lies in the ability of the
+different particles which compose it to hand the heat on to the others.
+Did you ever notice that the handle of a solid silver spoon will
+become hot if the spoon is left in hot coffee? Solid silver is a good
+conductor of heat. A plated spoon is not a good conductor, however, and
+will not become hot if left in the cup of hot coffee as a solid silver
+spoon will.
+
+
+
+
+Would a Wooden Spoon Get Hot?
+
+
+A wooden spoon would not get hot, because wood is not a good conductor
+of heat. The atoms which compose the wood have not the power to
+transmit the heat to each other. This is strange, too, when we think
+that a poker is a good conductor of heat, but will not burn, while
+wood is not a good conductor, but will burn readily. Perhaps you have
+already discovered this in connection with a wood fire. One end of a
+stick of wood may be burning fiercely, and yet you can pick it up by
+the other end and find it is not even warm. This proves to you that
+wood is not a good conductor of heat, and explains why the handle of a
+wooden spoon in a bowl of hot soup will not get hot while the handle of
+a silver spoon will.
+
+
+
+
+Why Does Iron Turn Red When Red Hot?
+
+
+The answer is that the piece of iron has been heated to the point where
+it gives off light of its own. The red you see is only one stage in
+the development of iron to the point where it makes its own light. If
+you heat it still more it will make a white light. You know that it
+produces the light itself, because if you take a piece of iron into a
+perfectly dark room and heat it to a white heat it will show better
+than where there is other light. If you continue the process the iron
+will melt and change in form. Therefore, the “red hot” name for a piece
+of iron in that state is a perfect name. It is a warning that the iron
+is coming to a point where if the heating process is continued, it will
+change its form and in this state, when treated according to known
+methods, the iron is turned into steel, which has many characteristics
+that iron does not possess. Now, I can, of course, hear you ask why
+doesn’t an iron kettle get red hot? and I can answer that easily. If
+you treat the kettle the same way as you do the piece of iron, it
+will get red hot. The difference is that you are thinking of an iron
+kettle with water in it. As long as there is any water in the kettle,
+that keeps it from getting hot. The water inside keeps the kettle from
+becoming red hot. If you took a hollow rod of iron and filled it with
+water, it would not become red hot as long as any water remained in the
+hollow portion.
+
+
+
+
+How Did the Sand Get on the Seashore?
+
+
+The sand on the seashore is nothing more or less than ground-up
+sandstone. In dealing with the inanimate things in the world we find
+that a very important element of all of them has been given the name
+silicon. When the crust of the earth, which is the part we call the
+land and rocks, and includes the part under the sea, was a molten mass,
+this silicon was burned, combining with the oxygen which surrounded
+everything, and produced what is known as silica. Silica is the name
+given to the thing which is left after you burn silicon. A very large
+part of this silica was deposited in parts of the earth, and when the
+crust of the earth cooled off it was sand. By pressure and contact with
+other substances it became stuck together, just as you can take wet
+sand at the seashore to-day and make bricks and houses and tunnels,
+excepting that in the case we speak of it was something besides water
+that pressed and stuck the little particles of sand together. They
+stuck together more permanently. Then when the oceans were formed, as
+shown in another part of this book, much of the sandstone was found to
+be at the bottom and on the shores of the oceans. The action of the
+water continually washing against the sandstone gradually broke the
+sandstone up into the tiny particles of sand again, and this is what
+makes the sand on the seashore.
+
+
+
+
+What Makes a Soap Bubble?
+
+
+A bubble is merely a hollow ball of water with air inside. The air
+in coming up through the water in trying to rise out of the water is
+caught in the water in such a way as to form the bubble, and since the
+ability of the air inside of the bubble to rise is greater than that of
+the water which forms the bubble, and which has a tendency to pull it
+down, the bubble rises into the air. The water ball is very thin and
+keeps running down to the bottom of the ball, where you see it form
+into drops, and soon this makes the walls of the water bubble so thin
+that the air bursts through the ball of water, and that is
+
+
+
+
+What Makes the Bubble Explode?
+
+
+Sometimes we blow soap bubbles. We mix soap in the water and that makes
+the walls of the water ball which we produce a little tougher, and it
+requires a great deal more effort for the air to escape from it, as the
+soap keeps the water in the walls of the bubble from running down to
+the bottom for quite some time, and, therefore, soap bubbles will often
+travel in the air for some distance. The colors we see on soap bubbles
+are produced by the rays of sunlight, which strike the bubble and
+reflect them back to us in colors very similar to those of the rainbow.
+
+
+
+
+Why Are Bubbles Round?
+
+
+Bubbles are round because the air which forms the inside of the bubble
+exerts an equal pressure in all directions. It presses equally against
+all sides of the bubble at the same time.
+
+
+
+
+The Story in a Yard of Silk
+
+
+God’s Creation and Man’s Invention.
+
+~WHERE DOES SILK COME FROM?~
+
+Silk in its finished state is an ideal product. It is at once durable,
+magnificent to the eye, tender to the touch, and its rustle is soft
+music to the ear. Hence it is easy to understand why the silkworm,
+from the earliest times, has been an object of much consideration and
+concern from a commercial and industrial point of view. In this country
+alone, we annually expend as much for silk goods as we do for public
+education and thirty times as much as we do for foreign missions. Such
+an indomitable producer of wealth is the silkworm, and a producer of
+wealth it has been from an age as remote as when Joseph was down in old
+Egypt, interpreting the dreams of King Pharaoh’s butler and baker and
+later that of the King himself.
+
+To-day we speak of twenty centuries, and our minds can hardly
+comprehend such a lapse of time. What shall we think of the silkworm,
+that for twice twenty centuries has furnished practically all the
+raw material for the world’s silk supply? Because man’s ingenuity is
+at present actively engaged in the attempt to displace it by cheaper
+substitutes, the thought has come to us that, without going too
+minutely into mechanical processes, a good opportunity is presented
+to give some interesting information in regard to the silkworm as
+the creation of the Divine Hand, in contrast to the silkworm as the
+creation of man.
+
+According to Chinese authority, the use of silk dates from 2650 B.C.,
+and it is generally conceded that, in point of age, it stands midway
+among the great textiles, wool and cotton having preceded it, while
+flax, hemp and other fibrous plants followed shortly in its train.
+
+The first patron of the silkworm was Hoang-Ti, Third Emperor of China,
+and his Empress, Si-Ling-Chi, was the first practical silkworm breeder
+and silk reeler. It is related of her that she was once walking in the
+palace gardens when she discovered a strange and repulsive looking
+worm. It was small, of a pale green color, and was feeding greedily on
+a mulberry leaf. She interested the Emperor in this strange creature,
+and, at the Emperor’s suggestion, took the fine silken web which the
+worm finally spun, and was the first to successfully reel the new
+filament and weave it into cloth. So beneficial to the nation was her
+work considered that her gratified subjects bestowed upon her the
+divine title of “Goddess of the Silkworms,” and to this day the Chinese
+celebrate in her honor the “Con-Con Feast,” which takes place during
+the season in which the silkworm eggs are hatched.
+
+In accounting for the presence of silkworms in the garden of this
+early empress, we can rightly conclude that certain parts of China
+have always abounded in forests of mulberry trees, and that the worms
+themselves had existed in great numbers in a wild state and attached
+their cocoons to the trees for ages before any use was discovered
+for their web. In fact, such wild silkworms not only abound in China
+to-day, but have also been found in Southern and Eastern Asia,
+inhabiting the jungles of India, Pegu, Siam and Cochin China, but the
+cocoons of these worms are, naturally, of a very inferior quality, and
+are only used for the crudest kind of work.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  Illustration by courtesy The Brainerd & Armstrong Silk Co.
+
+THE INTRODUCTION OF SILK INTO EUROPE
+
+Pilgrims brought silkworm eggs in their staffs, together with the
+branches of mulberry trees, from China to the Court of Justinian at
+Byzantine, A.D. 555. The penalty for taking silkworm eggs out of China
+was death.
+
+The accompanying illustration is a reproduction of a mural painting
+on rep in the Royal Textile Museum at Crefeld, Germany, one of the
+great silk textile centers of the world. The artist shows the pilgrims
+presenting the silkworm eggs and the mulberry branches to Justinian,
+beside whom, just in the act of rising, is his famous queen Theodora.]
+
+Silk culture from the time of Hoang-Ti became one of the cherished
+secrets of China. The headquarters of the industry was in the Province
+of Chen Tong, where was produced the silk for the royal family. In
+time the silk and stuffs of China became articles of export to various
+portions of Asia. Long journeys were made by caravans, occupying
+two-thirds of a year in going from the cities of China to those of
+Syria, but the price obtained there exceeded the expense of the
+journey, and thus left a large margin of profit to the merchants. In
+this manner, for one thousand years, the Chinese sent their silk to the
+Persians who, without knowing how or from what it was made, carried it
+to the Western nations.
+
+So carefully did the Orientals guard their secret, that there is reason
+to believe that Aristotle was the first person in the occidental world
+to learn the true origin of the wrought silk from Persia. In commenting
+on the silk which was brought from that country on the return of
+Alexander’s victorious army, he described the silkworm as a “horned
+insect,” passing through several transformations, which produced
+“bomby-kia,” as he called the silk. But the classics must convince one
+that Aristotle’s discovery did not at once become matter of current
+knowledge. In fact, for five hundred years after Aristotle’s time the
+common theory of the origin of silk among the Greeks and Romans was
+that it was either “a fleece which grew upon a tree” (thus confounding
+it with cotton), or a fibre obtained from the inner bark of a tree; and
+some, deceived by the glossy and silky fibres of the seed vessels of
+the plant that corresponds to our milk or silk weed, believed it to be
+the product of some plant or flower. So Virgil, in speaking of silk,
+says, “the Seres comb the delicate fleecings from the leaves.”
+
+In the Sixth Century, A.D., all the raw silk was still being imported
+from China by way of Persia, when the Emperor Justinian, having engaged
+in war with Persia, found his supply of raw silk cut off and the
+manufacturers in great distress. His foolish legislation did not help
+the situation, and a crisis was averted only by two Nestorian monks,
+who came from China with seed of the mulberry tree and a knowledge
+of the Chinese method of rearing worms. No one, on pain of death,
+was allowed to export the silkworm eggs from China, but Justinian
+bribed the monks to return to that country, and in 555 they came
+back, bringing with them a quantity of silkworm eggs concealed in
+their pilgrim’s staffs. And here let us say that there has only once
+since been an important importation of eggs from Asia. That was about
+1860, when Dr. Pasteur was making a study of a germ disease which was
+threatening the industry. Consequently, it can truly be said that
+practically all the silkworms of the Western world are descended from
+those brought in the eggs by the monks to Constantinople. Justinian
+gave the control of the silk industry to his own treasurer. Weavers,
+brought from Tyre and Berytus, were employed to manufacture the silk,
+and the whole production was a monopoly of the emperor, he fixing its
+prices. Under his management, the cost of silk became eight times as
+great as before, and the Royal Purple was twenty-four times its former
+price. But this monopoly was not of long duration and, at the death of
+Justinian in 565, the monopoly ceased, and the spread of the industry
+commenced in new and diverse directions.
+
+While every detail of the growth of the industry has an unusual
+interest, as showing how such an insignificant thing as a worm may
+become a potent factor in Nature’s economy, the scope of this article
+will hardly allow us to more than sketch some of the other more salient
+points of the history of the silkworm.
+
+About the year 910, the silkworms made their appearance in Cordova,
+Spain, being brought there by the Moors. From Spain silk culture soon
+extended to Greece and Italy.
+
+~WHEN SILK CULTURE WAS INTRODUCED IN AMERICA~
+
+Silk was introduced on this continent through the Spanish Conquest of
+Mexico, and the first silkworm eggs sold for $60.00 an ounce.
+
+A century later royal orders were issued requiring mulberry trees to
+be planted in the Colony of Virginia, and a fine of twenty pounds of
+tobacco was imposed for neglect, and fifty pounds of tobacco was given
+as a bounty for every pound of reeled silk produced.
+
+Silk culture spread rapidly in the other Colonies, and to-day the story
+of the ineffectual attempts to profitably rear the silkworm in this
+country is as voluminous as it is interesting. Suffice it to say, as
+a sop to our inherent Yankee pride, that silk culture was introduced
+into Connecticut as early as 1737, the first coat and stockings made
+from New England silk being worn by Governor Law in 1747, and the first
+silk dress by his daughter, in 1750. This State, for the eighty-four
+years following, led all the others in the amount of raw silk produced.
+In Connecticut also, was built the first silk mill to be erected on
+this continent for the special purpose of manufacturing silk goods.
+This building was constructed in 1810 by Rodney and Horatio Hanks, at
+Mansfield, and is still standing as an heirloom which has come to us
+from the infant days of the industry.
+
+The silkworm has become domesticated, since, during the long centuries
+in which it has been cultivated, it has acquired many useful
+peculiarities. Man has striven to increase its silk producing power,
+and in this he has succeeded, for, by comparing the cocoon of the
+silkworm of to-day with its wild relations, the cocoon is found to be
+much larger, even in proportion to the size of the worm that makes
+it or the moth that issues from it. The moth’s loss of the power of
+flight and the white color of the species are probably the results of
+domestication.
+
+[Illustration: JAPAN THE NATURAL HOME OF THE SILK WORM
+
+GATHERING MULBERRY BRANCHES.[1]
+
+This picture shows a grove of mulberry trees from which branches
+are being gathered as food for the worms. This is often done by the
+children.]
+
+[Illustration: FEMALE MOTHS DEPOSITING EGGS.[1]
+
+The moths are placed upon pieces of cardboard, upon which they deposit
+their eggs.
+
+The cards with the eggs are kept in a cool place until the season for
+hatching arrives.]
+
+[Illustration: PREPARING COCOONING BEDS.[1]
+
+This picture shows two boys preparing a bed of twigs or branches upon
+which the worms may spin their cocoons.]
+
+  [1] Illustrations by courtesy The Brainerd & Armstrong Co.
+
+[Illustration: HOW THE SILKWORMS ARE CARED FOR
+
+HATCHING THE EGGS.
+
+As the eggs hatch on the cards, the young worms are removed to other
+cards or trays, where they are fed and cared for.]
+
+[Illustration: REMOVING SILKWORMS FROM CARDS WHERE THEY WERE HATCHED.
+
+Every few days the young worms are changed to new and clean cards.]
+
+[Illustration: METHOD OF REELING RAW SILK.
+
+The cocoons are soaked in hot water in the basins shown in the front
+to loosen the gum. The silk threads then pass through the hands of the
+operators and are reeled on swifts in the cabinet shown in the rear.
+
+A more modern appliance for reeling the silk is shown on one of the
+following pages.]
+
+  The foregoing pages and pictures by courtesy of Brainerd & Armstrong
+  Silk Company, from their book entitled, “Silk, the Real versus the
+  Imitation.”
+
+[Illustration: FULL GROWN LARVA--SHOWING POSITION IN MOLTING.[2]]
+
+[Illustration: MALE MOTH.[2]]
+
+[Illustration: FEMALE MOTH.[2]]
+
+[Illustration: SIDE VIEW OF CHRYSALIS.[2]]
+
+[Illustration: BOTTOM VIEW OF CHRYSALIS.[2]]
+
+  [2] The cuts on this page and balance of cuts in the story of silk
+  copyright by the Corticelli Silk Mills.
+
+The silk moth exists in four states--egg, larva, chrysalis, and adult.
+The egg of the moth is nearly round, slightly flattened, and closely
+resembles a turnip seed. When first laid it is yellow, soon turning
+a gray or slate color if impregnated. It has a small spot on one end
+called the micropyle, and when the worm hatches, which in our climate
+is about the first of June, it gnaws a hole through this spot. Black
+in color, scarcely an eighth of an inch in length, covered with long
+hair, with a shiny nose, and sixteen small legs, the baby worm is born,
+leaving the shell of the egg white and transparent.
+
+~THE SILKWORM—HOW HE DOES HIS WORK~
+
+Small and tender leaves of the white mulberry or osage orange are fed
+the young worm which simply pierces them and sucks the sap. Soon the
+worm becomes large enough to eat the tender portions between the veins
+of the leaf. In eating they hold the leaves by the six forward feet,
+and then cut off semi-circular slices from the leaf’s edge by the
+sharp upper portion of the mouth. The jaws move sidewise, and several
+thousand worms eating make a noise like falling rain.
+
+The worms are kept on trays made of matting, that are placed on racks
+for convenience in handling. The leaves are placed beside the worms,
+or upon a slatted or perforated tray placed above them, and those that
+crawl off are retained, while the weak ones are removed with the old
+leaves. The worms breathe through spiracles, small holes which look
+like black spots, one row of nine down each side of the body. They have
+no eyes, but are quite sensitive to a jar, and if you hit the rack
+they stop eating and throw their heads to one side. They are velvety,
+smooth, and cold to the touch, and the flesh is firm, almost hard. The
+pulsation of the blood may be traced on the back of the worm, running
+towards the head.
+
+The worm has four molting seasons, at each of which it sheds its old
+skin for a new one, since in the very rapid growth of the worm the old
+skin cannot keep pace with the growth of the body. The periods between
+these different molts are called “ages,” there being five, the first
+extending from the time of hatching to the end of the first molt, and
+the last from the end of the fourth molt to the transformation of the
+insect into a chrysalis. The time between the four “molts” will be
+found to vary, depending upon the species of worm.
+
+[Illustration: HOW THE SILKWORMS ARE REARED.[2]]
+
+When the worm molts it ceases eating, grows slightly lighter in color,
+fastens itself firmly by the ten prolegs, and especially by the last
+two, to some object, and holding up its head and the fore part of its
+body remains in a torpid state for nearly two days.
+
+By each successive molt the worm grows lighter, finally becoming a
+slate or cream white color, and the hair, which was long at first,
+gradually disappears. The gummy liquid which combines the two strands
+hardens immediately on exposure to the air.
+
+The worm works incessantly, forcing the silk out by the contraction
+of its body. The thin, gauze-like network which soon surrounds it
+gradually thickens, until, twenty-four hours after beginning to spin,
+the worm is nearly hidden from view. However, the cocoon is not
+completed for about three days.
+
+~SIXTY-FIVE MOTIONS OF HIS HEAD A MINUTE~
+
+The cocoon is tough, strong, and compact, composed of a firm,
+continuous thread, which is, however, not wound in concentric circles,
+but irregularly in short figure eight loops, first in one place and
+then in another. In doing this the worm makes sixty-five elliptical
+motions of his head a minute or a total of 300,000 in an average
+cocoon. The motion of the worm’s head when starting the cocoon is very
+rapid, and nine to twelve inches of silk flow from the spinneret in
+a minute, but later the average would be about half this amount per
+minute.
+
+[Illustration: SILKWORM EATING.[2]]
+
+[Illustration: SILKWORM—ONE OF THE WORLD’S GREATEST WORKERS
+
+SILKWORM PREPARING TO FORM ITS COCOON.]
+
+Having attained full growth, the worm is ready to spin its cocoon. It
+loses its appetite, shrinks nearly an inch in length, grows nearly
+transparent, often acquiring a pinkish hue, becomes restless, seeks
+a quiet place or corner, and moves its head from side to side in an
+effort to find objects on which to attach its guy lines within which
+to build its cocoon. The silk is elaborated in a semi-fluid condition
+in two long, convoluted vessels or glands between the prolegs and
+head, one upon each side of the alimentary canal. As these vessels
+approach the head they grow more slender, and finally unite within the
+spinneret, a small double orifice below the mouth, from which the silk
+issues in a glutinous state and apparently in a single thread.
+
+[Illustration: COCOON BEGUN--SILKWORM CAN STILL BE SEEN.]
+
+The color of the worm’s prolegs before spinning indicates the color the
+cocoon will be. This varies in different species, and may be a silvery
+white, cream, yellow, lemon, or green.
+
+[Illustration: COMPLETED COCOON.]
+
+~WHEN THE SILKWORM’S WORK IS DONE~
+
+When the worm has finished spinning, it is one and a quarter inches
+long. Two days later, by a final molt, its dried-up skin breaks at the
+nose and is crowded back off the body, revealing the chrysalis, an oval
+cone one inch in length. It is a light yellow in color, and immediately
+after molting is soft to the touch. The ten prolegs of the worm have
+disappeared, the four wings of the future moth are folded over the
+breast, together with the six legs and two feelers, or antennæ. It soon
+turns brown, and the skin hardens into a tough shell. Nature provides
+the cocoon to protect the worm from the elements while it is being
+transformed into a chrysalis, and thence into the moth.
+
+[Illustration: MOTHS EMERGING FROM COCOONS.]
+
+With no jaws, and confined within the narrow space of the cocoon, the
+moth has some difficulty in escaping. After two or three weeks the
+shell of the chrysalis bursts, and the moth ejects against the end of
+the cocoon a strongly alkaline liquid which moistens and dissolves
+the hard, gummy lining. Pushing aside some of the silken threads and
+breaking others, with crimped and damp wings the moth emerges; and the
+exit once effected, the wings soon expand and dry.
+
+[Illustration: COCOONS FROM WHICH THE MOTHS HAVE EMERGED.]
+
+The escape of the moth, however, breaks so many threads that the
+cocoons are ruined for reeling, and consequently, when ten days old,
+all those not intended for seed are placed in a steam heater to stifle
+the chrysalis, and the silk may then be reeled at any future time.
+
+The moths are cream white in color. They have no mouths, but do have
+eyes, which is just the reverse of the case of the worm. From the time
+it begins to spin until the moth dies, the insect takes no nourishment.
+The six forward legs of the worm become the legs of the moth. Soon
+after mating the eggs are laid.
+
+The male has broader feelers than the female, is smaller in size, and
+quite active. The female lays half her eggs, rests a few hours, and
+then lays the remainder. Her two or three days’ life is spent within a
+space occupying less than six inches in diameter.
+
+One moth lays from three to four hundred eggs, depositing them over an
+even surface. In some species a gummy liquid sticks the eggs to the
+object upon which they are laid. In the large cocoon varieties there
+are full thirty thousand eggs in a single ounce avoirdupois. It takes
+from twenty-five hundred to three thousand cocoons to make a pound of
+reeled silk. Do you wonder that, centuries ago, silk was valued at its
+weight in gold?
+
+Growers of silk in the United States, by working early and late every
+day during the season, which lasts from six to eight weeks, could
+scarcely average fifteen cents for a day’s labor of ten hours. Silk,
+once regarded as a luxury, is now considered a necessity.
+
+[Illustration: HOW THE COCOON IS UNWOUND
+
+REELING THE SILK FROM COCOONS BY FOOT POWER, CALLED “RE-REEL” SILK.
+
+The cocoons are first assorted, those of the same color being placed
+by themselves, and those of fine and coarse texture likewise. The
+outside loose silk is then removed, as this cannot be reeled, after
+which the cocoons are plunged into warm water to soften the “gum” which
+sticks the threads together. The operator brushes the cocoons with a
+small broom, to the straws of which their fibers become attached, and
+then carefully unwinds the loose silk until each cocoon shows but one
+thread. These three operations are called “soaking,” “brushing,” and
+“cleansing.”
+
+Into one or two compartments in a basin of warm water below the reel
+are placed four or more cocoons, according to the size of the thread
+desired. The threads from the cocoons in each compartment are gathered
+together and, after passing through two separate perforated agates a
+few inches above the surface of the water, are brought together and
+twisted around each other several times, then separated and passed
+upward over the traverse guide-eyes to the reel. The traverse moves
+to and fro horizontally, distributing the thread in a broad band over
+the surface of the reel. The rapid crossing of the thread from side to
+side of the skein in reeling facilitates handling and unwinding without
+tangling, the natural gum of the silk sticking the threads to each
+other on the arms of the reel, thus securing the traverse. Silk reeled
+by hand or foot power is known as “Re-reel” silk, while silk reeled by
+power machinery is called “Filature.”]
+
+[Illustration: A FILATURE--REELING THE SILK FROM COCOONS BY POWER
+MACHINERY.[2]]
+
+[Illustration: DRYING SKEINS OF SILK.]
+
+[Illustration: THE SILK IS WOUND ON SPOOLS
+
+WINDING FRAMES--WINDING THE SILK ON BOBBINS.]
+
+~WHERE MAN’S WORK ON THE SILK BEGINS~
+
+The raw silk is first assorted, according to the size of the fiber, as
+fine, medium, and coarse. The skeins are put into canvas bags and then
+soaked over night in warm soapsuds. This is necessary to soften the
+natural gum in the silk, which had stuck the threads together on the
+arms of the reel. Following the soaking, the skeins are straightened
+out and hung across poles in a steam-heated room, as shown in the
+accompanying photograph. When the skeins are dry, they are ready for
+the first process of manufacturing. The room we now step into is filled
+with “winding frames,” each containing two long rows of “swifts,”
+from which the silk is wound on to bobbins. The bobbins are large
+spools about three inches long. The bobbins filled with silk, as wound
+from the skeins, are next placed on pins of the “doubling frames”;
+the thread from several bobbins, according to the size of the silk
+desired, is passed upward through drop wires on to another bobbin.
+Should one of the threads break, the “drop wire” falls, which action
+stops the bobbin. By this ingenious device absolute uniformity in the
+size of silk is secured. The “doubling frame” is shown in one of the
+photographs herewith.
+
+[Illustration: DOUBLING FRAMES--THE SILK THREAD IS MADE UNIFORM.]
+
+The bobbins taken from the “doubling frame” are next placed on a
+“spinner.” Driven by an endless belt at the rate of over six thousand
+turns a minute, the bobbins revolve, the silk from them being drawn
+upward on to another bobbin. This spins the several strands brought
+together by the “doubling process” into one thread, the number of turns
+depending on the kind of silk--Filo silk being spun quite slack, and
+Machine Twist just the reverse.
+
+[Illustration: SPINNING SILK.[2]]
+
+[Illustration: TWISTING SILK.[2]]
+
+A transferring machine combines two or three of these strands; two for
+sewing silk and three for machine twist; and the bobbin next goes on
+to the “twisting machine”--a machine that is similar to a “spinner,”
+but the silk is twisted in the opposite direction from the spinning. To
+stand before these machines and watch how rapidly and how accurately
+they do the work assigned them is a revelation. No one realizes how
+nicely the parts are adjusted. If but one tiny strand breaks that
+part of the machinery is stopped by an automatic device which works
+instantaneously. After twisting, the silk is stretched by an ingenious
+machine called a “water-stretcher.” This smooths and consolidates the
+constituent fibers, giving an evenness to the silk not to be obtained
+by any other known process. The bobbins are placed in water and the
+silk is wound on to the lower of the two copper rolls. From the lower
+roll it passes upward to the upper roll, which turns faster than the
+lower one, thereby stretching the silk. From the upper roll it passes
+again on to a bobbin.
+
+[Illustration: SILK THREADS READY FOR THE WEAVER
+
+WATER STRETCHER--MAKING THE SILK THREAD SMOOTH.]
+
+The dyeing process is a very important one, and upon its success
+depends the permanency of the various colors.
+
+Vast tubs, tanks, and kettles surround you on every side, and the
+hissing steam seems to spring from all quarters. The “gum” of the silk
+is first boiled out by immersion in strong soapsuds for about four
+hours. The attendants, standing in heavy “clogs” (big shoes with wooden
+soles two inches thick), turn the silk on the sticks at intervals
+until the gum is removed. After the silk is dyed it is put into a
+“steam finisher,” a device looking like a long, narrow box with a
+cover opening on the side, set upright on top of an iron cylinder. The
+hanks of silk are placed upon two pins in the steam chest, the cover
+fastened, and the live steam rushes in around the silk. This brightens
+the silk, giving it the lustrous, glossy appearance.
+
+  The editors are indebted to the Corticelli Silk Mills, Florence,
+  Mass., for this story of how silk is made, as well as for permission
+  to use their splendid life-like copyrighted photographs of the
+  silkworm. Many teachers will be glad to know that they can obtain
+  from the Corticelli Silk Mills, at slight expense, specimen cocoons
+  and other helps for object lesson teaching.
+
+
+
+
+What Animal Can Leap the Greatest Distance?
+
+
+The galago, or flying lemur. This singular animal is a native of
+the Indian Archipelago. It is from 2 ft. to 3 ft. in length, and is
+furnished with a sort of membrane on each side of its body connecting
+its limbs with each other; this is extended and acts as a parachute
+while taking its long leaps, which measure about 300 ft. in an inclined
+plane. The kangaroo can leap with ease a distance of between 60 ft. and
+70 ft. and can spring clean over a horse and take fences from 12 ft. to
+14 ft. in height. The animals that can leap the greatest distance in
+proportion to their size are the flea and the grasshopper, the former
+being able to leap over an obstacle five hundred times its own height,
+while the grasshopper can leap for a distance measuring 200 times its
+own length. The springbok will clear from 30 ft. to 40 ft. at a single
+bound. The flying squirrel, in leaping from tree to tree often clears
+50 ft. in a leap. This animal also has a broad fold of skin or membrane
+connecting its fore and hind legs. A steeplechase horse, called The
+Chandler, is reported to have covered 39 ft. in a single leap at
+Warwick some years ago. Some species of antelopes can make a leap 36
+ft. in length and 10 ft. in height. A lion and a tiger each clear from
+18 ft. to over 20 ft. at a bound while springing on their prey. A
+salmon often leaps 15 ft. out of the water in ascending the falls of
+rivers.
+
+
+
+
+Why Do We Call Voting Balloting?
+
+
+The term covers all forms of secret voting, as in early times such
+votes were determined by balls of different colors deposited in the
+same box, or balls of one color placed in various boxes. The Greeks
+used shells (ostrakon), whence we derive the term ostracism. In 139
+B.C. the Romans voted by tickets. The ballot was first used in America
+in 1629, when the Salem Church thus chose a pastor. It was employed in
+the Netherlands in the same year, but was not established in England
+until 1872, although in Scotland it was used in cases of ostracism in
+the 17th century. In 1634 the governor of Massachusetts was elected by
+ballot, and the constitutions of Pennsylvania, New Jersey and North
+Carolina adopted in 1776, made this method of voting obligatory. The
+ballot progressed slowly in the Southern States, Kentucky retaining the
+viva voce method until a comparatively recent date. In certain states,
+the constitutions stipulate that the legislature shall vote viva voce,
+i. e., cast their votes orally. Since 1875 all congressmen have been
+elected by ballot. In 1888 the Australian ballot system, which requires
+the names of all the candidates for the various offices to be placed
+on one large sheet of paper, commonly known as a “blanket” ticket, was
+adopted in Louisville, Ky., and some sections of Massachusetts. It is
+now in very general use in this country. The voter, in the privacy of
+an individual booth, indicates his preference by making a mark opposite
+a party emblem or a candidate’s name. This system originated in 1851
+with Francis S. Dutton, of South Australia, and Henry George, in a
+pamphlet, “English Elections,” published in 1882, was the first to
+advocate it in the United States. The first bill enacting it into a law
+here was introduced in the Michigan legislature in 1887, but it did not
+pass until 1889.
+
+
+
+
+Why Do We Call a Cab a Hansom?
+
+
+The term is applied usually to a public vehicle, known in England as
+a “two-wheeler,” or “Hansom” (from the name of the inventor), and
+drawn by one horse. In a hansom cab, the passenger or hirer of the
+vehicle sits immediately in rear of the dashboard, the driver sitting
+on an elevated perch behind, the reins being passed over the top. The
+term cab is sometimes also applied to a four-seated, closed or open
+carriage, drawn by one or two horses, the driver sitting in front. The
+term is also applied to the covered part of a locomotive, in which the
+engineer and fireman have their stations. The word cab is derived from
+the cabriolet, a light one-horse carriage, with two seats and a calash
+top. In London, England, the cab or hansom was called the “gondola” of
+the British metropolis by Disraeli.
+
+
+
+
+Where Did the Name Calico Come From?
+
+
+A fabric of cotton cloth, the name being derived from the city of
+Calicut, in Madras, where it was first manufactured, and in 1631
+brought to England by the East India Company. Calico-printing, an
+ancient Indian and Chinese art, has become a great industry in this
+country and in Britain, as well as in Holland.
+
+
+
+
+Who Made the First Postage Stamp?
+
+
+The stick on postage stamps so generally used today was invented by
+an Englishman James Chalmers in 1834. The English Government passed a
+bill calling for uniform postage of One Penny in 1840 and furnished
+envelopes bearing stamps printed on them. The people did not like them,
+however, and the adhesive stamp invented by Chalmers was substituted.
+The first stamps used in America were introduced in 1847. People have,
+it seems, always preferred to lick their postage stamps.
+
+
+
+
+How Many Languages Are There?
+
+
+It is said that there are more than 3,400 languages, including
+dialects, in the world. Most of them belong, of course, to savage
+or uncivilized people. There are said to be more than 900 languages
+used in Asia, almost 600 in Europe, 275 in Africa and more than 1,600
+languages and dialects which are American.
+
+
+
+
+What Is the Deepest Mine In the World?
+
+
+The mine that goes farther down than any other in the world is the rock
+salt mine near Berlin, Germany which is 4,175 feet. It is not, however,
+straight down but somewhat slanting. The Calumet Copper Mine near Lake
+Superior is at a depth in some places of 3,900 feet.
+
+The deepest boring in the world is an artesian well at Potsdam,
+Missouri, which is 5,500 feet deep or more than one mile straight down.
+
+
+
+
+What Is Color?
+
+
+~WHAT PRODUCES THE COLORS WE SEE?~
+
+What is termed the color-sense is the power or ability to distinguish
+kinds or varieties of light and their distinctive tints. We owe the
+faculty of doing this to the structure of the eye and its elaborate
+connecting nerve machinery. The eye in man is specially sensitive to
+light, and the sensations we feel through it enables us to distinguish
+the different colors. Over 1,000 monochromatic tints are said to
+be distinguishable by the retina of the eye, though these numerous
+tints are, in the main, merely blendings or combinations of the three
+primary color-sensations, the sense of red, of green and of violet.
+Each of these colors, it has been demonstrated, is produced by light
+of a varying wave length, while white light is only light in which the
+primary colors are combined in proper proportion. Colored light, on the
+other hand, as Newton proved, may be produced from white light in one
+of three ways: First, by refraction in a prism or lens, as observed in
+the rainbow; second, by diffraction, as in the blue color of the sky,
+or in the tints seen in mother-of-pearl; and third, by absorption,
+as in the red color of a brick wall, or in the green of grass--the
+white light which falls upon the wall being wholly absorbed, save by
+the red, and all that falls upon the grass being absorbed except the
+green. In art, color means that combination or modification of tints
+which is specially suited to produce a particular or desired effect in
+painting; in music, the term denotes a particular interpretation which
+illustrates the physical analogy between sound and color.
+
+
+
+
+Where Did the Term Dixie Originate?
+
+
+The term was applied originally to New York City when slavery existed
+there. According to a myth or legend, a person named Dixie owned a
+tract of land on Manhattan Island and had a large number of slaves. As
+Dixie’s slaves increased beyond the requirements of the plantation,
+many were sent to distant parts. Naturally the deported negroes looked
+upon their early home as a place of real and abiding happiness, as did
+those from the “Ole Virginny” of later days. Hence “Dixie” became the
+synonym for a locality where the negroes were happy and contented. In
+the South, Dixie is taken to mean the Southern States. There the word
+is supposed to have been derived from Mason and Dixon’s line, formerly
+dividing the free states from the slave states. It is said to have
+first come into use there when Texas joined the Union, and the negroes
+sang of it as Dixie. It has been the theme of several popular songs,
+notably that of Albert Pike, “Southrons, Hear Your Country Call”; that
+of T. M. Cooley, “Away Down South where Grows the Cotton,” and that
+of Dan Emmett, the refrain usually containing the word “Dixie” or the
+words “Dixie’s Land.” During the Civil War, the tune of “Dixie” was to
+the Southern people what “Yankee Doodle” had always been to the people
+of the whole Union and what it continued, in war times, to be to the
+Northern people, the comic national air. The tune is “catchy” to the
+popular ear and it was played by the bands in the Union army during
+the war as freely as by those on the other side. During the rejoicing
+in Washington over the surrender of Lee at Appomattox, a band played
+“Dixie” in front of the White House. President Lincoln began a short
+speech, immediately afterward, with the remark, “That tune fairly
+belongs to us now; we’ve captured it.”
+
+
+
+
+How Big Is the Earth?
+
+
+The third planet in order of distance from the sun, Mercury and Venus
+being nearer to it. It is in shape a sphere slightly flattened at the
+poles and bulged at the equator, hence it is called an oblate spheroid.
+The equatorial diameter or axis measures 7,926 miles and 1.041 yds.,
+and the polar diameter is 7,899 miles and 1.023 yds. The earth revolves
+upon its axis, completing its diurnal or daily revolution in a sidereal
+day, which is 3 minutes and 55.9 seconds shorter than a mean solar day.
+It revolves around the sun in one sidereal year, which is 365 days, 6
+hours, 9 minutes, and 9 seconds. Its orbit or path around the sun is an
+ellipse, having the sun in one of the foci. The earth’s mean distance
+from the sun is 93,000,000 miles. Its axis is inclined to the plane
+of its orbit at an angle of 23° 27′ 12.68″. The circumference at the
+equator measures 24,899 miles. The total surface is 196,900,278 sq.
+miles, and the solid contents is 260,000,000,000 cubic miles. As we
+descend into the earth the temperature rises at the rate of 1° Fahr.
+for every 50 ft. At the depth of 10 or 12 miles the earth is red-hot,
+and at a depth of 100 miles the temperature is such that at the surface
+of the earth it would liquefy all solid matter in the earth.
+
+
+
+
+What Causes Hail?
+
+
+Hail is the name given to the small masses of ice which fall in
+showers, and which are called hailstones. When a hailstone is examined
+it is found usually to consist of a central nucleus of compact snow,
+surrounded by successive layers of ice and snow. Hail falls chiefly in
+Spring and Summer, and often accompanies a thunderstorm. Hailstones
+are formed by the gradual rise and fall, through different degrees of
+temperature (by the action of windstorms), and they then take on a
+covering of ice or frozen snow, according as they are carried through a
+region of rain or snow.
+
+With regard to rain, it may be said, in popular language, that under
+the influence of solar heat, water is constantly rising into the air by
+evaporation from the surface of the sea, lakes, rivers, and the moist
+surface of the ground. Of the vapors thus formed the greater part is
+returned to the earth as rain. The moisture, originally invisible,
+first makes its appearance as cloud, mist or fog; and under certain
+atmospheric conditions the condensation proceeds still further until
+the moisture falls to the earth as rain. Simply and briefly, then, rain
+is caused by the cooling of the air charged with moisture.
+
+
+
+
+Why Does a Human Being Have To Learn to Swim?
+
+
+It is strange, isn’t it, that almost every animal, excepting man and
+possibly the monkey, knows how to swim naturally; others such as birds,
+horses, dogs, cows, elephants, can swim as soon as they can move about
+alone.
+
+The trouble with man in this connection is that his natural motion is
+climbing. He has been a climber ever since he was developed from the
+monkey, and when you throw him into the water before he has learned to
+swim, he naturally starts to climb and as a climbing motion won’t do,
+for swimming, the man will drown.
+
+This climbing motion is as much of an instinct in man and monkeys as
+the instinct in dogs which causes him to turn round once or twice
+before he lies down just as his forefathers used to do ages ago when,
+as wild dogs, they first had to trample the grass before they could lie
+down comfortably.
+
+
+
+
+Why Do I Get Cold in a Warm Room?
+
+
+I suppose you mean the instances when you get cold while in a warm room
+even when you are perfectly well. This will happen often when all of
+the moisture in the room outside of what is in your body, is evaporated
+by the heat in the room. The remedy is, of course, to keep a pan of
+water some place in the room as the air has become too dry.
+
+While heat is necessary to evaporate water, the process of evaporation
+produces cold. The quicker the evaporation the sharper the cold feeling
+produced. Now your body is continually evaporating the water from your
+body which comes out in the form of perspiration through the pores of
+the skin. This is one of nature’s ways of taking the impurities and
+waste out of the body. You know, of course, don’t you, that more than
+one-half the waste material which the body expels from the system comes
+out through the pores of the skin rather than through the canals.
+
+When the air in the room becomes too dry, the evaporation on the
+outside of the body proceeds faster and makes you cold. By keeping
+water in some vessel in the room you keep the air of the room from
+becoming too dry.
+
+
+
+
+Why Do They Call Them Wisdom Teeth?
+
+
+The wisdom teeth are the two last molar teeth to grow. They come one
+on each side of the jaw and arrive somewhere between the ages of
+twenty and twenty-five years. The name is given them because it is
+supposed that when a person has developed physically and mentally to
+the point where he has secured these last two teeth he has also arrived
+at the age of discretion. It does not necessarily mean that one who
+has cut his wisdom teeth is wise, but that having lived long enough
+to grow these, which complete the full set of teeth, the person has
+passed sufficient actual years that, if he has done what he should to
+fit himself for life, he should have come by that time at the age of
+discretion or wisdom. As a matter of fact these teeth grow at about the
+same age in people whether they are wise or not.
+
+
+
+
+What Makes Freckles Come?
+
+
+Freckles are generally caused by the exposure of unprotected parts of
+the body to the sun, but this will not cause freckles on all people.
+Only people with certain kinds of sensitive skins freckle. What happens
+when freckles are produced in this way is this: The sunlight shining on
+the face, neck or arms of anyone who has a tendency to freckle, has a
+peculiar action on certain cells of the skin which produces a yellowish
+brown coloring pigment, which remains for a time.
+
+Then again the skins of some people are so peculiarly sensitive the
+cells develop this kind of coloring matter in almost any kind of light
+and such people are, so to speak, apt to be freckled for life.
+
+[Illustration: First successful power-driven aeroplane. The Langley
+monoplane with steam engine, which flew over the Potomac River in 1896.]
+
+
+
+
+The Flying Boat
+
+
+When Did Man First Try to Fly?
+
+~HOW MAN LEARNED TO FLY~
+
+Man’s desire to conquer the air is older than recorded history. When a
+kite was flown for the first time the principle of aviation, or dynamic
+flight, was uncovered. For centuries man has sought the mechanical
+equivalents for the things that keep a kite flying steadily in the
+air,--the power that lies in the cord that keeps a kite headed into the
+wind; an equivalent for the wind’s own power; an equivalent for the
+tail which controls the kite’s lateral and longitudinal balance.
+
+Each separate part of the modern flying machine, or aeroplane, was
+worked out long ago, with the exception of the gas engine light enough
+and reliable enough to be used for this work. The present generation
+knows dynamic flight as a commonplace thing, not because we are so much
+more clever than previous generations in designing flying machines,
+but because of the development of the modern gasoline or internal
+combustion engine.
+
+
+Who Invented Flying?
+
+No one invented flying, nor did any one man invent all the separate
+parts of the flying machine. They are the result of evolution,--of the
+combined work and thought of hundreds of men, many of whose names are
+unrecorded. To attempt to find the true beginning of the modern flying
+machine would be as difficult as attempting to discover who planted
+the seed of the tree from which one has gathered a rose. But the tree
+from which all the flying machines, or aeroplanes, of today have sprung
+undoubtedly is Dr. Samuel Pierpont Langley, third secretary of the
+Smithsonian Institution.
+
+
+Some of the Men Who Helped.
+
+Taking the most conspicuous names of scientists who worked out various
+details of the aeroplane during the past century we find that a century
+ago Sir George Cayley built a machine on lines very similar to those
+accepted today, and he went so far as to foretell the necessity of
+developing the internal combustion engine before dynamic flight could
+be a success. Mr. F. H. Wenham, in 1866, also built a flying machine
+along conventional lines and tried to fly it with a steam engine, which
+of course, proved too heavy.
+
+[Illustration: One of Dr. Langley’s first models; a biplane with
+flexible wing-tips and twin propellers. 1889.]
+
+~EARLY TYPES OF FLYING MACHINES~
+
+M. A. Penaud, a Frenchman, in experimenting with models, seems to have
+been the first to discover the necessity of vertical and horizontal
+rudders in maintaining balance. Mr. Horatio Phillips, an Englishman,
+discovered, and patented, the use of curved instead of flat surfaces
+for the planes. Otto and Gustav Lilienthal are said to have been the
+first to attempt to balance aeroplanes by flexing or bending the wings.
+Various others, including Messrs. Richard Harte, Boulton, Mouillard,
+worked out ideas for balancing machines by the use of auxiliary planes
+which could be set at different angles with regard to the line of
+flight, thus forcing the machines to different positions by the force
+of the air rushing against them.
+
+Dr. Langley, trained in scientific investigation, conducted an
+elaborate series of experiments covering many years and costing
+thousands of dollars to test and prove the value of the claims of
+the earlier investigators. Some things which he thought he was
+the first to discover,--such as the effect of the vertical and
+horizontal rudders,--he later found had already been proven by others.
+Independently he covered the entire field of experiment and after
+building hundreds of small models he succeeded, in 1896, in making a
+machine weighing several pounds equipped with a very light steam engine
+which flew safely as long as the fuel lasted. For his early experiments
+Dr. Langley was afforded financial assistance by Mr. William Thaw of
+Pittsburg. After the success of his small machines Dr. Langley was
+asked to undertake the construction of a large, man-carrying machine,
+and Congress voted him $50,000 to carry on the work. A large share of
+this was spent on the development of a very light gasoline engine. The
+machine finally was completed, but was twice broken through defective
+launching apparatus. Congress and Dr. Langley were so ridiculed by the
+public press that the machine was temporarily abandoned. Not, however,
+until after Dr. Langley had successfully flown a steam driven machine
+much larger than many of the racing aeroplanes of today.
+
+But eight years after Dr. Langley’s death, which is said to have been
+due to the heart-breaking disappointment he suffered in trying to
+demonstrate the large machine, Glenn H. Curtiss, at the request of the
+Smithsonian Institution, rebuilt the old Langley machine and succeeded
+in making a flight with it at Hammondsport, N. Y., on May 28, 1914.
+
+[Illustration: THE FIRST MAN-CARRYING AEROPLANE
+
+First successful man-carrying aeroplane. Designed by Dr. Langley in
+1898; flown by Glenn H. Curtiss at Hammondsport, N. Y., 1914.]
+
+[Illustration: Front view of big Langley machine in 1914.]
+
+While longer flights probably will be made with this machine none
+will attain greater importance, because this first flight with it was
+sufficient to establish for all time the fact that Dr. Langley built
+the first man-carrying machine equipped with a gasoline engine and able
+to fly and raise itself with its own power. This was considerably
+more than was accomplished by other machines for some time after Dr.
+Langley’s death. The Langley machine not only lifted the weight it was
+designed to fly with, but also carried pontoon and other fittings,
+added by Mr. Curtiss to make flight from the water possible, which
+added 340 pounds to the original weight of the machine.
+
+[Illustration: THE MACHINE WITH WHICH BLERIOT FLEW IN EUROPE
+
+Copy of early Langley model with which Bleriot made first circular
+flight in Europe.]
+
+The connection between Dr. Langley’s work and present machines is now
+very easy to trace, though not obvious until 1911, when the Smithsonian
+Institution published memoirs written by Dr. Langley in 1897, and
+some memoirs of Mr. Octave Chanute, a French engineer who resided in
+Chicago, and who forms one of the main connecting links. The chain
+is practically completed by notes left by the late Lieut. Thomas
+Selfridge, U. S. A., America’s first martyr to aviation.
+
+Dr. Langley’s knowledge is represented in modern aviation by three
+distinct lines. The central and most direct line is through Dr.
+Alexander Graham Bell, inventor of the telephone, to the Aerial
+Experiment Association, and thence to Mr. Glenn H. Curtiss, and finds
+its expression in what is known as the Curtiss type of machines.
+
+Another line is that carried by a Mr. A. M. Herring to Mr. Chanute and
+by him transmitted to Mr. Wilbur Wright, finding expression in the
+Wright type of biplane.
+
+The third line is that leading to the modern monoplane school; M.
+Bleriot having first copied in toto the tandem monoplane form,
+generally known as the Langley type, and later, with the development of
+better gasoline engines, developing into the monoplane as known today.
+
+With the exception of M. Bleriot it is doubtful if the others fully
+realized the source of their inspiration,--not to call it information.
+
+Dr. Bell was interested in Dr. Langley’s work for more than ten years
+before Dr. Langley gave up. He observed many of the trials, and his
+reports of the first successful flights are incorporated in the
+official publications of the Smithsonian Institution. Dr. Bell began
+some independent experiments, but following Dr. Langley’s death he
+formed the Aerial Experiment Association, to carry on the work left by
+Dr. Langley. The members of this organization were, Mr. Curtiss, at
+that time the most successful builder of light motors; Lieut. Thomas
+H. Selfridge, U. S. A.; Mr. J. A. D. McCurdy and Mr. F. W. Baldwin, two
+young Canadian engineers. Mrs. Bell financed the project, furnishing
+the sum of $35,000 for the experiments.
+
+~WHAT TWO BROTHERS ACCOMPLISHED FOR FLYING~
+
+The Wright Brothers, for Wilbur Wright was joined by his brother
+Orville in the experiments, were the first to reap success from the
+seeds of Dr. Langley’s sowing. Mr. Chanute had been experimenting
+with a biplane form of motorless glider with little success, because
+of lack of means for balancing the machines in the air, until he was
+joined by a former employe of Dr. Langley. He appears to have imparted
+to Mr. Chanute the secret of the stabilizing effect of the Penaud
+tail, or combination of vertical and horizontal rudders. Thereafter
+hundreds of successful gliding flights were made with the Chanute
+biplane, though Chanute seems not to have grasped the full significance
+of the rudders,--though it was well understood by Dr. Langley. To
+the Chanute machine, as described to him, Mr. Wright added first the
+idea of flexing or warping the wings, after the fashion set by the
+Lilienthals. He found, however, as Dr. Langley had found years before,
+that in attempting to correct lateral balance in this way caused the
+aeroplane to swerve to such an extent that the fixed vertical rudder,
+as originally employed, did not correct the upsetting tendency that was
+developed. Mr. Wright then arranged his rudder in such a way that when
+the wing was warped the rudder turned in a way to offset the swerve.
+This combination was patented all over the world and has resulted in
+much complicated litigation.
+
+To this machine the Wright Brothers added a gasoline motor in December,
+1903, and with it made numerous flights during 1904-5. Their claims
+were not generally credited however until a later date for their
+experiments had been conducted with considerable secrecy, and during
+1906, 1907 and until late in 1908 they did no more flying.
+
+In the meantime M. Bleriot had made a copy of one of the early Langley
+tandem monoplane models and made some fairly successful flights with it
+in Europe. Later, as gasoline motors developed in power for weight, he
+reduced the rear surface until the modern monoplane evolved.
+
+While Bleriot was working in Europe, Dr. Bell’s Aerial Experiment
+Association in America was evolving still another type of machine, and
+the members of the association made the first successful public flights
+in America. Mr. Curtiss won the Scientific American Trophy for the
+first time on July 4th, 1908, by a straightaway flight of more than a
+kilometer. The balancing system employed by the A. E. A. differed from
+that employed by the Wrights and by Bleriot in that small auxiliary
+planes took the place of warping planes for righting the machine. This
+they claimed to be a superior method, first, because it eliminated the
+use of the rudder as being absolutely essential to the balance of the
+machine; second, because it enabled them to make the main planes rigid
+throughout, and consequently stronger than the flexible planes.
+
+There are several other names that must be mentioned in connection
+with the early history of successful flight; these are the Frenchmen,
+Messrs. Henri Farman, Maurice Farman, the brothers Voisin, and Santos
+Dumont. These produced some of the first notably successful aeroplanes
+in Europe but seem to have discovered nothing which has had any marked
+effect upon the later development of flying machines. M. Farman adopted
+the auxiliary planes used by the A. E. A. and modified them to suit his
+ideas.
+
+~WONDERFUL RECORDS OF AEROPLANES~
+
+Volumes could be, in fact, have been written about the exploits of
+the first demonstrators of the practical heavier-than-air flying
+machines,--of the crossing of the English Channel by Bleriot, of the
+flights by Wilbur Wright at Rheims, France; of Mr. Curtiss’ winning of
+the first Gordon Bennet International speed trophy and his flight down
+the Hudson from Albany to New York; of Orville Wright’s flight at Fort
+Meyer, and the death of Lieut. Selfridge who was flying with him. The
+barest record of these interesting accomplishments would fill volumes.
+Of the aeroplane proper it is enough to say here that since 1908 its
+development has been too rapid for accurate recording. In strength, in
+speed, in reliability, in size and carrying capacity, it has developed
+at a remarkable rate. At this writing the speed record is about 130
+miles per hour; the duration record is more than 24 hours, non-stop;
+the distance record is some 1,300 miles in one day; the altitude record
+some 26,000 feet. New records succeed the old ones with such rapidity
+that probably before this can be printed all these present records will
+have been greatly eclipsed.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  AEROPLANE “RED WING” HAMMONDSPORT, N.Y.
+
+  FIRST AMERICAN PUBLIC FLIGHT, MAR 12 1908]
+
+[Illustration: The biplane in which G. H. Curtiss flew from Albany to
+New York in 1910.]
+
+Meantime the aeroplane has developed greatly in other directions. In
+flying over land with the early types of machines many fatal accidents
+occurred, particularly to the fliers who gave exhibitions everywhere
+during 1909, 1910 and 1911. A majority of these accidents were
+indirectly due to the fact that a very smooth surface is required for
+landing a fragile machine running at high speed. The obvious expedient
+was to develop machines capable of rising from and alighting upon the
+water.
+
+[Illustration: SOME FAMOUS FOREIGN MONOPLANES
+
+A modern German monoplane.]
+
+[Illustration: The machine in which Bleriot crossed the English Channel
+in 1909. A modified Langley type.]
+
+[Illustration: Rolland Garros and monoplane in which he flew across the
+Mediterranean Sea in 1914.]
+
+~THE WONDERFUL FLYING BOAT~
+
+During the winter of 1910 and 1911 Mr. Curtiss, who had continued
+independent experiments upon the disbandment of the Aerial Experiment
+Association, succeeded in producing the first machine to safely leave
+and return to the water. For the development and demonstration of
+this type of flying machine he was awarded the Aero Club of America
+Trophy, and when during 1912 he produced still another type of water
+flying machine, the Curtiss Flying Boat, he was again awarded the Aero
+Club Trophy and also voted a Langley Medal by the directors of the
+Smithsonian Institution.
+
+[Illustration: Different views of flying boat.]
+
+Not until the development of the flying boat did the general public
+begin to take a participative interest in aviation, but as soon as the
+comparative safety of this type of machine became apparent the new
+sport began to be taken up rapidly both in this country and in Europe.
+The experiences of naval fliers and amateurs alike went to show that
+water flying offered not only the fastest and most comfortable mode
+of rapid travel, but also the safest, for during 1913 several hundred
+thousand miles were flown by navy aviators and amateur enthusiasts in
+Curtiss water flying machines without a single serious accident.
+
+What aviation will mean to future generations,--even to this generation
+in the course of a few years,--it would be foolhardy to try to guess.
+Mr. Rodman Wanamaker already has agreed to furnish the financial
+support for Mr. Curtiss’ attempt to build a machine to fly across the
+Atlantic Ocean, from America to Europe. If the venture is successful it
+is expected the crossing will be made in a fraction of the time taken
+by the fastest Transatlantic liners. The discovery of new metals and
+new manufacturing methods will certainly result in the development of
+light motors that may be relied upon to run for days without stopping,
+and automatically stable aeroplanes seem to be not far away. This will
+result in overland flight as safe and sure as we now enjoy over water.
+
+[Illustration: INSIDE OF A MODERN FLYING BOAT
+
+Interior arrangement of modern flying boat, showing fuel tank and
+instrument board.]
+
+[Illustration: Six-passenger flying boat hull. This machine will fly
+1,000 miles without stopping for fuel.]
+
+[Illustration: FUN IN A FLYING BOAT
+
+Flying at speed of a mile a minute.]
+
+[Illustration: Monoplane flying boat, built for R. V. Morris.]
+
+[Illustration: In a flying boat on pleasure bent.]
+
+~GREATEST PRESENT VALUE OF AEROPLANE~
+
+At present the greatest value of the aeroplane seems to be for
+military reconnaissance and all the great powers are striving their
+utmost to secure supremacy in the air. France, Germany, Russia and
+England have to date spent millions in developing aeroplane fleets.
+Only the government of the United States has failed as yet to
+appreciate the military significance of the flying machine. If the
+relative aeronautical strength of the world’s nations were represented
+alphabetically the U. S. would naturally scarce have to change its
+initial, U being slightly in advance of Z which would stand for
+Zululand. But even with its modest equipment the navy fliers of the
+United States proved the great worth of the aeroplane and the flying
+boat, when during the recent trouble in Mexico the air scouts gathered
+in a few minutes information that could only have been secured by days
+of cavalry scouting before the advent of the flying machine. Indeed,
+the name of Lieut. P. N. L. Bellinger, the most able of the naval
+fliers at Vera Cruz, has figured more prominently in the despatches
+from the front than that of any other officer connected with the
+expedition.
+
+Flying seems certain in the very near future to take its place as the
+fastest, safest and most comfortable mode of conveyance. The flying
+boat will render quickly accessible the vast country lying along the
+great rivers of South America, Africa, and Australia; it will bridge
+the great lakes and the oceans; bring near together the islands of the
+Pacific and Indian oceans. It will make imperative, because of the
+speed with which distances will be traversed, of a language common
+to all peoples; and treble man’s life without extending his years by
+making it possible to see and do three times as much in the same length
+of time.
+
+~TEN YEARS OF FLYING~
+
+Ten years ago on that day, December 17, 1913, Wilbur and Orville Wright
+made four flights on the coast of North Carolina near Roanoke Island,
+a spot historic in America’s history as the site of the first English
+settlement in the Western Hemisphere.
+
+[Illustration: Flying over military post in Curtiss biplane.]
+
+The first flight started from level ground against a 27-mile wind.
+After a run of 40 feet on a monorail track, the machine lifted and
+covered a distance of 120 feet over the ground in 12 seconds. It had
+a speed through the air of a little over 45 feet per second, and the
+flight, if made in calm air, would have covered a distance of over 540
+feet.
+
+Altogether four flights were made on the 17th. The first and third by
+Orville Wright, the second and fourth by Wilbur Wright. The last flight
+was the longest, covering a distance of 852 feet over the ground in 59
+seconds. After the fourth flight, a gust of wind struck the machine
+standing on the ground and rolled it over, injuring it to an extent
+that made further flights with it impossible for that year.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  1900
+
+  1901
+
+  1902
+
+  1905
+  1904
+
+  1903]
+
+The gliding experiments of Lilienthal in 1896 led the Wright Brothers
+to become interested in flight. The next four years were spent in
+reading and theorizing. In the Fall of 1900 practical experiments were
+begun with a man-carrying glider. These experiments were carried on
+from the sand hills near Kitty Hawk, North Carolina. The first glider
+was without a tail, the lateral equilibrium and the right and left
+steering were obtained by warping of the main surfaces. A flexible
+forward elevator was used. This machine was flown as a kite with and
+without operator, and several glides were made with it.
+
+A second machine was designed of larger size, and many glides were
+made with it in 1901. This machine was similar to the one of 1900 but
+had slightly deeper curved surfaces. Experiments with this machine
+demonstrated the inaccuracy of all the recognized tables of air
+pressures, upon which its design had been based.
+
+In 1902 a third glider was constructed, based upon tables of air
+pressures made by the Wright Brothers themselves. The lateral control
+was maintained by warping surfaces, and a vertical rear rudder operated
+in conjunction with the surfaces. Nearly a thousand gliding flights
+were made with this machine.
+
+In 1903, the Wright Brothers designed a machine to be driven with a
+motor. They also designed and built their own motor. This had four
+horizontal cylinders, 4 in. by 4 in., and developed 12 h.p. Two
+propellers, turning in opposite directions, were driven by chains from
+the engine. After many delays the machine was finally ready and was
+flown on the 17th of December, 1903, as related above.
+
+In the Spring of 1904, power flights were continued near Dayton with a
+machine similar to the one flown in 1903, but slightly heavier.
+
+The first complete circle was accomplished on the 20th of September,
+1904, in a flight covering a distance of about one mile. Altogether 105
+flights were attempted during the year, the longest of which were two
+of five minutes each, covering a distance of about three miles. All of
+the flights were started from a monorail.
+
+After September a derrick and a falling weight were used to assist in
+launching the machine.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  1908-9
+
+  1910
+
+  1910
+
+  MODEL R, 1910]
+
+~INTERESTING GOVERNMENTS IN FLYING MACHINES~
+
+It was not till 1908 that the Wright Brothers found purchasers for
+their invention. In that year they made a contract to furnish one
+machine to the Signal Corps of the United States Army and to sell the
+rights to their invention in France to a French company. In both cases
+they agreed to carry a passenger in addition to the operator, fuel
+sufficient for a flight of 100 miles, and to make a speed of 40 miles
+an hour.
+
+After making some preliminary practice flights at their old experiment
+grounds near Kitty Hawk in May, 1908, Wilbur Wright went to France to
+give demonstrations before the French Syndicate and Orville Wright to
+Washington to deliver the machine to the United States Signal Corps.
+The machines used by Wilbur Wright had been standing in bond in the
+warehouse at Havre since August of the year before. Owing to damage
+done to the machine in shipment, it was not ready for the official
+demonstrations until late in the year.
+
+Meanwhile Orville Wright in September, 1908, started demonstrations
+of the machine contracted for by the United States Government. On the
+9th he made two flights, one of 57 minutes, and the other one hour
+and 2 minutes, world’s records. On the 10th and 11th, these records
+were increased and on the 12th a flight of 1 hour and 15 minutes was
+made. On the 17th, the tests were terminated by an accident in which
+Lieutenant Selfridge met his death and Mr. Wright was severely injured,
+so that he was not able to complete the tests until the following year.
+
+Four days after the accident, on the 21st of September, Wilbur Wright
+made a flight of 1 hour and 31 minutes at Le Mans, France, which record
+he improved several times during the following months, and on the 31st
+of December, won the Michelin Trophy by a flight, in which he remained
+in the air 2 hours and 24 minutes.
+
+
+
+
+Where Is the Wind When It Is Not Blowing?
+
+
+The answer is, of course, that there isn’t any wind then. To understand
+this perfectly we must study a little and find out what wind is. In
+plain words it is nothing more than moving air.
+
+If you make a hole in the bottom of a pail of water the water will run
+out slowly. If you knock the whole bottom out of the pail filled with
+water, the water will rush out before you know it.
+
+That is about what happens to make the wind. The air is constantly
+full of air currents, like the currents you can see in a river. Down
+the middle of the river you may notice a softly-flowing current going
+straight. Along the shores there will be little side currents going
+in all directions, and you may find some little whirlpools. That is
+exactly what we should see in the air if we could see air currents.
+
+
+
+
+Where Does the Wind Begin?
+
+
+The movement of these currents of air leaves many pockets of space
+where there is no air, and when one of these is uncovered the air
+rushes in and creates a wind in doing so. These air currents are
+continually pressing against each other to get some place else. They
+change their direction according to the pressure that is being applied
+to them. Sometimes the pressure will be very light in one part of the
+air, many miles away perhaps, and then the air in another part, which
+is under great pressure, will rush with great force into the part where
+the pressure is light, and thus form a big wind. When the pressure
+stops the wind stops.
+
+We have probably felt the wind which comes out of the valve of the
+automobile tire when the cap is taken off to pump up the tire. It is a
+real wind that comes out. The reason is that the air in the tube of the
+tire is under great pressure, and when the opportunity is given to get
+where the pressure is light it starts for that place with a rush and
+comes out of the valve a real wind.
+
+
+
+
+What Causes the Wind’s Whistle?
+
+
+The whistle of the wind is caused very much like the whistle you make
+with your mouth or the noise made by the steam escaping through the
+spout of the kettle. You do not hear the wind whistle when you are
+out in it. You can hear it when you are in the house and the wind is
+blowing hard. When the wind blows against the house it tries to get
+in through all the crevices, under the cracks of the doors, down the
+chimneys, wherever it finds an opening. And whenever it starts through
+an opening that is too small for it, it makes a noise like the steam
+coming out of the spout of the kettle, provided the opening is of a
+certain shape.
+
+Not all the noises made by the wind, however, are made in this way. The
+wind in blowing against things makes them vibrate like the strings of a
+piano or violin, and when things vibrate, as we have already seen, they
+produce sound waves, which, when they strike our ears, produce sounds
+of various kinds. The wind even on ordinary days makes the telegraph
+and telephone wires hum, as you can prove to yourself by placing your
+ear against a telegraph or telephone pole, and whenever the wind makes
+anything vibrate, a great many queer sounds are produced, which often
+frighten us more than they should.
+
+
+
+
+Why Does the Air Never Get Used Up?
+
+
+Simply because it is constantly being replenished. The three gases,
+oxygen, nitrogen and carbonic acid gas, which are found in the air
+about us, are constantly being used up. All living animal creatures are
+at all times taking oxygen out of the air to live on. Certain microbes
+are using up quantities of the nitrogen all the time, and the plants
+live on the carbonic acid gas. But while these different kinds of life
+between them use up the air, they give back something also. The plants
+give off oxygen. The bodies of the animals and plants when they die
+decompose, and as they are full of nitrogen, that is given back to the
+air in that way, and then all living creatures are always throwing off
+carbonic acid gas through their lungs, and thus everything that is
+taken out of the air is put back again. The plants live on carbonic
+acid gas, and give us back oxygen. The living creatures live on oxygen
+and give off carbonic acid gas, and when they die their bodies put
+back in the air the nitrogen which the microbes take out, and so,
+consumption and production are about equal all the time.
+
+
+
+
+Why Can’t We See Air?
+
+
+We cannot see air because it has no color and is perfectly transparent.
+If at times it appears that there is color in the air it is not the
+air you see, but some little particles of various substances in it.
+Sometimes you think when you look off toward a range of mountains or
+hills, for instance, that the air is blue. You know the grass and trees
+on the mountains are green, so it cannot be they that have turned blue,
+and so you think the air is blue. But it is only the sunlight reflected
+to your eyes from the little particles of dirt and other substances
+which fill the air at all times which makes the blue that you see, and
+not the air.
+
+Pure air is a mixture of gases without any color and is perfectly
+transparent. Air is nearly entirely composed of a gas called
+nitrogen--the remainder being oxygen with a little water and carbonic
+acid gas, which latter is thrown off in breathing. This is, however,
+but a very small percentage.
+
+Air has been and still can be reduced to a liquid state, and with
+the use of it in this form many seemingly wonderful things can be
+done, which are interesting to look at, but have not as yet become
+commercially practical.
+
+
+
+
+Why Does Thunder Always Come After the Lightning?
+
+
+This occurs simply because lightning or light travels so much more
+quickly than sound. Light travels at the rate of 186,000 miles per
+second, and sound travels only at the rate of 1090 feet per second when
+the temperature is at 32 degrees. Now, the thunder and lightning come
+at the same time and place in the air, but the light travels so much
+faster that you see the lightning often quite some seconds before you
+hear the thunder. In fact, you can tell quite accurately how far away
+from you the flash of lightning and clap of thunder are by taking a
+watch and noting the number of seconds which elapse between the flash
+of the lightning and the time when you hear the roll of the thunder.
+If as much as five seconds elapse you can figure that it was about a
+mile away from you, since sound travels only about 1100 feet per second
+and there are 5280 feet in a mile. When the thunder and lightning come
+close together you may know that it is near by, and when they come at
+the same time you may be sure it is very close. When, therefore, you
+see the lightning and then have to wait several seconds for the noise
+of the thunder, you may rest easy about the lightning hurting you,
+because you know then it is too far away to harm you, and when it is so
+close that the lightning and thunder come simultaneously, there is no
+use being afraid, because if you were to be struck you would have been
+struck at the same instant or before you would have had time to notice
+that the lightning and thunder come together.
+
+
+
+
+How Big Is the Sun?
+
+
+It is very difficult to gain a clear idea of how very large the sun
+really is. We know from the scientists who have measured it with their
+accurate measuring instruments that it is 865,000 miles through it, and
+that at its largest part it is 2,722,000 miles around. Now, you can
+see why I said it is very difficult to get a clear conception of the
+sun’s size. A mile is quite a long distance to walk on a hot day. Now,
+the earth is 8000 miles through. If there were a tunnel right through
+the earth, like the subway, and you started to walk it, it would take
+you 83¹⁄₃ days if you walked day and night without stopping to rest or
+eat, if you kept going at the rate of four miles every hour. This would
+be a long, hot walk, for, of course, the inside of the earth is hot,
+as we have already learned. It would take an automobile, going at the
+rate of 40 miles an hour night and day, about nine days to make the
+trip through such a subway from one side of the earth to the other.
+That makes it look like a pretty big old earth, doesn’t it? But let us
+see what would happen if we started to do the same thing on the sun.
+The sun is 865,000 miles through. If you were to walk through a similar
+tunnel on the sun at four miles per hour it would take you 20 years,
+not counting the stops, and an automobile going 40 miles an hour day
+and night would take two years and a half to make the trip one way.
+
+The sun is ninety million miles from the earth and an automobile
+travelling at the rate of forty miles per hour day and night on a
+straight road, without stopping, would be 257 years in getting there.
+
+When we stop to think of how big the bulk of the sun is it is
+altogether beyond us. We have a general idea that our earth is a pretty
+large affair as worlds go, and yet we cannot conceive how much the
+bulk of the earth amounts to. Still, the sun is so large that it could
+contain a million worlds like our own.
+
+
+
+
+How Hot Is the Sun?
+
+
+We think the sun is pretty hot in summer when the thermometer goes
+up to 90 degrees in the shade or out. We begin to get sunburned long
+before it reaches that high. But right on the sun’s surface it is
+between 10,000 and 15,000 degrees hot. That is, of course, a degree
+of heat which we cannot conceive. How much hotter still it is on the
+inside of the sun we don’t as yet know. It must be awfully hot there.
+
+
+
+
+Why Is It Warm in Summer?
+
+
+It is warm in summer because at that season of the year the heat rays
+of the sun strike our part of the earth through less air. The blanket
+of air which surrounds the earth is very much in comparison as to
+thickness like the peeling of an orange and surrounds the earth in
+just the same way. If you stick a pin straight into an unpeeled orange
+you only have to stick it in a little way before you reach the juicy
+part of the orange, but if you stick the pin in at an angle the pin
+will travel a much longer ways through pure peeling before it strikes
+the juicy part. Now, then, in summer the rays of the sun come down
+to us straight through the peeling of air, and less of the heat is
+lost by contact with the air, and that makes it warmer in summer. The
+explanation also accounts for your next question.
+
+
+
+
+Why Is It Cold in Winter?
+
+
+In winter the heat rays of the sun strike at our part of the earth at
+the angle at which you stick the pin into the orange when you wish to
+make it travel through the most peeling. In winter the rays strike
+the earth at such an angle that a great deal of the heat is lost in
+travelling through the air, because they have to come through so much
+more of the air. Of course, the sun’s rays strike some part of the
+earth straight down through the peeling of air at all times, and at the
+equator this occurs all the year round, so it is always summer there,
+while at the North and South Poles the rays always strike the earth at
+the greatest possible angle, and it is always very cold winter there.
+In between, when it is neither hot nor cold, we have spring and fall,
+due to the fact that the rays come down at an angle, but not so great
+an angle.
+
+
+
+
+Why Have We Five Fingers on Each Hand and Five Toes on Each Foot?
+
+
+All animals, it seems, from a study of nature were started with ten
+fingers and ten toes, the fingers originally having been the toes of
+the fore legs. In a good many cases the environment in which animals
+have lived has caused a change in the formation of the ends of the
+limbs as well as in the limbs themselves. The horse, for instance, has
+developed into a one toe or one finger animal, while a cow is a two
+finger animal. The hen has only three toes on each foot and a part of
+another. But if we go back into the history and examine how the horses’
+foot used to look we will find that he originally had five toes. The
+same is true of the cow and also the hen. Something happened to cause
+the change, for the rule of five fingers and five toes on the end of
+each limb has been universal. If you examine a chicken in a shell just
+before it is ready to come out, you can distinctly count five toes on
+each foot and at the ends of the wings you will see five little points,
+which under other conditions would develop into fingers, perhaps.
+Some of these toes of the new-born chicken do not develop. It can be
+accepted as a rule that creatures were intended in the original plan to
+have five fingers on each hand and five toes on each foot, making our
+count of tens, which is the world’s basis for counting, and has always
+been.
+
+
+
+
+Why Do We Have Finger Nails?
+
+
+Finger nails and toe nails are only another phase of the development
+of man from the animal that originally walked on four feet. Animals
+that walk on all fours use the finger and toe coverings which in man
+is the nail, to scratch in the ground, to attack enemies, and to climb
+with, and our nails of the present day are what the development of man
+into a civilized being has changed them to. At that, there are still
+uses for finger nails and toe nails, or man in his changing to a higher
+plane would have found a way to develop away from them. They are useful
+to-day in making our fingers and toes firm at the end, and enable us
+to pick up things more easily. The time may come when man will have
+neither finger nails nor toe nails.
+
+
+
+
+Why Are Our Fingers of Different Lengths?
+
+
+There is no known reason why our fingers should be of different lengths
+to-day; in fact, it is thought by some people that the hand would
+be stronger if the fingers were all of the same length. Certainly,
+however, the hands would not then be so beautiful, and it might not be
+so useful. The human hand to-day is perhaps the most versatile thing
+in the world. You can do more things with the hand than with any other
+thing in the world. The probability is that the shape of the hand
+to-day and the length of the fingers are the result of the different
+things the human being has called upon the hand to do during man’s
+development up to the present time.
+
+We must go back to the time, however, when man walked on fours, for
+that is probably the real explanation. Originally man’s fingers were
+of different lengths because all four-footed animals had the same
+peculiarities. The shape and length of the toes and their arrangement
+were the ideal arrangement for giving the proper balance and support
+to the body, and in moving about and in climbing produced the best toe
+hold.
+
+
+
+
+Why Does It Hurt When I Cut My Finger?
+
+
+It hurts when you cut your finger, or, rather, where you cut it,
+because the place you have cut is exposed to the oxygen in the air, and
+as soon as it is so exposed a chemical action begins to take place,
+just as when you cut an apple and lay it aside you come back and find
+the cut surface all turned brown. If the apple could feel it would
+hurt also, because the chemical action is much the same. The apple has
+a skin which protects its inside from the oxygen in the air, and you
+have also a skin which protects you from the oxygen as long as it is
+unbroken.
+
+What happens, of course, is this: When you cut your finger you sever
+the tiny little veins and nerves which are in your finger. They are
+spread all over your body like a net-work under the skin, close to the
+surface in most places. The nerves when cut send a quick message to the
+brain, with which they are connected, telling that they are damaged,
+and the brain calls on the heart and other functions to get busy and
+repair the damage along the line. There may be some hurt while this
+process of repairing is going on, but the principal part of your hurt,
+outside of what we call your feelings, is due to the fact that the
+inside of you is thus exposed to the chemical action of the air. Then I
+can hear you say next:
+
+
+
+
+Why Don’t My Hair Hurt When It Is Being Cut?
+
+
+It does not hurt to cut anything that has no nerves. There are no
+nerves in the hair which the barber cuts. If he pulls out a hair it
+hurts, because the root of the hair has nerves, which telegraph notice
+of the damage to the brain. When a dentist takes out or kills the nerve
+in your tooth you cannot have any more toothache in that tooth, because
+there is no nerve there to send the message to the brain. You can cut
+your finger nails without feeling pain, because they have no nerves at
+the ends, but underneath, where they join the skin of the finger, there
+are a great many nerves, and it hurts very much to bruise the nails at
+that location.
+
+
+
+
+Of What Use Is My Hair?
+
+
+~WHY WE HAVE HAIR~
+
+Your hair is a relic of the days when the entire body was covered with
+hair, just like some animals to-day, to protect the body from the heat,
+cold and wet. Man has, however, for so long a time worn clothes over
+most of his body that the need of the hair to protect him from these
+elements has all but disappeared, and so also has the hair, excepting
+in such places as the top of the head and face and other exposed
+parts. If you were to go out into the woods without clothes and live
+a long time your body would probably again become covered with hairs.
+The time is coming, however, it is believed, when human beings will
+have no hair at all on their bodies. You have hair on your head, but
+if you were to wear a hat or cap all the time you would soon be bald.
+Hair is of no use to us to-day excepting to adorn our bodies and add
+to our appearance. This it seems to do to-day, probably because we
+are accustomed to seeing it, and will make no difference in our looks
+relatively if the time comes when we have no hair at all.
+
+
+
+
+Why Does My Hair Stand On End When I Am Frightened?
+
+
+It does this under certain conditions, because there is a little
+muscle down at the root of each hair that will make each hair stand
+up straight when this muscle pulls a certain way. It is difficult to
+say just how these muscles are caused to act in this way when we are
+frightened. We know that when thoroughly frightened our hair will
+sometimes stand straight up, and we know that it is this muscle at the
+root of each hair that makes it possible, but why it is that a big
+scare will make this muscle act this way we do not as yet know.
+
+
+
+
+What Makes Some People Bald?
+
+
+The chief cause of baldness is the lack of care of the hair. It is as
+necessary for the roots of the hair to have a free circulation of
+the blood and that the hair itself should have plenty of air as it is
+necessary for the brain to have a good circulation. A great many men
+become bald through wearing their hats most of the time. The hat pulled
+down tight over the head presses against the scalp and interferes with
+the circulation of the blood in the scalp. Then, also, many hats do
+not have any means of ventilation, and that keeps the pure air away
+from the hair. The hair then becomes sick and dies, just as flowers
+wilt if you keep them away from the air. You will notice that women
+do not become bald so easily. One reason is that even when the women
+wear large hats, as they often do, there is plenty of room for the air
+to circulate through the hair, even when the hat is on, and women’s
+hats are not pulled down tightly on the scalp. Therefore, they do not
+press on the arteries and veins in the scalp and interfere with the
+circulation of the blood. Another reason why women do not become bald
+is that the hair of women has long been their “crowning glory”; a man
+likes to see a fine head of hair on a woman, and as women have long
+tried to please men in every possible way, they take better care of
+their hair than men do, because they like to have the men consider it
+beautiful.
+
+
+
+
+What Makes Some Things in the Same Room Colder than Others?
+
+
+The objects in a room which has been kept at a given even temperature
+of heat will be all the same temperature, because heat spreads from one
+thing to another equally.
+
+Still, if you put your hands on various objects in such a room some
+of them will feel colder than others. You touch the tiling of the
+fireplace and that will feel cool to you. On the other hand, the
+upholstered furniture will feel quite warm. The piano keys feel cool,
+while the wood of the piano and case is warm. The difference is due to
+the fact that heat or cold will run through some objects more quickly
+than through others. It will run through the tiling on the hearth
+and the piano keys more quickly than through the upholstering on the
+furniture or the wood of the piano case. When you touch a thing with
+your finger you supply some of the heat of your body to the object
+through your finger. If the object is the tiling on the hearth or
+the keys of the piano the heat runs through it quickly and you get a
+cold impression in your finger. On the other hand, if you touch the
+upholstery on the furniture, through which the heat runs slowly, you
+get a warm feeling for the very same reason. Thus, anything which
+carries the heat away from our contact quickly we call a cold feeling
+object, and if the object touched does not carry the heat away so
+quickly we call it a warm feeling object.
+
+
+
+
+Why Does the Hair Grow After the Body Stops Growing?
+
+
+The hair on our bodies is one of the things that is continually wearing
+or falling away, and since, like the skin, it is necessary to protect
+certain portions of the body, the hair keeps on growing long after the
+grown up period has arrived. The skin is a very necessary protection
+of the whole body, but is constantly being worn away, and is all the
+time being replaced. Your hair falls out when it is not healthy. Unless
+proper care is given to it, it will fall out and not grow in again, and
+then we become bald.
+
+
+
+
+Will People All Be Bald Sometime?
+
+
+There is a theory that before many years have passed human beings
+will lose all of the hairs which now grow on different parts of their
+bodies, due to the fact that we wear so much clothing and keep so much
+of our bodies away from the sunlight. If that time comes we shall have
+a hairless race of men and women.
+
+
+
+
+THE STORY IN A LUMP OF SUGAR
+
+
+[Illustration: PREPARING THE GROUND.--PLOWING AND HARROWING WITH A
+CATERPILLAR ENGINE.
+
+Sugar beets require deep plowing, ten to fourteen inches, or twice the
+usual depth. When using horses, farmers are inclined not to plow deeply
+enough to secure maximum results, and some of the factories have put
+in power plows which turn six furrows and harrow the land at the same
+time. They plow and harrow the land of beet farmers for $2.50 per acre,
+which is about one-half of what it costs the farmers to plow equally
+deep with horses. The traction engines also are used for hauling train
+wagon loads of beets to the factory. In some localities farmers are
+banding together and purchasing engines for plowing and hauling beets.
+The outfit illustrated above costs about $4,500.]
+
+[Illustration: DRILLING THE SEED.
+
+Beets are drilled in rows, usually eighteen inches apart, 18 to 25
+pounds of seed being drilled to each acre. Practically all the beet
+seed used in America is grown in Europe, principally in Germany, but it
+has been demonstrated that superior seed can be produced in the United
+States. Sugar-beet seed growing requires five years of the utmost
+skill, care and patience, from the planting of the original seed to
+the maturing of the commercial crop which is sold to the trade. The
+factories contract for their seed for three to five years in advance,
+sell it to farmers at cost price, and deduct the amount from the
+payment for beets.]
+
+[Illustration: HOW THE BEETS ARE GROWN
+
+BLOCKING AND THINNING.
+
+When the beets are up and show the third leaf they should be “thinned.”
+Unless thinned at the proper time the pulling up of the superfluous
+beetlets injures the roots of the remaining ones. Scientific
+experiments in Germany, where all other conditions were identical,
+showed that one acre thinned at the proper time yielded 15 tons; the
+next acre, thinned a week later, yielded 13¹⁄₂ tons; the third acre,
+thinned still a week later, yielded 10¹⁄₂ tons; and the fourth acre,
+thinned three weeks after the first, yielded 7¹⁄₂ tons.
+
+The men in the foreground are “blocking” the beets, leaving a bunch of
+them every eight inches. Those in the rear are “thinning,” or pulling
+up the superfluous beetlets, leaving one in a place, eight inches
+apart.]
+
+[Illustration: READY FOR THE HARVEST.
+
+This field of beets yielded 20 tons to the acre. Ex-Secretary of
+Agriculture James Wilson is convinced that when American farmers become
+expert in beet culture they will average to produce more than 20 tons
+per acre because of the superiority of our soils. The ideal factory
+beet weighs about two pounds, and a perfect “stand” of such beets, one
+every eight inches, in rows eighteen inches apart, would yield 43¹⁄₃
+tons per acre. The present average yield in the United States is about
+10 tons per acre, while the hitherto “worn-out soils” of Germany yield
+14 tons per acre, or 40% more than is secured from our “virgin soils.”]
+
+[Illustration: HUGE BINS TO HOLD THE BEETS AT FACTORY
+
+TOPPING THE BEETS.
+
+After the beets are plowed out they are topped or cut off by hand and
+the tops are fed to stock, for which purpose they are worth $3.00 per
+acre. They are topped just below the crown and the factories require
+that they be so topped as to remove any portion which grew above the
+ground, as such portion of the beet contains but a small percentage of
+sugar. The beet will grow in length, and, if as a result of shallow
+plowing or coming in contact with a rock it cannot grow downward, it
+will grow upward and out of the ground, thus necessitating a deeper
+topping and consequent loss to the farmer.]
+
+[Illustration: DUMPING CARS AT FACTORY WITH HYDRAULIC JACK.
+
+Beets arriving at the factory by rail from receiving stations either
+are stored in bins until needed or are floated directly to the beet
+washers. If to be used at once, they are dumped, as shown above, and
+slide directly into a cement flume filled with warm water, which has
+been pumped to its upper end, and is flowing in the direction of the
+beet end of the factory. In whatever manner they may be received, they
+first are weighed, and as they are dumped, a basket is held under them
+to catch a fair sample of both beets and the loose dirt, which the
+car or wagon contains. These samples, properly tagged, are conveyed
+to the beet laboratory, where they are washed, and trimmed if not
+properly topped, and the difference in the weight of the sample beets
+as received and their weight when washed is called the “tare.” Whatever
+percentage this amounts to is applied to and deducted from the weight
+of the car or wagon load. A sample of these beets then is tested by the
+polariscope for its sugar content and its purity; farmers often being
+paid a stipulated price per ton for a beet of a given sugar content and
+25 to 33¹⁄₃ cents per ton additional for each extra degree of sugar
+which they contain. The tare rooms and the beet-testing laboratories
+are open to any one, and in some localities the farmers’ associations
+employ experts to tare and analyze each sample of beets.]
+
+[Illustration: MILLIONS OF BUSHELS OF BEETS
+
+FACTORY BEET BINS FILLED TO CAPACITY.
+
+As they arrive by rail from receiving stations, or by team, or traction
+engines from the farm, beets are stored in bins or sheds, the capacity
+of which ranges from 6000 to 35,000 tons per factory, depending upon
+location and general climatic conditions.
+
+The bins are V shaped, about 3 feet wide at the bottom, 20 to 30 feet
+at the top, and they are 20 to 30 feet high. As beets are needed,
+beginning at one end of the bin the loose three-foot planks at the
+bottom are removed one at a time, and with hooks attached to long poles
+the beets are rolled into the flume or cement channel below, in which
+they are floated into the factory. This is not only to save labor,
+but to loosen up the dirt which attaches to the beets, thus partially
+washing them. The water which is used in the flumes is warm water from
+the factory.]
+
+[Illustration: TYPICAL AMERICAN BEET SUGAR FACTORY.
+
+These factories cost from half a million to three million dollars.
+They consume from 500 to 3,000 tons of beets per day, and during the
+“campaign,” which usually lasts about three months, will produce from
+12 to 75 million pounds of granulated sugar. There are 73 of these
+factories, located in 16 States, from Ohio to California. During the
+operating season they give employment to from 400 to 1000 men each.]
+
+[Illustration: WASHING THE SUGAR BEETS
+
+CHEMICAL LABORATORY.
+
+In a beet-sugar factory each set of apparatus for performing a given
+process is termed a “station.” In the chemical laboratory the juices
+and products from each station are tested hourly to check up the
+correctness of the work and to determine the losses of sugar in each
+process in the factory.]
+
+[Illustration: CIRCULAR DIFFUSION BATTERY.
+
+After being floated in from the sheds the beets are elevated from the
+flume to a washer, where they are given an additional washing before
+being sliced. From the washer they are elevated and dropped into an
+automatic scale of a capacity of 700 to 1500 pounds. From the scale
+they pass to the slicers, where with triangular knives they are cut
+into long, slender slices, which look something like “shoestring”
+potatoes. These slices drop through the upright chute seen at the right
+side of the picture, and are packed tightly into cylindrical vessels
+holding from two to six tons each; the battery consisting of eight to
+twelve vessels arranged either in a straight line or in circular form.
+Warm water is run into these slices, and coaxes out the sugar as it
+passes from one vessel to the succeeding ones. After passing through
+the entire series of vessels the water has become rich in sugar, of
+which it contains from 12 to 15 per cent, depending upon the richness
+of the beets. It then is drawn off and is called diffusion juice or
+raw juice. This is carefully measured into tanks and recorded. As this
+juice is drawn off the vessel over which the water started is emptied
+of the slices from the bottom, the exhaust slices containing in the
+neighborhood of ¹⁄₄ to ¹⁄₃ per cent of sugar. These slices are carried
+out from the factory in the form of pulp and fed to stock, as explained
+later.]
+
+[Illustration: HOW THE SUGAR IS TAKEN FROM THE BEET
+
+CARBONATATION AND SULPHUR STATION.
+
+Warm raw juice is drawn into the carbonatation tanks and treated with
+about 10 per cent milk of lime--about like ordinary whitewash. This
+lime throws out impurities, sterilizes the juice and removes coloring
+matter. Carbonic acid gas from the lime kiln is forced through the
+lime juice in the tank, throwing out the excess of lime, converting it
+into a carbonate of lime or chalk. Tests are taken here by the station
+operator to show when the process is finished.]
+
+[Illustration: FILTER PRESSES.
+
+From the carbonatation tanks the juice is pumped or forced through
+filter presses consisting of iron frames so covered with cloth that the
+juice passes through the cloth as a clear liquid, leaving the lime and
+impurities precipitated by it, in the frame, in the form of a cake.
+This cake, after washing, is dropped from the presses and conveyed out
+of the factory. It contains from one to two per cent of its weight
+in sugar, which constitutes one of the large losses of the process.
+It also contains organic matter, phosphate and potash, besides the
+carbonate of lime, which makes it an excellent fertilizer, all of which
+is used in Europe on the farm, but so far to too small an extent in
+America.]
+
+[Illustration: EVAPORATING THE WATER FROM THE SUGAR
+
+EVAPORATORS.
+
+After a second, and sometimes a third carbonatation and filtration, the
+juice is carried to the evaporators, commonly called the “effects,”
+usually four (4) large air-tight vessels furnished with heating tubes
+running from 3000 to 7000 square feet in each vessel. A partial vacuum
+is maintained in these evaporators which makes the juice boil out at a
+low temperature, thus preventing discoloration, and to a large degree
+the destruction of sugar which will come about by high temperature.
+There always is, however, some unavoidable loss of sugar in this
+apparatus. The juice passes along copper pipes from first to last
+vessel, becoming thicker as it does so. It comes into the first vessel
+at 10% to 12% sugar and is pumped out of the last one so thick that it
+contains about 50% of sugar.]
+
+[Illustration: VACUUM PANS.
+
+After a careful filtration, the juice that comes from the evaporators,
+and is called thick juice, is pumped to large tanks high up in the
+building, and from these is drawn into vacuum pans. These are large
+cylindrical vessels from 10 to 15 feet in diameter and from 15 to 25
+feet high, with conical top and bottom, built air-tight. Around the
+inner circumference they are furnished with 4- to 6-inch copper coils,
+which have a heating surface of 800 to 2000 square feet. Exhaust steam
+is used in the evaporators, live steam in the pans, the juice in both
+being boiled in a vacuum to prevent discoloration and reduce losses.
+
+After considerable thickening by this evaporation, minute crystals
+begin to form. When sufficient of these have formed, fresh juice is
+drawn in and the crystals grow, the operator governing the size of
+the crystals to suit the trade. If small crystals be desired, a large
+quantity of juice is admitted at the outset, while if large crystals
+are desired, a small quantity of juice first is admitted, and, as it
+boils to crystals, fresh juice gradually is added to the pan, and the
+crystals are built up to the desired size. The operator of this pan,
+known as the “sugar boiler,” is one of the must important men in the
+factory. The water furnished the condensers of these vacuum pans and
+the evaporator goes to the beet sheds and is used for floating in the
+beets. It amounts to from 3,000,000 to 8,000,000 gallons every 24
+hours, depending upon the size of the factory, and must be very pure.]
+
+[Illustration: HOW SUGAR IS GRANULATED
+
+FRONT VIEW OF CENTRIFUGAL MACHINES.
+
+The mass of crystals with syrup around them and containing about 8 per
+cent to 10 per cent of water is let out of the vacuum pan into a large
+open vessel called a mixer, beneath which are the centrifugal machines.
+These are suspended brass drums perforated with holes and lined with a
+fine screen. They are made to revolve about 1000 times to a minute, and
+the crystal mass of sugar rises up the side like water in a whirling
+bucket. The centrifugals force the syrup out through the screen holes,
+leaving the white crystals of sugar in a thick layer on the inner
+surface. These are washed with a spray of pure warm water and then are
+ready for the dryer.]
+
+[Illustration: SUGAR GRANULATOR OR DRYER.
+
+The damp white crystals from the centrifugal machine are conveyed
+to horizontal revolving drums about 25 feet long by 5 to 6 feet
+in diameter. These drums are furnished with paddles on the inside
+circumference, the paddles picking the sugar up and dropping it in
+showers as the drum revolves. Warm dry air is drawn through and takes
+the moisture out of the sugar, which now is ready to be put in bags or
+barrels for the market.]
+
+[Illustration: BY-PRODUCTS OF THE SUGAR BEET
+
+CRYSTALLIZERS.
+
+The syrup that was thrown off from the crystals in the centrifugal
+machines is taken back to the vacuum pan, evaporated in the same
+manner as previously described, and from the vacuum pan goes into the
+crystallizers to carry the process of crystallization as far as it will
+go. These contain from 1000 to 1600 cubic feet of the crystallized
+mass which remains in them from 36 to 72 hours, during which time it
+is kept in constant motion by a set of slowly revolving paddles, or
+arms, to facilitate further crystallization. From the crystallizers it
+goes to the centrifugal machines, where the syrup is separated from the
+crystals as before. The crystals are remelted and go in with the thick
+juice for white sugar. The syrup, still containing a large amount of
+sugar, goes out to be sold as cattle feed or to an Osmose or Steffens
+process, where a portion of the remaining sugar may be recovered. This
+lost syrup constitutes the largest loss in the entire process. It
+contains all the impurities of the beet juice not removed by the lime.
+These impurities prevent more than one and one-half times their weight
+of sugar from crystalizing, and make what is called molasses.]
+
+[Illustration: A SEA OF BEET PULP.
+
+For a century the high feeding value of sugar-beet pulp has been
+recognized in Europe, but until a few years ago millions of tons of
+this valuable by-product rotted about American beet-sugar factories, as
+shown above, because American farmers could not be made to believe it
+possessed sufficient value to pay for hauling it back to the farm.]
+
+[Illustration: MACHINE THAT FILLS, WEIGHS AND SEWS THE BAGS OF SUGAR
+
+SACKING ROOM.--SHOWING AUTOMATIC SCALES AND SEWING MACHINE.
+
+After the moisture has been thoroughly removed in the granulators
+or dryers, the sugar drops directly to the sacking room through
+a chute, at the lower end of which the top of the double bag is
+attached. The sugar flows directly into the sack, the flow being cut
+off automatically with each 100 pounds, when an endless belt conveyor
+passes the upright sack past the sewing machine at the proper speed and
+the product is sealed ready for storage or shipment.
+
+While it requires from 400 to 1000 men to man a factory, not a human
+hand has touched either beets or product since the beets were topped in
+the field, and at no stage of the operation could flies or vermin or
+filth come in contact with the product, which from the beginning has
+been subjected to continuous high temperatures.]
+
+  Pictures herewith by courtesy of United States Beet Sugar Industry.
+
+
+
+
+How Can We Smell Things?
+
+
+You do not need to be told what organ of the body we use in exercising
+the sense of smell. You can prove that easily to yourself by getting
+the nose within range of a distasteful smell.
+
+We do not use all of the nose to smell with, and the nose is useful to
+us in other ways besides this. We use the nose a great deal in the act
+of respiration or breathing, and it is also useful in helping us to
+make sounds, form words, and, though you may not have known it, helps
+our sense of taste.
+
+We smell things by means of the olfactory nerves which are located
+within the nose. The entire interior surface of the nose is covered
+with a membrane. The ends of olfactory nerves, or the nerves which give
+us the sensation of smell, are in this membrane, and the air, which is
+filled with the odor of things we smell, passes over this membrane, and
+thus the ends of the nerves feel the odor and cause sensation of smell
+in the brain. The nerves of smell do not, however, go all through this
+membrane.
+
+There are other nerves in the nose, however, besides those which give
+us the sensation of smell. These are also very sensitive and serve to
+make the nose exercise other functions when the inside of the nose is
+hurt or tickled. When a foreign substance, one of the many smaller
+particles which are constantly floating in the air, gets into the
+membrane in the nose, it irritates these nerves and often causes us
+to sneeze, which is only nature’s effort to drive out this foreign
+substance and clean out the nose. Smell is one of the lesser of the
+five senses which we possess. It is one of what has been called the
+chemical senses. The sense of smell does not act at any great distance.
+This sense could be made of more value to us if we developed it. Some
+people have a more highly developed sense of smell than others. The
+lower animals have a much keener sense of smell than people. A great
+many of them can follow a trail for miles merely by the smell of the
+foot-prints, and it is said that a deer will note the presence of man
+or any other animal that may subject him to danger even when miles
+away, the odor being carried to him through the air.
+
+
+
+
+How Do We Taste Things?
+
+
+The sense of taste is closely associated with the sense of smell. In
+fact we do a good deal of what we think is tasting by using our sense
+of smell. A cold in the nose will sometimes destroy almost altogether
+the taste of food, so that there is a very close connection between the
+sense of taste and the sense of smell.
+
+The sense of taste comes to us through the tongue, which is the
+principal organ of taste. The remainder of our sense of taste lies in
+the surface of the palate and in the throat. As in the case of the
+other senses, the sensation of taste is given us through nerves, the
+ends of which are all through those parts of the tongue, the palate
+and the throat, which contribute to this sense. More nerves of taste
+are located in the back part of the tongue than on the front, and it
+is said that when you have to swallow a bad dose of medicine it won’t
+taste so much if you put it on the front part of your tongue and then
+swallow, because there are so few tasting nerves there. The extreme tip
+of the tongue, however, is very thickly covered with the ends of the
+taste nerves. In like manner one could have the front end of the tongue
+cut off and still retain most of the sense of taste.
+
+Now, in order to produce the sensation of taste, the substance to be
+tasted must come in contact with something which mixes with it and
+causes the sensation of taste. This is what happens when we taste
+anything. The juices or liquids which are caused to flow when anything
+is put into the mouth act on the substances which enter and give the
+taste nerves a chance to taste them. Really the nerves of taste are so
+placed in the mouth as to be regular guards or inspectors of what shall
+go into the stomach. You can see how well they are arranged. In the tip
+of the tongue quite a few of them; in the back part of the tongue a
+great many nerves, for from there the food goes into the throat, which
+delivers it to the stomach; then those in the palate and in the throat.
+They are arranged so that the taste nerves have ample opportunity to
+test what comes in and to give warning to the brain of what is being
+sent to the stomach. Sometimes the things that come into the mouth
+are so distasteful to the nerves of taste that they refuse to hand it
+over to the stomach, but instead cause the distasteful substance to be
+thrown out again immediately.
+
+It is said that a good rule to follow in eating would be to swallow
+only such things as are pleasing to the sense of taste. On this
+principle many children would decide to eat nothing but candy, but do
+you know, if you tried that, the continuous tasting of sweets by our
+sense of taste nerves would cause them to repel further insertion of
+candy after a while. You know that too much of a good thing is bad for
+you, and that is what makes you feel badly when you have eaten too much
+of one thing.
+
+
+
+
+What Happens When We See?
+
+
+~HOW WE SEE THINGS~
+
+Of course, it is the eyes with which we see things. When we think of
+the things with which we see, we think only of eyes, which give us our
+sense of vision, but there are certain forms of animal life which have
+no eyes but which have what are called eye spots or eye points, which
+are sensitive to light and which are merely spots. These eye spots
+may be located in any part of the body, and are often found in great
+numbers on the same body. These rude eyes are, however, not real eyes.
+They are, as has already been said, sensitive to light, but are found
+only in some of the very low forms of animal life which live in the
+water. A real eye is an organ in which the parts are so arranged that
+optical images may be formed.
+
+As animal life becomes developed to a higher scale, the parts which
+contain the making of real eyes become more distinct although, of
+course, the eyes themselves are not so highly developed as in man. One
+of the first kinds of life which has eyes with a definite structural
+character are the worms, snails, etc., though their sense of vision is
+more or less dim.
+
+When we come to the family of mollusks, however, low down in the scale
+of life though they are, we find them to possess eyes which enable them
+to see almost as well as animals which have a backbone, although this
+kind of eyes is constructed in a very different manner than the eyes
+of vertebrate animals referred to. As we ascend the scale of animal
+life in the study of eyes, we come next to the crustaceous, which is an
+important division of animal life that embraces the crabs and lobsters,
+shrimps, crawfish, and insects such as sand-hoppers, beach-fleas,
+wood-lice, fish-lice, barnacles. The eyes of such animals are quite
+developed, but the number that each will have varies. Some have only a
+single eye and others two, four, six or eight, but only certain kinds
+of this class of life have more than two eyes. The spiders generally
+have the most.
+
+In vertebrates, which is the class of animal life to which we belong,
+the number of eyes is almost always two and no more. The eyes are
+formed in special sockets in the skull, which are called eye sockets
+or orbits. This arrangement of placing them in a socket is of great
+advantage because the eye is thus protected from chance of injury
+except from one direction--the front. These animals have also eyelids,
+eyebrows and eyelashes, which serve as a further protection to the eyes.
+
+The principal parts of the eye are arranged in a globe-like ball called
+the eyeball. This eyeball is movable in the socket under control of
+various muscles. The eyeball is almost surrounded by a membrane which
+is opaque in most parts, but very transparent at the front. This
+transparent portion of the surrounding membrane is called the cornea,
+and is quite hard. This is the outside coat of the eye. The second
+coat of membrane consists of parts of various names and contains the
+iris. The third coat is the retina, which is the end of the optic nerve
+entering the eye full from behind and expanded into a membrane which
+spreads out over the second coat.
+
+The retina or optic nerve receives optical impressions focused upon it
+by the crystalline lens. These impressions are carried along the optic
+nerve to the brain, and the brain then receives the sensation of seeing
+the image. The eyeball is hollow, and its three surrounding coats
+form what is practically the same as the interior of a camera. The
+crystalline lens of the eye acts the same as the lens in the camera.
+This crystalline lens is suspended within the eyeball right in front of
+the transparent opening in the front of the eyeball, and when the rays
+of light strike this lens it focuses them on the retina, which is the
+same as the film in your camera.
+
+
+
+
+Why Can We Hear?
+
+
+We can hear because nature has provided us with a very wonderful organ
+called the ear and which catches the sound waves that come through the
+air into the ear and make a part of the ear vibrate.
+
+In man and mammals the ear is generally found on the outside of the
+body, but the principal part of the ear is located within the skull.
+What we call ears are only the funnel-shaped extensions on the outside
+of the head which are not so very important so far as hearing is
+concerned, because they only help the real ear to hear more easily. The
+outside of the ear gathers in the sound waves and, because it is much
+larger than the little hole which takes the sounds in to the real ear,
+we can detect more sounds by having this funnel-shaped arrangement on
+the outside.
+
+The inside of the ear contains an eardrum or tympanum which is
+separated from the outside part of the ear by a membrane. Behind this
+eardrum is the real hearing part of the ear in a labyrinth containing
+the nerves of hearing.
+
+Now, when a sound wave strikes the membrane which hangs over the
+opening before the eardrum, the membrane vibrates and transmits the
+sound wave through the eardrum into the inner ear which contains the
+ends of the nerves by which we hear. These nerves, on receiving the
+sensation, transmit it to the brain which thus records the impression
+of sounds.
+
+As we descend the scale of animal life from the mammals downward, the
+ear becomes a more and more simple organ. In the vertebrates which
+are not mammals, there is no external ear at all, and we find great
+simplifications of the ear the lower down in the scale we go.
+
+
+
+
+What Is a Totem Pole For?
+
+
+Before people had individual names, the savage people who lived in
+clans or tribes referred to themselves in the name of some natural
+object, usually an animal which they assumed as the name or emblem
+of the clan or tribe. These names never applied to one individual
+more than another, but only to the clan or tribe, so that everyone
+in a tribe which had taken the “wolf” for its emblem was known as
+“Wolf.” Later on they began to distinguish individuals by giving them
+additional names characteristic of the individual, such as “Lonely
+Wolf,” “Growling Wolf,” or other names. The name of this animal was
+then the emblem of one tribe. They, therefore, placed this emblem upon
+their bodies, their clothes, utensils, etc. Through this, these emblems
+also became at times idols of worship and so they erected poles upon
+which their emblems were engraved. The word totem is a North American
+Indian word meaning “family token.” The tribes called themselves after
+animals from which they believed themselves descended.
+
+
+
+
+Where Does a Flower Get Its Perfume?
+
+
+The perfume or smell of the flower comes from within the plant itself.
+The perfume arises from an oil which the plant makes, and just as there
+are many kinds of flowers, so almost every flower has a different
+smell. Of course, flowers belonging to the same family or species are
+likely to develop different smells. The oils produced are what are
+known as the volatile oils, which means “flying oils,” because, if
+extracted from the flower and placed in a bottle and the cork left out,
+they will vanish into the air. Without this quality we could not, of
+course, smell them at all.
+
+
+
+
+Why Do Flowers Have Perfumes?
+
+
+Man uses these oils to provide himself with perfumes, but the plant or
+flower has another purpose than this. The perfume is not made for man’s
+use, but for the use of the plant itself. In the plant and flower world
+the smell of the plant which is in the flower is a part of the scheme
+whereby plants reproduce themselves.
+
+Every plant in order to reproduce itself must produce a seed. The
+flowers are in most cases the advance agent of the coming seed. Each
+flower produces within itself a little powder called the pollen, but as
+plants are like people--also male and female--they are dependent upon
+each other for the production of a perfect seed. Some of the pollen
+from the male plant must be mixed with the pollen of the female plant
+before a perfect seed results.
+
+
+
+
+How Do Flowers Produce Seeds?
+
+
+Naturally, the nearest male plant to a female plant may be quite some
+distance off. How, then, is the pollen from the male plant to mix with
+the pollen of the female plant? In some cases it is the wind which
+blows the pollen powder from one to the other, and this thus leaves the
+development of a perfect seed from a perfect flower open to chance. In
+the case of perfumed flowers, however, which are mostly low-growing
+plants, the wind cannot be depended upon. So nature gives to such
+plants the power to make the perfumed oil and the busy bee does the
+rest. The perfume being a flying oil rises up into the air and attracts
+the bee. He is gathering honey and visits in turn all the flowers to
+which he is attracted. He lights on a male flower and gathers in his
+honey, and incidentally acquires on his legs, without intending to do
+so, some of the pollen of the male flower. Then he flies about to the
+next flower, and to others, and sooner or later he will come across a
+female flower of the same kind as that from which he secured the pollen
+on his legs. When he thus enters the female flower, the pollen on his
+legs mixes with the pollen of the same kind of the female flower, and
+quite unintentionally the bee helps thus to make the perfect seed. It
+is not a part of a bee’s business to do this carrying. It only happens
+that he does this in connection with his regular business of gathering
+honey. It is a wonderful thing which may be noted here that the pollen
+from a male of any flower will not mix with the pollen of the female of
+any other kind of flower, but that the same kinds only have attractions
+for each other. Flowers are given these attractive perfumes in order
+that they may attract the bees and other insects in this way. The
+plants or flowers which grow closest to the ground have generally the
+strongest and most far-reaching smells. This is so that they will not
+be overlooked.
+
+
+
+
+Why Are Leaves Not All the Same Shape?
+
+
+Leaves are of different shapes because they belong to different
+families of plants or trees. They are a good deal like people in this
+respect. Hardly two people in the world look exactly alike, but there
+is a distinct family resemblance in members of the same family. It is
+difficult to say just what happens inside the tree to determine the
+shape of the leaf and that causes them to possess different shapes
+from others. The shape of the leaf is a mark of identification of the
+family to which the tree or plant belongs, just as you can tell from a
+dog’s ears and from other characteristics what his breeding has been.
+In the case of plants and trees however it is quite probable that the
+shape and texture of the leaves has been developed as the result of
+the conditions under which the plant grows. A plant or tree throws
+off oxygen and takes in carbonic acid gas through the surface of the
+leaves. To thrive and be healthy it must secure just the proper amount
+of this food and as the quantity of food taken in depends upon the
+amount of surface exposed through the leaves, each particular tree or
+plant has developed in its own direction in this respect until this
+feature of their structures has been adjusted properly to their needs.
+It is a good deal like the radiation of heat in your home.
+
+
+
+
+Why Are Some Radiators Longer Than Others?
+
+
+When the plumber gets ready to put in the radiators in the home he
+figures the cubic measurements of the room and then puts in a radiator,
+the outside surface of whose pipes, is in the right proportion to throw
+off sufficient heat to fill the room or heat all the air in the room.
+It requires a certain number of square inches of radiator surface to
+heat each cubic foot of air space and a good plumber can figure this
+to a nicety. If he puts in a radiator however that has not sufficient
+number of square inches on the outside of the pipes, the room will
+not be heated properly. In the same way, the trees, require that
+their leaves have a certain amount of square inches of surface space
+in proportion to the size of the tree, to enable them to do what is
+required of them and this is arranged by nature so that the trees grow
+naturally, and no doubt the shape of the leaves has something to do
+with this.
+
+
+
+
+What Makes Roses Red?
+
+
+All roses are not red. Some are white and others pink or of still
+another color. The color of the rose, and in fact the color of all
+flowers is due to the way they absorb and reflect the sunlight. In the
+case of the red rose, the something in the plant that determines the
+color, absorbs all the other colors in the sunlight and reflects the
+pure red rays and that makes the color of the red rose. You cannot see
+the color of any flower when it is perfectly dark. That is because they
+have no color of their own, but only the colors which they reflect when
+in the sunlight or some other light. The question of colors is more
+fully explained in another part of the book.
+
+
+
+
+Why Do Plants and Trees Grow Up Instead of Down?
+
+
+As a matter of fact plants and trees do grow downward as well as up.
+There is a part of each called the root whose business it is to grow
+down and take certain things necessary to the life of the tree out of
+the ground. But the part we see above the ground and which is the part
+we generally think of only when we think of plants or trees.
+
+The tree or plant, in order to grow properly, and eventually produce
+flowers and perfect seeds, must have sunshine and carbonic acid gas,
+and it is the business of the leaves and other parts above the ground
+to get these out of the air for the good of the plant or tree. So they
+start to grow toward the sun. It is easy to prove how a plant will turn
+toward the light. Take notice of the plants in the flower pots at home.
+Set one of them on the window sill inside the window where the sun can
+shine on it and notice how quickly the leaves and branches will be bent
+over against the window pane. Turn it completely around then so that
+the plant leans away from the sunlight and watch it for a day or two.
+Before long you will find that it has not only straightened itself
+completely out but started to lean toward the window glass again so
+as to get as near the sun as possible. Most plants, if kept where the
+sunlight cannot touch them, will die. The sunlight is a necessary part
+of their lives.
+
+
+
+
+What Becomes of the Plants and Flowers in Winter?
+
+
+A great many, in fact the large percentage of plants, live only during
+one season. This kind of plant actually dies completely after, in the
+natural course of growth and flowering, it has produced its seed which
+is the method by which such plants are reproduced. Other plants only
+appear to die in the winter. Parts of them, such as the leaves and
+flowers actually die, but the roots and stalks of such plants do not
+die in winter. The part that represents the life in them goes to sleep
+and lies dormant until the light and warmth of summer bring forth the
+leaves and flowers again.
+
+The flowers, however, always die and the same flowers never appear
+again but others just like them appear in their places.
+
+Even in hot countries where there is no winter, the plants must go
+through a period of rest or sleep, although this change is not so
+marked in plants which grow in these hot countries.
+
+
+
+
+How Can Some Plants Climb a Smooth Wall?
+
+
+To get at the answer to this question, we should pick out one kind
+of plant like the creeping ivy vine. If we examine same as it climbs
+a brick wall, we find that it sends out little shoots which attach
+themselves around the little rough places in the bricks of the wall
+which, if examined under a microscope are quite large apparently--at
+least they are large enough for the tiny creepers of the ivy to hold on
+to. Of course, if there were only one little “shoot” to reach out and
+take hold of the rough spots in the wall, the vine could not cling to
+the wall, but the vine puts out a great many of these shoots--which it
+would perhaps be best to call “clingers” and as each helps a little to
+hold on, the great number all holding on together enable a quite heavy
+vine to hang on to an apparently smooth wall.
+
+Some vines have actually the ability to send out little suckers which
+are made on the same principle as the boys’ sucker (a circular piece of
+leather with string attached to the middle with which a boy can pick up
+stones) and such plants can cling to and climb up an almost perfectly
+smooth wall.
+
+
+
+
+What Are the Thorns on Roses and Other Plants Good For?
+
+
+The thorns of roses and other plants which have thorns originally grew
+for the purpose of enabling the plants to fasten themselves on to
+other things thus helping them to climb. Many plants with thorns are
+permitted to grow now in places where they can use their thorns for
+climbing but many others with thorns are cut down by the gardener to
+make the plants shapely and to make them produce more flowers and less
+branches, but they keep on growing their thorns just the same.
+
+
+
+
+Do Plants Breathe?
+
+
+Yes, indeed, plants do breathe. To breathe is just as important to the
+life of a plant as it is to a boy or girl. Plants do not have lungs
+like boys and girls and grown up people, but they find it necessary to
+breathe. You know, of course, that fishes breathe, but they haven’t any
+lungs either, even though they belong to the animal kingdom. Fishes
+do not, however, breathe the air in the same form as we do because
+they must use the air which they find in the water. That is why we say
+fishes drown when on the land. They cannot breathe air in the form in
+which we are able to use it any more than people can breathe the air in
+the water.
+
+Breathing, however, is necessary to all living things and the gas which
+we take in when breathing is oxygen. There is oxygen in the water as
+well as in the air. Things which live in the air take their oxygen out
+of the air and things which live in the water get their oxygen out of
+the water. For this purpose it is necessary for plants and animals that
+live under the water to have a breathing apparatus especially adapted
+for getting oxygen out of the water.
+
+
+
+
+What Happens When Breathing Occurs?
+
+
+The act of breathing consists really of two actions. Taking something
+into the body and expelling something. Every living thing inhales and
+expels in breathing. We take in oxygen and expel it again but when it
+comes out it has added something to it and the combination or result is
+carbonic acid gas--so we take in oxygen and expel carbonic acid gas.
+
+
+
+
+How Do Plants Breathe?
+
+
+The lungs of a plant, or what the plant breathes with corresponding to
+our lungs, are located in the leaves of the plant. Under a magnifying
+glass we can see the lungs of the leaf quite clearly. In addition to
+this we know that plants breathe, because if we put them in a vacuum
+where there is no air they die very quickly. The plant needs air or
+it will suffocate just as any animal will suffocate under similar
+conditions. Plants, however, do not make use of the oxygen as they
+find it in the air. They live on the carbon which they find in the
+air mixed with oxygen. What happens then is this. The plants take in
+through their lungs in the leaves carbonic acid gas from which they
+take the carbon and use it as food, and throw off the oxygen which
+they cannot use. Human beings and other animals take the oxygen into
+their lungs and use it and expel carbonic acid gas. The result is that
+each kind of life is dependent upon the other. If it were not for the
+plant life, men and other animals would find it difficult perhaps to
+find sufficient oxygen in the air to keep them alive, and if it were
+not for the carbonic acid gas which the animals throw off, plants and
+other vegetable life would have great difficulty in finding sufficient
+carbonic acid gas to go around.
+
+
+
+
+Why Do Plants Need Sunlight?
+
+
+Most plants, if placed where no light from the sun can reach them, will
+die very quickly. To prove that a plant needs the sunlight we have
+only to place it in a dark corner of the cellar and notice how soon it
+dies. In fact if it were not for sunlight there would be no life on
+earth at all. The plant or tree drinks in sunlight through the surface
+of the leaves. In fact the ability to take in sunlight constitutes the
+real life of the tree or plant. Leaves grow thin and flat in order
+that as much surface as possible may be exposed to the sunlight. If
+a leaf were curled up like a hoop only a part of the outside surface
+would be exposed to the sunlight and the amount of life that a leaf
+could supply to the rest of the tree would be much less. The leaf is so
+constructed that when the sunlight strikes down upon its green surface,
+it changes the carbonic acid gas which it drinks in, into its elements,
+i.e., it takes out the carbon which goes into the body of the plant and
+combining with other food and water supplied by the roots causes the
+plant or tree to grow and then returns the oxygen part of the carbonic
+acid gas to the air.
+
+
+
+
+Why Does Milk Turn Sour?
+
+
+The milk turns sour because a little microbe, known as the milk microbe
+gets into it, and being very fond of the sugar which is in the milk,
+turns this sugar into an acid.
+
+If we could keep milk entirely away from the air after the cow is
+milked, it would not turn sour, but as soon as it is exposed to the air
+these microbes which are constantly in the air, drop into the milk.
+They are alive, although invisible to the naked eye. If when they drop
+into the milk it is warm enough for them to get in their work so to
+speak, they fall upon the sugar in the milk and turn it into the acid.
+Their attempt to sour the milk can be overcome by keeping the milk at a
+low temperature in the refrigerator, but as soon as the milk is taken
+out of the refrigerator and left out long enough to become warm, the
+microbe begins to work and the milk cannot be made sweet again. If the
+milk is boiled as soon or shortly after the cow is milked, the sugar in
+the milk is changed in such a way that the microbe cannot feed upon it.
+
+[Illustration: A PERSIAN RUG WEAVER AT WORK.[3]]
+
+  [3] Pictures and descriptions by courtesy of Hartford Carpet Co.
+
+
+
+
+The Story in a Rug
+
+
+What Are Carpets and Rugs Made Of?
+
+The choicest wool of the world is used in the manufacture of carpet.
+In order to give satisfactory service carpet must be made of wool that
+is of a tough quality and has a long fiber. Such wool is not produced
+in America, and the markets of the distant lands that supply it are
+practically exhausted to supply the American manufacturers. Most of the
+wool used comes from Northern Russia, Siberia and China. It is shipped
+in bales. When it arrives at the mill there is much to be done before
+the wool is ready for any process of manufacturing.
+
+
+How Long Have People Used Carpets?
+
+The art of weaving stands foremost among the ancient industries. It
+came into being in the sunrise lands of the East where color has
+endless charm and variety and where figure is made to serve the purpose
+of fact and fancy. The art of weaving rugs is older than Egyptian
+civilization. Stone carvings made when Egypt was yet unborn were
+reproduced in rugs.
+
+At what period the loom was first used is impossible to tell. An
+ancient Jewish legend claims that Naamah, daughter of Tubal-Cain, was
+the inventor of the process of weaving threads into cloth. There are
+other indications that the ancient Hebrews were the first weavers.
+Mythology also tells of beautiful maidens weaving exquisite patterns
+for the gods. Most of us are familiar with the story of Jason who set
+sail on the Argo in search of the Golden Fleece, arrived at the kingdom
+of Aeetes, won the hand of Medea, the daughter of Aeetes, who eloped
+with him after he had secured the coveted fleece.
+
+The first hands busy at the weaving craft undoubtedly were those of
+women. Chaldean gossip, repeated in history relates that Sardanphulees,
+an ancient Greek king, was often seen in woman’s garb carding purple
+wool from which his wives wrought rugs for floor coverings for the
+palace. Homer shows Helen of Troy setting the tale of her people’s
+war in the woof of her web, and also tells with Virgil of rugs that
+were laid under the thrones of kings or upon chariot horses. Ancient
+Hindu hymns show that these people made their textile fabrics studies
+of great beauty. The woman in the Proverbs of Solomon says: “I have
+woven my bed with cords; I have covered it with painted tapestry from
+Egypt.” One learns from the writings of Pliny of the large money value
+of rugs in ancient times. He wrote at length of a vast rug displayed at
+a banquet of Ptolemy Philadelphius, the value of which was placed at a
+fabulous sum.
+
+A later writer tells of the love of Cleopatra for rich rugs and
+tapestries that were woven in her palace or in the countries to the
+East. On the occasions of her meeting with Cæsar and Antony, the
+Egyptian queen enveloped herself in a superb rug which she had woven
+especially for the purpose of showing her renowned beauty to the best
+advantage. Akhar, emperor of Hindostan, spread a knowledge of the art
+of weaving throughout India.
+
+The earlier phases of the art of weaving may be traced through the
+land of the Pharaohs to Northern Africa, Southwestern Asia, and
+finally into the dawn of the Aryan civilization. The loom has not been
+materially changed, and it may be seen to-day as it was in the time
+when the priests of Heliopolis decorated the shrines of their gods with
+magnificent carpets and when Delilah wove the hair of Samson with her
+web and fastened it with a wooden pin. The ancient weavers attained
+high artistic standards in their fabrics. Pliny tells of Babylonian
+couch covers that had all the beauty of paintings and sold for great
+fortunes to the ancient Asiatic kings.
+
+In all ages fine rugs have been used for religious purposes. Early
+writings describe the use of rugs on the holy cars of pilgrimage to
+Mecca, at the tomb of the prophet at Medinah and throughout the mosques
+of the Orient. The abbot Egelric gave to the church at Croyland, before
+the year 892, two large rugs to be laid before the high altar on great
+festivals. At later periods rugs were used for similar purposes in the
+cathedrals of Southern Europe.
+
+The Oriental people ever have been devoted to symbols and naturally
+wove them into their fabrics. Their textiles were made to reproduce
+mythological stories in which the fauna and flora of a country figured
+prominently. There was the symbolism of form, color and animal life,
+of trees and flowers, of faith, and earthly and heavenly existence.
+The symbols were made to illustrate the conflict between light and
+darkness, the evolution of life, the decay of death and the immortality
+that awaits the blessed in paradise.
+
+
+What Do the Designs in Rugs Mean?
+
+Since many of the figures of ancient rug-weaving are retained in modern
+rug designs, the following list of meanings of ancient Oriental symbols
+used in rug-weaving may be interesting as a key to the stories that are
+said to appear in many rugs of Oriental design:
+
+  Asp--intelligence
+  Bat--duration
+  Bee--immortality
+  Beetle--earthly life
+  Blossom--life
+  Boat--serene spirit
+  Butterfly--soil
+  Crescent--celestial virgin
+  Crocodile--deity
+  Dove--love
+  Eagle--creation
+  Egg--life
+  Feather--truth
+  Goose--child
+  Lizard--wisdom
+  Palm tree--immortality
+  Sail of vessel--breath
+  Wheel--deity
+  Lion--power
+  Ass--humility
+  Butterfly--beneficence of summer
+  Jug--knowledge
+  Ox--patience
+  Hawk--power
+  Lotus--the sun
+  Pine-cone--fire
+  Zigzag--water
+  Leopard--fame
+  Sword--force
+  Serpent--desire
+  Bird--spirit
+  Owl--wisdom
+  Pig--kindness
+
+Such are the traditions that the makers of modern rugs must live up to.
+The art of the centuries has been revealed in the rugs of many nations,
+and the rug-maker of to-day must uphold the standards of an art that
+undoubtedly takes rank with the great arts. Where a valuable painting
+goes into the home of one millionaire, thousands of rugs made from
+an original design of unquestioned art and beauty go into homes the
+country over to give warmth, comfort and beauty, delighting housewives
+and imparting a sense of coziness and elegance.
+
+According to students of the art of weaving, the perfection of this
+art was attained about the sixteenth century, after many centuries of
+slow growth. Since then weaving as an art has been broadened and given
+a wider scope by means of processes invented for a cheaper production
+of rugs in all the beauty of their original designs. But there also has
+developed a modern school of rug and carpet designing that in itself
+represents no mean standard of art. Many of the less expensive grades
+of American rugs and carpets, for example, are of designs created by
+artists of this modern school of weaving designs whose work is of a
+high degree of artistic excellence.
+
+[Illustration: HOW OUR GRANDMOTHERS MADE RAG CARPETS
+
+MAKING THE OLD RAG CARPET.]
+
+A quarter of a century ago many homes had rugs woven by the housewives
+with their spinning-wheels, or no floor coverings, except crude
+cloths made of rags. These homes, of course, were those of families
+in moderate circumstances, which to-day can have their attractive and
+comfort-giving rugs of the less expensive grades of tapestry carpet,
+Axminster or of the various other grades of carpet manufactured at a
+range of prices within the financial reach of people of modest means.
+
+It is only a step from the ancient weaving of rugs, with all the color,
+glamor and romance that attached to rug-weaving in the ancient days, to
+the manufacture of rugs in America to-day. There is no romance attached
+to the making of rugs and carpets in America, except the romance of
+industrial achievement; but the American rug-maker is as careful of the
+quality and beauty of his product as was the ancient weaver, and the
+best standards of ancient weaving have been realized in the manufacture
+of rugs and carpets in America to-day.
+
+
+Why Did the Ancients Make Rugs?
+
+It is only a rug, several yards of woven threads, a design that few
+can understand--a simple thing, to be sure; yet what a lot of history
+and memories and traditions it carries! Merely a strip of carpet, with
+strange figures, beautiful though meaningless, a product of modern
+invention like many another, some may think. But the story of a rug may
+go back through many centuries to ancient times of opulent splendor,
+when wars were waged and kingdoms created and shattered for the beauty
+of a woman; when gorgeous palaces were raised and great spectacles of
+art were shown to inspire the world for thousands of years.
+
+Only a rug, but a relic of a rich and glowing past! For in those
+distant days of war and pageantry, an era more classic than our own,
+history and romance were woven into the rug. The patterns and designs
+told great stories of wars and loves that swept nations away and
+created great new empires and related vivid accounts of intrigue and
+tragedy that determined history and inspired the immortal works of
+poets and dramatists. The rug in the ancient times was also used for
+religious symbolism, and sacred doctrines were inscribed in the woven
+figures.
+
+Of all the arts none has been as close to the lives and history of the
+peoples of the earth as the art of weaving. Songs and stories of these
+peoples and their national achievements have been immortalized through
+their woven fabrics. Generations have learned of the great deeds of
+their forefathers through the historical accounts woven into rugs. And
+in the days of the early Greeks, Hebrews and Egyptians and on through
+the succeeding centuries until the middle ages the rug was used as a
+symbolical part of state, religious and romantic ceremonies.
+
+
+What Makes Some Rugs so Valuable?
+
+The reason many rugs are valued at so high a price in money is largely
+due to the skill of the artist or designer, just as a painting becomes
+valuable because the artist who painted it has succeeded in producing a
+remarkable result. The question of rarity also enters largely into the
+value of rugs. The great artist weavers of the past who worked for love
+of their art rather than for the money they might secure by disposing
+of their masterpieces, are dead, and they have had no successors.
+Then, also, the rug becomes valuable by reason of the amount of time
+and labor put into it. Many valuable rugs take years to produce,
+because the artist must do all his work by hand practically and tie his
+different colored yarns together just so, or the pattern will not come
+right. These knots may occur every inch or sometimes even less than an
+inch, and there will be thousands of hand knots in one rug.
+
+[Illustration: MAKING TURKISH RUGS.]
+
+[Illustration: THE OLDER THEY ARE THE MORE HIGHLY PRIZED
+
+The above is a typical Chinese rug, containing symbolical emblems.
+
+This is an antique and is of a class that sells sometimes as high as
+$5,000, its rarity of design, beauty in colors, and scarcity enhances
+its value.]
+
+[Illustration: This is an American machine-made interpretation of a
+Chinese rug. The ground is a rich gold coloring, the figures being in
+ecru, dark blue, terra cotta and light blue. It is a beautiful rug, and
+one of the finest examples of loom-tufted goods ever produced.]
+
+[Illustration: WHERE THE BEST PERSIAN RUGS ARE MADE
+
+This antique Persian was made in the district of Kurdistan, in Western
+Persia. The general effect is handsome, although the design is crude.
+The ground is of a deep rich red, and top colors of dark blue and ecru.
+
+The most valuable Persian rugs come from Kurdistan, Khurasan, Peraghan
+and Karman. The most highly prized come from Kurdistan. The pattern
+does not show a uniform ground of flowers or other objects, but
+looks more like a field of wild flowers in the spring, which is very
+appropriate as a design for anything that is to be walked upon. It
+is astonishing what wonderful artistic ability is displayed by some
+of the members of these wild nomadic Persian people. The carpets and
+rugs are woven on a simple frame on which the warp is stretched. The
+woof, or cross threads, consist of short threads woven into the warp
+with the fingers and without the use of a shuttle. Then a sort of comb
+is pressed against the loose row of cross threads to tighten it. The
+weaver sits with the back of the rug towards him, so that he depends
+entirely on his memory to produce a perfect pattern.]
+
+[Illustration: This rug is an American copy of a typical Kurdistan. It
+is marvellous how well the effect in colors and design are reproduced
+in this domestic rug.]
+
+[Illustration: HOW WE IMITATE POPULAR DESIGNS BY MACHINERY
+
+This Tabriz reproduction has all the characteristics of the genuine rug
+in both design and color. The ground is of a soft rose with figures
+olives, ivory and deep blue.]
+
+[Illustration: This is a copy of an old piece of a rug in the
+Kensington Museum, London, which is 500 to 600 years old. The design is
+very interesting on account of the symbolical figures which cover the
+ground.]
+
+[Illustration: WOOL-PICKING MACHINE.]
+
+
+
+
+The Making of Carpets
+
+
+How Are Modern Rugs and Carpets Made?
+
+The best way to learn of this is for us to take a brief visit to one
+of the largest carpet factories, where we will assume we have already
+arrived.
+
+There is a sharp whistle, then an outlet of steam, the clang of a bell
+and a locomotive rolls around the curve of the spur-track into the
+factory yard. Attached to it are several freight cars that only the
+day before received their cargoes at the New York docks fresh from
+steamships coming from foreign lands. Inside the yard, the engine comes
+to a stop alongside a warehouse. Sturdy men unlock the doors of the
+cars and begin pulling out bales of the imported wool.
+
+This is the first step in the evolution of a rug. Between the arrival
+of the rough wool at the warehouse and the placing in the stock room
+of the finished rug, splendidly woven after an artistic design shown
+in attractive colors, many interesting processes are followed. It is
+sufficient to state that few people looking at rugs of the Saxony,
+or Axminster or Tapestry type realize the high degree of mechanical
+science and artistic perception that have been brought to bear in the
+manufacture of these rugs.
+
+After the arrival of the wool there are many steps to be taken until
+the skeins of yarn receive their coloring treatment in the dye-house
+and, at the bidding of the great machine, assemble themselves in the
+beautiful designs that the artists have created. Though there are
+many details of work in the development of a rug, they have been so
+well mastered that the employes in charge of every stage of the rug’s
+evolution give to their work a nicety of attention in little time that
+careful training and scientific understanding alone can supply.
+
+The travel-stained covers of the bales are removed. The heavy bulk is
+broken and the tightly-compressed bales loosened. Then the wool is fed
+into the washing-machine, and after that goes into the picking-machine.
+The process of cleansing the wool is an elaborate one, for it is so
+full of dirt and grease that several waters and several operations are
+necessary to its final appearance in a white and fleecy condition.
+After the last washing the wool is lifted to a drying-room, where the
+heat from steam-coils is forced through it by means of blowers.
+
+The wool now passes to the sorting-room, where the blends are carefully
+made before it goes to the machine which tears the wool fibers apart,
+and gets them in shape for the carding and combing processes. Next
+the wool is blown into a spinning mill. The wool is now ready to be
+converted into yarn. It passes through a picking-machine, which blends
+the different grades of the raw material, selecting the strands as to
+fiber and color. Then it is refined and purified.
+
+[Illustration: CARDING MACHINE]
+
+Through tubes the wool is forced to the carding-room by means of air
+pressure. In passing through the cards it is carefully weighed to
+secure evenness in the yarn. Leaving the carding machine, the wool
+is taken to the floor above, where the big spools of yarn reach the
+combing machine for the next process. This machine separates the long
+from the short fibers. The strands of wool are still thick and must go
+through another process before they are ready to be made into yarn.
+They are finally united and given sufficient strength to stand the
+weaving process. As the visitor sees the strands of yarn first appear
+on the machine they resemble rolls of smoke.
+
+[Illustration: DYEING THE YARN]
+
+~HOW THE YARN FOR CARPETS IS DYED~
+
+The yarn next appears on rows of spindles in the mule-room, six hundred
+feet long, where the yarn is twisted and brought to its final stage.
+The yarn now is ready for the dye-house. Here the atmosphere is very
+dense. Clouds of steam rise from the many vats of boiling dyes. The
+yarn receives the coloring for which it is intended, or is bleached
+in an adjoining department, and then is transferred on poles to the
+drying-room, after passing through a steaming process which sets the
+color. Next it passes on an electric conveyor to the weave-shop.
+
+Considerable skill is required in the weaving process. The assembling
+of the yarns and matching of colors require expert attention. The
+skeins of yarn are wound on spools, which are put in sets back of the
+looms, each color or set representing one “frame” of color in the rug.
+By the famous Jacquard motion of cards each color wanted in the surface
+of the rug is pulled up in its proper place, the other frame color
+laying in the back of the rug. The mechanical process is a remarkable
+sight. As the pattern forms itself from the mechanical devices, the
+onlooker is struck with the wonder of it.
+
+[Illustration: HOW A CARPET IS WOVEN BY MACHINERY
+
+WEAVING A RUG BY MACHINERY]
+
+[Illustration: 10,000,000 YARDS OF CARPET PER YEAR FROM ONE FACTORY
+
+This picture shows the plant of one of the largest carpet factories in
+the United States at Thompsonville, Conn. From the looms of these mills
+are annually produced ten-million yards of the twenty-five different
+grades of carpet manufactured by this concern.
+
+Imagine a strip of carpet across the United States at its widest
+part, the Forty-second latitude--a strip of “Hartford Saxony”, say,
+stretching from the Atlantic seaboard to the Pacific coast; and then
+another carpet strip the length of the United States, where this
+country is the longest--i. e., from the Northern boundary of the
+state of Minnesota to the Southern boundary of the state of Texas;
+then imagine one more strip stretching from Chicago to New Orleans,
+and finally a connection between the two latter strips at about the
+vicinity of St. Louis.
+
+With a mental picture of this vast country thus stripped with carpet,
+you wonder if there is that much carpet in the world. It seems
+incredible that this great sweep of land could be measured with
+carpet--and yet enough material comes every year from the looms of one
+carpet factory alone in this country to strip the United States East
+and West, and North and South as indicated above.]
+
+The weave is now completed; the rug comes out. But it is rough and
+has to be finished. It is passed through a machine that removes the
+roughness of the face as a lawn-mower cuts away the top-grass. The ends
+are finished, and the carpet is complete.
+
+~SOME DESIGNS STAMPED ON YARN BEFORE WEAVING~
+
+The pattern of tapestry carpet is obtained by printing the colors
+to appear in the design on the yarn which forms the face before the
+weaving is started, by means of large drums. After all rugs leave the
+weave-shop a force of skilled women examine them carefully to make sure
+that there are no defects. Every yard of the annual output of carpet
+and rugs is inspected five times before it leaves the factory.
+
+[Illustration: EXAMINING AND REPAIRING]
+
+[Illustration: PACKING FOR SHIPMENT]
+
+
+
+
+Why Do I Yawn?
+
+
+When you yawn, you do so because you have not been breathing quite
+properly and for some reason or other your blood supply has not been
+getting sufficient oxygen through the air which has been taken into
+your lungs. Nature’s way, in this instance, is to call for a big intake
+of air all at one time, and since it is important at such times that a
+large quantity of air should be supplied to the lungs at once, nature
+has so arranged matters that certain muscles shall cause you to open
+your mouth wide and take in as much air as you can at one time, and
+also has arranged so that it is almost impossible to keep from yawning
+when the demand for it is once made. The yawn is controlled by a part
+of our nerve structure which looks after the breathing apparatus.
+
+The satisfaction we feel after a wholesome yawn is due to the fact that
+having replied to nature’s demand that we bring in more air, our blood
+secures the oxygen which it needs and we feel the effect of better
+blood in our arteries at once.
+
+A peculiar thing about the process of yawning is that one person in
+a room yawning will quite likely set all or nearly all the others to
+yawning also. There seems to be no explanation of this excepting that
+when a number of people are in one room and one of them begins to
+yawn, the others do so, not because they perceive the first yawn so
+much as the probable fact that the air in the room has become so poor
+that there is not enough good air for all the people in it, breathing
+normally, and many of them are forced to yawn at about the same time.
+
+
+
+
+Where Do Living Things Come From?
+
+
+This is a big subject, but a very interesting one. To understand it
+fully we must begin at the very beginning of the world.
+
+God made first of all the rocks, the mountains, the sun, the moon, the
+stars, the soil, and put the water in the lakes, rivers and oceans.
+This took a long time, but they had to be there before the living
+things could begin to be.
+
+
+
+
+What is Inorganic Matter?
+
+
+This thing we have spoken of is called inorganic matter, which means
+“without life,” and everything in the world which has no life is called
+inorganic matter. These things do not die, and for that reason do not
+have to be replaced. The form and appearance of inorganic matter and
+its location is often changed by man or other causes, but even when man
+burns the coal which he has dug up out of the ground in the furnace, no
+part of it is destroyed. Some of it is turned into smoke and gas and
+some of it is turned into ashes, while every other particle which went
+to make up the coal originally is still in existence. It remains as
+inorganic matter in some form or other.
+
+
+
+
+Where Did Life Begin on Earth?
+
+
+After the inorganic things had been made and the earth was ready for
+life, the different kinds of living things which we find on the earth
+began to exist. These are called organic objects, which means objects
+“with life.” The first living things to appear were the bushes, the
+grass, the garden vegetables, the flowers, trees, and all the kinds of
+life which we ordinarily think of as growing things.
+
+This division of living things makes up what we call the vegetable
+kingdom, and in a general way of classing it is the kind of life
+which cannot move about from place to place and which has not a sense
+of feeling, or any of the other senses, seeing, hearing, tasting or
+smelling.
+
+After this division of life had been established the world was ready
+for the other and more important form of life--the fishes, the birds,
+cats, dogs, horses, cows, with others that we call domestic animals,
+and also the lions, tigers, elephants and others which constitute the
+division of wild animals.
+
+This kind of life was given some or all of the five senses, but not
+all classes of animal life possess all these senses. Some of the lower
+forms of animal life, like the oysters, clams, in the fish family,
+cannot see, hear, smell or taste. They can only feel; others are able
+to do more of these things, and many have all of the five senses.
+
+
+
+
+When Did Man Begin to Live?
+
+
+Man was not created until all the other living things on earth had been
+started, and he was given additional powers so that he might become the
+ruler of all the other living things, principally because he was given
+a brain with power to think, reason and originate.
+
+
+
+
+Why Must Life Be Reproduced?
+
+
+Life must be reproduced because living things die. They have power to
+live only for a certain length of time. The other life in the world is
+used to provide food for man, and if there were no way of reproducing
+life it would not be long before man had eaten all the vegetables and
+the animals too, and would himself then starve to death.
+
+To avoid such a calamity God put into each living thing, both
+vegetables and animals, a power to cause other things of the same kind
+as itself to grow. This is called the power of reproduction. With this
+power each kind of living thing can bring other specimens of the same
+kind into the world and each kind of living thing can do this without
+aid from any other kind of life.
+
+The trees, the flowers, and other kinds of vegetable life would
+reproduce themselves without the aid of man, as would also the fishes
+and other kinds of animal life. Man, however, just to have things
+conveniently at hand, uses his power over other life to cause his
+vegetables to grow near where he lives, and keep the animals which he
+wishes to use as food in some place where he doesn’t have to hunt for
+them every time he wishes meat for his table. This, however, he does
+only with the animals which he has domesticated or tamed. When he wants
+meat from the animals which are still wild he must hunt for them as he
+used to do.
+
+Each kind of life has the power, however, to reproduce only its own
+kind. If you plant a peach stone you will sooner or later have a peach
+tree which will bear peaches, and these peaches from the young tree
+will look and taste just like the peach whose pit or stone you planted.
+There may be other kinds of fruit trees all about, and also trees which
+do not bear fruit. All of the trees secure the food upon which they
+live and grow from the same soil. Even the grass under your peach tree
+eats the same things as your peach tree, but it remains always true
+that things in the vegetable kingdom will grow only to be like the
+thing from which it came.
+
+
+
+
+Have Plants Fathers and Mothers?
+
+
+The little trees grow up to be exactly like their fathers and mothers
+(for they have fathers and mothers), which is something all living
+things must have. These are not the same kind of fathers, or mothers
+either, that a boy or girl has, exactly, but they are parents just the
+same. So far as the trees, flowers and plants are concerned we call the
+parents father and mother natures, which is a term used merely to keep
+you from confusing vegetable life fathers and mothers with the regular
+kind.
+
+In the vegetable kingdom you cannot always see these father and mother
+natures, which enable them to reproduce their kind of life, but
+everything in the vegetable and also in the animal kingdom has them.
+
+
+
+
+How Do Plants Reproduce Life?
+
+
+In the spring we put seeds into the ground and later on plants grow up
+where the seeds were planted, and later the flowers come. The seeds
+contain the baby plants, which come to life, and after bursting the
+covering of the seed, unfold and grow up into plants if placed in the
+ground, where they can obtain the proper amount of warmth and moisture
+to give them a start.
+
+
+
+
+Why Do Plants Have Seeds?
+
+
+To get at this subject in the best manner we must study first how
+plants produce seeds and what happens. The power in a plant to make
+another plant like it grow comes from the flower. Ordinarily we think
+of the flowers as beautiful to look at and delightful to smell, but
+the flowers do not grow for the mere purpose of being beautiful, but
+are for a more useful purpose--to develop a seed which, when planted,
+will produce another plant. The machinery for producing a perfect
+seed is in the flower or blossom. Every flower has a definite plan of
+construction. The leaves and colors vary, but the plan for a perfect
+flower is always there. The petals which are generally colored are
+called the _crown_. When you pluck off the petals you see a number
+of green leaves at the bottom where the petals were attached. These
+form what is called the _calyx_, and help to hold the petals in place.
+Inside the flower are little stems which grow to the petals. These are
+called _stamens_. Every one of these little stems is hollow, and if
+you split one open you will discover a _fine powder_. This powder is
+called _pollen_, and is the “father” nature of the plant. In the calyx,
+the part we had left after we plucked off the petals, is the “mother”
+nature of the plant. The main part of the mother nature is the stem of
+the flower called the _ovary_, and this is where the seeds grow. These
+seeds in the ovary, however, will not become perfect seeds unless some
+of the pollen from the “father” nature of the plant touches them and
+fertilizes them.
+
+At the proper age of the flower some of this pollen powder passes into
+the ovary and fertilizes the seeds and makes them good seeds. This is
+only one kind of flower, however. In this kind the father and mother
+natures are in the same flower. In other kinds of plants the father and
+mother natures are found on different parts of the same plant.
+
+
+
+
+Why Does an Ear of Corn Have Silk?
+
+
+The corn plant is one of this kind. You know what it looks like--a tall
+plant, generally six or seven feet high. The ears of corn grow out of
+the side of the corn stalk. The ear is covered with husks and out of
+the end of the ear hangs a bunch of brown silk threads which we term
+corn silk. Up at the top of the plant you will see the tassel, but
+you may not have known that this is the flower of the corn plant. The
+tassel or flower in this case contains the “father nature” of the corn
+plant, and the ear of corn contains the “mother nature.” The husks on
+the outside of the ear of corn protect the grains of corn on the ear
+inside and keep them tender. The ear of corn is really the ovary of
+the corn plant, because that is where the seeds grow. You will guess,
+of course, that the grains of corn on the ear are but seeds of the
+plant. Were you to examine one of these ears of corn on the plant when
+it had just started to form you would find no kernels on the cob, but
+only little marks which indicated where the grains of corn are expected
+to grow, but if you want to know, then, how many grains of corn were
+expected to grow on the ear, you could easily tell by counting the
+little silk threads which you see on the cob and which stick out over
+the end. There will be a thread of silk for each grain of corn that is
+expected to grow.
+
+Every grain of corn must receive some of the pollen powder from the
+tassel or father nature at the top of the corn plant or it will not
+develop into a nice large, juicy kernel.
+
+
+
+
+How Does the Pollen Touch the Grain of Corn?
+
+
+Before the kernels of corn grow the tassel is in bloom. The wind blows
+and shakes the pollen powder off of the tassel and the powder falls
+on the ends of the silk which stick out of the little ear of corn to
+be. Each thread of silk then carries a little of the powder down to
+the spot on the ear where it is attached and thus the grain of corn
+receives the fertilizing necessary to develop it into a ripe seed.
+If you leave the ear of corn alone the kernel will eventually become
+yellow and hard and can then be planted and will produce other corn
+plants. Man, however, finds the ear of corn a delightful food, if taken
+at a time when the seeds are fully grown but not yet ripened into
+perfect seeds. At this stage the grains of corn would not grow up again
+if planted, because they have not yet become perfect seeds.
+
+
+
+
+Do Father and Mother Plants Always Live Together?
+
+
+We come now to the kinds of plants on which the “father” and “mother”
+natures are on different plants of the same kind. At times they will
+grow side by side, at other times they will be in the same field, but
+very often they grow at quite a distance from each other. In some
+instances the nearest father tree will be even miles away from the
+mother tree of the same kind. But in any event the pollen from the
+father nature must reach the mother nature of the plant or tree before
+a perfect seed can be produced. In cases of this kind the father nature
+will be on one tree or plant and the ovary or mother nature on another.
+The wind helps out nature in some of these cases by blowing the pollen
+of the father plant to the ovary of the mother plant. In many other
+instances the bees and insects help.
+
+
+
+
+Why Do Flowers Have Smells?
+
+
+Where the bees do this it is because the bee has been visiting the
+flowers in his search for honey. They do not fly from flower to flower
+for the purpose of uniting the mother and father natures of plants, but
+they help the flowers incidentally while getting the honey for which
+they are searching. In gathering his honey the busy bee will go all
+over the father flower and get his legs all covered with pollen powder.
+Sooner or later he comes to a mother flower of the same kind of plant
+or tree from which he has father pollen on his legs, and, still bent on
+gathering honey, he incidentally rubs the pollen powder on to the ovary
+of the mother flower and the fertilization takes place. The wonderful
+thing about this is that the father pollen of one kind of a plant will
+not fertilize the mother nature of another kind of plant. To illustrate
+this, if a bee carrying pollen on his legs from a walnut blossom visits
+the mother blossom of a hickory tree the pollen of the walnut would not
+affect the hickory blossom, but would still have the proper effect on
+the first walnut mother blossom he visited.
+
+This is how life in general is reproduced among the plants and trees.
+Life in the vegetable kingdom has no sense of feeling or any of the
+other senses, but this kind of life is still true to its own nature
+and is a wise thing in the plan of creation, because, since all seed
+will produce only plants like those from which the seed came, man can
+control the growth of the vegetables and fruits he needs as food. He
+knows when he plants corn that he will get corn in return, because
+perfect seed never makes a mistake. It would mix things up terribly for
+man if this were not so, because man might then plant one thing and
+find another thing growing. It would be a sad thing to plant wheat and
+find thistles growing.
+
+In order that seeds may grow they must be planted under conditions that
+suit the kind of vegetable life in the seed. Man has to study and learn
+what these conditions are.
+
+If a seed is planted too deeply the sun may not have a chance to warm
+the ground to that depth, and if it is planted too near the surface it
+may become too warm and be killed by the sun. When planted under the
+proper conditions the seed soon begins to grow. It grows upward toward
+the sun to get light and air, and it sends roots down into the ground
+to get food and moisture.
+
+The life in the vegetable kingdom is soon able to take care of itself.
+
+
+
+
+How Are Fishes Born?
+
+
+The next step in the study of the reproduction of life brings us to
+the animal kingdom. The first thing we discover in this section is
+that in the animal kingdom father and mother natures are almost always
+separated. In plants and trees these parent natures are sometimes in
+the same flower, often separated, but on the same plant, and in other
+instances on different plants miles apart. What we must remember, then,
+is that in the case of plants it is given more or less to the chance of
+wind or other circumstances to bring the parent natures together.
+
+In the animal kingdom there are a few cases where the mother and father
+natures are found in the same living object, as in the oyster and
+clam families, one of the lowest forms of animal life. These have but
+one of the five senses--that of feeling. This class of animals--the
+cold-blooded animals--includes the fishes, and in most members of this
+class the father and mother natures are separated and in different
+bodies. Step by step from now on we enter higher forms of animal life,
+and through each step we find a greater difference between the father
+and mother natures, and in the animal kingdom we speak of the father
+and mother natures as “_male_ and _female_.” In the animal kingdom,
+too, what we have previously called the seed is known as the _egg_.
+Seeds and eggs are the same so far as their usefulness is concerned,
+but we say eggs in the animal kingdom to distinguish from seeds in the
+vegetable kingdom.
+
+Fish have eggs, then, and it is from the eggs that little fish are born
+into the world and grow to be of eatable size. You recognize the eggs
+of the fish in the “roe,” which is eaten as food. Not all fish eggs are
+used as food, however.
+
+In the fish world the eggs are developed in the body of the female
+fish. Each little round speck in a “shad roe” is one egg, and there
+are many thousands in a single “roe.” Each egg will produce a little
+fish, under favorable conditions. These eggs develop in the body of
+the female fish in winter. In the spring, which is the time in which
+most living things are born, and, therefore, the time for hatching out
+fish eggs, all of the fish swim from the deep water where they live in
+winter to the places where the water is shallow and warm, and in these
+shallow waters the female fish expels the eggs from her body where the
+sun can get at them and hatch them by warming them. After the female
+fish has thus laid the eggs, the male fish swims over the eggs as they
+lay in the water, and expels from his body over them a fluid which is
+white in appearance and which fertilizes the fish eggs. If any of this
+fluid fails to reach some of the eggs it is not possible for the sun to
+bring them to life.
+
+When the eggs are laid and fertilized the mother and father fishes swim
+away and they never see their children or recognize them as such, even
+if they meet them later in life. The parent fish do not act like other
+fathers and mothers, and they do not need to, because as soon as a baby
+fish is born he is able to find his own food and needs no help from
+father or mother to teach him how to find it or enable him to grow into
+a real fish.
+
+Of course, many of the tiny fish are eaten by other fish and not all
+the eggs which the mother fishes lay hatch into live fish, because, if
+they did, the waters would be so crowded with fish that there would not
+be any room for the water. A single female fish will lay millions of
+eggs in a year, and if each egg developed into a fish there would be
+far too many.
+
+This order of animals, which includes turtles, frogs, etc., is the
+cold-blooded class of animal life. They have only part of the five
+senses. They all can feel and some of the fishes can see and hear, but
+a great many of them, particularly those kinds which live on the bottom
+of the ocean, cannot either see or hear, and some members of the fish
+family cannot even swim.
+
+The thing to remember about fishes in connection with the reproduction
+of life is that the mother fish must select a place which is favorable
+to deposit the eggs, but after that her responsibility ceases. The
+father merely fertilizes the eggs, and then his responsibility ceases.
+The little fish look out for themselves as soon as they are born and
+never know what it is to have a father or mother to look after them.
+
+When we study the next higher form of animal life we find that the
+young ones have to be looked after, and that this becomes more
+necessary as we ascend the scale of animal life until we reach man, the
+most intelligent of all animals and yet the most helpless of all at
+birth.
+
+
+
+
+How Birds Are Taught to Fly.
+
+
+The next step brings us to the birds. Before they can look after
+themselves the little birds must learn how to search for food and the
+kinds of food good for them. They have to learn the habits of their
+kind of life. The higher you go in the study of animal life the greater
+seem to be the dangers which surround the young animals and the longer
+it takes to teach them how to look after themselves and what to do for
+themselves.
+
+The bird family includes not only the robins, larks, sparrows and
+pigeons, but also the ducks, geese, and chickens, etc. We are all more
+or less familiar with birds’ eggs, and if not we know what a hen’s egg
+looks like. The eggs of the bird family are laid in nests, which is the
+first sign of home building in the animal kingdom.
+
+The birds are the first of the large class of warm-blooded animals.
+The egg here represents again the reproductive power. The eggs, too,
+form in the body of the female bird, but are laid in a nest which the
+parent birds build together. Now this is the first step away from the
+fish family. The fish looks for a suitable place to lay the eggs and
+then goes off and leaves them. The birds, however, have to make a
+nest in which to deposit the eggs. The fish, as you remember, depended
+upon the warm sun shining on the shallow water to hatch out the eggs,
+thus depending on an outside force to supply the necessary warmth. In
+the bird family the mother bird must cover the eggs with her own body
+and keep them warm until they hatch out. Then, too, the father and
+mother birds feed the young until they are strong enough to fly and
+find food for themselves, and so the mother and father birds look after
+their babies until they are old enough to look after themselves. When
+this time arrives the old birds cease to bother about the young ones
+altogether. The fishes never act like parents after the baby fishes
+are born, because the little fish are able to look after themselves
+right away. The parent birds are a good deal like fathers and mothers
+for a time, but only so long as it takes them to teach their little
+bird children to look out for themselves. Then they forget the children
+completely.
+
+It requires but a few days and no parental care to hatch out a family
+of baby fishes and no attention at all after birth. It requires several
+weeks and much patience for the parent birds to hatch out their eggs,
+and it involves care and attention for several weeks to teach baby
+birds to take care of themselves.
+
+This being a father or mother in the animal kingdom becomes a greater
+responsibility in every step as we get closer to man, and when we reach
+man we find him to be the most helpless offspring of all at birth, and
+that it takes more time, care and attention to bring up a human child
+to maturity than any other animal.
+
+
+
+
+What Makes the Hollow Place at One End of a Boiled Egg?
+
+
+This hollow place on the end of the boiled egg (sometimes it shows on
+the side) is the air which is put inside of the egg when it is formed
+so that the little chicken will have air to breathe from the time it
+comes to life within the egg until it becomes strong enough to break
+the shell and go out into the world. There is also food in the egg for
+him. When you boil the egg this pocket of air within the shell, which
+would have been used up by the chick if the egg had been set to hatch
+instead of being cooked for breakfast, begins to fight for its space
+and pushes the boiling egg back and forms the hollow place.
+
+The purpose of the air in the egg is a good thing to remember when we
+come to study the higher forms of animal life from the standpoint of
+how they reproduce themselves.
+
+The mammals are the next higher form of animals. The babies of this
+class of animals must be fed for several weeks or months before they
+are ready to come into the world.
+
+A little chicken is ready to come out of the egg almost as soon as it
+comes to life, and, therefore, needs only a little air and food before
+it is strong enough to peck its way out, but the babies of mammals
+begin to live months before they are ready to come into the world, and
+they need a great deal of air and food during this time. This class
+includes the dogs, horses, cows, cats and all other animals in the
+Zoo and in the woods. The name mammals means the same as “mamma,” and
+indicates an animal which must be fed from the body of a female mammal
+even after it is born.
+
+In this class the eggs are retained within the body of the female
+animal instead of being laid in a nest or some other place, as in
+animals of lower classes, after being fertilized by the male animal,
+so that the baby animal may secure its food and air from within the
+mother’s body after the life within the egg is begun.
+
+The mother’s body supplies the necessary warmth to develop the life
+of the little animal in the egg, just as the birds supplied this with
+their bodies. In the bird class it only takes a few hours to give
+the little bird sufficient strength to peek his way out, but in the
+mammal class it is a long time before the baby animal is strong enough
+to come out into the world, and even after it is born the babies of
+mammals require a great deal of care and attention before they are able
+to look out for themselves. During this period the animal secures all
+of its food from the breast of the mother animal.
+
+Another reason why the eggs of mammals are retained within the bodies
+of the females is the need for protecting the young animals from
+enemies. In the animal kingdom each kind of animal preys upon another
+kind. They attack and devour each other and are constantly in danger.
+If, then, mammals laid eggs in nests and sat upon them to hatch them
+out, the mother animals sitting on the nests would be continually in
+danger of attack from their enemies. They would either have to flee
+and subject the nest and its contents to the danger of destruction or
+else stay and fight, and perhaps be destroyed. But by carrying her egg
+within her body the mother mammal is able to move about from place to
+place and protect her baby.
+
+
+
+
+Is Man an Animal?
+
+
+Men, women and children belong to the “mammal” class of animals. The
+offspring of the human family is the most helpless of all animals at
+birth. The young of most kinds of mammals can stand on their legs
+shortly after being born, but the human baby requires months before it
+can stand up. A baby horse can also walk within a few hours, but human
+children do not begin to walk until they are more than a year old.
+
+
+
+
+Why Cannot Babies Walk as Soon as Born?
+
+
+The human baby has a great many more things to learn than a horse baby
+before it is safe for him to go about alone. It takes time for the
+brain to develop, and if a baby could walk before the brain had even
+partially developed it would only get into trouble.
+
+This, then, is what we have learned about the reproduction of life
+and the reasons for its being different in different classes of life.
+First, we had the division of organic life into the vegetable and
+animal kingdoms. Life in the vegetable kingdom has none of the five
+senses, for plants cannot see, hear, feel, smell or taste. They cannot
+move from place to place, but remain where they grow until destroyed
+or removed. On the other hand, all animal life has at least one of
+the five senses--feeling. The oysters and clams belong to this class.
+Starting with this level of life in the animal kingdom we find that as
+we go on up through the different classes we find each class able to
+do things which make it superior to the class below it, until we reach
+the human mammal, who can do most of all. And, further, that since each
+class as we go up in the scale of life has greater ability to do things
+than the class beneath it, so in each case the task of the parents
+in preparing their offspring for their kind of life becomes greater,
+and the period during which the offspring is learning becomes longer
+and longer until we reach the human family, in which we find that
+parents have the greatest responsibility, and the children are the most
+helpless of all animals, but that in the final result man has a right,
+on account of his superior qualities, to be the ruler of the other
+creatures of the world.
+
+
+
+
+What Are Ball Bearings?
+
+
+Some years ago a gentleman in trying to find some way to reduce the
+friction, which is constantly developed to a certain extent, even when
+the axle is oiled, discovered that if between the axle and the inside
+of the hub a circle of steel balls were arranged, so that the hub of
+the wheel did not touch the axle at all, but rested on the little balls
+which in their turn touched the axle, that a great deal of the friction
+was eliminated. This proved to be a wonderful invention, and when this
+combination is arranged and oiled, there is hardly any friction.
+
+
+
+
+Why a Gasoline Engine Goes
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.]
+
+As you know, gasoline is a very inflammable fluid, and will explode if
+placed too close to fire.
+
+This explosive quality is the basic principle of the gasoline engine.
+By admitting a small quantity of gasoline vapor into an enclosed
+cylinder, and exploding it by means of an electric spark, repeating
+this operation continuously, the engine is given a regular rotary
+motion.
+
+Look at Fig. 1. Starting from the gasoline tank, the fluid is fed
+into the ‘carburetor’, which is a sort of atomizer. Here the gasoline
+is mixed with air, and broken up into a very fine spray, in which
+condition it will explode readily.
+
+The engine will not start of itself. Its fly-wheel must first be turned
+by hand, or by some other outside force, until the first explosion
+takes place. After this its action is automatic.
+
+As shown in Fig. 1, the fly-wheel is being turned, and is drawing the
+piston down the cylinder, which in turn sucks gasoline vapor, (shown by
+little arrows) through the ‘intake valve’. This ‘intake valve’, and the
+‘exhaust valve’ on the opposite side of the cylinder, are opened and
+closed at the proper time through the action of the gears shown in the
+illustration.
+
+Passing to Fig. 2, the fly-wheel in turning has drawn the piston to
+its lowest point, and is now shown forcing it up the cylinder. This
+compresses the gasoline vapor in the cylinder to a density at which its
+explosion produces the greatest amount of power. The intake and exhaust
+valves are both closed.
+
+~WHAT CAUSES THE EXPLOSION IN A GAS ENGINE~
+
+Fig. 3 shows the explosion. The cylinder has been filled with
+compressed gas, and the piston has again started on its downward
+travel. The spark plug, set in the top of the cylinder, makes a spark
+every time an electrical current passes through it. A switch on the
+engine permits the current to pass to the spark plug only when the
+engine is at this position in its action. (Fig. 3.) The consequent
+explosion drives the piston downward with great force, turning the
+fly-wheel, which by its weight continues the rotary motion after the
+downward impulse of the piston has been expended.
+
+Fig. 4 shows the fly-wheel, still turning, forcing the piston up and
+thus expelling the burned gases from the cylinder through the exhaust
+valve, held open for this purpose. From this position the engine
+goes again to that of Fig. 1, and through 2, 3, and 4, continuously,
+exploding every second revolution, and giving a regular rotary motion
+to the fly-wheel.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.]
+
+The illustrations show a one-cylinder motor, but these engines can be
+built with two or more cylinders, arranged to explode at different
+times, thus giving very smooth action to the fly-wheel and main shaft.
+
+Aeroplanes, almost all automobiles, various pumps and other machinery
+are driven by gasoline engines. The rotary motion can readily be
+transmitted by chains or gears to the propellor of an aeroplane or
+motor boat, or the wheels of an automobile. It is only in the past few
+years that the gasoline engine has reached its present high state of
+perfection.
+
+[Illustration: THE BEGINNING OF AN AUTOMOBILE
+
+CRANKCASE SHOWING BEARINGS.
+
+The heart of the automobile is the engine. It is built around the
+crankcase, which is its foundation or base.]
+
+[Illustration: CRANKCASE WITH CRANKSHAFT AND FLY-WHEEL ADDED.
+
+The crankshaft serves the same purpose in an automobile as the pedals
+do on a bicycle.
+
+The fly-wheel on the end helps it to keep turning at an even speed.]
+
+[Illustration: Gasoline vapor is exploded in the cylinders. This pushes
+the piston down, and as the piston is connected to the crankshaft it
+starts the crankshaft turning.
+
+The piston and the rod that connect it to the crankshaft are just like
+the feet and limbs of any one riding a bicycle.
+
+Cylinders showing piston in place and connected to crankshaft.]
+
+[Illustration: The gears or “cog-wheels” are for running the fan, the
+pump and other parts.]
+
+[Illustration: THE HEART OF THE AUTOMOBILE
+
+Cylinder added to crankcase.
+
+The cylinders are next bolted down to the crankcase, the pistons and
+crankshaft having been connected, as shown in Fig. 3. A cover is placed
+over the gears to keep them clean.]
+
+[Illustration: An oil pan or reservoir is attached to the bottom of the
+crankcase to hold oil for the engine.]
+
+[Illustration: The carburetor furnishes the gasoline vapor for the
+cylinders. It is connected to the engine by a crooked pipe called the
+intake manifold.
+
+After the gasoline has been exploded a valve opens and allows the
+burned gases to escape through another pipe, called the exhaust
+manifold.]
+
+[Illustration: Oil is poured in the spout which is at the left of the
+carburetor. It runs down into the reservoir and is pumped up through
+the engine a little at a time.
+
+Oil pump and filler added to motor.]
+
+[Illustration: THE POWER PLANT OF AN AUTOMOBILE
+
+The electric generator makes electricity to be used for starting the
+engine and lighting the car.]
+
+[Illustration: The magneto gives an electric spark, which explodes the
+gasoline in the cylinders.
+
+The water pump keeps water flowing around the cylinders to prevent them
+from getting too hot. This water comes back to the pump through the
+radiator at the front of the car. Wind blows through the radiator and
+cools off the water. The tire pump on up-to-date cars is run by the
+engine. It does not pump except when the gears, which are shown in the
+picture, are pulled together.]
+
+[Illustration: An electric motor starts the engine by turning the
+fly-wheel. This makes it unnecessary to get out and crank the car by
+hand.]
+
+[Illustration: SECOND STAGE OF CONSTRUCTION
+
+The transmission is added.
+
+The transmission makes it possible to reverse the car. It also enables
+the driver to go into high-speed gear when on level roads and low-speed
+gear for starting and for pulling hills.]
+
+[Illustration: Double-drop pressed steel frame.
+
+The frame on which the car is built.]
+
+[Illustration: Addition of semi-elliptic and three-fourths-elliptic
+springs to frame.
+
+Large springs are placed at the front and rear of the frame. They make
+the car ride smoothly.]
+
+[Illustration: Adding the front axle.]
+
+[Illustration: READY FOR THE WHEELS
+
+Showing addition of full-floating rear axle.]
+
+[Illustration: Completed engine and transmission is next fastened to
+the frame and connected to the rear axle by the drive shaft.]
+
+[Illustration: Showing addition of gasoline tank and gas lead to
+carburetor.]
+
+[Illustration: Showing how steering gear is connected.]
+
+[Illustration: WHAT THE COMPLETED CHASSIS LOOKS LIKE
+
+Wheels are next added to chassis.]
+
+[Illustration: Completed chassis with radiator added.
+
+The water which keeps the engine from getting too hot is pumped around
+the cylinders and then through the radiator. The wind blows through
+the little openings in the radiator, and cools off the water. Then the
+water is pumped around the cylinders again.]
+
+[Illustration: The steps and fenders are next attached.]
+
+[Illustration: THE MARVELLOUS GROWTH OF TWENTY YEARS
+
+The finished car.]
+
+[Illustration: GASOLINE AUTOMOBILE.
+
+The first American-built automobile, now in Smithsonian Institute,
+Washington, D. C., where this photograph was taken. The rude carriage
+that was a curiosity twenty years ago and less--the vehicle that vied
+with the two-headed calf and the wild man of Borneo at the county
+fairs--was the beginning of the greatest transportation aid since the
+birth of civilization. Because of it our standards of living have
+become higher. It has broadened the horizon of all of us.
+
+Built by Elwood Haynes, in Kokomo, Indiana, 1893-1894. Equipped with
+one-horse-power engine. Successful trial trip made at speed of six
+or seven miles an hour, July 4, 1894. Gift of Elwood Haynes, 1910.
+262,135.]
+
+[Illustration: When an automobile passed you twenty years ago.]
+
+[Illustration: HOW AUTOMOBILES HAVE IMPROVED
+
+LEFT SIDE VIEW
+
+RIGHT SIDE VIEW
+
+A new exhibit in the Smithsonian Institute, officially known as
+“Exhibit Number 56,860,” is attracting a great deal of attention from
+visitors to the National Museum. It consists of a complete Haynes
+six-cylinder unit power plant, and has been given a position at the
+side of the original Haynes “horseless carriage,” where the striking
+contrast shows the remarkable improvement that has been made in motor
+design and construction during the past twenty-two years.
+
+The most important features of the power plant are shown clearly and
+comprehensively by having sections cut away from the various parts, so
+that the visitors to the Institute are enabled to see the mechanical
+construction, and the relation of the component devices.
+
+On the right side of the engine, the intake and exhaust manifolds
+are shown in their natural position. A full vertical section of the
+Stromberg carburetor gives a good idea of how the gasoline is mixed
+with the air and supplied to the cylinders. The Leece-Neville generator
+has its casing cut away to give a view of the windings and cores.
+Numerous windows have been cut into the crankcase to disclose the
+crankshaft construction and the oil reservoir. The transmission gears
+are also shown in this manner.
+
+Most of the electrical equipment is shown clearly on the left side of
+the motor. Here an interesting feature is the full vertical section
+of the American Simms high-tension dual magneto. A half section has
+been removed from the rear cylinder, and the piston as well, to
+give a glimpse of the interior construction. A large portion of the
+Leece-Neville starting motor casing has been cut away. The cover-plate
+on the switch controlling the starting motor has been replaced with a
+glass cover to display the method of completing the circuit from the
+battery to the motor. A skeleton selector switch is mounted at the rear
+of the transmission case, instead of its usual position on the steering
+wheel. The electric gear-shifting mechanism is made visible by using a
+glass plate for the top cover-plate on the transmission.]
+
+
+
+
+Why Does the Heart Beat When the Brain Is Asleep?
+
+
+Under ordinary conditions the heart beats are controlled by certain
+nerve cells which are located within the heart itself, and these cause
+the heart to beat even while the brain is asleep. This explains why
+the heart beats when the brain is asleep, and the fact that the brain
+when asleep does not exercise its functions, shows how necessary this
+arrangement and the control of ordinary heart beats is. If this were
+not so, we should not be able to live while asleep. It is just like
+the management of a great business in this sense. The general manager
+of a great business has control of the entire works, but there are
+occasions when he must be thinking of only one thing in connection with
+the business, and so he must have his organization so complete, that
+the parts which he cannot be thinking about at the time will do their
+work just the same. So he surrounds himself with competent assistants,
+who look after certain departments while he is busy or away or asleep,
+and if anything goes wrong while he is away, he calls on special forces
+to set things right. Now, the brain is the general manager of the whole
+body and has these nerve cells in the heart as a sort of assistant
+manager to look after the heart beats in ordinary conditions, and to
+keep the heart going while he is asleep. But, by reason of his office
+as general manager, the brain has a special way of sending orders to
+the heart through special nerves which run from the brain down each
+side of the neck to the heart. There are two pairs of these special
+nerves. One pair, if set in motion, will make the heart beat faster,
+and the other pair will make the heart beat more slowly.
+
+
+
+
+Why Do Our Hearts Beat Faster When We Are Running?
+
+
+When you start running, the brain knows at once that your legs and
+other parts of the body will need more blood to keep them going, and
+so the brain sends down orders through his special nerves which make
+the heart beat faster, to get busy, and they do. Then when you stop
+running, your heart is beating faster than necessary--there is really
+an oversupply of blood being pumped through your system for the time
+being, and that makes you uncomfortable, until the brain sends word
+through the other set of nerves to the heart to slow down the heart
+beat. It is better to stop running gradually, to give the heart a
+chance to get back to its normal beat gradually also.
+
+
+
+
+Why Do I Get Out of Breath When Running?
+
+
+This is also caused by your brain in its efforts to keep up your supply
+of good blood. We breathe to take air into the lungs, where the blood
+which has once been through the arteries and comes back on its return
+trip to the heart, is exposed to the air in the lungs, before going
+back into the heart. The air which we take into our lungs purifies the
+once used blood and makes it into good blood again. When you run the
+heart pumps blood into your arteries faster to enable you to run. Thus
+also, the arteries send much more blood back to the heart through the
+veins, and this must be purified by the lungs before going back into
+the heart. To attend to purifying this extra amount of spoiled blood
+the lungs need more air, and thus you are made to breathe in more air
+for the purpose. Unless you are in good training--your wind in good
+condition as we say--it is almost impossible for you to supply the
+lungs with enough air for the purpose, but whether you can do it or
+not, the lungs call upon you for more air, and cause you to try to get
+it, and that is what makes you get out of breath.
+
+
+
+
+Why Does My Heart Beat Faster When I Am Scared?
+
+
+The natural tendency of a scared creature is to run or fly. The effect
+of being scared has the same effect on the brain that your starting
+to run has. The brain is always as quick as you are, and knowing that
+when you are scared your actual or natural inclination is to run, it is
+merely getting you in shape so that you can move or run fast.
+
+
+
+
+Why Does Cold Make Our Hands Blue?
+
+
+Your hands appear blue when cold because the veins which are near the
+surface are filled with impure blood which is purplish in color. Your
+hands become cold because there is not sufficient circulation of warm
+red blood going on to keep them warm. The blood in circulating through
+your body sends warm red blood through the arteries, and this is
+returned to the heart through the lungs by way of the veins. The veins
+carry only used-up blood or what is left of the good red blood when the
+arteries are through with it. Its color is a purplish blue.
+
+When your hands are blue it means that circulation of good red blood
+has practically stopped--the red blood is not flowing from the heart
+through the arteries in sufficient quantity and there is no color in
+the arteries, as the blood from the arteries has practically all gone
+into the veins. The veins are full to purplish blue blood, and this
+makes the hands look blue, because there are a great many veins in the
+hands close to the surface.
+
+
+
+
+Why Do I Get Red in the Face?
+
+
+Now, when you rub your cold blue hands together, you start the
+circulation going again, and that brings the red blood into the
+arteries, giving you the healthy red color again. When you run hard to
+get red in the face because you are causing an unusual amount of red
+blood to flow through your whole body by your violent exercise. Some
+people with an extraordinary amount of circulation are red in the face
+all the time. This is because of the presence of a great deal of blood
+in the arteries, or because the walls of their arteries are so much
+thinner than others that the red blood shows through more easily.
+
+
+
+
+Is Yawning Infectious?
+
+
+Yawning is infectious to the extent that other habits are. The desire
+to yawn which comes to us when we see some one else does so comes under
+the heading of suggestion. The power of suggestion is greater than many
+of us realize. We are great imitators of each other. When one of us is
+downhearted, we are apt to become happy and glad simply by being with
+other people who are happy and glad. If enough people one at a time
+tell a perfectly well man that he looks sick, he will actually feel
+ill, provided he does not suspect a game is being played on him. So a
+good actor carries his audience with him. He can make them laugh or cry
+almost at will, and if he yawns, his audience will begin yawning.
+
+Often, however, there is no acting connected with the yawning of the
+first person. Then the yawn is caused because the person is not sending
+enough good air into the lungs for purifying the blood, and the yawn is
+only nature’s way of making us take an exceptionally deep breath of air
+in at one time. This lack of sufficient good air in the lungs may not
+be due to the poor breathing, but to the amount of bad air in the room.
+In such cases it is quite likely that other people in the room yawn
+when one of them starts it because they all begin to feel the need of
+more good air at about the same time.
+
+
+
+
+What Makes Me Want to Stretch?
+
+
+The necessity or desire to stretch comes to us because certain parts of
+the body are not receiving the proper amount of blood circulation and
+it is these parts that we stretch at such times. If you have ever been
+to a ball game, you know, of course, that it has become customary for
+the crowd, no matter how large, to stretch its legs and arms during the
+last half of the seventh inning. In fact, that has come to be a fixture
+at ball games and is universally known as the “stretch inning.” Now,
+it is not so much the result of a desire to encourage the home team as
+the natural following out of nature’s laws that originally started this
+practice. The end of the seventh inning at a ball game generally means
+that the crowd has been sitting quite still for the greater part of an
+hour and a half, just long enough for the circulation to become poor
+in parts of the body, and the custom of stretching at a ball game thus
+comes from the necessity of getting a little more speed into the action
+of the heart to increase the blood supply.
+
+In other words, the stretching constitutes a mild form of exercise. You
+will notice the ball players themselves do not stretch themselves in
+the last half of the seventh inning. They are getting enough exercise
+without that.
+
+It is natural, however, for us to stretch as we wake up from sleep
+after having lain quietly in one position for one or more hours. It is
+nature’s way of causing the heart to work faster.
+
+
+
+
+What Happens When I Stretch?
+
+
+What happens is simply this. When you stretch your arms and legs, you
+squeeze the arteries and veins which are a part of your arms and legs,
+much as happens when you pull on a piece of rubber tubing. The tubing
+becomes flat instead of perfectly round, and it is not so easy to send
+water through a flat tube as through a round one. Just so with the
+heart. It is the heart’s business to send blood through the arteries
+at all times, and when you make them flat the heart’s job becomes just
+a little harder, and it goes to work beating just a little faster to
+overcome this extra difficulty. By that time you are through stretching
+and the heart is busy pumping blood a little faster than ordinarily,
+and that is what makes you feel so good after you have stretched.
+
+
+
+
+Why Can We Think of Only One Thing at a Time?
+
+
+If you are asking the question intelligently, you must know that to
+think means to concentrate, and in that sense we can only think of one
+thing at a time, because it takes all of that part of the brain which
+is used for thinking for just one thing. To give close attention to any
+one subject means to turn the entire brain force practically in one
+direction. To let other things pass through the mind at the same time
+may appear not to interfere with the one thought, but they do, and our
+conclusions suffer accordingly.
+
+You can be doing something with one part of your body, while engaged
+in thinking of one thing, but only such things as are more or less
+mechanical as the result of habit, such as walking, or moving the
+arms--things which the parts have done so often that actual attention
+by the brain is not absolutely essential. Take for instance, the fact
+that a man in deep thought on one subject will sometimes walk up and
+down the room or along the sidewalk. He can do this walking and still
+think concentratedly, but if he stubs his toe on the leg of a chair or
+on a rough place in the walk, his thought is broken, because the brain
+immediately takes itself out of the thought and pays its attention to
+the toe that was stubbed.
+
+
+
+
+Why Do I Turn White When Scared?
+
+
+Simply because, when you are scared or frightened, the blood almost
+leaves your face entirely. Under normal conditions, the red blood which
+is flowing through the arteries of your face, gives the face a reddish
+tinge, and your face becomes white when you are frightened, because
+then the blood leaves the face. It is quite singular, but when you are
+really frightened, whatever the cause may be, the human system receives
+such a shock that the heart just about stops beating all together. When
+your heart stops beating of course the flow of the blood from the heart
+stops and then there is no supply of fresh red blood coming through the
+arteries under the skin of your face. Therefore you look white--the
+color your face would be if no blood ever flowed through your arteries
+and veins. Some people have faces so white they look as though they
+were scared all the time. This is not because they have no blood
+flowing through the veins and arteries in their faces, but because
+their supply of blood is less than other peoples, and sometimes because
+the walls of their arteries and veins are much thicker than the average
+that the color of the blood does not show through. There are also many
+people who have so much blood in their systems all the time, and the
+walls of whose arteries are so thin, that they look at all times as
+though they might be blushing.
+
+
+
+
+What Makes Me Blush?
+
+
+Anything that will make your heart send an extra supply of blood into
+the arteries and veins which supply your face with blood, will make you
+blush. Embarrassment will do this. So will anger generally, although
+sometimes people get so angry that the blood is driven out of their
+faces. In this case they are so angry that their heart has stopped
+beating, practically.
+
+
+
+
+What Occurs When We Think?
+
+
+When we think the mind is acting on sensations; it is receiving, in
+conjunction with memories of sensations it has previously received.
+Sensations as they reach the mind arouse the mind to activity and, as
+soon as the sensation is received, the mind begins to compare the new
+sensation with sensations received at previous times, and by putting
+things together reaches a conclusion.
+
+When you are thinking you are really trying to call upon memory to
+help you. You know the thought of one thing calls up another, and this
+leads to something else. This association of ideas is the faculty which
+enables us to think consecutively and accurately. It is the business of
+the mind to receive the sensations that enter it and arrange them in
+their proper places. That memory of past sensations is the important
+part of thinking, is proven by the fact that when we have forgotten a
+thing we are unable to think what it was.
+
+
+
+
+Can Animals Think?
+
+
+For this reason if animals have memory they should be able to think. It
+is now believed that many animals have to a certain extent the power to
+remember.
+
+A dog will recognize his master even though he has not seen him for
+years. We might think he does this by his highly developed power of
+smell, but if his master has come from a direction opposite to that
+from which the dog first sees him, he could not have tracked him by his
+smell. A dog will recognize his master from quite a distance, so he
+must have to a certain extent the ability to remember or the power of
+association of ideas, which amounts to the same thing. Again, a horse
+that once belonged to the fire department, even though now hitched to a
+milk wagon, will have the impulse to run to the fire when he hears the
+fire gong. And an old war horse will prick up his ears as he used to
+when he hears the bugle call.
+
+
+
+
+Why Do I Sneeze?
+
+
+You sneeze sometimes when you look up at the sun or at a bright light.
+There does not seem to be any real good explanation of why looking at a
+bright light should make you sneeze. It is due to the connection there
+is between the nerves of the eyes and the nose. You generally blink if
+you look at a bright light suddenly, and the blinking process stirs the
+nerves inside of the nose to make you sneeze.
+
+You know, of course, that the start of the sneeze is inside of your
+nose. The nose is, besides being the organ of smell, the channel
+through which we take air into the lungs, when we breathe properly.
+The nose is lined with membranes, back of which are a net of very
+small nerves which are extremely sensitive. The membranes are placed
+there to catch and hold the impure particles of matter which come into
+the nose when we take in a breath of air, and sneezing is only one
+effective way of cleaning out the nose. It is brought on only when some
+particularly difficult job of nose-cleaning has to be done. Pepper up
+the nose will make you sneeze quickly, because pepper produces a very
+great irritation inside the nose, and the nose goes to work at once to
+get rid of it in the quickest possible manner as soon as the pepper
+comes in. Other things have the same effect. Sometimes a cold in the
+head causes you to sneeze. The sneeze in that event is merely nature’s
+effort to clean out the nose when other efforts have failed.
+
+There are many suggestions for stopping a sneeze before it takes place,
+after you feel it coming on, such as putting the finger on each side of
+the nose, and many others. But a half sneeze does not remove the cause
+of the sneeze, so it is much better to sneeze it out, and many people
+enjoy the after effects of sneezing so much that they take snuff into
+the nose to produce it.
+
+
+
+
+What Happens When I Swallow?
+
+
+The muscles of your throat act in the form of a ring when food passes
+into your throat. The food does not drop directly into your stomach. In
+other words, the action is not quite the same as when you drop a stone
+out of the window. When you do the latter, the stone hits the sidewalk
+or whatever is below at the time, with a smash. It would hardly do to
+have our food drop into the stomach, so the muscles of the throat are
+arranged to contract in rings which push or squeeze the food downward,
+and the food is passed from one ring of muscles to the other. It is
+just like pushing a ball down into the foot of a stocking that is
+apparently too small for it to drop down. You put the ball in the top
+of the stocking and then by making a ring of your fingers around the
+stocking you can push the ball down. When you swallow, you start the
+muscles of your throat to making these rings. The upper ring squeezes
+the food on to the ring below it and so on down to the stomach.
+
+
+
+
+What Makes the Lump Come In My Throat When I Cry?
+
+
+The “lump” which comes up into your throat when you cry is caused
+by a sort of paralysis of the rings of muscles in your throat. The
+muscles of your throat can make these rings or waves upward also, but
+it is more difficult upward than downward--probably because of lack
+of practice, as we say. When you have put something into your stomach
+that makes you sick and causes you to vomit, the throat muscles take
+the matter from your stomach and bring it back to the mouth in the same
+way, except, of course, that this action begins at the bottom.
+
+Sometimes when you cry, or lose control of yourself in some other
+way (you know, of course, that in crying you always lose control of
+yourself, don’t you) practically the same effect is produced as when
+you have something in your stomach that should come out. Crying, or the
+thing that happens sometimes when we cry, makes the throat muscles act
+just as if we were vomiting, and as the action is an unnatural one,
+when the ring or wave reaches the top of the throat, we feel the lump
+or ball as we call it. We feel the lump because the throat has been
+made to go through the motion of eliminating something in an unnatural
+way, just as your arm will hurt if you pretend to have a ball or a
+stone in it, and in throwing the imaginary ball or stone, you put the
+same force into your movements as you would if you had an actual ball
+or stone in your hand and were seeing how far you could throw it.
+
+
+
+
+Why Do We Stop Growing?
+
+
+We eventually stop growing because certain of the cells of the body
+lose their ability of increasing in size and producing other cells. It
+is one of the marvels of the construction of the human body that this
+is so and one of the wisest provisions also. At first the cells of the
+body crave lots of food and increase in size, divide and then the parts
+go on growing until they become of a certain size, when they again
+divide and each part goes on growing, etc., and thus we grow. A growing
+boy needs more fond than a mature man, because he needs some of it to
+grow with, while the man only has to keep what growth he has going, i.
+e., alive.
+
+We say this limit of growth is a wise provision of nature because if
+there were no limit to the size we might become, we would not know how
+large to build houses, barns, etc., or else we would have to build them
+so large to start with that we would be lost in them for a long time.
+We would constantly be forced to change these things and there would
+be no basis to reckon from. Dogs might be as big as elephants and then
+they would be of no use to us, or of what use would a dog as big as an
+elephant be to a boy of five years. You see it would not do at all to
+have this rule changed.
+
+
+
+
+Why Do We Grow Aged?
+
+
+We age directly in accordance with the lives we lead. You can bend
+a wire back and forth a number of times at the same point without
+breaking it, but eventually it will break. Just so with the human body.
+You can use each part of it for its own purposes a number of times, but
+eventually the break will come. Or, you can fail to make a part of it
+perform its regular functions, and it will die--the break will come.
+The human body is the most wonderful machine in the world, but even it
+will eventually wear out. Every time you move your arm, leg or some
+other part of your body, you destroy some tissues. The body replenishes
+and builds up those tissues again for a certain time. When you bend a
+joint in your body, the body oils the joint naturally, but as you grow
+older, or rather, as you use the different parts of your body more and
+more, it brings nearer always the time, when the body cannot, of its
+own accord, build up again the tissues you have destroyed. That is why
+some people become very old at forty and others are still comparatively
+young at seventy. It requires a great deal of care and attention and
+the elimination of all abuse of the body to keep us young when we
+are old. The use of drink, lack of sufficient sleep and other abuses
+prevent the body from restoring the tissues which have been destroyed.
+Worry and sorrow age us very rapidly, because these things affect the
+nerves. If the nerves are not quiet we cannot get any rest and without
+rest we grow old very rapidly.
+
+
+
+
+What Causes Wrinkles?
+
+
+Wrinkles come to us in several ways. An easy way to cause wrinkles is
+to scowl and frown and get into the habit of doing this. When you scowl
+or frown you pucker up the skin on your forehead into wrinkles and if
+you continue the habit the skin on your forehead makes the wrinkles
+permanent. You have given your skin the wrinkle habit. This acts just
+the same way as your arm would, if you tied it up in a sling and held
+it close to your side for a very long time--a number of weeks. When you
+took the sling off you would find your arm useless--a dead arm. It had
+developed the habit of doing nothing.
+
+In old people, however, wrinkles come more naturally. There it is the
+case of the skin not receiving the proper nourishment and attention to
+keep the circulation of the blood right. When people become old they
+are apt to lose the fat which has accumulated under their skins. If
+they had taken just the right amount of exercise all of their lives and
+kept their circulation perfect in all parts of the body, there would
+have been no fat there. But when the fat accumulates, it makes the
+skin grow larger, and then when the fat disappears and people get thin
+again, the skin is too large and makes the wrinkles.
+
+
+
+
+Does Thunder Sour Milk?
+
+
+Milk will sour in any kind of warm and moist temperature and, because
+just before and during a thunderstorm the air is generally quite warm
+and moist, it is only natural that it should turn sour. It is wrong,
+however, to say or think that thunder makes milk sour. Thunder is only
+a noise and noise cannot do anything but make itself heard. The fact
+that it is generally warm and moist, however, when it thunders, coupled
+with the fact that these conditions of the air sour milk very rapidly,
+have led people to connect the two in their minds and caused them to
+fall into the error of believing that the thunder is responsible for
+the change in the milk.
+
+
+
+
+What Makes the Rings in the Water When I Throw a Stone Into It?
+
+
+Every movement has a beginning. When a movement on the earth is once
+started it keeps on going until something stops it. If nothing stops it
+it will go on forever.
+
+When you shout you start air waves going in every direction, which
+keeps on going until stopped by something which has the power to break
+up their waves.
+
+When you throw a stone into the ocean you start a series of ripples
+or waves which spread out in every direction and if you dropped your
+stone into the exact middle of the ocean--half way from each side--in
+a perfectly calm sea undisturbed by other forces, your ring of ripples
+would go on getting larger until it landed on the beach or shore on
+each side of the ocean at the exactly the same time and there the beach
+or shore would stop it.
+
+The original ring of ripples is caused by the fact that when you drop
+a stone into the water it disturbs the water where it goes in and
+the water moves away from the stone to the sides, and as the stone
+goes down, over and up above it, and the whole body of the water is
+disturbed in such a way that makes the ripple appear on the surface and
+spread out in every direction. As the stone goes down into the water
+further and further the disturbance is repeated and ring after ring
+appears on the surface.
+
+Of course there are many disturbances in the water at all times. Many
+things may happen to break up your little ring of ripples before they
+touch the sides of the ocean--a ship--a fish--the wind--or one of many
+other things, and because this is true you would have difficulty in
+sending the waves made by your little pebble across the ocean, but you
+can take a dishpan from the kitchen and after filling it with water
+drop pebbles into it as nearly the middle as possible, and you will see
+the ripples or waves your pebble makes spread out from the point where
+the pebble entered the water in all directions.
+
+
+
+
+Why Are There Many Languages?
+
+
+Different languages developed in different parts of the world
+because there was no inter-communication between people in different
+communities, and each was really developing a language for itself.
+In doing so they developed their language without knowing that other
+communities were working out the same problems for themselves. So
+they first developed their own sign and gesture language and later
+on their word or sound language and kept on using it. While they may
+thus have developed the use of some of the same signs and sounds or
+combination of sounds to express one thing perfectly understandable to
+themselves, these sounds or combinations of sounds might mean something
+entirely different to another community, where that particular sound or
+combination of sounds may have been hit upon to mean something entirely
+different.
+
+Of course, not all languages were developed in this way. There are,
+you know, a great many languages used in the world. Some of them are
+offshoots of others, where part of a community moved to another part of
+the world, taking their language with them, but developing it further
+along new lines, and using new combinations of sounds for new words.
+Then also, there are many words which mean the same thing in different
+languages and are spoken with practically the same sounds. This is due
+to the movement of people from one nation to another and bringing their
+own words with them, so to speak. In many instances a stranger would
+come to another nation, and use his own word for expressing a certain
+thing and that would eventually be taken up and used as a better word,
+and the old word dropped. It is strange that this should be true, but
+this accounts for the fact that many words are the same in sound and
+meaning in numerous languages.
+
+
+
+
+What Makes a Match Light When We Strike It?
+
+
+The match lights when we rub it along a rough substance, because the
+rubbing produces sufficient heat on the end of the match to set fire
+to the head, as we call it, which is made of chemicals that light more
+easily than the stick of wood, which is the rest of the match. The fire
+thus started is hot enough and burns long enough to set fire to the
+wooden part of the match.
+
+To explain this more fully, let me say this. Rub your finger quickly
+along your coat sleeve or along the seat of your trousers, long a
+favorite place for men to strike matches, pretending that your finger
+is a match. You find the end of your finger becomes warm, don’t you?
+Not warm enough to set your finger on fire, of course, but if you had
+the same combination of chemicals on the end of your finger that there
+is on the match, you would set the chemicals afire and this would burn
+your finger, just as it sets fire to the wooden part of the match.
+
+It took a great many years to discover the combination of chemicals of
+which the head of the match is made. Before that discovery was made it
+was far from easy to light the light in the evening as it is now. It
+must have been a serious thing to let the fire go out in the furnace in
+those days.
+
+
+
+
+What Makes the Kettle Whistle?
+
+
+The kettle whistles only when the water boils and the steam or gas
+which is the form the water turns into when boiling is trying to
+escape through the spout of the kettle. You see, when the water starts
+boiling, the inside of the kettle is at once filled with steam and more
+is coming out of the water all the time. This steam must get out some
+way, so it rushes for the spout of the kettle, and because so much of
+it is trying to get out of a comparatively small opening at once there
+is quite a pressure and this results in making the whistle out of the
+spout of the kettle. It is just the same process as when you whistle
+yourself. To whistle you fill your mouth with air and force it out
+through your lips, which you have closed excepting for a small opening,
+by the pressure you can bring to bear with the roof and sides of your
+mouth, and if you have learned to make your lips into the proper shape
+and apply the pressure steadily you can sound a very long note and make
+different notes by making the opening in your lips large or small. The
+kettle spout has only one size of opening so the sound is practically
+the same at all times though louder at sometimes than at others. This
+is caused by the varying pressure at which the steam in the kettle is
+being forced out.
+
+
+
+
+What Makes the Water From a Fountain Shoot Into the Air?
+
+
+The water from the fountain shoots into the air because water anywhere
+will run down if given a chance. To produce a fountain you must have
+a source of water supply for the fountain which is higher than the
+openings of the fountain out of which the water shoots. The water comes
+out of the holes in the fountain for the same reason that it comes out
+of the faucet in the kitchen or bath room. In the latter case the water
+comes from the waterworks reservoir in which the level of the water is
+much higher than the opening in the faucet in your home. Being higher
+the water in the reservoir is trying to get away through the pipes all
+the time and all the pipes leading from the reservoir are full of this
+water trying to get away. Just as soon as you turn the valve in the
+faucet the water comes out and runs down into the bowl.
+
+If you were to turn the opening of the faucet up instead of down as
+it is, the water would shoot up instead of down. Not very much, it
+is true, but it would act much like the water from the fountain. The
+reason it does not shoot up high in the air like a fountain is because
+the opening in the faucet is the same size as the opening in the
+little pipe which leads the water from the street into the house. If
+you would turn the opening of the faucet up and attach to it a pipe
+which made the opening much smaller (the size of the opening in the
+fountains), you would see the water shoot into the air just as it does
+from the fountain. When you reduce the size of the opening you increase
+the pressure of the water coming from the pipes in proportion to the
+reduction you have made in the size of the opening.
+
+Water from the fountain will not, however, shoot as high as the level
+of the water in the reservoir because, as soon as it leaves the pipes,
+it encounters the pressure of the air outside the pipes and the law of
+gravitation which pulls all things toward the center of the earth.
+
+It is not natural for water to shoot into the air as it does in a
+fountain. The only way water can go naturally is down, and it only goes
+up a little way from a fountain because of the pressure of the water in
+the pipes behind the openings in the pipes in the fountain.
+
+
+
+
+What Keeps a Balloon Up?
+
+
+A balloon stays up in the air, because of the air in it, together with
+the weight of the balloon, is less than an equal bulk of the air in
+which it floats.
+
+In former days of ballooning the balloons were filled with hot air and
+were then found to rise and stay up until the air inside of the balloon
+became of the same temperature as that in which it floated. When this
+stage was reached, the balloon itself would fall because the material
+of which it was made was denser than air.
+
+Today balloonists fill their balloons with gas which is lighter than
+air, even when as cool as the air in which they rise and are thus able
+to stay up a long time.
+
+You, of course, have seen many of the red, white and blue paper
+balloons which are sent up on the Fourth of July. You will remember
+that father, or whoever it is that is sending them up, lights the
+oil-soaked knot of cloth that is attached to the balloon immediately
+below the opening at the bottom. He first lights this and then holds
+the balloon for a time with his hands.
+
+Soon, however, you will remember that the balloon starts upward with
+father still holding it. This is because the air inside the balloon
+is becoming heated. You will notice also that at first he has to hold
+out the sides of the top of the balloon with his hands or has some
+one help him do this, but that even so the balloon does not stand out
+round and full as it should. When the balloon starts to rise, however,
+you will notice that it is round and full. This is because the air in
+the balloon has become heated and is expanding. Soon the balloon is
+tugging to get away and father lets go and it rises and sails away with
+the wind. As long as the fire below it burns, and if the wind does not
+upset it so as to make the paper part catch fire, the balloon will stay
+up; but, when the fire burns out, the balloon will come down.
+
+The balloon merely rises because the air inside, and held there by the
+covering of the balloon, is warmer air and lighter than the air on the
+outside.
+
+
+
+
+Why Did People of Long Ago Live Longer Than We Do Now?
+
+
+When reading of people who lived long years ago and especially when
+reading about the length of their lives, we are told that in the old
+days people lived longer than they do now. Some of the early historical
+records speak of single individuals who lived hundreds of years. There
+is great doubt as to whether these statements are founded on fact. In
+thinking about this we must first take into consideration that these
+records of long ages were recorded at a time when man had no accurate
+ideas of the actual passage of long periods of time such as a year.
+They did not have our calendar as a basis for figuring at all. Learned
+men now tell us that the actual age of men who lived at the time these
+records of great ages were recorded probably lived shorter lives
+than we do now, and that what they record as a period of one year was
+probably a much shorter period than one year.
+
+It is true beyond the question of a doubt that the people of today live
+longer on the average than people who lived ten, twenty or more years
+ago.
+
+In other words, the average period of life has increased steadily.
+This is due to the fact that we have taken great care of our bodies;
+have improved the conditions in which we live, and made them more
+sanitary; have learned to fight and check and eradicate diseases, which
+only a few years ago we could not prevent people dying of when they
+once contracted them, and we know from the records which we keep that
+actually people live longer on the average today than only a few years
+ago, and it is safe to say that they live longer now on the average
+than at any time in the world’s history.
+
+
+
+
+Is There a Reason for Everything?
+
+
+The world is so constructed that there must be a reason or cause for
+everything. There are so many forces in the world that man has not yet
+been able to locate the original cause of every one of them. Concerning
+other things, he sees the effects without having any knowledge of the
+forces which are their cause. Other things he has never even bothered
+to inquire about, but simply takes them for granted. But every force,
+which means, of course, everything in the world, must have had a
+beginning and therefore something or a combination of things must have
+caused it to begin, and the thing or things that caused it to be is the
+reason for its being. Every little while someone makes a discovery of
+some new force, and then we suddenly realize that this force has been
+in existence all the time although not known to man, and we discover
+through this the reason for many other things being as they are.
+
+The other thing or side of the question is also true. We cannot have
+a cause without an effect. You cannot do anything without causing
+something to happen and producing an effect on one or more other
+objects either animate or inanimate. You cannot move your hand without
+creating some disturbance in the air. When you make a noise, low or
+loud, you produce sound waves. When you burn a stick of wood, you
+create smoke, ashes and gases of various kinds. You change the whole
+nature of what was the piece of wood, and yet no particle of what made
+the stick of wood is ever destroyed or lost, but appears in some other
+thing in the air or on or in the earth.
+
+
+
+
+What Makes an Echo?
+
+
+An echo is caused when the waves of air which you create when you shout
+are thrown back again when they are stopped by something they encounter
+and are turned back without changing their shape. Any kind of a sound
+wave will make an echo in this way.
+
+You see, you can have no sound of any kind without sound waves. You
+could not make a sound if there were no air. Now, when you shout, you
+start a series of sound waves that go out from you in every direction
+and they spread away from you in circles just like the rings of ripples
+that are caused when you drop a stone into a pool of water. You can
+prove this to yourself easily by having one, two, three or more of your
+friends stand around you in a large circle. You can place them as far
+away from you as your shout can be heard if you wish. When you shout,
+each of your friends will hear the shout at the same time, provided, of
+course, they are at equal distances from you.
+
+Sometimes these sound waves as they go away from you in circles strike
+objects that turn the waves back unbroken just as they came to them.
+The waves will bounce back just like a rubber ball from a wall against
+which it has been thrown and this is the echo. However, some things
+that the sound waves strike break up these waves entirely and others
+partially.
+
+No doubt you have sometimes noticed when you shout you hear a distinct
+echo and that at other times, standing in the same place, you cannot
+hear any echo, although you shout in the same way. This is explained by
+the fact that at times conditions of the air are such that no echo is
+produced while at other times a perfect echo results.
+
+
+
+
+What is a Whispering Gallery?
+
+
+The possibilities of an echo have to be taken into account by the
+architects and builders of all public buildings, such as theaters,
+halls and churches, where anyone is to speak or entertain others.
+Unless they are very careful the walls and ceilings may be so arranged
+that when any one sings or speaks in the room, there is such an echo
+that it interferes with the music or speaking. It sometimes happens
+also that through some peculiarity in which the walls and ceiling of
+a building are constructed there will be certain places in the room
+where an echo can be heard, even a whisper, and which cannot be heard
+in other parts of the room at all. This is likely to occur in rooms
+where there is a dome-shaped ceiling. There will be certain spots in
+the room hundreds of feet apart, where if you stand on one spot and
+another person is on another definite spot clear across the room, the
+tiniest whisper can be heard, while the people in between cannot hear
+at all. This is called a whispering gallery. Of course, loud talking
+would produce the same effect. A whispering gallery is a gallery with
+an echo which can be heard from certain positions. There are a number
+of famous whispering galleries of the world. In the room beneath the
+great dome of our Capitol at Washington is an almost perfect whispering
+gallery. There are quite a number of points at which you can stand and
+hear the whispers across the room which is more than a hundred feet.
+These whispering galleries come accidentally, of course. It would be
+difficult to deliberately construct a building in such a way as to
+produce a whispering gallery.
+
+
+
+
+Why Do We Get a Bump Instead of a Dent When We Knock Our Heads?
+
+
+When you knock your head against a sharp corner, or if some one hits
+you on the head with anything with a sharp edge, you do receive a dent
+in your head, but it does not last. In other words, the head has one of
+the qualities of a rubber ball. You can press your finger against the
+sides of the rubber ball and push it in, but when you take your finger
+off the ball resumes its shape. Just so with your head--it resumes its
+shape after a blow.
+
+After doing this, however, a bump or lump is formed. I will endeavor to
+tell you how the bump is formed or rather what causes it to form. You
+cannot knock your head against anything that is harder than your head
+without causing some injury to the parts which received the bump. Now,
+what happens then is just what happens to any other part of your body
+when it is injured whether as a result of a bump, a cut or a bee or
+mosquito sting.
+
+As soon as the injury occurs the brain starts the “repair crew” to
+work. The result is that first a great supply of blood is rushed to the
+injured part with the result that the blood vessels are filled up and
+extended with blood. Certain parts of the blood cells find their way
+through the walls of the blood vessels at the part of the injury and
+other fluids from the body are piled up there, so to speak, to form a
+congestion. This “piling up or congestion” distends the skin and raises
+the bump. On the head where the layer of muscular structure is thinner
+and where there is less space between the bones of the skull and the
+outside skin, the bump will be larger and more noticeable, because a
+good deal of blood and other fluids are piled up in a comparatively
+small space, and so the skin gets pushed out further to accommodate
+this great congestion, whereas in other parts of the body the bump may
+be quite as large but not so noticeable.
+
+[Illustration: HOW MEN GO DOWN TO THE BOTTOM OF THE SEA
+
+PUTTING ON THE SUIT.
+
+Socks, trousers and shirt in one, and a copper breastplate.]
+
+[Illustration: PUTTING ON THE IRON-SOLED SHOES.
+
+They are purposely made heavy, to help the diver sink.]
+
+
+
+
+The Deep Sea Diver
+
+
+What Does the Bottom of the Sea Look Like?
+
+It looks very much like the land on which we live. There are mountains
+and valleys, rocks and crags, trees and grass, just the same as we see
+on land, except, of course, that there are no human beings to be seen.
+Instead of birds flitting about the tree-tops, fish swim about them,
+and where the squirrel and rabbit bound through the woods on land, the
+great king crab and sea turtle drag their unwieldy forms on the ocean’s
+bottom. Some of the scenes at the bottom of the sea are like fairyland,
+and in tropical waters are often as beautiful and spectacular as those
+we see in theatrical pantomimes. Delicately tinted sea-shells, great
+trees of snow-white coral, sea foliage of every tint and shape, and
+deep dark caverns, in which lurk the devil-fish and other odd looking
+fish.
+
+
+The Diver’s Outfit.
+
+The armor of to-day consists of a rubber and canvas suit, socks,
+trousers and shirt in one, a copper breastplate or collar, a copper
+helmet, iron-soled shoes, and a belt of leaden weights to sink the
+diver.
+
+[Illustration: ADJUSTING THE TELEPHONE.
+
+This enables the diver to talk at all times to those above him.]
+
+[Illustration: PUTTING ON THE HELMET.
+
+It is made of tinned copper, with three glass-covered openings, to
+enable the diver to look out.]
+
+[Illustration: TELEPHONING FROM THE BOTTOM OF THE OCEAN
+
+TESTING THE TELEPHONE.
+
+Every precaution is taken to see that everything is in order before the
+diver goes down.]
+
+[Illustration: THE FINAL TEST.
+
+The least error in the adjustment may mean death to the diver.]
+
+The helmet is made of tinned copper, with three circular glasses, one
+in front and one on either side, with guards to protect them. The
+front eye-piece is made to unscrew and enable the diver to receive
+or give instructions without removing the helmet. One or more outlet
+valves are placed at the back or side of the helmet to allow the
+vitiated air to escape. These valves only open outwards by working
+against a spiral spring, so that no water can enter. The inlet valve
+is at the back of the helmet, and the air on entry is directed by
+three channels running along the top of the helmet to points above the
+eye-pieces, enabling the diver to always inhale fresh air. The helmet
+is secured to the breastplate below by a segmental screw-bayonet joint,
+securing attachment by one-eighth of a turn. The junction between the
+water-proof dress and the breastplate is made watertight by means of
+studs, brass plates and wing-nuts.
+
+A life or signal-line and also a modern telephone enables the diver to
+communicate at all times with those above him.
+
+The cost of a complete diving outfit ranges from $750.00 to $1,000.00.
+The weight of the armor and attachments worn by the diver is 256
+pounds, divided as follows: Helmet and breastplate, 58 pounds; belt of
+lead weights, 122 pounds; rubber suit, 19 pounds; iron-soled shoes, 27
+pounds each.
+
+The air which sustains the diver’s life below the surface is pumped
+from above by a powerful pump, which must be kept constantly at work
+while the diver is down. A stoppage of the pump a single instant while
+the diver is in deep water would result almost in his instant death
+from the pressure of the water outside.
+
+The greatest depth reached by any diver was 204 feet, at which depth
+there was a pressure of 88¹⁄₂ pounds per square inch on his body. The
+area exposed of the average diver in armor is 720 inches, which would
+have made the diver at that depth sustain a pressure of 66,960 pounds,
+or over 33 tons.
+
+The water pressure on a diver is as follows:
+
+   20 feet         8¹⁄₂ lbs.
+   30 feet        12³⁄₄ lbs.
+   40 feet        17¹⁄₄ lbs.
+   50 feet        21³⁄₄ lbs.
+   60 feet        26¹⁄₄ lbs.
+   70 feet        30¹⁄₂ lbs.
+   80 feet        34³⁄₄ lbs.
+   90 feet        39    lbs.
+  100 feet        43¹⁄₂ lbs.
+  120 feet        52¹⁄₄ lbs.
+  130 feet        56¹⁄₂ lbs.
+  140 feet        60³⁄₄ lbs.
+  150 feet        65¹⁄₄ lbs.
+  160 feet        69³⁄₄ lbs.
+  170 feet        74    lbs.
+  180 feet        78    lbs.
+  190 feet        82¹⁄₄ lbs.
+  204 feet        88¹⁄₂ lbs.
+
+The dangers of diving are manifold, and so risky is the calling that
+there are comparatively few divers in the United States. The cheapest
+of them command $10.00 a day for four or five hours’ work, and many of
+them get $50.00 and $60.00 for the same term of labor under water.
+
+The greatest danger that besets the diver is the risk he runs every
+time he dives of rupturing a blood-vessel by the excessively compressed
+air he is compelled to breathe. He is also subject to attacks from
+sharks, sword-fish, devil-fish, and other voracious monsters of
+the ocean’s depths. To defend himself against them, he carries a
+double-edged knife as sharp as a razor. It is the diver’s sole weapon
+of defense.
+
+Just how far back the art of submarine diving dates is a matter of
+conjecture, but until the invention of the present armor and helmet,
+in 1839, work and exploration under water was, at best, imperfect, and
+could only be pursued in a very limited degree.
+
+
+Feats of Divers.
+
+~THE GREATEST DIVING FEAT~
+
+Millions of dollars’ worth of property has been recovered from the
+ocean’s depth by divers. One of the greatest achievements in this line
+was by the famous English diver, Lambert, who recovered vast treasure
+from the “Alfonso XII,” a Spanish mail steamer belonging to the Lopez
+Line, which sank off Point Gando, Grand Canary, in 26¹⁄₂ fathoms of
+water. The salvage party was dispatched by the underwriters in May,
+1885, the vessel having £100,000 in specie on board. For nearly six
+months the operations were persevered in before the divers could reach
+the treasure-room beneath the three decks. Two divers lost their lives
+in the vain attempt, the pressure of water being fatal. The diver
+recovered £90,000 from the wreck, and got £4,500 for doing it.
+
+One of the most difficult operations ever performed by a diver was the
+recovering of the treasure sunk in the steamship “Malabar,” off Galle.
+On this occasion the large iron plates, half an inch thick, had to be
+cut away from the mail-room, and then the diver had to work through
+nine feet of sand. The whole of the specie on board this vessel--upward
+of $1,500,000--was saved, as much as $80,000 having been gotten out in
+one day.
+
+It is an interesting fact that from time to time expeditions have been
+fitted out, and companies formed, with the sole intention of searching
+for buried treasure beneath the sea. Again and again have expeditions
+left New York or San Francisco in the certainty of recovering tons of
+bullion sunk off the Brazilian coast, or lying undisturbed in the mud
+of the Rio de la Plata.
+
+[Illustration: The last look just before going down.]
+
+[Illustration: Coming up after a successful trip.]
+
+At the end of 1885, the large steamer Imbus, belonging to the P. & O.
+Co., sank off Trincomalee, having on board a very valuable East-India
+cargo, together with a large amount of specie. This was another case
+of a fortune found in the sea, for a very large amount of treasure was
+recovered.
+
+Another wreck from which a large sum of gold coin and bullion was
+recovered by divers, was that of the French ship “L’Orient.” She
+is stated to have had on board specie to the value of no less than
+$3,000,000, besides other treasure.
+
+A parallel case to “L’Orient” is that of the “Lutine,” a warship of
+thirty-two guns, wrecked off the coast of Holland. This vessel sailed
+from the Yarmouth Roads with an immense quantity of treasure for the
+Texel. In the course of the day it came on to blow a heavy gale; the
+vessel was lost and went to pieces. Salvage operations by divers,
+during eighteen months, resulted in the recovery of £400,000 in specie.
+
+Humorous scenes do not play much of a part on the ocean’s bottom, and
+the sublime and awe-inspiring are far more in evidence there than the
+ludicrous, yet even beneath the waves there are laughable scenes at
+times. A diver had been engaged to inspect a sunken vessel off the
+coast of Cuba. Arriving on the scene he discovered a number of native
+sponge-divers, who descend to considerable depths, diving down from
+their canoes to the sunken vessel trying to pick up something of value.
+They paid little attention to the arrival of the wrecking outfit, and
+did not notice the diver descend, until suddenly what seemed to them to
+be a horrible human-shaped monster, with an immense head of glistening
+copper and three big, round, glassy eyes, came walking around the
+vessel’s bow and made a big salaam to them. That was enough. They shot
+surfaceward like sky-rockets, climbed frantically into their canoes and
+hurriedly rowed away.
+
+
+
+
+What Happens When Anything Explodes?
+
+
+By explosives are meant substances that can be made to give off a large
+quantity of gas in an exceedingly short time, and the shorter the time
+required for the production of the gas the greater will be the violence
+of the explosion. Many substances that ordinarily have no explosive
+qualities may be made to act as explosives under certain circumstances.
+Water, for example, has caused very destructive boiler explosions when
+a quantity of it has been allowed to enter an empty boiler that had
+become red hot. Particles of dust in the air have occasioned explosions
+in saw mills, where the air always contains large quantities of dust.
+A flame introduced into air that is heavily laden with dust may cause
+a sudden burning of the particles near it, and from these the fire may
+be conveyed so rapidly to the others that the heat will cause the air
+to expand suddenly, and this, together with the formation of gases from
+the burning, will cause an explosion.
+
+It must not be thought, however, that fine sawdust or water would
+ordinarily be classed as explosives. The term is generally applied only
+to those substances that may be very easily caused to explode.
+
+The oldest, and most widely known, explosive that we possess is
+gunpowder, the invention of which is generally credited to the Chinese.
+It is a mixture of potassium nitrate, or saltpeter, with powdered
+charcoal and sulphur. The proportions in which these substances are
+mixed vary in different kinds of powder, but they usually do not differ
+much from the following:
+
+  Sulphur        10 per cent.
+  Charcoal       16 per cent.
+  Saltpeter      74 per cent.
+
+The explosive quality of gunpowder is due to the fact that it will burn
+with great rapidity without contact with the air, and that in burning
+it liberates large volumes of gas. When a spark is introduced into it,
+the carbon, charcoal, and sulphur combine with a portion of the oxygen
+contained in the saltpeter to form carbonic acid gas and sulphurous
+acid gas, and at the same time the nitrogen contained in the saltpeter
+is set free in the gaseous form. This action takes place very suddenly,
+and the volume of gas set free is so much greater than that of the
+powder that an explosion follows.
+
+In the manufacture of gunpowder all that is absolutely necessary is to
+mix the three ingredients thoroughly and in the proper proportions.
+But to fit the powder for use in firing small arms and cannon it is
+made into grains of various sizes, the small sizes being used for the
+small arms with short barrels, and the large sizes for cannon. The
+reason for this is that if the powder is made in very small grains it
+all burns at once, and the explosion takes place so suddenly that an
+exceedingly strong gun is required to withstand the explosion, while if
+larger grains are employed the burning is slower and continues until
+the projectile has traveled to the muzzle of the gun. In this way the
+projectile is fired from the gun with as much force as if the explosion
+had taken place at once, but there is less strain on the gun.
+
+
+
+
+What Causes the Smoke When a Gun Goes Off?
+
+
+Powder of this latter kind always produces a considerable quantity of
+smoke when it is fired, because there is a quantity of fine particles
+formed from the breaking up of the saltpeter and from some of the
+charcoal which is not completely burned. This smoke forms a cloud that
+takes some time to clear away, which is a very objectionable feature.
+In order to get rid of it, efforts were made to produce a substance
+that would explode without leaving any solid residue, and that could be
+used in guns. These efforts were finally successful, and there are now
+several brands of smokeless powder in use.
+
+
+
+
+What is Smokeless Powder Made Of?
+
+
+The most satisfactory forms of smokeless powder are all made from
+guncotton or nitrocellulose. This substance, which is made by treating
+cotton with a mixture of nitric and sulphuric acids, is a chemical
+compound, not a mixture like gunpowder; and when it is exploded it is
+all converted into gases, of which the chief ones are carbonic acid
+gas, nitrogen, and water-vapor. To cause the explosion of guncotton it
+is not necessary to burn it, but a mere shock or jar will cause it to
+decompose with explosive violence. Of course, such a violent explosive
+as this could not be used either in small arms or in cannon, but
+guncotton can be converted into less explosive forms which are suitable
+for use in guns, and the majority, of smokeless powders are made in
+this way. The methods used in producing the smokeless powders are kept
+secret by the various countries that use them.
+
+
+
+
+What is Nitroglycerine?
+
+
+Another very powerful explosive, which is closely related to guncotton,
+is nitroglycerine. This compound is made by treating glycerine with the
+same sort of acid mixture that is used in making guncotton. It explodes
+in the same way that guncotton does and yields the same products. It is
+an oily liquid of yellow color, and on account of its liquid form it is
+difficult to handle and use. The difficulty in handling nitroglycerine
+led to the plan of mixing it with a quantity of very fine sand called
+infusorial earth. When mixed with this a solid mass called dynamite is
+formed, which is easier to handle and more difficult to explode, but
+which has almost as much explosive force as nitroglycerine.
+
+A more powerful explosive than either nitroglycerine or guncotton is
+obtained by mixing them together. When this is done the guncotton
+swells up by absorbing the nitroglycerine and becomes a brownish,
+jelly-like substance that is known as blasting gelatin. This is
+generally considered the most powerful explosive obtainable.
+
+
+
+
+What Makes Nitroglycerine and Guncotton Explode So Readily?
+
+
+Let us now consider for the moment what it is that makes guncotton,
+nitroglycerine, and blasting gelatin explode so readily. The
+explanation is found in the presence in them of nitrogen. As you
+remember from what you learned about air, nitrogen is an extremely
+inactive element. It has no strong tendency to combine with other
+elements, and when it does enter into combination with them the
+compounds formed are almost always easily decomposed. In the compounds
+that have just been described a shock causes a loosening of the bonds
+that hold the nitrogen, and the whole compound goes to pieces just as
+an arch falls when the keystone is removed.
+
+
+
+
+What Is Silver?
+
+
+Since the earliest time recorded in history, silver has been the
+most used of the precious metals, both in the arts and as a medium
+of exchange. Even in the prehistoric times silver mines were worked
+and the metal was employed in the ornamental and useful arts. It was
+not so early used as money, and when it began to be adopted for this
+purpose, it was made into bars or rings and sold by weight. The first
+regular coinage of either gold or silver was in Phrygia, or Lydia,
+in Asia Minor. Silver was used in the arts by the Athenians, the
+Phœnicians, the Vikings, the Aztecs, the Peruvians, and in fact by all
+the civilized and semi-civilized nations of antiquity. It is found
+in almost every part of the globe, usually in combination with other
+metals. The mines in South America, Mexico, and the United States are
+especially rich. Silver is sometimes found in huge nuggets. A mass
+weighing 800 pounds was found in Peru, and it is claimed that one of
+2,700 pounds was extracted in Mexico. The ratio of the value of silver
+and gold has varied greatly. At the Christian era it was 9 to 1; 500
+A.D. it was 18 to 1; but in 1100 A.D. it was only 8 to 1. In 1893
+it was as high as 2,577 to 1. The subject has entered largely into
+American politics as a disturbing element, and in 1896 the Democratic
+party, in its national convention, declared for the free coinage of the
+metals at 16 to 1. The Republican party adhered to the gold standard
+and declared against the free coinage of silver. Each party reaffirmed
+in 1900 this plank in its platform. In both years the Democrats were
+defeated.
+
+
+
+
+What Is Worry?
+
+
+Worry is a feeling of fear, but is never of the present. It is always
+about something that may happen or that has happened. It is generally
+in the future, sometimes in the past, but never in the present.
+
+An animal that knows neither future nor past cannot worry. Babies,
+living only as they do in the present, cannot worry. All creatures,
+excepting human beings, live only in the present and therefore they do
+not worry, for such creatures cannot remember what happened in the past
+or guess what is going to happen.
+
+A human being after arriving at a certain age is given such powers
+that his mind can go back to the past and cast itself forward into the
+future as he thinks it will be, because he has imagination. As a matter
+of fact we live less in the present than in the past or future.
+
+
+
+
+Why Do We Worry?
+
+
+We worry because we are able through a power called self-consciousness
+to place ourselves through our minds for the time being. Either--back
+somewhere in the past without carrying our physical bodies with us; for
+if we could take our bodies with us, we would be in the present again,
+and then worry is impossible; or, we use our imagination and project
+the future entirely apart from our bodies, for we cannot project our
+bodies into the future, and if we could we would again be in the
+present. We worry over going to have an operation performed which may
+or not be dangerous, but quite necessary. We may still think we worry
+when the operation begins, but as soon as that occurs the time becomes
+the present, and though we may fear, we cannot worry in the present.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  _Back View of Shield_
+
+  _Longitudinal Section through Shield & Tunnel_
+
+  _Diagram showing method of tunnel construction by shield and
+  compressed air._
+
+  _Scale; ¹⁄₈ inch · 1 foot_
+
+  _Jacobs & Davies Inc. 30 Church St. N.Y._
+
+  _Oct. 15. 1910._
+
+FIGURE 1.]
+
+
+
+
+The Story in a Tunnel
+
+
+How a Tunnel Is Dug Under Water.
+
+Fig. 1. On the left is a cross section showing, in diagram, the back
+view of a shield. The heavy black circle is the “tail” or “skin.”
+The small circles within the tail are the hydraulic rams which at a
+pressure of 5,000 pounds to the square inch force the shield forward.
+The square compartments within the shield are the openings through
+which the men pass to dig away the ground. In the middle of the shield
+is shown the swinging “erector” which picks up the iron lining plates
+and puts them in position.
+
+The view on the right is a longitudinal section of the tunnel showing
+the shield and the bulkhead wall across the tunnel with the air locks
+built into it. The front of the shield ahead of the doors is made with
+a sharp edge called the “cutting edge” and this makes it easier for the
+shield to advance in case all the ground in front has not been removed.
+This view shows how the tail overlaps the last portion of the iron
+lining.
+
+Some distance behind the shield comes the concrete bulkhead wall with
+the air locks contained in it. There are two shown in the view. The
+upper one is the emergency air lock, always kept ready so that in case
+of an accident the men have a means of escape even though the lower
+part of the tunnel is filled with rushing water or mud. The lower air
+lock is for the passage of men and materials during ordinary working.
+This view also shows that all the tunnel ahead of the bulkhead wall
+is under compressed air while the finished tunnel behind the bulkhead
+wall is under the ordinary or normal air pressure. When the tunnel is
+finished the air locks and bulkhead walls are removed.
+
+[Illustration: FRONT VIEW OF A DRIVING SHIELD
+
+This shows the front of one of the shields used on the Pennsylvania
+Railroad tunnels crossing the North River at New York. The cutting edge
+is clearly seen and the various compartments, each with its door, which
+divide up the front of the shield. These shields weighed about 200 tons
+each.]
+
+
+HOW TUNNELS ARE BUILT.
+
+These notes describe very generally the way in which tunnels are built
+through mud and gravel under parts of the sea or large rivers in such
+a way that the men who build them are protected and as safe as the
+carpenter who is building a house.
+
+The way these tunnels are built is called the “shield” way because
+the machine used is called a shield. It is given this name because it
+shields the tunnel builders from the water and the mud which are ready
+at every moment to overwhelm them and kill them.
+
+The shield was invented in 1818 by a great Engineer, Marc Isambard
+Brunel, who was a Frenchman living in England. The idea of the shield
+came to him as he saw how the sea worm which attacks the wooden piles
+of docks along the shore bores the holes it makes in the wood. The head
+of this worm is very hard and can bite its way through the hardest
+woods. As it goes through the wood its body makes a hard shelly coating
+which lines the holes which its head has made and prevents the hole
+from getting filled up. This is the general idea of a tunnel built by a
+shield.
+
+The first shield was used by Mr. Brunel to make a tunnel across the
+Thames River at London, England. This is still the biggest tunnel
+ever built by a shield, although not the longest, and is still
+used by railroad trains. This tunnel was begun in 1825 and was
+finished in 1843, and provides a history of almost unexampled and
+not-to-be-excelled courage in attacking difficulties and skill in
+defeating them.
+
+Since the days of Brunel many great improvements have been made in the
+shield and in the way of working it but the same idea is still there.
+
+[Illustration: HOW THE SHIELD IS PUSHED FORWARD
+
+This shows the rear end or tail end of one of the smaller shields, used
+on the Hudson and Manhattan Railroad tunnels under the North or Hudson
+River at New York. It shows the skin, the hydraulic jacks within the
+skin and the piping and valves for working them. It also shows the
+doors leading to the front or “face.” The erector is not shown, but the
+circular hole in the middle shows where it would be attached.]
+
+[Illustration: This shows one side of an air lock bulkhead wall with
+the air lock in place. The boiler-like appearance of the lock is
+clearly visible, as well as the door and the pressure gauge to tell the
+air pressure inside the lock.]
+
+[Illustration: This is a rear view of one of the Pennsylvania Tunnel
+shields, taken after a length of tunnel had been completed. All the
+details of construction are shown, but in this case the erector is
+clearly seen also. The valves which control the erector and the rams
+which push the shield forward are seen near the top of the shield. The
+rods across the tunnel are turn-buckles used to keep the iron lining
+from getting out of shape in the soft mud. These are removed later. The
+floor and tracks in the bottom are temporary and are used for bringing
+materials to and from the shield.]
+
+After the days of Brunel’s shield another great help was given to
+tunnel builders by the invention of the use of compressed air to hold
+back the water which saturates the ground in which the tunnel is being
+built.
+
+~WHO INVENTED THE COMPRESSED AIR METHOD~
+
+The first real invention of compressed air for this purpose was made
+by Admiral Sir Thomas Cochrane who, in 1830, took out a patent for the
+use of compressed air to expel the water from the ground in shafts and
+tunnels and, by this means, to convert the ground from a condition of
+quicksand to one of firmness. This patent covers all the essential
+features of compressed air working.
+
+As suggested above, the thing which compressed air does in a tunnel
+is to push the water out from all the spaces which it fills in the
+ground, so that the men who are digging away the ground for the tunnel
+are working in firm dry ground instead of a mixture of earth and water
+which will run into and fill the hole they dig as soon as it is dug.
+
+Whenever a tunnel is being built below a body of water through ground
+which is porous, or in other words through any ground except solid
+rock or dense clay, the water fills every crevice and space in the
+ground and is exerting a pressure of about half a pound per square inch
+above the ordinary pressure of the air, (which is 15 pounds to the
+square inch) for every foot of depth below the surface of the water;
+so that supposing the tunnel is 40 feet below the water the water has
+a pressure of nearly 20 pounds per square inch on every square inch
+of the surface of the tunnel. This pressure causes the water to flow
+violently into any hole or opening that is made in the ground, and,
+unless the water is prevented from moving by some means or other, the
+opening made would be very quickly filled with water and also with
+ground as the rush of water will carry the sand, gravel or mud with it.
+
+By Cochrane’s invention the whole tunnel is filled with air under
+a pressure equal to the pressure of the water. This compressed air
+therefore balances the pressure of the water and holds it back from
+moving, and if the pressure of the air is made slightly greater than
+that of the water the water is driven back from the tunnels for a short
+distance so that when the tunnel is being dug the ground instead of
+being wet is quite dry.
+
+This explains the principles of the shield and compressed air way of
+making a tunnel.
+
+The following describes very shortly how these principles are put to
+actual use.
+
+Most tunnels which are built by shield and compressed air under rivers
+or arms of the sea are lined with cast iron plates to protect the
+railway or roadway which is in the tunnel.
+
+The tunnel is a circular tube, or shell, and the plates have flanges
+on all sides which are bolted together. This shell is put into place,
+plate by plate, by means of the shield which not only protects the
+workmen and the work under construction, but which helps to build the
+iron shell. In fact it corresponds to the sea worm which bores through
+the wood and lines the hole with a shell. In the case of the tunnel
+the shell is made of iron. The shield itself consists of a steel tube
+or cylinder slightly bigger in diameter than the tube or tunnel it
+is intended to build. The front edge of this shield is made up of a
+ring of sharp edged castings which form what is called the “cutting
+edge.” Just behind the cutting edge is a bulkhead or wall of steel, in
+which are openings which may be opened or closed at will. Behind this
+bulkhead are placed a number of hydraulic jacks or presses arranged
+around the shield and within it, so that by thrusting against the last
+erected ring of iron lining the whole shield is pushed forward. The
+rear end of the shield is a continuation of the cylinder which forms
+the front end, and this part, called the “tail,” always overlaps the
+last few feet of the built up iron shell.
+
+[Illustration: This is a photograph of a model of the Pennsylvania
+Tunnels to New York City, made for the Jamestown Tercentenary
+Exposition of 1907. It is given because it illustrates, as no
+photograph of actual work could do, the relationship between the
+shield, the tunnel itself and the air lock. This view shows the rear
+part of the shield on the extreme left, with the erector picking up an
+iron plate. It shows a man bringing a car with two of the iron plates
+up to the shield. Behind this man comes the bulkhead wall with the
+emergency air lock in the top and the ordinary air lock for passing
+in and out at the bottom. It also shows the upper platform to the
+emergency lock along which the men can get to the emergency lock in
+case of an accident.]
+
+[Illustration: This is another view of the same model, but showing the
+front view of the shield. The doors on the air locks are clearly shown.]
+
+[Illustration: This is a photograph taken in one of the Pennsylvania
+tunnels under the Hudson River. It shows the soft mud, through which
+the tunnel is being built, flowing in a thick stream through one of
+the doors of the shield. The mud under the Hudson, where these tunnels
+are, is so soft that often the shield was pushed through the mud with
+all the doors shut, so that no mud came into the tunnel and no digging
+had to be done, but the shield pushed its way bodily through the mud,
+the rings of iron lining being built up behind as usual. Generally,
+however, a certain amount of mud was brought in and had to be removed.
+This photograph shows how it looked.]
+
+~HOW THE SHIELD CUTS THROUGH THE GROUND~
+
+The diagram, Fig. 1, shows more clearly what is meant. From an
+inspection of Figure 1 it is clear that, when the openings in the
+shield bulkhead are closed, the tunnel is protected from an inrush
+of either water or earth; the openings in the bulkhead may be so
+regulated that control is maintained over the material passed through.
+After a ring of iron lining has been erected within the tail of the
+shield, the shield doors are opened and men go through them and dig
+out enough earth for the shield to go ahead. The rams are then thrust
+out thus pushing the shield ahead. Another ring of iron is built up
+within the tail for which purpose an hydraulic swinging arm, called the
+“erector,” is mounted on the shield face. This erector picks up the
+plates and puts them into position, one by one, while the men bolt them
+together. Excavation is then carried on again and the whole round of
+work repeated, gaining every time the jacks are rammed or thrust out
+a length equal to the length of one ring of iron lining. In carrying
+out this work in ground charged with water the shield is assisted by
+introducing compressed air as described before. To use the compressed
+air thick bulkhead walls of masonry are built across the tunnel behind
+the shield and into the space between the shield and the bulkhead wall
+air is pumped, compressed to the same pressure as that of the water in
+the ground, or in other words the pressure of the air in pounds per
+square inch is about half the number of feet the tunnel is below the
+water surface. This dries the ground and simplifies enormously the
+difficulty of working in it. The diagram, (Fig. 1) shows a bulkhead
+wall across the tunnel. In order to pass from the ordinary air outside
+the bulkhead into the compressed air inside it, all the men and the
+materials have to pass through the “air locks” which are built into
+the wall. They are called air locks because they are like the locks on
+a canal which raise the water from a lower to a higher level or lower
+it from a higher to a lower level as the case may be. The difference
+is that an air lock enables one to pass from air at a low pressure to
+one of a higher, or vice versa. An air lock is made like a large boiler
+with a door at each end. If we wish to enter the compressed air we
+enter the lock from the outside. The door at the end has been tightly
+closed to prevent the compressed air from rushing out. We close the
+door behind us and are now tightly shut in the boiler-like lock. We now
+open a valve and compressed air begins to flow quickly into the air
+lock and the air gets hotter and hotter, due to the compression of the
+air. Very likely an intense pain begins to make itself felt in the ears
+but by swallowing hard and blowing the nose it may be relieved. It is
+caused by the air pressure being greater on the outside of the ear drum
+than on the inside. If the delicate ear passages are choked, because
+of a cold or some such reason, it is unsafe to go further or the ear
+drum may burst. When the pressure in the air lock has reached that in
+the working chamber, the door leading to the shield may be opened and
+we can pass to the working space and note the work going on. There is
+no especial bodily sensation to be felt except a slight exhilaration
+and it is curious to find that one cannot whistle. On leaving the
+compressed air we enter the air lock by the door we left; a valve is
+turned and the air begins to escape and the pressure in the air lock
+begins to go down. As it does so the air becomes colder and colder
+and the whole lock is filled with a wet fog due to the chilling by
+expansion of the air. The air has to be allowed to escape very slowly,
+as bubbles of air and gas otherwise form in the blood vessels and
+tissues of the body giving rise to the very painful complaint known to
+tunnel builders as “the bends,” and in very serious cases to paralysis
+and even death. The higher the air pressure the more slowly must one
+come out into the ordinary air.
+
+[Illustration: MAKING THE JOINTS WATER TIGHT
+
+This shows the erector building up the iron lining in one of the
+Pennsylvania tunnels at New York. It shows clearly how the iron plates
+are bolted together to make the rings of iron lining.]
+
+[Illustration: The last, or closing, plate of each iron ring is called
+the “key,” and is much shorter than the others. This photograph shows
+the shield erector on one of the Pennsylvania tunnels picking up and
+putting into place a key plate. This picture gives an idea of the mud
+and dirt and wet in which the men who work in tunnels have to do their
+work.]
+
+[Illustration: Wherever possible, every space and crevice outside the
+iron lining is filled with cement forced, in a liquid state, through
+the iron lining by compressed air. This photograph shows the operation
+of “grouting,” as it is called. The man at the left is in control of
+the grouting. He has the hose, through which the grout is forced,
+screwed to a pipe which passes through a hole made for the purpose in
+the iron lining plates and called a “grout hole.” The two men in the
+middle of the picture are attending to the “grouting machine” by which
+the work is done. Water and cement are fed into the small boiler-like
+tank, the tank closed and compressed air admitted thus blowing the
+liquid cement through the hose and behind the iron lining. When no
+more grout can be forced behind the iron lining all the space has been
+filled. The man on the right is the engineers’ inspector taking note of
+how much grouting is done, and seeing that the work is properly carried
+out.]
+
+[Illustration: This shows the process by which the iron lining is made
+perfectly water-tight, so that, when the compressed air is taken off,
+no water at all can get into the tunnel. Two operations are shown here.
+One is called “grommetting the bolts,” the other is called “caulking
+the joints.” The two men on the left, hanging on to the wrench, are
+tightening up the bolts as tight as they can after having put on,
+underneath the washers at the head and nut of each bolt, a ring of
+spun yarn dipped in red lead and oil or tar or some such water-proof
+material. A few of these “grommets” may be seen at the feet of the
+third man from the left. The other four men are caulking the joints
+between the iron plates by driving into the joints a mixture of sal
+ammoniac and iron borings. This sets as hard as iron and if properly
+done makes a perfectly water-tight joint.]
+
+[Illustration: THE REMARKABLE ACCURACY OF ENGINEERING
+
+Usually when crossing, with a tunnel, a wide river or estuary the
+tunnel is started from each shore and the shields are pushed through
+the ground until they meet somewhere about the middle of the river.
+This shows two of the Pennsylvania tunnel shields which have met far
+below the Hudson River. The white arrow shows where each shield ends.
+The platform of one shield on which the man stands corresponds exactly
+with the platform of the other shield. As may be imagined, it takes
+very careful and skillful engineering and surveying work, both before
+the work is begun and while it is being carried out, to enable tunnel
+shields to meet like this. This part of the art of tunnelling would
+take an article to itself.]
+
+When the shield has been pushed across the entire length of the water
+way which has to be tunnelled, and the whole of the iron tube or shell
+is in place, a thick lining of concrete is placed inside the iron shell
+to protect it and make the tunnel stronger. As an added safeguard
+wherever the tunnel is in rock, gravel, strong clay or other ground
+which is not so soft that it does not close tightly in on the outside
+of the tube, liquid cement is forced by compressed air through holes
+made in the iron plates for this purpose. This liquid cement enters
+every pore or crevice in the surrounding ground and when it has set
+hard it still further protects the iron with a coating of cement.
+Pieces have been cut out of the iron lining of a tunnel built under the
+river Thames at London, England, in 1869, which showed that the iron
+at all places was as good as the day it was first put in forty years
+before, and iron put in the lining of the Hudson River Tunnel about
+1878 when removed after thirty years was in perfect condition.
+
+[Illustration: SHIELD AT END OF JOURNEY
+
+Sometimes, however, shields are not driven to meet one another, but end
+their journey at some shaft or in some other tunnel previously built,
+after having gone through thousands of feet of all kinds of ground,
+from the hardest rock, which had to be blasted out foot by foot before
+the shield could advance, through hard pan, gravel, boulders, piles,
+rip-rap, made ground and mud so soft that it flows like melted butter.
+Naturally, after an experience like this a shield does not look as
+spick and span as when it started in life. This photograph shows one
+of the shields of the Hudson and Manhattan Railroad in New York just
+reaching the end of its journey, battered and bent but still in the
+ring.]
+
+[Illustration: This shows a piece of curved tunnel near Morton Street,
+on the Hudson and Manhattan Railroad, and is given because of the clear
+showing it gives of the iron lining. The track and floor are only the
+temporary roads for use during construction.]
+
+[Illustration: Sometimes it is necessary to make borings of the ground
+below the tunnels. In some of these bore holes vast quantities of water
+are found at a much higher pressure than the tunnel compressed air.
+This picture shows a spouting bore hole in one of the Pennsylvania
+tunnels during construction.]
+
+[Illustration: The last thing to do before laying the track is to put
+the concrete inside the iron lining. This picture shows this work going
+on and the wooden forms or ribs for holding up the concrete while it is
+setting.]
+
+[Illustration: THE LAND END OF A GREAT TUNNEL UNDER THE HUDSON
+
+This view is given to show how complicated an underground structure
+may have to be made to take care of the requirements of traffic. This
+view shows the three great reinforced concrete caissons sunk through
+the earth at Jersey City in order to contain the switches and crossings
+required to form the New Jersey connections of the uptown and downtown
+tunnels of the Hudson and Manhattan Railroad.
+
+These caissons were sunk under air pressure by excavating below them
+just as though they were tunnels turned up on end. In sinking these
+caissons the material passed through was water-logged made ground, and
+the hulls of two sunken canal boats were encountered and had to be cut
+into pieces small enough to be taken out through the locks.
+
+The usual passenger rushing at high speed in the trains between Jersey
+City and Newark and New York has little idea of the very complicated
+structure necessary to allow of his doing so.
+
+The information in this article was supplied by Jacobs & Davies, Inc.,
+Consulting Engineers, 30 Church Street, New York, the Engineers for the
+Pennsylvania Railroad, Hudson River Tunnels, the Hudson and Manhattan
+Railroad, and many other tunnels in various parts of the world.
+
+The illustrations were kindly supplied by the Pennsylvania Railroad and
+the Hudson and Manhattan Railroad.]
+
+~DANGERS OF TUNNEL BUILDING~
+
+This account of tunnelling by shield and compressed air is very
+short and gives no more than a bare statement of the principles and
+chief methods of such work. Nothing has been said of the engineering
+difficulties involved in the design of such work, nor of the delicate
+surveying work necessary if one should hope to start two shields a
+mile or two apart and have them meet as shown in Fig. 13 like two
+great glass tumblers placed rim to rim after having travelled through
+thousands of feet of every kind of ground. Nothing has been said of the
+men who work on this most arduous form of subterranean navigation, how
+they cheerfully face the dark and the water ever threatening above them
+and the unseen but not less deadly ally, and yet foe, the compressed
+air, with its dreaded result, the bends, or the men on the surface
+who keep the air compressors running without pause or stop day in and
+day out until the work is done so that their comrades below may work
+in safety. Nothing has been said of the curious accidents that are
+liable to occur as when the air pressure in the tunnel gets too high,
+overbalances the water pressure and blows a hole through the river-bed
+and forms a geyser in the river above. It gives no account of the
+special difficulties which arise when special conditions are found;
+for example, when the lower part of the tunnel is in rock and the
+upper part is in soft material. In fact it is nothing more than a bare
+outline but it hoped that some, who may not be clear in their minds as
+to how tunnels are built, may learn some of the first principles of
+this most romantic kind of work from this bald narrative.
+
+
+
+
+Why Do My Teeth Chatter?
+
+
+Your teeth chatter because when you are cold in a way that makes your
+teeth chatter the little muscles which close the jaw act in a series of
+quick little contractions which pull the jaw up, and then let it fall
+by its own weight. This is repeated many times and, as the action is
+quick, the chattering occurs. It is a peculiar thing that this occurs
+in spite of the will or brain, when, as a matter of fact, these muscles
+which operate the jaws are especially under the control of the brain.
+The chattering is really a spasm caused by the cold, and all spasms act
+independent of the will. Cold seems to act on the jaw muscles a good
+deal like some poisons which cause spasms.
+
+
+
+
+Where Did All the Water in the Oceans Come From?
+
+
+No, it did not come from the rivers which empty themselves into the
+oceans, because the oceans were there before the rivers existed. Part
+of it comes from the rivers now, but only a little in comparison to all
+the water there is in the ocean. I will try to tell you simply how all
+the water got into the ocean.
+
+There was a time when there was no water on the earth at all. That was
+when the earth was red hot, just as it is to-day on the inside, and at
+that time all the water we have to-day was up in the air in the form of
+gases. Strange as it may seem to you, if you take two gases, one called
+hydrogen and the other oxygen, and mix them the right way, they will
+turn into water, and if you had the right kind of chemical apparatus
+you could take water and turn it into these gases again. When, then,
+the earth was still all red hot, all of our water was up in the air in
+the form of these two gases. Then, later on, when the amount of heat on
+the earth was just right to make these gases mix together, the water
+came down out of the air in great quantities, and there was so much of
+it that it completely covered the whole earth and no land was visible.
+Later on, for various reasons, mountains were thrown up on the earth’s
+surface by great earthquakes, and every time a mountain or a high place
+was formed there had to be a hole or low place some place else, and the
+water ran into these low places and stayed there, and that uncovered
+more of the land, because there wasn’t enough water to fill all the
+holes and cover the land too, and that is what makes our continents
+and islands and all of the land we see. There is now about three times
+as much earth covered with water as there is land. Of course, the sun
+is always picking up water through what is called evaporation, which
+means that it is taken into the air in the form of gases. Later it
+comes down again in the form of rain and falls into the oceans or on
+the land, where it sinks in, finally finding a stream or river, and
+sooner or later gets back into the ocean again.
+
+
+
+
+Why Don’t the Water in the Ocean Sink In?
+
+
+This is due to the fact that there is a kind of substance at the
+bottom of the ocean which the water cannot penetrate, in spite of the
+tremendous pressure which the great body of deep water exerts. In all
+places where the bottom of the ocean has a covering which water can
+sink into it does so, but there are such a few places where this is
+possible, by comparison, that the amount that gets out that way is not
+noticeable. This water, if it can keep on going, will eventually reach
+the inside of the earth, where it is red hot, and is turned into steam.
+
+
+
+
+Where Does the Water in the Ocean Go at Low Tide?
+
+
+To get to the answer of this you must know something about the tides.
+The tide is caused by the pull of the moon on the waters in the ocean.
+The moon revolves about the earth once each day and has the ability to
+draw up the waters in the ocean toward it, as we have seen in our study
+of the tides.
+
+Now, when it is high tide in one place it is low tide in another. The
+moon does not make more water, but only pulls it toward it from side to
+side. When it is low tide where we are the water has simply moved as a
+body toward the place where it is high tide.
+
+The tides act a good deal like a see-saw, except that they move from
+side to side instead of up and down. When one end of the see-saw goes
+up the other end goes down, and when the “down” end comes up the other
+end goes down. So the answer to your question really is that at low
+tide the water which made it high tide a few hours before has gone to
+some place where it is at that moment high tide.
+
+
+
+
+Why Does the Ocean Look Blue at Times and at Other Times Green?
+
+
+Sometimes when we look at the ocean from the pavilion or while on the
+sand of our favorite bathing beach the water in the ocean looks very
+beautifully blue, and on other days will look dark green from the same
+point. Why is it? If you will stop to think that at night when there is
+no moon or other light the water in the ocean looks black, I think you
+will soon be on the right track to answer the question yourself.
+
+When the sky is blue--the kind of blue we like to see in the sky when
+we are at the beach--the water in the ocean is blue, because the sea
+reflects the color of the sky, and when the sky is overcast and gray
+the color reflected by the sea will be gray also.
+
+But, say you, sometimes the water in the ocean is dark green, and yet
+the sky is never green. Quite true, and I will try to tell you what
+produces the green color. This happens sometimes where the water is
+shallow, either near the shore or out further where there is a sandbar
+or other shallow place. Sometimes at such points the sunlight strikes
+the water at such an angle that the rays go clear to the bottom and are
+reflected from that point--the bottom--to our eyes. In such a case the
+light will be changed through a combination of the color of the bottom
+at that point and the color of the sky itself at the time to make the
+color green as it is reflected to our eyes from the bottom.
+
+
+
+
+Why Does Water Run?
+
+
+Water runs because it has not enough of anything in it to make it stick
+together.
+
+In school language we call this sticking-together-thing “cohesion.”
+The principle of cohesion makes all the difference there is, so to
+speak, between solids, liquids and gases. A brick, a stone, a stick
+of wood, or a piece of iron and all other solid substances have a
+certain amount of this property of cohesion, and the particles stick
+together, enabling us to build buildings and other things which become
+permanent structures. These solid substances are either naturally
+cohesive or else man, as in the case of the brick, has brought together
+certain things with little or no cohesion and made them stick together
+permanently. In the case of the brick, he takes a quantity of clay,
+which is cohesive only to a certain degree, bakes it in an oven and
+it becomes hard enough--more cohesive--so that he can pile one on top
+of the other and make a building. Then he puts sand, mixed with other
+things--lime and water--between the bricks to hold the bricks together,
+and makes a structure that will last. Two bricks have no natural
+cohesion for each other and, therefore, they can only be held together
+by something that has cohesion within itself and also for the bricks.
+The lime, sand and water make mortar which is cohesive when properly
+mixed, while in themselves neither lime nor sand have much cohesive
+property, and water has none at all.
+
+Liquids have little or no cohesion. Water has none, or very little.
+Syrup has a good deal more, but will run over the edge of a piece of
+bread and butter if you are not careful.
+
+Gases have no cohesive properties at all and, therefore, fly all over
+the place, through any opening they can find, either at the top of the
+room or under the crack of the door. They are always trying to get to
+some place else and will keep moving as long as not confined. Gases can
+move in any direction.
+
+Liquids, however, while they are inclined to be constantly on the move,
+can only go in one direction--down hill, and they go down fast or slow
+if there is a chance, in proportion to the amount of stick-together
+properties they have. Liquids can never go up of their own accord,
+excepting in the process of evaporation, and then only when changed
+into gases. A lake of water will dry up completely by evaporation
+unless fed by streams of water constantly flowing in, because
+evaporation is constantly taking place wherever water is exposed to the
+air.
+
+
+
+
+What Makes the Water Boil?
+
+
+What we call boiling in the water we see when water is put over a hot
+fire long enough to make it boil, is the changing of the water from
+what we generally regard it--a liquid--into gases. Water consists of
+two gases--hydrogen and oxygen--in fact, two parts of hydrogen gas and
+one part of oxygen gas when mixed will always make pure water. Now,
+then, if liquid water is heated to a certain point or temperature it
+turns into the two gases, oxygen and hydrogen, and comes to the top of
+the water, which still remains in liquid form, in the form of a bubble
+and explodes into the air--not a very loud explosion, but still an
+explosion. The process of turning liquid water into gases is a gradual
+one, and that is why the water does not all turn into one large bubble
+at once and explode away. If you keep the fire going long enough, all
+the water in the vessel will explode away into the air, a few bubbles
+at a time. If you hold a cold plate over the vessel as the bubble
+explodes you can catch some of these gases in the form of bubbles on
+the under side of the plate, which are again liquid water. When the
+water becomes hot enough it turns into bubbles and as bubbles rise
+that is what makes the boiling you see. When the same gases then come
+together again in a certain proportion under proper temperature they
+turn into liquid water.
+
+
+
+
+At What Point of Heat Does Water Boil?
+
+
+The boiling point of water is the temperature at which it begins to
+pass into the form of gases. This varies in different altitudes. At
+the sea level the boiling point is at 212° Fahrenheit. On the top of
+mountains, for instance, water would boil at a much lower temperature.
+It would be possible to go high enough in a balloon so that the water
+would fly from the pan in the form of gas without making the water hot.
+Also, a mile below the level of the sea it would take many more degrees
+of heat to make the water boil. It is said that high up in a balloon
+you could not boil an egg hard in a pan of boiling water if you kept it
+in the boiling water for an hour or more, whereas we know that an egg
+will be hard-boiled if we keep it in boiling water down where we live
+for more than five minutes.
+
+The degree of heat at which water passes away into the form of gases
+is regulated by the pressure of the air on the water and other things
+about us. At the average level in the United States where people
+live the pressure of the air on everything is fifteen pounds to the
+square inch, and at this pressure water boils only after it reaches a
+temperature of 212° Fahrenheit. As we go up the mountains the pressure
+becomes less and less as we go up. At the top of Mount Blanc, which is
+15,781 feet high, water boils at 185° Fahrenheit. If we took a balloon
+from the top of the mountain we would come to a height where there was
+no air pressure at all.
+
+
+
+
+What Do We Mean by Fahrenheit?
+
+
+The name Fahrenheit is used to distinguish the kind of scale most
+commonly used on thermometers in Great Britain and the United States.
+Gabriel Daniel Fahrenheit, a native of Dantzic, made the first
+thermometer on which this scale was used, and it is named after him. In
+this scale for thermometers the space between the freezing point and
+the boiling point is divided into 180 degrees--the point for freezing
+being marked 32 degrees and the boiling point 212 degrees.
+
+
+
+
+Why Can’t We Swim as Easily in Fresh Water as in Salt Water?
+
+
+Our bodies are heavier than fresh water, i. e., a bulk of fresh water
+equal to the size of our body would weigh less than our body, so that
+the first tendency is to sink to the bottom if we find ourselves in
+fresh water. If man had not learned to swim that is what he would
+always do, sink to the bottom; but having learned how to keep from
+sinking, he is able to swim in fresh water. However, we find that an
+amount of salt water equal to the bulk of a man in size is heavier than
+an equal amount of fresh water, although such a bulk of ordinary salt
+sea water will still weigh less than the man. A man will sink in salt
+water also if he has not learned to swim or float, but he can keep up
+with less effort in salt water, and also swim in it more easily. In
+a nutshell, then, the answer to this question is that salt water is
+heavier than fresh water. You can make salt water so full of salt that
+it becomes heavier than a man. Great Salt Lake in Utah is so salty that
+one cannot sink in it for this reason. You could drown yourself in it,
+of course, by keeping your head under water, but whether in shallow
+water or deep water you would not sink in Great Salt Lake.
+
+
+
+
+Why Do We Say Some Water Is Hard and Other Water Soft?
+
+
+What we call hard water contains certain salts which soft water does
+not contain. This salt in hard water is lime or some other salts which
+the water has picked up out of the ground as it passed through either
+coming up or going down. On the other hand, we can guess after having
+been told this much that if we can find any water that has not passed
+through the ground, and, therefore, not had a chance to pick up any
+salts, we will have soft water. From that point it is easy to guess,
+then, that rain water must be soft water, and so it is. The water in
+the cisterns, which is rain water, is soft water, and the kind we get
+out of the wells is hard water.
+
+We do not like to wash either our faces or our clothes in hard water,
+especially when it is necessary to use soap, because when we use soap
+with hard water the soap undergoes chemical change which prevents its
+dissolving in the water. Therefore, you cannot easily do a good job
+of washing in hard water. On the other hand it is easy to dissolve
+the soap in pure rain water or soft water and that is the kind we,
+therefore, prefer for washing.
+
+
+
+
+How Does Water Put a Fire Out?
+
+
+This is at first a puzzling question, because back in your mind is the
+thought that since hydrogen and oxygen are necessary to make a fire
+burn, it seems strange that water, which is composed of oxygen and
+hydrogen, will also put it out.
+
+A burning fire throws off heat, but if too much of the heat is taken
+from the fire suddenly the temperature of the fire is sent down so far
+below the point at which the oxygen of the air will combine with it
+that the fire cannot burn. We speak commonly as though water thrown on
+a fire drowns it. That is practically what happens. Scientifically what
+happens is that the water thrown upon the fire absorbs so much of the
+heat to itself that the temperature of the fire is reduced below the
+point where oxygen will combine with the carbon in the burning material
+and the fire goes out.
+
+To answer the unasked part of your question at the same time I will
+say that hydrogen and oxygen when combined as water will put the fire
+out rather than make it burn, more because when these gases take the
+form of water they are already once burned, and you know that anything,
+substance or gas, which has already been burned cannot be burned again.
+It required great heat to make oxygen and hydrogen combine and form
+water, and it also takes great heat to separate them again. So they are
+really burned once before they become water.
+
+
+
+
+Where Does the Rain Go?
+
+
+Eventually almost all of the rain that falls runs into the rivers
+and lakes and later finds its way into the ocean, where it is again
+taken up into the air by the sun’s rays. But many other things happen
+to parts of the rain which do not find their way into the ocean. In
+the paved street, of course, where the water cannot sink in, it flows
+into the gutter and thence into the sewer and on down to the river or
+wherever it is that the sewers are emptied. You see, it depends very
+much on what the earth’s surface is covered with at the place where
+the rain falls. When it strikes where there is vegetation a great deal
+of it stays in the soil at a depth of comparatively few feet. If it is
+soil where trees and other plants grow a great deal of it is sucked up
+from the ground by this vegetation and given back into the air through
+the leaves and flowers. Some of the rain keeps sinking on down into the
+earth until it strikes some substance like rock or clay, through which
+it cannot sink, and then it follows along this until it finds something
+it can get through and collects in a pool and forms an underground
+lake, and may cause a spring to flow. Then there are also worms and
+other forms of animal life in the earth which use up some of the water.
+But it all gets back into the air eventually to come down some time
+again in the form of rain.
+
+
+
+
+Why Does Rain Make the Air Fresh?
+
+
+The main answer to this question must be that the rain in coming down
+through the air drives the dust and other impurities which are in the
+air before it, and so cleans the air and makes it absolutely clean.
+In addition to this it is now stated that since very often rain is
+produced by electrical changes in the air, and that these electrical
+changes produce a gas called ozone, which has a delightfully fresh
+smell, it is this ozone that makes us say the air has become fresh.
+
+The air above our cities is almost constantly filled with smoke,
+containing various poisonous gases, and these are driven away by the
+falling rain.
+
+Then, too, there is always a greater or less accumulation of dirt,
+garbage and other things in the cities which give off offensive smells
+constantly, but which we do not notice always because we become used to
+them. When the rain comes down it washes the streets and destroys these
+smells, and that makes the air fresh and delightful to take into the
+lungs.
+
+In the country the air is more nearly pure all the time, because the
+things which spoil the air in the city are not present.
+
+
+
+
+Is a Train Harder to Stop Than to Start?
+
+
+The answer is yes. It is harder to stop a train than to start it, or
+rather it takes more power. The speed of a train depends upon the
+motive power. When a train is stopped and you wish to start it, you
+must apply enough motive power to start it going. There must be enough
+power to move the weight of the train and overcome the friction of the
+wheels on the track. It is, of course, easier to move a thing that
+weighs less than a heavier one. If you throw a ball ten feet into the
+air, it will perhaps not sting your hand when you catch it on its
+return; but, if you throw it one hundred feet into the air, it will
+sting your hands when you catch it. Besides, it will come down faster
+the last ten feet of the way than the ball which you threw only ten
+feet into the air. This is because when movement is applied to anything
+you add power to it. The ball which comes down from one hundred feet
+in the air acquires more power in falling and it takes more power to
+stop it. A train in motion has not only the power of the weight of the
+train behind it, but also the additional weight which the movement of
+the train has given it. Therefore, it takes more power to stop it than
+to start it. To stop a train you must apply the same amount of power as
+is in the moving train because the power to stop any moving thing must
+always be at least as great as the power which is moving it.
+
+
+
+
+What Makes the Knots In Boards?
+
+
+We find knots in the boards which we notice in a lumber pile or in any
+other place where boards happen to be, because the smaller limbs which
+grow away from the larger limbs of trees grow from the inside as well
+as the outside of the tree.
+
+When you see a knot in a board it means that before the tree was cut
+down and the log sawed up into boards, a limb was growing out from the
+inside of the tree at the spot where the knot occurs.
+
+You will also find that the wood in the knot is harder generally than
+the rest of the board. This is because more strength is required at the
+base of a limb and in the part of the limb which grew inside the tree
+than in other parts, for the limb must be strong enough to support not
+only the limb itself, but also the smaller limbs which grow out of it.
+
+
+
+
+How Many Stars Are There?
+
+
+Man may never know how many stars there are. The best we can do is
+to figure on the number that can be seen with the largest telescopes
+which have been invented, for, of course, you know there must be many
+millions of them which to us are invisible. We have counted the stars
+so far as we can see them; or, rather, so far as we can photograph
+them. Astronomers have found that a photographic plate exposed to the
+stars will show more of them than can be seen by the naked eye. This
+is because the materials on a photographic plate are more sensitive
+to the light of the stars than the human eye. By this method man has
+been able in a way to count the stars he can see. It adds up to more
+than a hundred million of them. Astronomers found this out by taking
+photographs of the heavens at night, devoting one picture to each
+section, until the entire heavens had been covered, and then counting
+them.
+
+[Illustration: WHERE PAINT COMES FROM
+
+MAKING LEAD BUCKLES--THE FIRST STEP IN PAINT MAKING.]
+
+
+
+
+The Story in a Can of Paint
+
+
+Paint such as is most frequently used is the material used for painting
+buildings, such as houses, barns, stores, and many others which we need
+not mention here. This paint is used on these buildings mostly for two
+very important reasons--one being to beautify the buildings, the other
+being to protect them from the ravages of the weather, much in the same
+way that your clothes protect you from the weather.
+
+Paint such as we mention here may be regarded as the most simple
+and useful form. You have no doubt frequently seen the painter-man
+spreading paint on some building, or perchance, you have seen your
+father doing it, and have noticed that paint is a fluid substance
+looking something like cream, which is applied to the surface to be
+painted with a suitable brush and is brushed out smoothly. After the
+first coat is dry, other coats are put on in the same way until enough
+paint has been put on to thoroughly hide the unevenness of the lumber
+and making it of a uniform color.
+
+This paint is made by simply mixing together dry powder, which is
+usually called pigment, with a thin, yellowish liquid which is called
+linseed oil. In the earlier days, the painter-man mixed this paint
+himself whenever he desired to use it. In these more modern times, he
+usually buys this paint already prepared.
+
+Perhaps a little history of the preparation of the package of a can of
+paint which he buys may be interesting to you.
+
+Let us imagine that the can of paint is white. In this case, the
+pigment which is used is a white powder and is made of either metallic
+lead or metallic zinc. The preparation of this fine white powder is
+very interesting and requires considerable time to perfect.
+
+Let us consider the pigment known as white lead first. This is produced
+by causing metallic lead, which is of a bluish-gray color and very
+heavy, to change from its original form by a process which is known
+as “corrosion.” This corrosion is brought about by first taking the
+metallic lead, which at this stage exists in large pieces known as
+“pigs.” These pigs of lead are melted in a furnace and then molded into
+small, thin shapes which are buckles.
+
+[Illustration: HOW WHITE LEAD IS MADE
+
+FILLING THE STACK WITH LEAD BUCKLES.]
+
+[Illustration: LEAD BEING TAKEN OUT OF THE STACKS.
+
+The next step is to take an earthenware vessel, which resembles an
+ordinary stone crock, and first pour into it a small quantity of acetic
+acid, which is about the same as table vinegar. Then the crock or pot
+is filled up with the lead buckles.
+
+Where this white lead is made in a large way many thousands of these
+pots are placed in a building, the sides of which are walled up tight,
+the spaces between the crocks being filled in with tan bark. After
+the floor has been covered with a layer of these crocks, the layer is
+covered with boards, in order to provide a foundation for setting in
+the next layer of crocks and tan bark. The layer of boards also serves
+as a floor to keep the tan bark from falling into the open crocks on
+the tier below. This procedure is followed with tier after tier until
+the building is completely filled.
+
+Corrosion of the metallic lead in the pots now begins, because the tan
+bark generates some heat, becoming finally quite warm. This heat causes
+the acetic acid or vinegar to throw off vapor or steam, which attacks
+the metallic lead, causing it to decompose or corrode. This process
+goes on for many weeks (sometimes as much as fifteen or sixteen weeks),
+until those buckles of metallic lead have become a mass of white powder
+and nearly all trace of the original metallic lead has disappeared.]
+
+[Illustration: A LEAD BUCKLE AFTER CORROSION.]
+
+[Illustration: A LEAD BUCKLE BEFORE CORROSION.]
+
+[Illustration: HOW OXIDE OF ZINC IS OBTAINED
+
+WASHING THE LEAD. SCREENS COVERED WITH CLOTH REMOVE ALL FOREIGN MATTER.
+
+After these many weeks have passed, the pots containing the white
+powder of carbonate of lead, as it is called, is taken out of the
+building where corrosion took place, and the white deposit is put
+through an elaborate system of refining, which is called “washing,”
+and, in fact, is really washed in water, and is then dried in very
+large copper pans. After being dried it is in the form of large white
+cakes, resembling pieces of chalk. These cakes are then passed through
+a mill, which grinds them to very fine powder, which is packed in
+barrels ready to be shipped and used by the paint-maker.]
+
+[Illustration: FURNACE WHERE THE SULPHUR IS ROASTED OUT OF THE ORE.
+
+Now that we have followed through the process of making the white-lead
+powder, or pigment, let us take a little time to study the preparation
+of the other white powder, known to the paint trade as “oxide of zinc.”
+This is prepared in a manner quite different from that of the white
+lead.
+
+First the ore which is mined from the earth containing the metallic
+zinc is carefully selected by expert workmen and placed in a special
+kind of furnace, being mixed with hard coal, such as we use in our
+heating stoves.]
+
+[Illustration: A ZINC SMELTER--THE MEN KEEP THEIR MOUTHS COVERED SO AS
+NOT TO INHALE THE VAPOR, WHICH IS POISONOUS
+
+The burning of the coal causes an intensely high temperature, sometimes
+being several thousand degrees. This causes the zinc ore to be consumed
+as it were or to pass into a form of vapor. This vapor is carried
+through huge pipes which are several feet in diameter and extend for
+a long distance. While these vapors are passing through these pipes
+it becomes cooled. After becoming cooled it takes on the form of very
+fine white powder, coming from the pipes in much the same way that
+snow falls from the sky in the winter. This is collected and placed in
+barrels, after which it is ready for the paint-maker without further
+preparation.]
+
+~WHERE LINSEED OIL COMES FROM~
+
+Since we have followed the preparation of the two important white
+pigments used in making our can of paint, it is now important that
+we devote a little thought to the liquid which is to be used. This
+is called “Linseed Oil.” Linseed oil is of a golden yellow color,
+resembling the appearance of thin syrup which we sometimes have on the
+table. This oil is taken from the seed of the flax plant. It might
+better be called “Flaxseed Oil,” yet it is not commonly known by that
+name, but is nearly always referred to as “Linseed Oil.” Flax is grown
+in many parts of the world, the most important places being the United
+States of America, Dominion of Canada, Ireland, India and the Argentine
+Republic. In the United States, the seed is sown early in spring, much
+the same as is done with other crops, and ripens and is harvested early
+in the fall of the year. The harvesting and separation of the seed from
+the plant or straw is done very much in the same way that other crops,
+such as wheat and oats, are harvested. The seed is then taken to market
+and is ready for the extraction of the oil, which is done by men who
+are known as “oil crushers.”
+
+[Illustration: PRESSING OIL OUT OF FLAXSEED.]
+
+[Illustration: REMOVING OIL CAKE FROM PRESS.]
+
+The oil is extracted from the seed by a very simple process. Usually
+the seeds are heated by steaming them, after which they pass through
+a mill, being ground to a coarse mass, which is then placed in very
+powerful machines called “Hydraulic Oil Presses,” which squeeze the oil
+from the seed, leaving the remainder in the form of large cakes which
+are then ground to a mealy-like powder which is used as food for cattle
+and is very much prized.
+
+The oil which has been extracted by this process is put into large
+tanks where it is clarified and is then ready for the paint-maker.
+This oil is often referred to as “Vegetable Oil” and it has one very
+peculiar and very important characteristic which makes it useful and
+necessary for use in paint. This property is that of drying or becoming
+solid, losing all tendency to stickiness after it has been spread out
+thinly and exposed to the air for a short time.
+
+[Illustration: WHERE LEAD IS GROUND IN OIL.]
+
+[Illustration: WHERE PAINTS ARE MIXED.]
+
+Now that we have given attention to the preparation of the most
+important things used in the making of our can of paint, let us look a
+little to the manner in which they are put together, and the result.
+
+The oil is necessary in making paint in order to make it fluid, so that
+the paint may be brushed on to the wood or other surface, and also so
+that the pigment or powdered material which has been put into the paint
+will have something to hold it to the surface. The oil or other liquid
+which may be used is usually called “Binder” by the paint man because
+it binds the pigment in the paint and to the surface on which it has
+been spread or applied.
+
+In a large paint factory, the two white pigments, lead and zinc, are
+mixed with linseed oil in large machines known as “Mixers” into a
+smooth paste which is then run through other machines called “Mills,”
+where the paste is ground very fine into large tubes where the paint
+is finished by mixing in enough more oil to make it of the proper
+thickness or consistency for brushing. In this state it can be used,
+but would not be entirely satisfactory because it would dry very
+slowly. For that reason, the paint-maker adds in a small amount of what
+is known as “Drier,” which causes the paint to dry much more rapidly
+after it is spread out on any surface.
+
+The paint-maker may also add in a small amount of thin liquid called
+“Turpentine,” which also aids in the drying and the working of the
+paint. Turpentine is a very thin liquid which looks like water, and it
+is derived from the sap of one species of pine which grows abundantly
+in the southern portion of the United States. The sap is taken from the
+tree by tapping the tree or making an incision called a box, at certain
+seasons. After the sap is collected it is put through a heating process
+called “distilling,” which separates the water-white liquid, called
+turpentine, leaving a large mass of heavy material which is commonly
+known as “Rosin.” This turpentine is very useful to the paint-maker and
+the painter. It is also used for many other purposes.
+
+~WHAT MAKES THE DIFFERENT COLORS OF PAINT~
+
+The paint which we have described is the most simple kind and is white.
+There are many other kinds of paint used, being of many different
+colors. All of these different kinds require different treatment and
+preparation and would require many large books to explain even in a
+brief way.
+
+The white paint which we have described may be colored or tinted to
+many different hues by adding suitable color pigments. These color
+pigments are of many kinds and are derived from many different
+sources. The vegetable kingdom is represented as well as the mineral
+and animal kingdoms. The linseed oil which we have already mentioned,
+is derived from the vegetable kingdom. This also applies to some few
+of the pigments. A very important instance which we might mention
+is a beautiful rich brown called “Vandyke Brown.” This is made from
+decayed vegetation which is found in swampy districts. There are many
+pigments derived from the mineral kingdom. White lead and zinc oxide
+have already been described as useful. Among colored pigments coming
+from this kingdom, we might mention yellow ochre, sienna, umber, cobalt
+blue, and many others.
+
+The animal kingdom supplies quite a number, one of which is a beautiful
+red known as “Carmine.” This is taken from a small insect or fly which
+is found in certain tropical climates. The production of carmine is
+very expensive and the product is highly prized.
+
+Another important development of the animal world is what is called
+“Bone Black.” This is made by taking ordinary animal bones, putting
+them into a suitable furnace and burning them, which really produces
+bone charcoal, which is refined by powdering and washing, and finally
+produces a beautiful black, such as used for painting fine coaches and
+carriages.
+
+
+
+
+Why Does a Dog Turn Round and Round Before He Lies Down?
+
+
+Away back in the history of the animal kingdom, when the ancestors of
+our domestic dog were wild, they slept in the woods or open. When they
+were ready to lie down, they first had to trample the grass about them
+flat to make a place to lie down. This became a habit and one of the
+instincts of the animal which has been transmitted to the dogs of today
+who keep it up. It is an inherited habit quite useless to the dogs of
+to-day.
+
+
+
+
+How Is Light Produced?
+
+
+You already learned that a substance called ether is found in all
+substances, filling the spaces between the molecules. When the
+molecules are made to vibrate, the ether naturally also vibrates. As
+soon as the vibrations become sufficiently rapid, they produce the
+sensation of light. These vibrations also produce heat. In heated
+bodies the molecules are always found to be in vibration, and a body
+may become so hot that it gives off light. We notice this when iron
+becomes red hot. Heat and light are found together in bodies in many
+instances. In fact, most of the light we have comes from bodies which
+are hot. The sun is so hot, that it is surrounded by the gases of many
+substances that exist as solids on earth.
+
+We have some bodies which produce light which is not accompanied by
+much heat. The glow-worm, or firefly, seems to make light with little
+or no heat; but we do not yet know how this is done. Almost all
+sources of artificial light require that heat be produced before light
+obtained. Only such vibrations of the ether which are sufficiently
+rapid produce enough light to enable us to see. For this reason,
+a piece of red hot iron, which is made luminous by heat and whose
+particles vibrate less rapidly produce little light.
+
+
+
+
+What Makes Rays of Light?
+
+
+Whenever the ether is made to vibrate rapidly enough at any point,
+the vibrations go in straight lines from the source of light in all
+directions. A single line of vibrating particles in the ether, is known
+as a ray. A number of rays, that issue from one point, are said to form
+a pencil. A pencil of light may be produced by holding near a candle a
+screen, with a hole in it. Sometimes rays of light are brought together
+in a point, as may be done by means of a burning glass, and one of
+these bundles of rays is known as a convergent pencil.
+
+A bundle of rays that lie parallel to each other forms a beam. The rays
+that come to us from the sun are practically parallel and are called
+sunbeams.
+
+
+
+
+Why Does a Nail Get Hot When I Hammer It?
+
+
+When we are in the sunshine, or standing before a fire, we feel hot;
+when we take snow or ice in our hands, they feel cold. The thing which
+produces these sensations is called heat. When we feel heat, it is
+because heat is absorbed by our bodies, and when we feel cold, it is
+being thrown off by them.
+
+To answer this question, we must see how heat may be produced. If we
+draw a cord rapidly through our fingers, they feel hot, and if we rub
+a coin briskly with a cloth or our hands, it becomes warm; if we take
+a nail and hammer it on a hard substance, it becomes too warm for us
+to hold. In these instances heat is produced by retarding or checking
+the motion of a body. When we draw a cord through our fingers, it moves
+less easily; we retard its motion by gripping it and this is what makes
+the heat we feel. When we strike the nail with a hammer, the motion of
+the hammer is checked by the nail, and the faster we pound with the
+hammer, the hotter the nail becomes. From these experiments we learn
+that whenever the motion of a substance is checked, or retarded, heat
+is generated, and the substance made hot.
+
+In explaining this method of producing heat, it was at one time thought
+that all bodies contained a substance which produced the heat and that,
+when rubbed or hammered, this substance was thrown off. About the
+end of the 18th century, however, it was shown by Benjamin Thompson
+(Count Rumford), that substances when rubbed give off heat. From this
+we learned that heat is not a substance, because the quantity of
+any substance, present in a body, cannot be limitless. If it were a
+substance which produced the heat, the supply would sooner or later be
+exhausted, and rubbing could no longer produce heat.
+
+Heat produced by rubbing, or by striking substances together, is
+caused as follows: If two substances are struck upon each other,
+the whole of those substances are checked, but the molecules of the
+substances are made to vibrate very rapidly, and these vibrations
+produce the heat we feel.
+
+
+
+
+How Do We Obtain Heat?
+
+
+We get most of our heat from the sun. If the heat from the sun did
+not reach us, no living thing would exist on the earth. No plants or
+animals could live; the oceans and rivers would be solid ice.
+
+Another important source of heat, is chemical action. Chemical action
+is what causes fire. Even when it does not cause fire, it produces a
+great deal of heat. When we breathe to keep our bodies warm, it is
+a chemical action that occurs. Fire is the most important form of
+chemical action, as a source of heat.
+
+
+
+
+Why Does a Glow-Worm Glow?
+
+
+A glow-worm is a kind of beetle which may be found in the yards and
+hedges in the summer time. The name applies only to the female of
+the species which is wingless and whose body resembles that of a
+caterpillar somewhat and emits a shining green light from the end of
+the abdomen. The male of this species has wings but does not show any
+light as does the female and resembles an ordinary beetle. The male
+flies about in the evenings looking for the female and she makes her
+light glow in order that the male may find her. Glow-worms are found
+mostly in England. There are, however, some members of the same species
+of beetle common to the United States. We speak of them as fireflies
+or lightning bugs. The female of these also is the only one carrying a
+light, although unlike the glow-worm she has wings and can fly.
+
+
+
+
+Why Do They Call It Pin Money?
+
+
+This expression originally came from the allowance which a husband gave
+his wife to purchase pins. At one time pins were dreadfully expensive
+so that only wealthy people could afford them and they were saved
+so carefully that in those days you could not have looked along the
+pavement and found a pin which you happened to be in need of as you can
+and often do today.
+
+By a curious law the manufacturers of pins were only allowed to sell
+them on January 1st and 2nd each year and so when those days came
+around the women whose husbands could afford it, secured pin money from
+them and went out and got their pins.
+
+Pins have become so very cheap in these days that we are rather
+careless with them, but the expression has continued to live although
+today when used, it means any allowance of money which a husband gives
+a wife for her personal expenses.
+
+Pins were known and used as long ago as 1347 A. D. They were introduced
+into England in 1540. In 1824 an American named Might invented a
+machine for making pins which enabled them to be manufactured cheaply.
+About 1,500 tons of iron and brass are made into pins every year in the
+United States.
+
+
+
+
+Why Do People Shake Hands With the Right Hand?
+
+
+In the days of very long ago when all men were prepared to fight at any
+and all times because one could not know whether another approaching
+was a friend or an enemy, all men went armed. This was before the day
+of guns when the sword was the great weapon of defense.
+
+Upon occasion when one man approached another, each had to decide
+whether the other came on a peaceful mission or not.
+
+People in those days were mostly right handed as they are now and when
+fighting carried their swords in their right hands.
+
+If, then, a man wished to speak with a stranger or, as might easily
+be necessary, to one who may even be known to be unfriendly, he put
+out his right hand upon approaching to show that he had no deadly or
+dangerous weapon in it. The other man could see this and knew from the
+extended open hand that no harm was intended and that the approach was
+peaceful. If, then, he was willing to meet the other, he also extended
+his right arm with the hand open to show him who was approaching that
+his fighting hand was empty also; and when they met each would grasp
+the hand of the other so that neither one could change his mind and
+assume a fighting attitude without the other having an equal warning.
+
+
+
+
+How Did the Custom of Clinking Glasses When Drinking Originate?
+
+
+In the days of the Roman gladiators, before a duel with swords, it
+became the custom of each of the participants to drink a glass of wine
+before fighting. Just before the fighting commenced two glasses of wine
+were brought and the gladiators drank. These two glasses of wine were
+provided by the friends of either one or the other of the gladiators.
+To guard against treachery, through some over zealous friend of the
+fighters furnishing poisoned wine was necessary. So before drinking and
+to show there was no treachery, the gladiators came close together and
+poured wine from one glass into the other back and forth until the wine
+in the glasses was thoroughly mixed. If the wine in one glass then had
+been poisoned, the poisoned wine would thus be in both glasses, and if
+there had been any treachery, both gladiators would be poisoned if they
+drank. The wine was poured from one glass to the other to show that
+there was no treachery.
+
+This custom continued in use for a long time until the idea of
+drinking before a fight was abandoned. The custom, however, of showing
+friendliness in this way while drinking continued for a long time.
+Later it became a mere custom, however, to show a friendly spirit
+toward the one who was drinking with you, and when the danger of
+poisoned wine was past, the actual act of pouring the wine from one
+glass to another was changed to merely touching the glasses together.
+Thus today we have the friendly custom of touching glasses together
+long after the necessity of guarding against treachery while drinking
+has passed.
+
+
+
+
+Why Cannot Fishes Live In the Air?
+
+
+It is a curious thing isn’t it that if a boy falls into the water, he
+will drown if he cannot swim or someone does not help him out, and that
+if a fish falls out of the water onto the land, he will drown also,
+even though he knows how to swim, better than anything else he does. A
+boy cannot secure the air which he needs to live on if he is under the
+water, because there is not enough air for him there and a fish cannot
+secure enough air for him to live on when he is on land where the air
+is plentiful, because, the boy takes his air from the air itself and
+the fish gets his air out of the water.
+
+To live by breathing the air we find on or above the land, it is
+necessary to have lungs and fishes do not have lungs. In the case of
+the boy under the water he would have to have gills to enable him to
+make use of the air which is in the water to live by and he has no
+gills.
+
+A fish can only live a little while out of the water, but even so he
+can live longer out of the water than a boy can under the water.
+
+Lest you read sometime of the flying fish and think they must be able
+to live out of the water, I will tell you before you ask the question
+that the flying fish never stays out of the water for more than a few
+seconds at a time. His flying leaps amount to little more than long
+leaps from wave to wave. He swims along very fast in the water, coming
+right up to the surface and out into the air and the speed at which he
+has been swimming regulates the distance he will go when he shoots into
+the air, as he has no means of propelling himself through the air, but
+only into it. He has, however, wing-like fins, which he spreads out
+when in the air and which enables him to glide through the air and thus
+remain in the air longer.
+
+
+
+
+What Makes a Fish Move in Swimming?
+
+
+This is a puzzling question, I am sure. Of course, you at once cause
+several other questions as soon as you ask this one such as the
+following: Does the water in front of him move out of the way and then
+close in behind him? If so, where does it go in the meantime? Does the
+fish move the water forward or up or down or what does he do?
+
+The answer is, of course, in the movements of the fish’s tail. The fish
+in swimming is surrounded with water, top, bottom and all sides of him.
+The pressure of the water on the fish is the same at all points so that
+any motion made by him would have a tendency to make him move. As a
+matter of fact the tail in moving from side to side creates a current
+in the water from the head to the tail, or rather would produce an
+actual current if the fish remained perfectly still. Instead of making
+an actual current of water, the body of the fish is moved forward.
+
+As to whether the water ahead of him opens up first and then the water
+behind him is a more difficult question to answer. To the appearance it
+would seem as if the water moved at both ends and sides at once, but
+according to scientific theory, the water at the head of the fish is
+displaced first.
+
+
+
+
+Why Are Birds’ Eggs of Different Colors?
+
+
+This is a wise provision of nature to help the mother birds hide her
+eggs away from the eyes of her enemies. In the animal kingdom every
+kind of life is the natural prey of some other kind of animal. A bird
+will have enemies which try to catch her as food. A bird cannot fight
+back, so must fly away when danger threatens, in order to save her
+life. This means that she must leave the eggs in the nest for the
+time being. At certain times she must also leave her nest and search
+for food for herself. In order that the eggs so left alone may have a
+better chance of not being discovered, nature has arranged matters so
+that the eggs take the color very much of the surroundings in which
+they are laid. Eggs of some birds are spotted or look like pebbles,
+because the mother bird lays them in the sand. Some of them are green,
+almost the color of the materials from which the bird builds the nest,
+and so the colors have a real, and to the birds, a valuable purpose.
+
+
+
+
+Why Does a Hen Cackle After Laying an Egg?
+
+
+The hen cackles because she is glad. She is glad because she has just
+accomplished something, which she was put on earth to do. If you study
+the life on the earth carefully with this in mind, you will discover
+that all kinds of life give expression in some form of gladness, when
+they have performed the things they are on earth for. It’s the hen’s
+way of expressing herself and letting the chicken world know. The dog
+wags his tail when he is pleased; boys and girls jump up and down when
+they are pleased, whether they have been doing anything commendable or
+not. No doubt also the actual laying of the egg causes some discomfort
+to the hen and the corresponding feeling of gladness would come
+naturally after the discomfort disappeared.
+
+
+
+
+Why Will Water Run Off a Duck’s Back?
+
+
+The reason that water runs of a duck’s back, is that the feathers of
+ducks are oily and, as water and oil will not mix, the water runs off
+instead of soaking in. The feathers on a duck are so thick on the body
+of the duck, top and bottom, that even if it were not for the oil which
+is on the feathers the water would have some difficulty in soaking
+through the feathers. But the main reason why the feathers on a duck’s
+back cause water striking them to run off is that the duck has an oil
+gland which is constantly producing grease or oil and which the duck
+uses in giving his feathers a thin coating of oil to make them slick
+with oil and when any water strikes the duck it runs off. Other birds
+which live in the water a great deal have this oil gland for the same
+reason.
+
+
+
+
+THE STORY IN A STEEL RAIL
+
+
+[Illustration: A Blast Furnace.
+
+Molten iron is brought from the blast furnaces to the open-hearth
+furnaces, and dumped into a receptacle called a mixer, the capacity of
+which ranges from 400 tons to 1000 tons, depending upon the number of
+furnaces to be served.]
+
+[Illustration: One-thousand-ton Mixer.]
+
+  Pictures in this story by courtesy of Bethlehem Steel Co.
+
+[Illustration: INSIDE OF OPEN HEARTH FURNACE
+
+Charging Side of an Open-hearth Furnace.
+
+An open-hearth furnace consists of a long, shallow hearth, suitably
+enclosed in fire-brick, and bound together with steel binding. The
+furnace is heated by burning gas and air, which have previously been
+preheated, so that a temperature is obtained in the furnace ranging
+from 2900 to 3050 degrees Fahrenheit.]
+
+[Illustration: Pouring Side of an Open-Hearth Furnace.
+
+The open-hearth process consists of the purification of iron by
+oxidizing out the impurities and burning out the carbon of the iron
+until a tough and ductile steel is produced, which can be made of any
+desired composition by the addition of the necessary quantities of
+alloys just previous to tapping and pouring. The impurities in the iron
+are oxidized by the slag lying on top of the metal, and the burning
+out of the carbon, which is a very slow operation, is hastened by the
+addition of iron ore, the oxygen of which combines with the carbon of
+the iron and passes off is a gas going up the stack.
+
+When an open-hearth furnace is ready for a charge, a variable amount
+of scrap, say 30 per cent of the total weight of material used for
+the heat, is charged into the furnace. With this scrap is charged
+sufficient lime or limestone to make the slag, as well as some iron ore
+to assist in reducing the carbon of the iron. In about two or three
+hours the required amount of molten iron is brought from the mixer in
+ladles, and poured into the furnace on top of the scrap, lime and ore.]
+
+
+[Illustration: MOLTEN STEEL BEING POURED LIKE WATER
+
+Molten Steel Being Poured Into Ladle.
+
+When the scrap has all been melted, a test is taken to determine the
+amount of carbon remaining in the bath. Iron ore is added from time
+to time until the carbon in the bath has been reduced to the desired
+point, and the metal is sufficiently hot to pour. At this point
+“recarburizers” (consisting of Ferro-Manganese, Ferro-Silicon, and
+pig-iron, or coal) are added to get the required composition. The tap
+hole at the back of the furnace is opened, and the steel is allowed to
+run out into a ladle, the slag coming last and forming a blanket over
+the steel in the ladle.]
+
+[Illustration: Crane Carrying Ingot and Soaking Pit Furnaces.
+
+The ladle is picked up by an electric crane and carried over cast-iron
+moulds, which are set on cars, the steel being poured into the moulds,
+resulting in steel ingots. A sufficient amount of time is allowed for
+the steel to become chilled or set, when the cars are pushed under an
+electric stripper, where the moulds are removed from the ingots. After
+the ingots leave the stripper they are taken to the scales and weighed,
+and after weighing are put into the soaking pits. The pits get their
+name from the part they play in the heating of the steel for rolling.
+When the steel ingot is stripped the outside of the ingot is cool
+enough to hold the inside, which is still in a liquid state, and the
+steel is put into the soaking pits to allow the inside to settle into a
+solid mass, after which the ingot is reheated for rolling. The length
+of time in the soaking pits depends upon the size of the ingot, as the
+larger the ingot, the greater length of time is required to set.
+
+When the steel is ready for rolling it is taken from the pits by
+overhead electric cranes, and placed into a dump buggy at the end of a
+roller line, which leads to the blooming mill. The dump buggy derives
+its name from the fact that when the ingot is placed into same in
+an upright position, the buggy, in order to place the ingot into a
+horizontal position on the roller line, dumps over, in the same way as
+if one were to rock too far forward in a rocking-chair, the dump buggy
+operating on the same principle.]
+
+[Illustration: GETTING READY TO MAKE A RAIL
+
+Blooming Mill and Engine.
+
+The ingot travels down the movable-roller line to the blooming-mill
+rolls, which roll it down from a piece 19 inches by 23 inches to what
+is known as an 8 inch by 8 inch bloom, which is the size usually used
+in the manufacture of rails. The blooming mill derives its name from
+the fact that after an ingot is rolled in same it is no longer called
+an ingot, but a bloom.
+
+After leaving the blooming mill the bloom travels along another roller
+line to the shears, where it is cut into two or three pieces, the
+number of pieces depending on the size of the rail which is to be
+rolled. The blooms are then lifted over the roller line at the shears
+by a transfer crane, and placed on a traveling roller line which
+connects with the rear of the reheating furnace. This furnace is about
+35 feet long, and is so constructed that when the bloom is pushed in
+at the rear of the furnace, another bloom drops from the front or
+discharge end of the furnace.]
+
+[Illustration: THE INGOT BECOMES A RAIL
+
+The Ingot Becomes a Rail.
+
+The bloom dropping out, being sufficiently hot to roll into rails,
+travels along another roller line to the roughing or first set of
+rolls. Here the bloom is given five passes in the rolls, and is then
+transferred to the strand or second set of rolls, where it receives
+five additional passes; after this operation it is transferred to
+the finishing or third set of rolls, in which it is given one pass.
+The bloom has now been converted into a rail, and the rail travels
+on another roller line to the hot saw, where it is cut into 33-foot
+lengths, this being the standard length in this country for all rails.
+The rails when hot are cut by the hot saw to lengths of about 33 feet
+6¹⁄₂ inches, the allowance of inches being made for shrinkage in
+cooling. It is difficult to believe that steel shrinks to this extent,
+but this is a fact, and while the rails are cooling on the hotbeds
+they have the appearance of being animated, as they move first one way
+and then the other. After the rails are on the hotbed a sufficient
+length of time to cool, they are taken from the hotbed and placed
+on a traveling roller line, which takes them to an endless chain
+conveyor. The statement that rails are put on hotbeds for cooling seems
+paradoxical, but the hotbeds are so called because the rails are placed
+on them while hot, and are left there until they have cooled.
+
+The endless-chain conveyor places the rails on another bed, from
+which they are picked up by an electric crane and distributed to the
+straightening presses, where all burrs (which have been caused by the
+hot-sawing operation) are removed before the rails are straightened.
+After straightening they are transferred to drill presses, where they
+have holes drilled into them for the accommodation of the splice bar,
+after which they are placed on the loading docks.]
+
+[Illustration: After being carefully examined by the railroad
+company’s inspectors they are picked up from the loading docks by
+electric magnets attached to a crane, and are placed in cars ready for
+shipment.]
+
+
+
+
+Who Made the First Felt Hat?
+
+
+The felt hat is as old as Homer. The Greeks made them in skull-caps,
+conical, truncated, narrow- or broad-brimmed. The Phrygian bonnet was
+an elevated cap without a brim, the apex turned over in front. It is
+known as the “cap of liberty.” An ancient figure of Liberty in the
+times of Antonius Livius, A.D. 115, holds the cap in the right hand.
+The Persians wore soft caps; plumed hats were the headdress of the
+Syrian corps of Xerxes; the broad-brim was worn by the Macedonian
+kings. Castor means a beaver. The Armenian captive wore a plug hat.
+The merchants of the fourteenth century wore a Flanders beaver.
+Charles VII, in 1469, wore a felt hat lined with red, and plumed.
+The English men and women in 1510 wore close woolen or knitted caps;
+two centuries ago hats were worn in the house. Pepys, in his diary,
+wrote: “September, 1664, got a severe cold because I took off my hat at
+dinner”; and again, in January, 1665, he got another cold by sitting
+too long with his head bare, to allow his wife’s maid to comb his hair
+and wash his ears; and Lord Clarendon, in his essay, speaking of the
+decay of respect due the aged, says “that in his younger days he never
+kept his hat on before those older than himself, except at dinner.”
+In the thirteenth century Pope Innocent IV allowed the cardinals the
+use of the scarlet cloth hat. The hats now in use are the cloth hat,
+leather hat, paper hat, silk hat, opera hat, spring-brim hat, and straw
+hat.
+
+
+
+
+What Is the Hottest Spot on Earth?
+
+
+The hottest regions on earth is said to be along the Persian Gulf,
+where little or no rain falls. At Bahrein the arid shore has no fresh
+water, yet a comparatively numerous population contrive to live there,
+thanks to the copious springs which break forth from the bottom of the
+sea. The fresh water is got by diving. The diver, sitting in his boat,
+winds a great goat-skin bag around his left arm, the hand grasping
+its mouth; then he takes in his right hand a heavy stone, to which is
+attached a strong line, and thus equipped he plunges in, and quickly
+reaches the bottom. Instantly opening the bag over the strong jet of
+fresh water, he springs up the ascending current, at the same time
+closing the bag, and is helped aboard. The stone is then hauled up, and
+the diver, after taking breath, plunges in again. The source of the
+copious submarine springs is thought to be in the green hills of Osman,
+some 500 or 600 miles distant.
+
+
+
+
+Where Do We Get Ivory?
+
+
+Ivory is a hard substance, not unlike bone, of which the teeth of
+most mammals chiefly consist, the dentine or tooth-substance which in
+transverse sections shows lines of different color running in circular
+arcs. It is used extensively for industrial purposes and is derived
+from the elephant, walrus, hippopotamus, narwhal, and some other
+animals. The ivory of the tusks of the African elephant is held in the
+highest estimation by manufacturers; the tusks vary in size, ranging
+from a few ounces in weight to 170 pounds. Holtzapffel states that
+he saw fossil tusks on the banks of rivers of Northern Siberia which
+weighed 186 pounds each. Ivory is simply tooth-substance of exceptional
+hardness, toughness, and elasticity, due to the firmness and regularity
+of the dentinal tubules which radiate from the axial pulp-cavity to the
+periphery of the tooth.
+
+
+
+
+How Did Trial by Jury Originate?
+
+
+~WHY JURIES HAVE TWELVE MEN~
+
+A jury consists of a certain number of men selected according to law
+and sworn to inquire into and determine facts concerning a cause or
+an accusation submitted to them, and to declare the truth according
+to the evidence. The custom of trying accused persons before a jury,
+as practised in this country and England, is the natural outgrowth of
+rudimentary forms of trial in vogue among our Anglo-Saxon ancestors.
+The present system of trial by jury is the result of a gradual growth
+under the English Common Law. There is no special reason why twelve is
+the usual number chosen for a complete jury except the necessity for
+limiting the number. In a grand jury the number according to law must
+not be less than twelve nor more than twenty-three, and twelve votes
+are necessary to find an indictment. The ancient Romans also had a form
+of trial before a presiding judge and a body of judices. The right of
+trial by jury is guaranteed by the United States Constitution in all
+criminal cases, and in civil cases where the amount in dispute exceeds
+$20. A petit or trial jury consists of twelve men, selected by lot
+from among the citizens residing within the jurisdiction of the court.
+Their duty is to determine questions of fact in accordance with the
+weight of testimony presented and report their finding to the presiding
+judge. An impartial jury is assured by drawing by lot and then giving
+the accused, in a criminal case, the right to dismiss a certain number
+without reason and certain others for good cause. Each of the jurymen
+must meet certain legal requirements as to capacity in general and
+fitness for the particular case upon which he is to sit, and must take
+an oath to decide without prejudice and according to the testimony.
+A coroner’s jury or jury of inquest is usually composed of from six
+to fifteen persons, summoned to inquire into the cause of sudden or
+unexplained deaths.
+
+
+
+
+Can Animals Foretell the Weather?
+
+
+Certain movements on the part of the animal creation before a change of
+weather appear to indicate a reasoning faculty. Such seems to be the
+case with the common garden spider, which, on the approach of rainy or
+windy weather, will be found to shorten and strengthen the guys of his
+web, lengthening the same when the storm is over. There is a popular
+superstition that it is unlucky for an angler to meet a single magpie,
+but two of the birds together are a good omen. The reason is that the
+birds foretell the coming of cold or stormy weather, and at such times,
+instead of searching for food for their young in pairs, one will always
+remain on the nest. Sea-gulls predict storms by assembling on the land,
+as they know that the rain will bring earthworms and larvæ to the
+surface. This, however, is merely a search for food, and is due to the
+same instinct which teaches the swallow to fly high in fine weather,
+and skim along the ground when foul is coming. They simply follow
+the flies and gnats, which remain in the warm strata of the air. The
+different tribes of wading birds always migrate before rain, likewise
+to hunt for food. Many birds foretell rain by warning cries and uneasy
+actions, and swine will carry hay and straw to hiding-places, oxen will
+lick themselves the wrong way of the hair, sheep will bleat and skip
+about, hogs turned out in the woods will come grunting and squealing,
+colts will rub their backs against the ground, crows will gather in
+crowds, crickets will sing more loudly, flies come into the house,
+frogs croak and change color to a dingier hue, dogs eat grass, and
+rooks soar like hawks. It is probable that many of these actions are
+due to actual uneasiness, similar to that which all who are troubled
+with corns or rheumatism experience before a storm, and are caused
+both by the variation in barometric pressure and the changes in the
+electrical condition of the atmosphere.
+
+
+
+
+Nearest Approach Ever Made to Perpetual Motion in Mechanics.
+
+
+An inventor has patented a double electric battery which seems to
+come exceedingly near to perpetual motion. Instead of using the zinc
+battery, he professes to have hit upon a solution which makes a battery
+seven times as powerful as the zinc battery, with absolutely no waste
+of material. The power of the battery grows gradually less in a few
+hours of use, but returns to its original unit when allowed to rest a
+few hours. He has two batteries so arranged that the power is shifted
+from one to the other every three hours. A little machine has been
+running for some years in the patent office at New York. Certain parts
+of the mechanism are constructed of different expansive capacities, and
+the machine is worked by the expansion and contraction of these under
+the usual variations of temperature. In the Bodleian Library at Oxford
+there is an apparatus which has chimed two little bells continuously
+for forty years, by the energy of an apparently inexhaustible
+“dry-pile” of very low electrical energy. A church clock in Brussels is
+wound up by atmospheric expansion induced by the heat of the sun. As
+long as the sun shines this clock will go till its works wear out. Mr.
+D. L. Goff, a wealthy American, has in his hall an old-fashioned clock,
+which, so long as the house is occupied, never runs down. Whenever the
+front door is opened or closed, the winding arrangements of the clock,
+which are connected with the door by a rod with gearing attachments,
+are given a turn, so that the persons leaving and entering the house
+keep the clock constantly wound up.
+
+
+
+
+Do Plants Breathe?
+
+
+Plants, like animals, breathe the air; plants breathe through their
+leaves and stems just as animals do by means of their respiratory
+organs. When a young plant is analyzed it is found to consist chiefly
+of water, which is all removed from the soil; there is about 75 per
+cent or more of this fluid present, and the rest is solid material.
+Of this latter by far the most abundant constituent is carbon, almost
+every atom of which is removed from the atmosphere by the vital
+action of minute bodies contained in the green leaves. The carbon is
+taken into the plant as carbonic acid gas. Plants also absorb oxygen,
+hydrogen, and nitrogen from the atmosphere in different quantities
+through their leaves, and also by means of their roots. These new
+products stored are in turn used in building up the different organs
+of the plant. Plants give off used-up moisture through their leaves,
+just as animals perspire through the pores of their skins. Calculations
+have been made as to the amount of water thus perspired by plants. The
+sunflower, only 3¹⁄₂ ft. high, with 5,616 square inches of surface
+exposed to the air, gives off as much moisture as a man.
+
+
+
+
+What Depth of Snow Is Equivalent to an Inch of Rain?
+
+
+Newly fallen snow having a depth of about 11¹⁄₃ inches is equivalent to
+one inch of rain. A cubic foot of newly fallen snow weighs 5¹⁄₂ pounds
+and a cubic foot of fresh or rain water weighs 62¹⁄₂ pounds or 1,000
+ounces. An inch of rain means a gallon of water spread over every two
+square feet, or about a hundred tons to every acre. The density of
+snow naturally varies a good deal according to the speed with which
+it falls. Temperature, also, has much to do with its bulk. In cold,
+crisp weather, when the thermometer registers several degrees of frost,
+snow comes down light and dry; but in moist, cold weather, when the
+temperature is only just below thirty-two degrees, the snow falls in
+large, partially thawed flakes, and occupies much less space where it
+falls than that which reaches the earth during the prevalence of a
+greater degree of cold.
+
+
+
+
+How Are the Stars Counted?
+
+
+Stars are counted by means of the telescope and photography. The
+Astronomer-Royal for Ireland, Sir Robert S. Ball, in one of his
+lectures mentioned a photograph which had been obtained by Mr. Isaac
+Roberts representing a small part of the constellation of the Swan.
+The picture is about as large as the page of a copy-book, and it
+is so crowded with stars that it would puzzle most people to count
+them; but they have been counted by a patient person, and the number
+is about 16,000. Many of these stars are too faint ever to be seen
+in the greatest of telescopes yet erected. Attempts are now being
+made to obtain a number of similar photographs which shall cover
+the whole extent of the heavens. The task is indeed an immense one.
+Assuming the plates used to be the same size as that above mentioned,
+it would require at least 10,000 of them to represent the entire
+sky. The counting of stars by the telescope was first reduced to a
+system by the Herschels, who introduced “star-gauges,” which were
+simply a calculation by averages. A telescope of 18 in. aperture, 20
+ft. focus, and a magnifying power of 180, giving a field of view 15
+in. in diameter, was used for the purpose. The process consisted in
+directing this instrument to a part of the sky and counting the stars
+in the field. This, repeated hundreds of times, gave a fair idea of the
+average number of stars in a circle of 15 in. diameter in all parts of
+the sky. From this as a basis it is possible to reckon the number of
+stars in any known area.
+
+
+
+
+How Is the Volume of Sound Measured?
+
+
+Sound arises from vibrations giving a wave-like motion to the
+surrounding atmosphere, the wave gradually enlarging as it leaves the
+source of disturbance, while at the same time the motion of the air
+particles becomes less and less. The simplest method of determining the
+number of vibrations of a sound is by means of Savart’s apparatus. This
+consists of two wheels--a toothed or cog-wheel and a driving-wheel.
+They are so adjusted that the cog-wheel is made to revolve with great
+rapidity, its teeth hitting upon a card fixed near it. The number of
+revolutions is indicated by a counter attached to the axis of the
+cog-wheel. Suppose that sound is traveling in the air at the rate
+of 1,000 ft. per second, and that Savart’s wheel is giving a sound
+produced by 200 taps on the card per second, it follows that in 1,000
+ft. there will be 200 waves or vibrations, and if there be 200 waves in
+1,000 ft. each wave or vibration must be 5 ft. in length. The velocity
+of sound through air varies with the temperature of the latter, but is
+usually reckoned at 1,130 ft. per second.
+
+
+
+
+At What Rate Does Thought Travel?
+
+
+Thought travels 111 feet per second, or about a mile and a quarter per
+minute. Elaborate experiments have been made by Professors Heimholtz,
+Hersch, and Donders, to ascertain the facts on this question, the
+result of which was that they found the process of thought varied in
+rapidity in different individuals, children and old persons thinking
+more slowly than people of middle age, and ignorant people more slowly
+than the educated. It takes about two-fifths of a second to call
+to mind the country in which a well-known town is situated, or the
+language in which a familiar author wrote. We can think of the name
+of the next month in half the time we need to think of the name of
+the last month. It takes on the average one-third of a second to add
+numbers containing one digit and half a second to multiply them. Those
+used to reckoning can add two to three in less time than others; those
+familiar with literature can remember more quickly than others that
+Shakespeare wrote “Hamlet.” It takes longer to mention a month when a
+season has been given than to say to what season a month belongs. The
+time taken up in choosing a motion, the “will time,” can be measured as
+well as the time taken up in perceiving. If it is not known which of
+two colored lights is to be presented, and you offer to lift your right
+hand if it be red and your left if it be blue, about one-thirteenth of
+a second is necessary to initiate the correct motion.
+
+
+
+
+What Is the Largest Tree In the World?
+
+
+In San Francisco, encircled by a circus tent of ample dimensions, is a
+section of the largest tree in the world--exceeding the diameter of the
+famous tree of Calaveras by five feet. This monster of the vegetable
+kingdom was discovered in 1874, on Tule River, Tulare County, about
+seventy-five miles from Visalia. At some remote period its top had
+been broken off by the elements, or some unknown forces, yet when it
+was discovered it had an elevation of 240 feet. The trunk of the tree
+was 111 feet in circumference, with a diameter of 35 feet 4 inches.
+The section on exhibition is hollowed out, leaving about a foot of
+bark and several inches of the wood. The interior is 100 feet in
+circumference and 30 feet in diameter, and it has a seating capacity
+of about 200. It was cut off from the tree about twelve feet above the
+base, and required the labor of four men for nine days to chop it down.
+In the center of the tree, and extending through its whole length,
+was a rotten core about two feet in diameter, partially filled with a
+soggy, decayed vegetation that had fallen into it from the top. In the
+center of this cavity was found the trunk of a little tree of the same
+species, having perfect bark on it, and showing regular growth. It was
+of uniform diameter, an inch and a half all the way; and when the tree
+fell and split open, this curious stem was traced for nearly 100 feet.
+The rings in this monarch of the forest show its age to have been 4,840
+years.
+
+
+
+
+Where Did the Term Yankees Originate?
+
+
+This is a word said to be a corruption of Yengees, the Indian
+pronunciation of English, or of the French “Anglais,” when referring
+to the English Colonists. It was first applied to the New Englanders
+by the British soldiers as a term of reproach, later by the English to
+Americans generally, and still later to the people of the North by the
+Southerners.
+
+
+
+
+How Far Does the Air Extend?
+
+
+It is, perhaps, generally known that enveloping the earth is a layer
+of air fifty or more miles in thickness. Just how thick this layer is
+we do not know, but we do know that it extends many miles from the
+earth. You may assure yourselves of this in a very simple manner by
+watching the shooting stars that may be seen on any clear night. These
+are nothing but masses of rocks that give off light only when they
+have been made red-hot by friction with the air in their rapid flight.
+The fact that we often see these stars while they are still many miles
+from the earth proves to us that the air through which they are passing
+extends to that height.
+
+
+
+
+What Makes Us Feel Hungry?
+
+
+Hunger is a peculiar craving which we are accustomed to say comes
+from the stomach. It is the business of the stomach to change such
+food as we take into it in such a way that the rest of the organs of
+the body which we have for the purpose can make blood out of it. When
+you feel the sensation of hunger, it means that the blood-producing
+system is calling on the stomach to furnish more blood-making material.
+The stomach prepares the food for blood production by mixing with it
+certain juices which the stomach is able to supply. As soon as the
+stomach is then called upon to supply more blood-making material, it
+goes to work on what is in the stomach and begins mixing things. If,
+however, there is nothing in the stomach, the craving which we call
+hunger is produced. It is, therefore, then not altogether the stomach
+which makes us hungry, but the parts of our body which actually turn
+the food into blood after the stomach has prepared it.
+
+To prove this it is only necessary to say that the sensation of hunger
+will stop if food which is easily absorbed and, therefore, does not
+need the preparation which the stomach generally gives, is introduced
+into the system through other parts of the body, as, for instance, by
+injecting it into the large intestine, which is a part of the body, the
+food passes through after it leaves the stomach ordinarily.
+
+
+
+
+What Makes Us Thirsty?
+
+
+Thirst is a sensation of dryness and heat which is generally
+communicated to us through the tongue and throat. The sensation of
+thirst can be artificially produced by passing a current of air
+over the membranes which cover the tongue and throat, but thirst is
+naturally due to a shortage of water in the body. The human body
+requires a great deal of water to keep it in condition, and when the
+supply becomes low a warning is given to us by making the membranes of
+the tongue and throat dry.
+
+In connection with thirst, however, as in the case of hunger, where
+the warning is given by the stomach, thirst will be appeased by the
+introduction of water, either into the blood, the stomach or the large
+intestine, without having touched either the tongue or throat, which
+proves that it is not our tongue or throat that is thirsty, but the
+body itself.
+
+
+
+
+What Is Pain and Why Does It Hurt?
+
+
+Pain is the result of an injury to some part of our bodies, or a
+disturbed condition--a change from the normal condition. Pain is caused
+by nerves in the body. The network of nerves coming in big nerves from
+the back bone or spinal chord branches out in all directions, and near
+the surface of the skin they spread out like the tiny twigs of a tree,
+covering every point of the body. Some parts of our bodies are more
+sensitive than others. That is because the nerves are then nearer the
+surface or else there are more nerves in that part. The heel is perhaps
+the least sensitive part of the body, as the nerves do not lie so near
+the surface there.
+
+Pain is not a thing which you can make a picture of or describe in
+words. Pain is a sensation of the brain caused by a disturbance of
+conditions in some part of the body. If you cut your finger, you cut
+certain veins or arteries and also the tiny nerves in the finger.
+The nerves immediately let the brain know that they are injured, and
+the brain sets to work to have the damage repaired. But there is a
+congestion right where the cut is. The veins being cut, the blood which
+would ordinarily flow through them back to the heart, pours out into
+the cut and the inside of your finger is thus exposed to the oxygen of
+the air, and the action of the air on the exposed part helps to make
+the pain. It is not your finger, however, that hurts. It is the shock
+that your brain gets when you cut your finger that hurts.
+
+A pain in your stomach is a pain caused by something else than a cut.
+If the stomach could always digest everything or any amount of stuff
+you put in it, you would not have a stomach pain. But sometimes you
+put things into your stomach through your mouth, of course, that the
+stomach cannot handle. Or, it may be a combination of a number of
+things that cause this unusual condition in your stomach. The stomach
+makes a special effort to get rid of this troublesome substance and
+generally succeeds eventually, but while the fight is going on, it
+pains or hurts you.
+
+Pain is the result of a disturbance of the nerves. It is just the
+opposite of gladness. We sometimes are so glad we feel good all over.
+Pain is just the opposite. You can prove that pain is not a real thing
+but only a sensation. Perhaps you have had toothache. You go to the
+dentist and he kills the nerve or takes it out. After that you cannot
+have the toothache in that tooth again, because there is no nerve there
+to telegraph to the brain, even though the cause of the hurt still
+exists. You cannot feel pain unless the brain knows about the injury.
+
+
+
+
+What Is the Horizon?
+
+
+Of course you know what the horizon is. It is easiest to see the
+horizon at sea when out of sight of land. There, when you look in
+any direction from the ship to the place where the sea and the sky
+meet you see a line which, if you follow with your eye as you turn
+completely around, makes a perfect circle. It looks as though it marked
+the boundary of the earth. On land it is not easy to see as much of
+the horizon at one time, because of buildings and trees and hills in
+the woods and elsewhere, but if the land were perfectly smooth like
+the sea and there were no trees or buildings or hills in the way, you
+could see just as perfect a circle on land as on sea. This proves that
+the horizon is a movable circle. On land it is where the earth and sky
+appear to meet, and on water it is where sky and water appear to meet.
+
+
+
+
+How Far Away Is the Horizon?
+
+
+The actual distance of the horizon away from us depends altogether upon
+the height above the sea level from which we are looking as far as we
+can. The horizon is always as far away as we can see. At the seashore,
+where we are practically on a level with the water, we cannot see so
+far as when we are up on a bluff or hill overlooking the sea. The
+higher we go up straight from a given point the greater the distance
+we can see up to a certain point and the farther away the horizon will
+appear. The height of the person looking, of course, figures in this,
+because when you are at sea level it is only your feet really that are
+at sea level (if you are standing up straight) and the distance of the
+horizon is measured from the eye of the person looking. A boy or girl
+of ten would be, say, a little over four feet high, and the eyes of
+such a person would be about four feet above the level of the sea. At
+that height the horizon would be about two and a half miles away. If
+the eyes are six feet above sea level the distance of the horizon will
+be about three miles, so that practically every one sees a different
+horizon, that is, one that appears at a different distance. A hundred
+feet above the level of the sea the horizon will be more than thirteen
+miles away, while at 1000 feet altitude it would be 42 miles away, and
+if you could go a mile into the air the horizon would appear 96 miles
+from where you are. The higher you go the farther away the circle which
+apparently marks the joining of the earth and sky appears.
+
+
+
+
+Why Can We See Farther When We Are Up High?
+
+
+Remember that the earth is round and you will probably be able to
+answer the question yourself. This one, like most questions boys and
+girls ask, only requires a little thought. The earth, of course, as we
+have learned long ago, is a globe. When you look out on the land or the
+sea from a high place you can see more of the earth’s round surface
+before the curve of the earth’s surface takes things beyond the range
+of vision. If you are on a bluff 100 feet high at the seashore and
+looking toward a point where a ship is coming toward shore, you will be
+able to see the ship much sooner than if you were at the sea level. In
+exact words, you actually see more of the earth’s surface the higher
+up you are, because, as you go up your position in relation to the
+curvature of the earth’s surface changes.
+
+
+
+
+What Makes Lobsters Turn Red?
+
+
+When a lobster is taken out of the lobster trap with which the
+fisherman traps him, he is green, but when he comes to the table as a
+choice morsel of food his shell is red. We know that he has been boiled
+and we know that he goes into the boiling water green and comes out
+red. This change in the color of the shell of the lobster is the result
+of the effect of boiling water on the coloring material in the shell.
+When the lobster is put in the boiling water the process of boiling
+produces a chemical change in the color material in the lobster’s
+shell. There is no particular reason why the lobster should turn red,
+excepting that that is the effect boiling water has on the coloring
+matter in the shell.
+
+
+
+
+Why Do We Have to Die?
+
+
+Death must come to all things that have life. All matter in the world
+is either living (animate) or dead (inanimate). Inanimate things do not
+change. They remain always the same. We can change the form and size of
+inanimate things, and particles of them even help to make up the bodies
+of the living things, but what they are made of always remains what it
+was.
+
+Death is one of the things that must occur if we are to continue to
+have more life. The whole plan of living things includes the ability to
+reproduce themselves. Every kind of life has the power to produce life
+like itself and this process of reproduction is continuous. If there
+were no death, then the world would soon be crowded with living things
+to the point where there would be neither room nor food.
+
+[Illustration: WHERE WINDOW GLASS COMES FROM]
+
+  Pictures herewith by courtesy of Pittsburgh Plate Glass Co.
+
+
+
+
+Making Plate Glass
+
+
+What Is the Difference Between Plate Glass and Window Glass?
+
+How is plate glass made? These questions are asked very frequently. The
+two products are wholly unlike each other; and we wish to show wherein
+lies the difference. We shall tell how plate glass is made; and we hope
+to make it clear that great care, time and expense are involved in its
+manufacture.
+
+The raw materials may be said to be virtually the same in plate glass
+as in window glass; the main difference being that in plate glass
+greater care is exercised in selecting and purifying the ingredients.
+Window glass is made with a blow-pipe. The work requires skill on the
+part of the operator; but the process is quite simple and rapid. And
+the result is, naturally, a comparatively ordinary and indifferent
+product. On the other hand, the superb quality of plate glass is owing
+to the elaborate method of producing it.
+
+Commercial plate glass was first made in France somewhat more than two
+hundred years ago; although glass in one form or another has been in
+use for many centuries. Apparently glass was known in Egypt fully four
+thousand years ago.
+
+[Illustration: MINING SILICA]
+
+The materials used are silica (white sand), carbonate of soda (soda
+ash), and lime. Other materials, as arsenic and charcoal, are used in
+small proportions, but the main ingredients are the first three named.
+
+Probably it is little imagined that in the production of plate glass,
+mining is involved in two or more forms (namely silica and coal), also
+the quarrying of limestone, the chemical manufacture of soda ash on
+a large scale, the reduction and treatment of fire clay to its right
+consistency, an elaborate and expensive system of pot making; and the
+melting, casting, rolling, annealing, grinding and polishing of the
+glass.
+
+In special uses, as in beveled plates and mirrors, two more elaborate
+processes must be added--beveling and silvering--all of which are
+performed under the direction of experts aided by a large amount of
+labor and expensive machinery.
+
+Pots of fire clay take so important a part in the successful
+manufacture of plate glass that the subject deserves especial notice.
+The different clays after being mined are exposed to the weather for
+some time to bring about disintegration.
+
+~THE CLAY MUST BE TRAMPLED WITH BARE FEET~
+
+At the proper stage finely sifted raw clay is mixed with coarse, burned
+clay and water. This reduces liability of shrinkage and cracking. It
+is then “pugged,” or kneaded in a mill; kept a long time (sometimes
+a year) in storage bins to ripen; and afterwards goes through the
+laborious process of “treading.” Nothing has thus far been found in
+machinery by which the right kind of plasticity can be developed as
+does this primitive treading by the bare feet of men. The clay must be
+treaded, not once or twice, but many times. The building of pots is a
+slow, tedious and time-killing affair; but this is most essential.
+
+~HOW MELTING POTS ARE MADE~
+
+Without extreme care, some elements used in the making of the pots
+might be fused into glass while undergoing the intense heat of the
+furnace; or they might break in the handling. The average pot must hold
+about a ton of molten glass, and the average furnace heat necessary is
+about 3,000° Fahrenheit. The work is not continuous. Each workman has
+several pots in hand at a time, and passes from one to another adding
+only a few inches a day to each pot, so that a proper interval for
+seasoning be given. After completion, comes the proper drying out of
+the pots; and this is another feature in which the greatest scientific
+care is required. No pot may be used until it has been left to season
+for at least three months, and even a year is desirable. And after all
+this trouble, the pot has but 25 days of usefulness. The pots form one
+of the heavy items of expense in plate glass manufacture; and upon
+their safety great things depend.
+
+[Illustration: POT MAKING.]
+
+[Illustration: MIXING THE CLAY.
+
+TRAMPLING THE CLAY.]
+
+[Illustration: SKIMMING THE POT.]
+
+[Illustration: CASTING PLATE GLASS.]
+
+~HOW THE HUGE PLATES OF GLASS ARE CAST~
+
+The pot, having been first brought to the necessary high temperature,
+is filled heaping full with its mixed “batch” of ground silica, soda,
+lime, etc. Melting reduces the bulk so much that the pot is filled
+three times before it contains a sufficient charge of metal. When the
+proper molten stage is reached the pot is lifted out of the furnace
+by a crane; is first carefully skimmed to remove surface impurities,
+and then carried overhead by an electric tramway to the casting table.
+This is a large, massive, flat table of iron, having as an attachment
+a heavy iron roller which covers the full width, and arranged so as
+to roll the entire length of the table. The sides of the table are
+fitted with adjustable strips which permit the producing of plates of
+different thicknesses. The pasty, or half-fluid glass metal is now
+poured upon the table from the melting pot, and the roller quickly
+passes over it, leaving a layer of uniform thickness. The heavy roller
+is now moved out of the way, and then by means of a stowing tool the
+red hot plate is shoved into an annealing oven. All of these stages
+of the work have to be performed with remarkable speed, and by men of
+long training and experience. The plates remain for several days in
+the annealing oven, where the temperature is gradually reduced from an
+intense heat at first, until at the end of the required period it is
+no hotter than an ordinary room.
+
+[Illustration: PREPARING THE GRINDING TABLE.]
+
+When the plate is taken from the annealing oven it has a rough, opaque,
+almost undulating appearance on the surfaces. It is only the surface,
+however, for within it is as clear as crystal. First, it is submitted
+for careful inspection, so that bubbles or other defects may be marked
+for cutting out. It then goes to the cutter who takes off the rough
+edges and squares it into the right dimensions; and thence to the
+grinding room.
+
+[Illustration: HOW THE GLASS PLATES ARE GROUND
+
+GRINDING THE PLATES]
+
+The grinding table is a large flat revolving platform made of iron,
+twenty-five feet or more in diameter. The plate must be carried from
+the annealing oven to the grinding machines, and thence to the racks,
+by men skilled in the art. Twenty men are required to carry the larger
+plates of glass, ten on each side, using leather straps and stepping
+together in perfect time. The lock-step is absolutely essential to
+prevent accident. The grinding table is prepared by being flooded with
+plaster of Paris and water; then the glass is carefully lowered, and a
+number of men mount upon the plate and tramp it into place until it is
+set. After this, greater security is obtained by pegging with prepared
+wooden pins; and then the table is set in motion. The grinding is done
+by revolving runners. Sharp sand is fed upon the table, and a stream of
+water constantly flows over it. After the first cutting by the sand,
+emery is used in a similar manner.
+
+The plates are inspected after leaving the grinding room, and if any
+scratches or defects of any kind are found they are marked. Some of
+these can be rubbed down by hand. There are also, not infrequently,
+nicks and fractures found at this stage; and in such case the plate
+must again be cut and squared. Afterward comes the polishing, which
+is done on another special table. The polishing material is rouge, or
+iron peroxide, applied with water, and the rubbing is done by blocks
+of felt. Reciprocating machinery is so arranged that every part of the
+plate is brought underneath the rubbing surface.
+
+The grinding and polishing has taken away from the original plate half
+of its thickness, sometimes more. There is no saving of the material;
+it has all been washed away. When to this waste is added the fact that
+fully half of the original weight of lime and soda has been released
+by the heat of the furnace, escaping into the atmosphere in fumes and
+acids, one may begin to understand something of the cost of converting
+the rough materials of sand, limestone and soda into beautiful plate
+glass.
+
+~HOW MIRRORS ARE MADE~
+
+In preparing plate glass for mirrors great care must be exercised in
+the selection of the plates. This selection bears reference not only to
+surface defects, but to the quality in general; defects which cannot
+ordinarily be seen are magnified many fold after the glass has received
+a covering of silver.
+
+[Illustration: BEVELING PLATES]
+
+In the process of beveling, the plate passes through the hands of
+skilled workmen of five different divisions, namely: roughers,
+emeriers, smoothers, white-wheelers and buffers; and different abrasive
+materials are used in the order indicated by the titles. These
+materials are sand, emery, natural sandstone imported from England,
+pumice and rouge.
+
+The roughing mill is a circular cast-iron disk about 28 inches in
+diameter, constructed so that the face or top of the mill revolves upon
+a horizontal plane at a speed of about 250 revolutions per minute. The
+sand is conveyed to the mill from above through a hopper simultaneously
+with a stream of water which is played upon the sand to carry it to
+the mill. The rougher places the edge of the plate upon the rapidly
+revolving mill, and the cutting of the bevel is done by the passage
+of the sand between the mill and the plate of glass. A bevel of any
+desired width may be produced. Pattern plates containing incurves,
+mitres, etc., require a practiced eye and great skill upon the part of
+the operator.
+
+When the plate leaves the rougher’s hands the surface of the bevel has
+been ground so deep by the coarse sand that polishing at this stage is
+impossible. Consequently, in order to produce a surface fine enough
+to render it susceptible of a high and brilliant polish it must go
+through the various treatments we have mentioned. The emerier uses a
+fine grade of emery on a mill similar in construction to a roughing
+mill, which takes away considerable of the coarse surface given by the
+first cutting. Then it goes to the smoother, who reduces the roughness
+slowly by using a fine sandstone from England; then it goes to the
+white-wheeler who operates an upright poplar-wood wheel using powdered
+pumice stone as an abrasive; and then, as a last stage it reaches the
+buffer, whose method of operation is shown in the illustration. The
+buffer brings a high polish to the bevel by the use of rouge applied to
+thick felt which covers his wheel.
+
+[Illustration: SILVERING MIRROR PLATES.]
+
+[Illustration: The two photographs here are of the same building taken
+under contrasting conditions. The first picture was taken through a
+window glazed with common window glass. It is an extreme example, to
+be sure, but of a sort not infrequently seen. The second view shows
+the same building taken through a window of polished, flawless plate
+glass. An observing person can see this startling contrast any day as
+he walks along a residence street. At intervals a front window will
+be seen which gives a twisted, distorted reflection of the houses or
+trees on the opposite side: this is window glass. The other kind--the
+window that gives a sharp brilliant reflection--is _plate glass_. It
+is practically impossible to obtain superior reflecting quality from
+window glass. It can only be had from surfaces which have been ground
+and polished.]
+
+The plate, after leaving the beveling room, is again carefully examined
+for surface defects. These defects may consist of scratches caused
+inadvertently by permitting the surface of the plate to come into
+contact with the abrasive material. These scratches are removed by hand
+polishing, which must be skillfully done; otherwise the reflection will
+become distorted through over-polishing in a given area or spot. The
+plate is then taken to a wash table where the surface to be silvered
+is thoroughly washed with distilled water; after which it is taken
+to a table that is covered with blankets, and which is heated to a
+temperature of from 90° to 110°. The blanketing is to protect the plate
+from being scratched, and also to catch all of the silver waste. The
+silvering solution is nitrate of silver liquefied by a certain formula,
+and is poured over the plate; the fluid having an appearance which to
+the ordinary observer looks like nothing other than pure distilled
+water. Within a few minutes the silver, aided by a reactory, added
+prior to pouring, begins to precipitate upon the glass; the liquids
+remaining above, and thus preventing air and impurities from coming
+into contact with the silver. Such contact would produce oxidation.
+After the silver is precipitated the plate is thoroughly dried,
+shellacked and painted; after which it is ready for commercial use.
+
+Until about 25 years ago, practically all mirrors were silvered with
+mercury. There have been two reasons for discouraging the use of
+mercury for silvering; one being its injuriousness to the health of
+the workmen. In some European countries stringent laws were enacted,
+stipulating that men should work only a certain number of hours.
+
+Other hygienic stipulations, added to the fact that the use of mercury
+was already very expensive, have tended to replace that process by the
+use of nitrate of silver.
+
+
+
+
+Why Is the Sky Blue?
+
+
+This question puzzled every one who thought of it for a long time.
+Even astronomers, the men who make a business of studying the skies,
+and other learned men, puzzled their brains about it and searched for
+the answer long ago, until finally, as always happens when a lot of
+people study a subject, Professor John Tyndall, a noted scientist of
+the last century, discovered the answer. The explanation follows: All
+the light we have is sunlight, which is pure white light. This white
+light is made up of rays of light of different colors. These rays are
+red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet. It takes all of
+these different rays of light to make our white sunlight, and when
+you separate sunlight into its original rays you always produce the
+rays of light in the above colors and in the same order. This is only
+true, however, when the sunlight is passed through an object which does
+not absorb any of its rays. This is the arrangement of the different
+colors of light found in the rainbow. The rainbow is formed by sunlight
+passing into raindrops or vapor in such a way as to divide the sunlight
+into the different colored rays of light. When the rainbow is formed
+none of the rays are absorbed by raindrops or vapor through which the
+sunlight passes. Some of these rays of light are known as short rays
+and others as long rays. But when sunlight meets other things besides
+those which make a pure rainbow, these other objects have the ability
+to absorb some of the rays of colored light, and they throw off the
+remainder. When these rays have been thrown off those which have been
+absorbed make many different combinations, and thus are produced all of
+the different colors we know, the various tints and shades of color,
+according to composition and size.
+
+Now, then, to get back to the color of the sky, which is blue as we
+know. The sky or air which surrounds the earth is filled with countless
+tiny specks of what we may call dust--particles of solid things hanging
+or floating in the air. These specks are of just the size and quality
+that they catch and absorb part of the rays of light which form our
+sunlight and throw off the rest of the rays, and the part which has
+been absorbed forms the combination of color which makes our sky so
+beautifully blue. Sometimes you notice, of course, that the sky is a
+lighter or darker blue than at other times. This difference is due
+to the kind and condition of tiny specks in the air at the time, and
+to the direction or angle at which the sunlight strikes these tiny
+particles. This fact brings up a question which you have not asked, but
+which would come naturally as the result of your first.
+
+
+
+
+What Makes the Colors of the Sunset?
+
+
+The direction of the sun’s rays when they meet these large and small
+particles in the air has a great deal to do with the combination of
+colors that result as these objects absorb part of the rays and throw
+off others. The sky is the most beautiful blue when the sun is high in
+the sky. But when the sun is setting the light has a greater distance
+to travel through the belt of air which surrounds the earth than
+when it is high up over our heads. You know that if you stick a pin
+straight down into an orange it won’t go in very far before it is clear
+through the peel, but if you stick the pin into an orange along the
+edge it will go through a great deal more of the peel than the other
+way. That is the way it is with the sunset colors. The peel of the
+orange is a good representation of the belt of air which surrounds the
+earth. At sunset the light instead of coming straight down through the
+belt of air, thus meeting the eye through the shortest possible amount
+of air, strikes the air on a slant, and, therefore, travels through
+a great deal more air and closer to the earth to reach it, with the
+results that it meets a great many more of these little specks, besides
+all the smoke and other things that hang in the air near the ground,
+and we thus get many more colors, because some of the things in the air
+absorb some of the rays and others absorb very different rays when the
+light comes in this slanting way, and that is what makes the different
+colors in the sunset. For this reason sunsets are often richer and more
+beautiful in color when the air is not so pure, but has much dirt and
+other matter floating about in it.
+
+
+
+
+Are There Two Sides to the Rainbow?
+
+
+No, there is only one side to the rainbow. The rainbow is made by
+reflection of the rays of sunlight through drops of water in the air,
+but you can never see a rainbow unless you are between it and the sun.
+You could never see a rainbow if you were looking at the sun, and so
+if you are looking at a rainbow you can be certain that anyone on
+the other side of it could not see it, because they would have to be
+looking right at the sun. The rainbow is always opposite to the sun and
+there can never be two sides to it.
+
+
+
+
+Do the Ends of the Rainbow Rest on Land?
+
+
+The ends of the rainbow do not rest on anything. You see, the rainbow
+is only the reflection of the sun’s rays thrown back to us by the
+inside of the back of the raindrops, which are still in the sky after
+the rain. Of course, if any of the drops of water touched the ground
+they would cease to be raindrops and, therefore, could not reflect the
+rays of the sunlight. So, what we think of as the ends of the rainbow
+do not really exist at all. The rainbow is only a reflection of the
+rays of sunlight from countless drops of water in the air, which the
+sun’s rays must strike at a certain angle in order to reflect back the
+light so we can see it. Where the sun’s rays do not strike the drops of
+water at the right angle no light is reflected, and there is the end of
+the rainbow.
+
+
+
+
+What Causes the Different Colors of the Rainbow?
+
+
+The colors of the rainbow, which are always the same, and are shown in
+this order--red, orange, yellow, green, blue and violet--are sunlight
+broken up into its original colors. It takes all of these colors in the
+proportions in which they are mixed in the rainbow to make the pure
+sunlight. These are known as the prismatic colors. As shown in another
+answer to one of your puzzling questions, the rainbow is caused by the
+rays of the sun passing into drops of water in the air and reflected
+back to us with one part of the drop of water acting on it in such a
+way as to break up the pure sunlight into these prismatic colors. When
+a rainbow appears at a time when there is a great deal of sunlight, you
+will generally see two rainbows. The inner rainbow is formed by the
+rays of the sun that enter the upper part of the falling raindrops, and
+the outer rainbow is formed by the rays that enter the under part of
+the raindrops. In the inner or primary bow, as it is called, the colors
+beginning at the outside ring of color are red, orange, yellow, green,
+blue and violet, and being exactly reversed in the outer or secondary
+bow. The secondary bow is also fainter. You may sometimes see smaller
+rainbows, even if it has not been raining, when looking at a fountain
+or waterfall. These are caused in exactly the same way.
+
+
+
+
+What Makes the Hills Look Blue Sometimes?
+
+
+This is due to the fact that when the hills look blue you are looking
+at them at a distance, and there is a long stretch of air between you
+and the hills. This air is filled with countless particles of dust
+and other things, and what you see is not really blue hills, but the
+reflection of the sun’s rays from the little particles in the air
+striking your eye. The color is due to the angle at which the light
+from the sun strikes these particles, and is reflected back to your eye
+and partially due to the character of the particles in the air.
+
+
+
+
+Do the Stars Really Shoot Down?
+
+
+The answer is “No.” We have come to use the expression “shooting stars”
+commonly, but we should probably be more correct if we said “shooting
+rocks,” for the things we refer to commonly as “shooting stars” are
+more like rocks than anything else. If any of the real stars were to
+fall into the air surrounding the earth we should all be burned up by
+the great heat developed long before it actually hit the earth, which
+it would undoubtedly destroy.
+
+The things that fall and leave a streak of light are really only
+pebbles, stones, rocks or pieces of iron and other substances that fall
+from some place into the earth’s air belt. When they strike the air
+at the speed at which they are falling the friction of the air makes
+a heat that causes them to become luminous, and by far the greater
+part of them is burned up before they get very near the earth. We call
+them meteorites. Sometimes, though rarely, one will manage to strike
+the earth, coming at such great speed and being so large that the air
+has not been able to burn it up completely, and it will strike the
+earth and sink deep down into the soil. In most museums can be seen
+such meteorites that have been dug up after striking the earth. These
+are constantly falling into the air surrounding the earth, but in the
+day-time their light is not strong enough to be seen while the sun is
+shining.
+
+
+
+
+Will the Sky Ever Fall Down?
+
+
+No, the sky can never fall down, because it is not made of the kind of
+things that fall. We have become used to thinking of it as the roof
+of the earth, a great dome-shaped roof, because in our little way of
+looking at things we compared the earth and what is above it with the
+houses in which we live. The sky is just space in which the heavenly
+bodies revolve in their orbits. We cannot really ever see sky. We see
+only the sun’s light reflected by the air belt which surrounds the
+earth. In this air belt are the clouds which do come closer to the
+land at times than at others, and this is apt to aid in giving us an
+incorrect impression of this.
+
+
+
+
+What Is the Milky Way?
+
+
+The “Galaxy,” or “Milky Way,” as it is popularly called, is a luminous
+circle extending completely around the heavens. It is produced by
+myriads of stars, as can be seen when you look at it through a
+telescope. It divides into two great branches at one point, which
+travel for some distance separately and then reunite. It has also
+several branches. At one point it spreads out very widely into a
+fanlike shape.
+
+
+
+
+Why Do They Call It the Milky Way?
+
+
+The stars in the group are so numerous that they present to the naked
+eye a whiteness like a stream of milk. To produce this effect there are
+not hundreds of stars, nor thousands of them, but actually millions of
+them.
+
+When you stop to think that each one of these stars in the Milky Way
+is a sun like our own--some of them smaller, of course, but many of
+them much larger--you begin to realize how impossible it is for man to
+form any real idea of the magnitude and wonders of the earth. Here in
+the Milky Way are so many suns like our own sun that they together as
+we look at them form the particles of a path which makes the circle of
+the heavens, and yet are so far away that to the naked eye each of them
+looks to us like only one of countless drops of milk in a very large
+stream of milk that goes around the whole sky.
+
+
+
+
+Why Don’t the Stars Shine in the Day-time?
+
+
+The stars do shine in the day-time. If you will go down into a deep
+well or the open shaft of a deep mine and look up at the sky, of which
+you can see a circular patch at the top of the well, you will be able
+to see the stars in the day-time. The moon also shines in the day-time,
+on some part of the earth. At certain times during the month you can
+notice that the moon rises before the sun sets, and sometimes in the
+morning you can still see the moon in the sky after the sun is up.
+Usually you cannot see either the moon or the stars in the day-time,
+because the light from the sun is so bright and strong that the light
+of the stars and moon are lost in the brightness of the sun’s rays.
+When the moon is visible before the sun sets or after the sun has risen
+it is because the light of the sun is not so bright and strong at the
+beginning or close of daylight. If you are fortunate enough some time
+to witness a total eclipse of the sun you will be able to see the stars
+in day-time without having to go down into a deep well or mine shaft.
+
+
+
+
+How Far Does Space Reach?
+
+
+Space surrounds all earths, planets, suns, and extends for an infinite
+distance beyond each of them in all directions. It is impossible to
+measure in terms of human knowledge how far space extends. It is one
+of the things beyond the comprehension of the human mind, and for that
+reason man can never know in miles or the number of millions of miles
+how far it extends. Man has been able to measure the distance from
+the earth of some of the stars, and some of the nearest of them are
+millions of miles from the earth. Most of them are hundreds and even
+thousands of million miles away, and when we stop to think that space
+extends at least as far on the other sides of the stars as it does on
+this side, and even beyond that, we can readily understand that it is
+not only impossible to measure space, but also impossible to give in
+words any conception of what its limits might be.
+
+There is one word--infinite--which we are forced to use in speaking of
+the extent of space. Infinite means “without end,” unbounded, and so
+man has come to use the word “infinite” in describing the extent of
+space, and that is as near as any one can describe it.
+
+
+
+
+What Does Horse Power Mean?
+
+
+The term “horse power” is used in describing the amount of power
+produced by an engine or motor. When man made the first engines he
+needed some term to use in describing the amount of power his engine
+could develop. Up to that time man had used the horse for turning the
+wheels of his machinery and the horse to him naturally represented the
+most powerful animal working for man. When engines came into use they
+replaced the horses because they were capable of developing many times
+the power of the horse. In finding an expression which would accurately
+convey to the mind of another the power of a particular engine, it
+was natural to say that this engine would do the work of five, ten or
+more horses, and as this described it accurately and in a way that was
+entirely clear, it became customary to describe the power of an engine
+as so many times the power of one horse.
+
+To-day we still cling to the term “horse power” in describing the
+strength of the engine, although the horse-power unit used to-day is
+greater than the power of an average horse. To speak of an engine of
+one horse power to-day means an engine that has the power to lift
+30,000 pounds one foot in one minute.
+
+[Illustration: WHERE OUR COAL COMES FROM
+
+A COAL BREAKER.
+
+Coal is brought in mine cars from several mine shafts and slopes,
+dumped onto a conveyor that runs on the inclined framework shown at
+the right of the picture. At the top it is broken in rolls, sorted and
+sized as it slides through the different screens, pickers, etc., and is
+finally delivered into railroad cars.]
+
+
+
+
+The Story in a Lump of Coal
+
+
+How Did the Coal Get Into the Coal Mines?
+
+The heavy black mineral called coal, which we burn in our stoves
+and furnaces, and use to heat the boilers of our engines was formed
+from trees and plants of various sorts. Most of the coal was formed
+thousands of years ago at a time when the atmosphere that envelopes the
+earth contained a much larger proportion of carbonic acid gas than it
+does now, and the climate of all regions of the earth was much warmer
+than it now is. This period was known as the carboniferous age, that
+is, the coal-making age, and its atmospheric conditions, favored the
+growth of plants, so that the earth was covered with great forests,
+of trees, giant ferns, and other plants, many of which are no longer
+found on the earth. In the warm, moist, and carbon-laden atmosphere of
+that period the growth of all kinds of plants was rapid and luxuriant,
+and as fast as old trees fell and partially decayed, others grew up in
+their places. In this way, thick layers of vegetable matter were formed
+over the soil in which the plants grew. In many places, where these
+beds were formed, the surface of the earth became depressed and the
+water of the sea flowed over the beds of vegetable matter.
+
+Sediment of various kinds was deposited over the vegetable matter, and
+in the course of centuries the sediment was transformed into rock.
+
+After the formation of the covering of sediment, the decay of the
+vegetable matter was checked, but a slow change of another kind was
+brought about by the pressure of the sedimentary deposits and the heat
+to which the plant remains were subjected. The hydrogen and oxygen
+which constituted the greater part of the plant substance was driven
+off and the carbon left behind. This change took place very gradually,
+through periods so long that we can only guess at their duration, but
+we know that many beds of coal were formed from layers of vegetable
+matter that were covered up many thousand years ago.
+
+[Illustration: MINE WORKERS THAT NEVER SEE DAYLIGHT
+
+Underground stable constructed of concrete and iron, with natural rock
+roof to avoid danger of fire. Mules are only taken to surface when
+mines are idle.]
+
+The coal first formed and submitted longest to pressure is known as
+hard coal, or anthracite. It is pure black, or has a bluish metallic
+luster. Its specific gravity is 1.46; which is about the same as that
+of hard wood. Anthracite contains from 90 to 94 per cent. of carbon,
+the remainder being composed of hydrogen, oxygen, and ash.
+
+[Illustration: The Mules and their drivers.--An important part of the
+haulage system. Mules are kept in stables on surface at this mine and
+driven in every day through slope or drift.]
+
+Hard coal may be called the ideal fuel and is especially adapted to
+domestic heating purposes. It burns without smoke and produces great
+heat. There is no soot deposit upon the walls of chimneys, and in good
+stoves or furnaces the small amount of gas given off by it is consumed.
+Anthracite is the least abundant of all the varieties of coal and is
+much more costly than the other varieties. For this reason it is not
+much used in manufacturing.
+
+[Illustration: HOW THE SLATE PICKERS WORK
+
+Boy slate pickers. Coal slides down the chutes. Boys pick out the slate
+and rock and throw into chute alongside.]
+
+[Illustration: Spiral slate pickers do work of many boys. Coal and rock
+start together at the top in the small inner spiral. The coal being
+lighter slides faster, and in going around is carried over the edge
+into the outer spiral, while the rock continues in the bottom.]
+
+The coal formed later is very different in composition and is called
+bituminous or soft coal. Its name is derived from the fact that it
+contains a soft substance called bitumen, which oozes out of the coal
+when heat is applied to it. Soft coal contains from 75 to 85 per cent.
+of carbon, some traces of sulphur, and a larger percentage of oxygen
+and hydrogen than anthracite. When soft coal is heated in a closed
+vessel or retort, the hydrogen and oxygen, in combination with some
+carbon, are driven off.
+
+[Illustration: HOW A COAL MINE LOOKS INSIDE
+
+Shaft gate. One of the two cages in the shaft has just brought the men
+to the surface; the other is at the bottom. Safety gate resting on top
+of cage covers top of shaft when cage is down, as shown at right.]
+
+[Illustration: Section showing Anthracite Seams. Coal is shown black;
+rock and dirt lighter; shaft tunnels and workings, white. Upper part of
+“Mammoth” seam is stripped and quarried.]
+
+[Illustration: Lignite mine in Texas. Loaded mine cars ready to go to
+surface.]
+
+[Illustration: HOW THE MINERS LOOSEN THE COAL
+
+Undercutting with pick. The man lying on his side cuts under the coal.
+A light charge of powder exploded in a drill hole near the roof breaks
+the coal down in large pieces.]
+
+Soft coal is black, and upon smooth surfaces it is glossy. It lacks the
+bluish luster sometimes seen in hard coal and is much softer and more
+easily broken. When handled it blackens the hands more than hard coal
+does. In this kind of coal are frequently seen the outlines of leaves
+and stems of plants that enter into its formation. Occasionally, trunks
+of trees with roots extending down into the clay below the bed of coal
+have been found.
+
+[Illustration: Undercutting in seam. A compressed air driven machine
+undercuts deeper and faster than the man with a pick.]
+
+Soft coal has a specific gravity of 1.27. It burns with a yellow flame
+which is larger than the flame from hard coal, but it does not emit so
+high a degree of heat. Combustion, generally imperfect, gives rise to
+offensive gases and to black smoke that concentrates in the air and
+falls to the ground as soot, which blackens buildings, and, in winter,
+noticeably discolors the snow.
+
+The formation of lignite has been observed in the timbers of some
+old mines in Europe. In some of these mines wooden pillars have been
+supporting the rocks above for four hundred years or longer, and in
+that time the pressure of the rocks and other influences acting upon
+the wood of the pillars have caused it to become transformed into a
+brown substance resembling lignite. This fact tends to confirm the
+theory of coal formation stated at the beginning of this article. The
+proportion of carbon in lignite is never above 70 per cent., and the
+ash indicates the presence of considerable earthy matter. It is chiefly
+used in those forms of manufacture where a hot fire is not required. In
+Europe it is used, to some extent, in heating the houses of the poorer
+classes.
+
+Peat is regarded as the latest of the coal formations. In it, the
+change in the vegetable matter has not extended beyond merely covering
+it, and subjecting it to slight pressure.
+
+Peat is formed in marshy soils where there is a considerable growth
+of plants that are constantly undergoing partial decay and becoming
+covered by water. It consists of the roots and stems of the plants
+matted together and mingled with some earthy material. When freshly
+dug out of the bog or marsh in which it was formed there is always a
+quantity of water in it, the amount being greatest in the peat found
+nearest the surface and least in that at the bottom of the bed, where
+the peat is not very different in appearance from lignite.
+
+Peat is used for fuel where wood is scarce and coal is high in price.
+Recent experiments in saturating peat with petroleum, have shown that
+in this way a form of fuel may be produced for which considerable value
+is claimed. Its manufacture is confined to Southern Russia, where peat
+is plentiful and petroleum is cheap.
+
+
+Why Does Firedamp Explode in a Safety Lamp Without Producing an
+Explosion of the Gas With Which the Lamp Is Surrounded?
+
+The passing of the flame from the lamp to the outside air is prevented
+by the gauze. This splits the burning gas into little streamlets (784
+to each square inch of gauze), which are cooled below the point of
+ignition, that is, are extinguished by coming in contact with the metal
+of the gauze, so that the flame does not pass outside the lamp. In some
+cases the explosion may be so great as to force the flame through the
+gauze and thus ignite the gas outside.
+
+
+Are There Any Conditions Under Which it Would Not Be Safe to Use a
+Safety Lamp?
+
+~THE DANGERS TO THE MINERS~
+
+The underground conditions affecting the safety of the lamp are
+exposure in air-currents of high velocity by reason of which the flame
+may be blown through or against the gauze, or exposure for too great
+a time to mixtures of air and gas which will burn within the lamp and
+thus heat the gauze. The dangerous velocity of air-currents begins at
+about 500 feet a minute, but varies with the type of lamp, some being
+much less sensitive to air-currents of high velocity than others. Other
+conditions under which the lamp is not safe concern the lamp itself or
+the one using it. The lamp is dangerous in the hands of inexperienced
+persons or when the gauze is dirty or broken. If the gauze is dirty,
+that portion absorbs the heat and may become hot enough to ignite the
+outside gas; naturally any holes in the gauze will pass the flame.
+
+The safety lamp when left too long in air containing much explosive gas
+may cause an explosion, and it is extinguished by certain unbreathable
+gases. The electric lamp burns safely regardless of the atmosphere,
+but gives no warning of poisonous or explosive gases. It is often used
+by rescue men wearing oxygen helmets to enter mines full of poisonous
+gases after explosions.
+
+[Illustration: THE LAMP WHICH SAVES MANY LIVES
+
+The safety lamp. The sheet iron bonnet or covering of the upper part
+protects the gauze within from strong currents of air, while the glass
+permits the light to be diffused. The above is a modern lamp similar to
+a bonnetted Clanny lamp.]
+
+The safety lamp is dangerous when there is a hole in the gauze that
+will permit the passage of flame to the outside, or when the gauze
+is dirty, so that any particular spot may be overheated, or when the
+velocity of the air is so great that the flame is blown through the
+gauze, or (generally) when in the hands of an inexperienced person. The
+unbonneted Davy lamp is not safe where the velocity of the air exceeds
+360 feet per minute. The velocity with which the air strikes a lamp
+carried against it is increased by the amount equal to the rate at
+which the fireboss travels. If he walks at the rate of, say, 4 miles an
+hour or 352 feet a minute (on the gangways he will usually have to move
+faster than this to make his rounds on time) he will create by his own
+motion (and in still air) a velocity practically the same as that at
+which the unbonneted Davy is considered unsafe.
+
+[Illustration: Open oil lamp commonly worn on hat. Wick is inverted in
+spout.]
+
+[Illustration: Acetylene or carbide lamp for cap or hand.]
+
+
+History of the Safety Lamp.
+
+The safety lamp, the miner’s faithful and indispensable companion at
+his dangerous work, has been, heretofore, considered as the invention
+of the famous English scientist, Humphrey Davy, though the name of
+George Stephenson, of locomotive fame, has also been mentioned in
+this connection. Both came out with their inventions about the same
+time, but neither of them is the real inventor of the safety lamp; for
+there was, as proven by Wilhelm Nieman, a safety lamp in existence two
+years before Davy’s invention became known. It was not inferior to the
+latter, but rather surpassed it in illuminating power. Previous to
+this, all the precaution employed for the prevention of the threatening
+dangers of firedamp had been quite incomplete. One tried to thoroughly
+ventilate the mines by fastening a burning torch to a large pole, which
+was pushed ahead and exploded the gases. This was extremely dangerous
+work which, in the Middle Ages, was generally done by a criminal,
+in order that he might atone for his crimes, or by a penitent for
+the benefit of mankind. The attempt to substitute for the open light
+phosphorescent substances, encased in glass, was not much of a success.
+An improvement was the so-called steel mill, invented about 1750 by
+Carlyle Spedding, manager of a mine. This steel mill consisted of a
+steel wheel which was put into rapid motion by means of a crank. By
+pressing a firestone against the fast revolving wheel, an incessant
+shower of sparks was produced giving a fairly good and absolutely safe
+illumination. However, the running expenses of his apparatus, which
+necessitated the continual services of one man, were very high; for
+instance, the expenditure for light in a coal mine near Newcastle in
+the year 1816 amounted to about $200 per week. Nevertheless, the steel
+mill was very much appreciated and in use for a long time, only to be
+slowly supplanted by the safety lamp.
+
+[Illustration: ELECTRIC CAP LAMP AND BATTERY.
+
+The safety lamp when left too long in air containing much explosive gas
+may cause an explosion, and it is extinguished by certain unbreathable
+gases. The electric lamp burns safely regardless of the atmosphere,
+but gives no warning of poisonous or explosive gases. It is often used
+by rescue men wearing oxygen helmets to enter mines full of poisonous
+gases after explosions.]
+
+~THE MAN WHO INVENTED THE SAFETY LAMP~
+
+At the beginning of the nineteenth century the existing coal mines
+were worked to the limit and the catastrophies, caused by firedamp,
+increased in an alarming manner. In fact the distress was so great that
+in 1812 a society for the prevention of mine disasters was formed at
+Sutherland, and the origin of the safety lamp can be traced back to
+the efforts and labors of this organization. Dr. William Reid Clanny,
+a retired ship’s surgeon, was probably the first to undertake the task
+(in the year 1808), which he successfully finished with energy and
+skill. He concentrated his efforts at first on the separation of the
+flames from the surrounding atmosphere, but he did not succeed till the
+latter part of 1812, when he constructed a lamp that seemed to meet
+all requirements. The report of this invention was submitted to the
+Royal Society of London, May 20, 1813, and was printed in the minutes
+of that academy. The casing of this original safety lamp was closed
+at the top and bottom by two open water tanks; the air was pumped in
+by means of bellows and, passing in and out, had to go through both
+these reservoirs which acted as valves, so to speak. The lamp proved to
+be absolutely safe and was successfully introduced by the management
+of Herrington Mill pit mine. The clumsy parts of this apparatus were
+eliminated by its inventor by various improvements. The so-called steam
+safety lamp was completed in December, 1815, and installed in several
+mines. In the meanwhile, two competitors made their appearance. George
+Stephenson had finished his lamp October 21, 1815, and Davy published
+his first experiments November 9, 1815, in the Transactions of the
+Royal Society of London. Clanny’s lamp, nevertheless, stood the test in
+the face of this competition, through its much superior illuminating
+power, and more particularly as it still continued to burn when the
+Davy and Stephenson lamps had gone out. To Clanny, therefore, belongs
+the distinction, in the history of invention, of having constructed the
+first reliable safety lamp.
+
+
+
+
+What Is a Metal?
+
+
+The oldest known metals in the world are gold and silver, copper, iron,
+tin and lead. They are to-day still the most useful and widely-used
+metals. Some of the properties by which we distinguish metals are the
+following: They are solid and not transparent; they have luster and
+are heavy. Mercury is an exception to the rule; it is a liquid, though
+yet a metal, and there is another, sodium, which is solid, though very
+light.
+
+
+
+
+What Is the Most Valuable Metal?
+
+
+If you were guessing you would naturally say that gold is, of course,
+the most valuable of the metals. But you would be wrong. The proper
+answer to this is iron. We do not mean the pound for pound value, for
+you could get much more for a pound of gold than for a pound of iron.
+We mean in useful value--iron is in that sense the most valuable metal
+known to man. This is true because iron is of such great service to man
+in so many ways, and it is very fortunate that there is such a great
+amount of it available for man’s purposes. Iron is not generally found
+in a pure state in the mines. It is generally found compounded with
+carbon and other substances, and we obtain pure iron by burning these
+other substances out of the compound.
+
+Iron is put upon the market in three forms, which differ very much in
+their properties. First, there is cast-iron. Iron in this form is hard,
+easily fusible and quite brittle, as you will know if you ever broke a
+lid on the kitchen range. In the form of cast-iron it cannot be forged
+or welded.
+
+Next comes wrought-iron, which is quite soft, can be hammered out flat
+or drawn out in the form of a wire and can be welded, but fusible only
+at a high temperature. Third comes steel, the most wonderful thing we
+produce with iron. It is also malleable, which means that it is capable
+of being hammered out flat and can easily be welded, and this is the
+great property of steel--it acquires when tempered a very high degree
+of hardness, so that a sharp edge can be put on it, and when in that
+shape it will easily cut wrought-iron. Ordinarily we make wrought-iron
+and steel from iron that has been changed from its original state to
+cast-iron.
+
+The term cast-iron is generally given to iron which has been melted and
+cast in any form desired for use. Stoves are made in this way. The iron
+is melted and then poured into a mold; while the product out of which
+wrought-iron and steel are made is technically cast-iron, the term
+pig-iron is used in speaking of iron which is cast for this purpose.
+
+The process by which pig-iron is changed into wrought-iron is called
+_puddling_. The object of puddling, which is done in what is called a
+reverberatory furnace (which is a furnace that reflects or drives back
+the flame or heat) is to remove the carbon which is in the pig-iron.
+This is done partly by the action of the oxygen of the air at high
+temperature and partly by the action of the cinder formed by the
+burning furnace. When this has been done the iron is made into balls of
+a size convenient for handling. These are “shingled” by squeezing or
+hammering and passed between rolls by which the iron is made to assume
+any desired form.
+
+Now we come to steel, the most wonderful product or form in which we
+take advantage of the value of iron. Steel was formerly made from
+wrought-iron, so that you first had to get cast-iron, from which
+you made wrought-iron, and eventually got steel by changing the
+wrought-iron. Now we make steel direct from pig-iron. This is known as
+the Bessemer process.
+
+The most noticeable feature in the chemical composition of the
+different grades of iron and steel is found in the percentages of
+carbon they contain. Pig-iron contains the most carbon; steel the next
+lowest, and wrought-iron the least.
+
+Iron has been known to men from early historical times. The smelting
+of iron ores is not any indication of advanced civilization either.
+Savage tribes in many parts of the world practiced the art of smelting,
+even before they could have learned it from people who had become
+civilized.
+
+
+
+
+Why Is Gold Called Precious?
+
+
+Gold is called one of the precious metals because of its beautiful
+color, its luster, and the fact that it does not rust or tarnish when
+exposed to the air. It is the most ductile (can be stretched out into
+the thinnest wire), and is also the most malleable (can be hammered
+out into the thinnest sheet). It can be hammered into leaves so thin
+that light will pass through them. Pure gold is so soft that it cannot
+be used in that form in making gold coins or in making jewelry. Other
+substances, generally copper, are added to it to make the gold coins
+and jewelry hard. Sometimes silver is also added to the gold with
+copper. The gold coins of the United States are made of nine parts of
+gold to one of copper. The coins of France are the same, while the
+coins of England are made of eleven parts of gold to one of copper.
+The gold used for jewels and watch-cases varies from eight or nine to
+eighteen carats fine.
+
+Another reason why gold is called a precious metal is that it is very
+difficult to dissolve it. None of the acids alone will dissolve gold,
+and only two of them when mixed together will do so. These are nitric
+acid and hydrochloric acid. When these two acids are mixed and gold put
+into the mixture the gold will disappear.
+
+
+
+
+What Do We Mean By 18-Carat Fine?
+
+
+We often hear people in speaking of their watches say, “It is an
+18-carat case.” Others speak of 14-carat watches or 22-carat or
+solid-gold rings.
+
+When you see the marks on a watch-case or the inside of a gold ring
+they read 18 K or 14 K, or whatever number of carats the maker wishes
+to indicate. A piece of gold jewelry marked 18 K or 18 carats means
+that it is three-fourths pure gold. In arranging this basis of marking
+things made of gold, absolutely pure gold is called 24 carats. Then if
+two, six or ten twenty-fourths of alloy has been added, the amount of
+the alloy is deducted from twenty-four, and the result is either 22, 18
+or 14 carats fine, and so on. On ordinary articles made by jewelers the
+amount of pure gold used is seldom over 18 carats, or three-fourths.
+Weddings rings (and these are considered solid gold) are generally made
+22 carats fine, that is, there are only two twenty-fourth parts of
+alloy in them.
+
+
+
+
+Why Does Silver Tarnish?
+
+
+Silver is a remarkably white metal, which is associated with gold as
+one of the precious metals. It is harder than gold and will not rust,
+although it will tarnish, which gold will not, when exposed to certain
+kinds of air.
+
+The silver tarnishes when it is exposed to any kind of air that has
+sulphur mixed in it. It ranks below gold as a precious metal for use in
+making ornaments and is not so costly, because there is a great deal
+more of it to be found in the world.
+
+While silver is somewhat harder than gold, it is still not sufficiently
+hard to use pure for making coins, so, as in the case of the gold
+coins, it is mixed with something else--copper--to harden it. Otherwise
+our dimes and quarters would wear out too rapidly. Our silver coins are
+made of nine parts of silver to one of copper. The coins of France are
+in the same proportion, while the silver coins of England are made of
+92¹⁄₂ parts of silver to 7¹⁄₂ parts of copper. German silver coins are
+made of three parts of silver and one of copper.
+
+
+
+
+Why Do We Use Copper Telegraph Wires?
+
+
+One of the characteristics which distinguishes copper is its color--a
+peculiar red. It stands next to gold and silver in ductility and
+malleability, and comes next to iron and steel in tenacity--which
+means the ability of its tiny particles to hang on to each other.
+That is why copper wire bends instead of breaking when you twist
+it. But that is not the only reason, although an important part of
+the reason, why we use copper for telegraph wires. Copper is an
+extremely good conductor of electricity when it is pure. So are gold
+and silver, but we cannot afford to buy gold and silver wires for the
+telegraph, telephone and other wires, and if we used such wires the
+cost of the equipment would be so great that we could not afford to
+have telephones in our homes. But there is a great deal of copper in
+the world and it is very cheap, and so it makes an ideal element for
+use in things through which electricity is to pass. When you compound
+it with other substances it loses some of its conductivity. Copper
+is used extensively in many ways in the world. This book is printed,
+for instance, from copper electrotype plates. The whole business of
+electrotyping is based on the use of copper.
+
+
+
+
+Why Is Lead So Heavy?
+
+
+Lead is a white metal and is noted for its softness and durability. It
+has a luster when freshly cut, but becomes dull quite soon after the
+freshly-cut surface is exposed to the air. Lead is the softest metal in
+general use. It can be cut with an ordinary knife. It can be rolled out
+into thin sheets, but cannot be drawn out into wire.
+
+Lead is a very dense metal, that is, its particles are very compact
+and there is no room for air to circulate in between these particles.
+A piece of wood is lighter than a piece of lead of exactly equal bulk,
+because the little particles which make up the piece of wood are not
+very close together, and there is a lot of air in the ordinary piece of
+wood, while this is not true of the lead.
+
+A great deal of lead is used in making pipes for plumbing. This is
+because lead pipe is comparatively cheap, although you might not think
+so when you think of the general conclusions we have been brought to
+form about plumbers and everything connected with them. Lead pipe is
+easily bent in any direction also, and is particularly good for use in
+plumbing for that reason.
+
+Another wide use of lead is in making paints--white lead being the base
+used in making oil paints. The process of making white lead for paint
+is quite interesting and pictures of it are shown in “The Story In a
+Can of Paint” in another part of “The Book of Wonders.”
+
+
+
+
+Why Are Cooking Utensils Made of Tin?
+
+
+Tin is the least important of the six useful metals. It is also
+inferior in many ways to the others in this group of elements, but is
+tougher than lead and will make a better wire, though not a really good
+one. It has a whiteness and a luster that are not tarnished by ordinary
+temperature and is cheap. That is why it is used in making cooking
+utensils, pans, etc., and for roofs. But the pans, roofs, etc., are not
+pure tin. They are thin sheets of iron coated with tin. Pure tin would
+not be strong enough for these purposes, so a sheet of iron is first
+taken to supply the strength and then covered with tin to improve the
+appearance of the tin pans and keep them from rusting rapidly.
+
+
+
+
+What Is Gravitation?
+
+
+Gravitation is the result of the attraction which every body, no matter
+what its size, has for every other body. It is a strange force and
+difficult to explain in plain words. It is what keeps the heavenly
+bodies in their paths. Every one of the planets is held in its path
+by gravitation and every object on each of the planets is kept on the
+planet by gravitation. We can come nearer understanding gravitation by
+studying the effect of the attraction of gravitation on our own earth
+and the objects on it. When you throw a ball or a stone into the air
+it is the attraction of gravitation that causes it to come back. If
+this were not so the stone would go on up and up and would keep on
+going forever. If it were not for this wonderful force you could jump
+into the air and just keep on going up with nothing to bring you back.
+The reason you do not pull the earth toward you is because the body or
+mass with the greater bulk has always the greater pulling power.
+
+This is a wonderful force. It cannot be produced nor can it be
+destroyed or lessened. It just is. It acts between all pairs of
+bodies. If other bodies come between any pair of bodies the attraction
+of gravity between the two outside bodies is neither lessened or
+increased, and yet each of the outside bodies will have an independent
+attraction or pull on the body which is in between.
+
+No particle of time is spent by the transmission of the force of
+gravity from one body to another, no matter how far apart they may be.
+The only effect that distance has on the attraction of gravitation is
+to lessen its force. Any body which is being pulled through gravity
+toward another body would fall toward the center of the attracting body
+if all the force of attraction from all other bodies were removed.
+
+
+
+
+What Is Specific Gravity?
+
+
+Specific gravity is the ratio of weight of a given bulk of any
+substance to that of a standard substance. The substances taken as
+the standard for solids and liquids is water, and air or hydrogen for
+gases. Since the weights of different bodies are in proportion to their
+masses, it follows that the specific gravity of any body is the same
+as its density, and we now generally use the term “density” instead of
+specific gravity.
+
+To find, for instance, the specific gravity of a given bulk of silver,
+we must take an equal bulk of water and weigh it. Then we also weigh
+the silver. We find that the silver weighs ten and a half times as much
+as the water, and so the specific gravity of silver is 10.5. If you
+will bear in mind that water is the standard used for measuring the
+specific gravity of solids and liquids, and that air or hydrogen are
+used as standards for the gases, you will always know what the figures
+after the words specific gravity mean.
+
+
+
+
+Why Do We See Stars When Hit On the Eye?
+
+
+We do not really see stars, of course, when we are hit on the eye or
+when we fall in such a way as to bump the front of our heads. What we
+do see, or think we see, is light.
+
+To understand this we must go back to the explanation of the five
+senses--sight, hearing, feeling, tasting and touching. Now, each of
+these senses has a special set of nerves through which the sensations
+received by each of the senses is communicated to the brain and, as
+a rule, these special nerves receive no sensations excepting those
+which occur in their own particular field of usefulness. The eye then
+has nerves of vision; the nose, nerves of smell; the ear, nerves of
+hearing; the mouth, nerves of taste, and the entire body nerves of
+touch. As we have seen then, these special nerves are susceptible of
+receiving impressions or sensations only in their particular field.
+But, if you should be able to rouse the nerves of smell in an entirely
+artificial way and give them a sensation, they might easily act very
+much as though they smelled something. We find this often in the nerves
+of touch when we think we feel something when we do not.
+
+Now, when some one hits you in the eye, the nerves of vision are
+disturbed in such a way as to produce upon the brain the sensation of
+seeing light. In other words, you cannot affect the eye nerves without
+causing the sensation of light, and that is just what happens when some
+one hits you in the eye.
+
+[Illustration: “ARGONAUT, JUNIOR.”
+
+Experimental Boat, 1894.]
+
+[Illustration: “ARGONAUT THE FIRST.”
+
+Built 1896-1897.]
+
+
+
+
+The Story in a Submarine Boat
+
+
+How Can a Ship Sail Under Water?
+
+Up to a few years ago the stories we could tell about the ships that
+sail beneath the water were the creations of the minds of writers of
+fiction, like the author of “Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea,”
+but to-day we can read of many actual trips beneath the water by the
+brave men who man our submarines. We never dreamed that the great story
+of Jules Verne would be realized in the little but very destructive
+ships of war which can be seen to-day in the naval ports of the nations
+of the world.
+
+We might have had these submarines long ago but for the fact that the
+men who were trying to invent them would not give up the secrets which
+they had discovered. Many men in different parts of the world worked on
+this problem and each discovered one or more things which were valuable
+in working out a solution, and if they had all gotten together and
+compared notes between them they could have produced a submarine boat
+almost as good as those we have to-day.
+
+
+How Does the Submarine Get Down Under the Surface?
+
+The first essential in a vessel to enable it to navigate below the
+surface of the water is that it be made sufficiently strong to
+withstand the surrounding pressure of water, which increases at the
+rate of .43 of a pound for each foot of submergence.
+
+A boat navigating at a depth of 100 feet would therefore have 43 pounds
+pressure per square inch of surface, or 6192 pounds for every square
+foot of surface. It will readily be seen, therefore, that the first
+essential is great strength. Therefore, the submarine boats are usually
+built circular in cross section with steel plating riveted to heavy
+framing, as that is the best form to resist external pressure. These
+boats are built for surface navigation as well, therefore they have a
+certain amount of buoyancy when navigating on the surface, the same as
+an ordinary surface vessel. When it is desired to submerge the vessel
+this buoyancy must be destroyed, so that the vessel will sink under the
+surface.
+
+Now, the submerged displacement of a submarine vessel is its total
+volume, and, theoretically, a vessel may be put in equilibrium with the
+water which it displaces by admitting water ballast into compartments
+contained within the hull of the vessel, therefore, if a vessel whose
+total displacement submerged was 100 tons, the vessel and contents must
+weigh also 100 tons. If it weighed one ounce more than 100 tons it
+would sink to the bottom. If it weighed one ounce less than 100 tons it
+would float on the surface with a buoyancy of one ounce. If it weighed
+exactly 100 tons it would be in what submarine designers specify as
+being “in perfect equilibrium.”
+
+It is possible to give a vessel a slight negative buoyancy to cause
+her to sink to, say, a depth of 50 feet and then pump out sufficient
+water to give her a perfect equilibrium, and thus cause her to remain
+at a fixed depth while at rest. In practice, however, this is seldom
+done. Most submarine boats navigate under the water with a positive
+buoyancy of from 200 to 1000 pounds and are either steered at the depth
+desired by a horizontal rudder placed in the stern of the vessel, or
+are held to the depth by hydroplanes, which hydroplanes correspond to
+the fins of a fish. They are flat, plane surfaces, extending out from
+either side of the vessel, and when the vessel has headway, if the
+forward ends of these planes are inclined downward, the resistance of
+the water acting upon the planes is sufficient to overcome the reserve
+of buoyancy and holds the vessel to the desired depth. If the vessel’s
+propeller is stopped, the boat, having positive buoyancy, will come to
+the surface.
+
+By manipulating either the stern rudders or the hydroplanes, the vessel
+may be readily caused to either come nearer to the surface or go to
+a greater depth, as the change of angle will give a greater or less
+downpull to overcome the reserve of buoyancy.
+
+The above description applies to navigating a vessel when between the
+surface of the water and the bottom.
+
+Another type of vessel which is used for searching the bottom in
+locating wrecks, obtaining pearls, sponges, or shellfish, is provided
+with wheels. In this type of vessel the boat is given a slight negative
+buoyancy, sufficient to keep it on the bottom, and it is then propelled
+over the water bed on wheels, the same as an automobile is propelled
+about the streets. This type of vessel is also provided with a diver’s
+compartment, which is a compartment with a door opening outward from
+the bottom. If the operators in the boat wish to inspect the bottom,
+they go into this compartment and turn compressed air into the
+compartment until the air pressure equals the water pressure outside
+of the boat; i. e., if they were submerged at a depth of 100 feet they
+would introduce an air pressure of 43 pounds per square inch into the
+diving compartment. The door could then be opened and no water could
+come into the compartment, as the diving compartment would be virtually
+a diving bell. Divers can then readily leave the boat by putting on a
+diving suit and stepping out upon the bottom.
+
+[Illustration: ONE OF THE FIRST PRACTICAL SUBMARINES
+
+“PROTECTOR.” BUILT 1901-1902, BRIDGEPORT, CONN.
+
+This was the pioneer Submarine Torpedo Boat of the level-keel type, and
+was built in Bridgeport in 1901-1902. It was shipped to St. Petersburg,
+Russia, during the Russian-Japanese war. From St. Petersburg it was
+shipped to Vladivostok, 6000 miles across Siberia, special cars being
+built for its transport.]
+
+[Illustration: This picture illustrates the same vessel, also at full
+speed under engines, with the conning-tower entirely awash and with
+the sighting-hood and the Omniscope alone above water. Notwithstanding
+the limited areas exposed above the surface, still observation could
+be had well-nigh continuously either through the dead-lights in the
+sighting-hood or by means of the Omniscope.
+
+In neither condition is it necessary to have recourse to electrical
+propulsion--the boats can still be safely and speedily driven as here
+shown under their engines.]
+
+[Illustration: THE INSIDE OF A SUBMARINE
+
+THE “G-1” RECENTLY DELIVERED TO THE UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT.
+
+The largest, fastest submarine in the United States and the most
+powerfully armed submarine torpedo boat in the world.
+
+In addition to the usual fixed torpedo tubes arranged in the bow of the
+vessel, which requires the vessel herself to be trained, the (seal)
+“G-1” carries four torpedo tubes on her deck which may be trained while
+the vessel is submerged, in the same manner as a deck gun on a surface
+vessel is trained, and thus fired to either broadside, which gives many
+technical advantages.]
+
+[Illustration: The above view gives a general idea of the interior
+of a submarine torpedo boat and the method of operation when running
+entirely submerged with periscope only above the surface.
+
+The commanding officer is at the periscope in the conning tower
+directing the course of the submarine through the periscope, which
+is a tube arranged with lenses and prisms which gives a view of the
+horizon and everything above the surface of the water, the same as if
+the observer in the submarine was himself above water. The steersman is
+shown just forward of the commanding officer and steers the vessel by
+compass under the direction of the commanding officer, the same as when
+navigating above the surface. In the larger type boats the steersman
+also has a periscope which enables him to see what is going on above
+the surface. Below decks two of the crew are shown loading a torpedo
+into the torpedo tube; each torpedo is charged with gun-cotton and
+will run under its own power over a mile and will explode on striking
+the enemy. The crew live in the compartment aft of the torpedo room.
+Aft of this is the engine room, in which are located powerful internal
+combustion engines for running on the surface and electric motors for
+running submerged. The electric motors are driven by storage batteries
+located under the living quarters. Wheels are shown housed in the keel,
+which may be lowered for navigating on the bottom in shallow water.
+A diving compartment in the bow permits divers to leave the vessel
+when on the bottom, to search for and cut or repair cables or to plant
+mines.]
+
+[Illustration: A SUBMARINE SAILING CLOSE TO THE SURFACE
+
+A submarine running partly submerged with the conning tower hatch
+open, showing the remarkable steadiness of this type of boat in
+a semi-submerged condition, a thing no other craft could safely
+accomplish.]
+
+[Illustration: Another submarine running entirely submerged, periscope
+only showing. The flag is attached to top of periscope to show her
+position in maneuvers when periscope goes entirely under water.]
+
+[Illustration: A PHOTOGRAPH TAKEN WITH THE PERISCOPE UNIVERSAL LENS.]
+
+
+AN ALL-SEEING EYE FOR THE SUBMARINE
+
+Vision under water is limited to but a few yards at best, and hence
+a submarine boat, when submerged, would be as blind as a ship in a
+dense fog and would have to grope its way along guided only by chart
+and compass, were it not for a device known as a periscope, that
+reaches upward and projects out of the water, enabling the steersman
+to view his surroundings from the surface. Of course the height of the
+periscope limits the depth at which the craft may be safely sailed. Nor
+can the periscope tube be extended indefinitely, because the submarine
+must be capable of diving under a vessel when occasion demands. But
+when operating just under the surface, where it can see without being
+seen, the craft is in far greater danger of collision than vessels
+on the surface, because it must depend upon its own alertness and
+agility to keep out of the way of other boats. The latter can hardly be
+expected to notice the inconspicuous periscope tube projecting from the
+water in time to turn their great bulks out of the danger course.
+
+The foregoing article describes the type of periscope now in common
+use on submarines and one of the engravings on this page clearly
+illustrates the principles of the instrument. A serious defect of this
+type of instrument is that the field of vision is too limited. The man
+at the wheel is able to see under normal conditions only that which
+lies immediately before the boat. It is true that he can turn the
+periscope about so as to look in other directions, but this, of course,
+involves considerable inconvenience. On at least two occasions has a
+submarine boat been run down by a vessel coming up behind it.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+~SEEING IN ALL DIRECTIONS AT ONCE~
+
+As long as the submarine has but a single eye it would seem quite
+essential to make this eye all-seeing; and since the two lamentable
+accidents just referred to, an inventor in England has devised a
+periscope which provides a view in all directions at the same time.
+This has been attempted before, but it has been found very difficult
+to obtain an annular lens mirror which would project the image down
+the periscope tube without distortion. The accompanying illustrations
+show how this difficulty has now been overcome. While we will not
+attempt to enter into a mathematical explanation of the precise form
+of the mirror lens, it will suffice to state that it is an annular
+prism. The prism is a zonal section of a sphere with a conoidal central
+opening and a slightly concave base. All the surfaces, however, are
+generated by arcs of circles owing to the mechanical inconvenience
+of producing truly hyperboloidal surfaces. The lens mirror is shown
+in section at _A_ in Fig. 1. The arrows indicate roughly the course
+of the rays into the lens and their reflection from the surface _B_,
+which is preferably silvered. The tube is provided with two objectives
+_C_ and _D_ (Fig. 3) between which a condenser _E_ is interposed at
+the image plane of the lens _C_. At the bottom of the periscope tube
+the rays are reflected by means of a prism _F_ into the eyepiece. Two
+eyepieces are employed. One of lower power, _G_, is a Kelner eyepiece,
+the purpose of which is to permit inspection of the whole image, while
+a high-powered eccentrically placed Huyghenian eyepiece, _H_, enables
+one to inspect portions of the image. The two eyepieces are mounted in
+a rectilinear chamber, _I_, which may be rotated about the prism at
+the end of the periscope, thus bringing one or other of the eyepieces
+into active position. The plan view, Fig. 4, shows in full lines the
+high-powered eyepiece in operative position, while the dotted lines
+indicate the parts moved about to bring the low-powered eyepiece into
+use. A small catch, _J_, shown in Fig. 2, serves to hold the chamber in
+either of these two positions. The high-powered eyepiece is mounted on
+a plate, _K_, which may be rotated to bring the eyepiece into position
+for inspecting any desired portions of the annular image. The parts
+are so arranged that when the eyepiece is in its uppermost position,
+as indicated by full lines in Fig. 2, the observer can see that which
+is directly in front of the submarine, and when the eyepiece is in its
+low position, as indicated by dotted lines, he sees objects to the
+rear of the submarine. With the eyepiece at the right or at the left
+he sees objects at the right or left, respectively, of the submarine.
+The high-powered eyepiece is slightly inclined, so that the image may
+be viewed normally and to equal advantage in all parts. Mounted above
+a plain unsilvered portion of the mirror is a scale of degrees which
+appears just outside of the annular image. A scale is also engraved on
+the plate _K_ with a fixed pointer on the chamber, making it possible
+to locate the position of any object and rotate the plate _K_ so as
+to bring the eyepiece _H_ on it. The scale also makes it possible to
+locate the object with respect to the boat.
+
+[Illustration: HOW WE LOOK THROUGH A PERISCOPE
+
+THE PERISCOPE TOP.]
+
+[Illustration: PERISCOPE IN GENERAL USE.]
+
+[Illustration: THE UNIVERSAL OBSERVATION LENS.]
+
+This improved periscope is applicable not only to submarine boats but
+for other purposes as well, such as photographic land surface work, in
+which the entire surroundings may be recorded in a single photograph.
+The accompanying photograph, taken through a periscope of this type,
+shows the advantages of this arrangement and gives an idea of its value
+to the submarine observer when using the low-powered eyepiece. Of
+course, by using the other eyepiece any particular part of the view may
+be enlarged and examined in detail.
+
+[Illustration: INSIDE OF A MINE-PLANTING SUBMARINE
+
+MINE-PLANTING SUBMERSIBLE.
+
+A Lake type vessel designed for planting contact mines. In naval
+warfare it is sometimes of advantage to plant mines, either to defend
+harbors, or in some cases the mines are planted in the course of the
+approaching enemy. This is a vessel designed for that purpose. The
+enemy is seen approaching, and the mine-planting submarine runs in
+ahead of them in a submerged condition and drops a number of contact
+mines on their course; the enemy strikes the mine and is blown up. A
+number of vessels were blown up by contact mines of this type in the
+Russian-Japanese war.]
+
+
+Accidents and Their Causes.
+
+The accidents which submarine vessels must guard against are as
+follows: collision, foundering, explosions and asphyxiation. The
+first danger is, however, no greater than those to which vessels that
+run entirely on the surface of the water are exposed. The eye of the
+submarine places the commander on a practical level with the commander
+of other vessels, so that if a collision occurs it is due to the same
+lack of watchfulness which causes collisions on the surface of the
+water.
+
+The submarine boat is less liable to founder than an ordinary vessel,
+because she is built to withstand a greater pressure of water than
+other kinds of vessels. Of course, if a submarine springs a leak, she
+is in grave danger of sinking to the bottom, and there is less chance
+of the crew being rescued from a submarine, because no one but those on
+board know of the danger if the boat is under the water.
+
+
+How Explosions May Occur.
+
+In submarine vessels explosions may occur either through a collection
+of gases from the batteries or by reason of leaks in the pipes or
+tanks of the fuel supply system, or through the bursting of the air
+flasks belonging to the boat, or the air reservoirs in the automobile
+torpedoes. The greatest danger is from explosive gases and have been
+the cause of all explosions in modern submarine craft, and the greatest
+danger in this connection is the liability of a leak in the gasolene
+pipes or tanks. This gas is a heavy gas and so goes to the bottom of
+the vessel, where it is not so easily detected as a gas which rises.
+There is no certain way of guarding against leaks of gasolene. A leak
+may occur at any time in a pipe or tank of gasolene through some cause
+or other no matter how carefully inspected, and the gas from this is
+so active that it will go through the tiniest hole imaginable--even
+through a hole which water will not penetrate. The crew of a submarine
+is always subject to this danger unless the tanks are built outside the
+hull of the ship.
+
+
+How the Air May Become Poisoned.
+
+There is a constant danger of asphyxiation to the men in the submarine.
+A very small leakage of gas or the exhaust from an internal combustion
+engine may make the air so impure that those aboard will be overcome. A
+great deal of care must be taken to keep the air pure and to warn the
+crew at the first sign of danger from this.
+
+When submarines first came into practical use, it was found a good idea
+to take a number of little white mice down with the vessel to warn all
+if the air began to become impure. As soon as this occurred, the mice
+became distressed and squealed as loudly as they could, thus warning
+those aboard the ship of danger. The mice felt the impurity of the air
+quicker than the men, not because they had any special gift to discover
+when the air was bad, but because they breathe much more quickly than
+man--take shorter and many more breaths.
+
+Now, however, a chemical device has been invented which is affected in
+such a way as to ring a loud bell, if the air in the vessel becomes
+impure to such an extent that there is any danger.
+
+Breathing the same air over and over may fill the vessel with carbonic
+acid gas. There should be no great danger from this, however, as
+submarines are now built sufficiently large to provide enough actually
+pure air for each man aboard for forty-eight hours, and it is hardly
+conceivable that a submarine need be submerged more than half that
+length of time under any conditions.
+
+Of course, then, too, there is the danger of accident due to
+carelessness or ignorance. In other words, it is just as difficult to
+make a fool-proof submarine as a fool-proof anything else. Wherever
+anything is constantly dependent upon the continuous careful attention
+of human beings, there is constant danger of accident, whether it be on
+board a submarine, a railroad train, steamship or in connection with
+anything else.
+
+[Illustration: A SUBMARINE UNDER THE ICE
+
+UNDER-ICE SUBMARINE TORPEDO BOAT.
+
+Submarine designed to navigate submerged under the ice, in ice-bound
+countries. Vessels of this type could enter harbors and destroy the
+enemy’s shipping at will. A vessel of this type would also be of value
+in transporting mails, passengers and cargoes between ice-bound ports
+where navigation by surface vessels is closed for several months in the
+year.]
+
+
+Story of How the Submarine Has Been Developed.
+
+It is only within the past twenty years that man has been able to
+successfully navigate under the surface of the water.
+
+~WHO MADE THE FIRST SUBMARINE BOAT?~
+
+It has been a dream of inventors and engineers for the past three
+hundred years.
+
+During the reign of King James I. a crude submarine vessel was built of
+wood, and was designed to be propelled by oars extending out through
+holes in the side of the vessel, the water being prevented from coming
+in through the openings by goat skins tied about the oars and nailed
+to the sides of the boat, which made a water-tight joint, but at the
+same time gave flexibility to the oars, so that by feathering them on
+the return stroke they could be manipulated to give head motion. Very
+little, if any, success could have attended this effort.
+
+Nearly a hundred years later a man by the name of Day built a submarine
+and made a wager that he could descend to 100 yards and remain there
+24 hours. He built a boat and submerged it in a place where there was
+a depth of 100 yards. He succeeded in remaining the 24 hours, and
+according to latest advices is still there, as he never returned to the
+surface.
+
+There is very little information as to the construction of these early
+craft. The first really serious attempt at submarine navigation was
+made by a Connecticut man, a Dr. David Bushnell, who lived at Saybrook
+during the Revolutionary War. He built a small submarine vessel which
+he called the “American Turtle,” and with it he expected to destroy the
+British fleet, anchored off New York during its occupation by General
+Washington and the Continental Army.
+
+Thatcher’s Military Journal gives a description of this vessel and
+describes an attempt to sink the British frigate “Eagle” of 64 guns
+by attaching a torpedo to the bottom of the ship by means of a screw
+manipulated from the interior of this submarine vessel.
+
+A sergeant who operated the “Turtle” succeeded in getting under the
+British vessel, but the screw which was to hold the torpedo in place
+came in contact with an iron scrap, refused to enter, and the implement
+of destruction floated down stream, where its clockwork mechanism
+finally caused it to explode, throwing a column of water high in the
+air and creating consternation among the shipping in the harbor.
+Skippers were so badly frightened that they slipped their cables and
+went down to Sandy Hook. General Washington complimented Dr. Bushnell
+on having so nearly accomplished the destruction of the frigate.
+
+If the performance of Bushnell’s “Turtle” was such as described, it
+seems strange that our new government did not immediately take up
+his ideas and make an appropriation for further experiments in the
+same line. When the attack was made on the “Eagle,” Dr. Bushnell’s
+brother, who was to have manned the craft, was sick, and a sergeant who
+undertook the task was not sufficiently acquainted with the operation
+to succeed in attaching the torpedo to the bottom of the frigate. Had
+he succeeded the “Eagle” would undoubtedly have been destroyed and the
+event would have added the name of another “hero” to history and might
+then have changed the entire art of naval warfare. Instead of Bushnell
+being encouraged in his plans, however, they were bitterly opposed by
+the naval authorities. His treatment was such as finally to compel him
+to leave the country, but he returned after some years of wandering,
+and under an assumed name, settled in Georgia, where he spent his
+remaining days practicing his profession.
+
+Robert Fulton, the man whose genius made steam navigation a success,
+was the next to turn his attention to submarine boats, and submarine
+warfare by submerged mines. A large part of his life was devoted to
+the solution of this problem. He went to France with his project and
+interested Napoleon Bonaparte, who became his patron and who was the
+means of securing sufficient funds to build a boat which was called
+the “Nautilus.” With this vessel Fulton made numerous descents, and
+it is reported that he covered 500 yards in a submerged run of seven
+minutes.
+
+~HOW SUBMARINES WERE DEVELOPED~
+
+In the spring of 1801 he took the “Nautilus” to Brest, and experimented
+with her for some time. He and three companions descended in the harbor
+to a depth of 25 feet and remained one hour, but he found the hull
+would not stand the pressure of a greater depth. They were in total
+darkness during the whole time, but afterward he fitted his craft with
+a glass window 1¹⁄₂ inches in diameter, through which he could see to
+count the minutes on his watch. He also discovered during his trials
+that the mariner’s compass pointed equally as true under water as above
+it. His experiments led him to believe that he could build a submarine
+vessel with which he could swim under the surface and destroy any
+man-of-war afloat. When he came before the French Admiralty, however,
+he was met with blunt refusal, one bluff old French admiral saying:
+“Thank God, France still fights her battles on the surface, not beneath
+it,” a sentiment which apparently has changed since those days, as
+France now has a large fleet of submarines. After several years of
+unsuccessful efforts in France to get his plans adopted, Fulton finally
+went over to England and interested William Pitt, then chancellor,
+in his schemes. He built a boat there, and succeeded in attaching a
+torpedo beneath a condemned brig provided for the purpose, blowing her
+up in the presence of an immense throng. Pitt induced Fulton to sell
+his boat to the English government and not bring it to the attention of
+any other nation, thus recognizing the fact that if this type of vessel
+should be made entirely successful, England would lose her supremacy as
+the “Mistress of the Seas.”
+
+Fulton consented to do so, but would not pledge himself regarding his
+own country, stating that if his country should become engaged in war,
+no pledge could be given that would prevent him from offering his
+services in any way which would be for its benefit.
+
+The English Government paid him $75,000 for this concession. Fulton
+then returned to New York and built the “Clermont” and other
+steamboats, but did not entirely give up his ideas of submarine
+navigation, and at the time of his death was at work on plans for a
+much larger boat.
+
+Fulton had a true conception of the result of submarine warfare, and in
+a letter he says: “Gunpowder has within the last three hundred years
+totally changed the art of war, and all my reflections have led me to
+believe that this application of it will, in a few years, put a stop
+to maritime wars, give that liberty on the seas which has been long
+and anxiously desired by every good man, and secure to Americans that
+liberty of commerce, tranquillity, and independence which will enable
+citizens to apply their mental and corporeal facilities to useful and
+humane pursuits, to the improvement of our country and the happiness of
+the whole people.”
+
+After Fulton’s death spasmodic attempts were made by various inventors
+looking to the solving of the difficult problem, but no very serious
+efforts were put forth until the period of the Civil War, and then a
+number of submarine boats were built by the Confederates. These boats
+were commonly called “Davids,” and it was one of them that sank the
+United States steamship “Housatonic” in Charleston Harbor on the night
+of the 17th of February, 1864. This submarine vessel drowned four
+different crews, a total of thirty men, during her brief career. At the
+time she sank the “Housatonic” her attack was anticipated, and sharp
+lookout was kept at all times; but, notwithstanding their vigilance,
+she succeeded in getting sufficiently close to plant a torpedo on the
+end of a spar, and sink this fine, new ship of 1400 tons displacement.
+
+It will be seen from the above description that these vessels, while
+able to go under water, were not controllable.
+
+After the Civil War several other inventors took up the problem of
+trying to design a submarine vessel that could be controlled as to
+maintenance of depth and direction under water.
+
+In Europe, Gustave Zede, Goubet and Drzwiezki, and in this country Mr.
+Baker and Mr. John P. Holland, built experimental vessels.
+
+In 1877 Mr. Holland built a small boat which was called the “Fenian
+Ram.” It is stated that this vessel was built with capital furnished by
+the “Clan-na-Gael,” with the idea of using it against the British fleet
+in an attempt to free Ireland.
+
+While some slight success was met with by these inventors, it was not
+until about 1897 that any real progress was made.
+
+~THE FIRST SUCCESSFUL SUBMARINE WITH HYDROPLANES~
+
+In 1893, Simon Lake, an American inventor, submitted plans to the
+United States Naval authorities at Washington for a submarine boat that
+would navigate between the surface and the bottom by the use of what
+he called “hydroplanes,” which were designed to cause the vessel to
+submerge on an even keel. Mr. Lake’s design of vessel was also provided
+with wheels to enable it to navigate on the water bed. It was also
+provided with a diving compartment to enable the crew to don diving
+suits and leave the vessel, in working on wrecks, cutting cables,
+planting mines, etc.
+
+In 1904 and 1905 he built a small vessel to demonstrate his principles
+and succeeded in successfully navigating the vessel on the bottom
+of New York Bay. He then built a larger vessel of about 50 tons
+displacement for further experimental purposes. This vessel was called
+the “Argonaut,” and was built in Baltimore in 1906 and 1907. This boat
+was successful from the start and covered thousands of miles in the
+Chesapeake Bay and along the Atlantic Coast, New York Bay and Long
+Island Sound, and was the first successful submarine boat to navigate
+in the open sea and on the water bed of the ocean.
+
+Mr. Holland had, in 1894, received a contract for a submarine vessel
+for the United States Navy, and her construction was started in 1895.
+This vessel was called the “Plunger.” This was the first official
+recognition given to a submarine boat in the United States.
+
+The Government of France had also given an order for a submarine boat
+which was under construction at this period.
+
+The “Plunger” was never submerged, her construction covering a period
+of several years, and she was finally abandoned. Mr. Holland had,
+however, in the meantime prepared the designs of another vessel which
+he called “The Holland.” This vessel was accepted by the United States
+Government in 1900, and a number of other vessels of this type were
+built. These vessels were known as submarines of the diving type. They
+were controlled by means of a horizontal and vertical rudder placed at
+the stern of the vessel and the boat was, by means of these rudders,
+inclined down by the bow, and driven under the water by the force of
+their screw propeller.
+
+England also built a number of submarines of the diving type.
+
+In 1901 Mr. Lake brought out a larger vessel of his type, which was
+controlled by hydroplanes, which vessel was sold to the Russian
+Government, was shipped across the Atlantic to Kronstadt, and from
+there by rail to Vladivostok, and was in commission off Vladivostok
+just before the close of the Russian-Japanese War.
+
+Mr. Lake then received orders from the Russian and other Governments
+for a number of additional boats of the even keel type, to be
+controlled by hydroplanes.
+
+Mr. Lake’s principles of control have been now generally adopted by all
+Governments, as providing the safest and most reliable means of control
+of the vessel when navigating under the surface.
+
+The United States Government has recently adopted this type to be
+built in their Navy Yards, and most other builders have adopted the
+hydroplanes as the means of maintaining depth when running beneath the
+surface.
+
+[Illustration: CLEARING A CHANNEL OF BUOYANT MINES
+
+This is one of the services to which submarine boats of this type lend
+themselves with peculiar fitness. It is possible for them to carry on
+this work with deliberation and to success, under the very guns and
+searchlights of a vigilant foe, without the slightest danger of being
+detected.
+
+This would be accomplished preferably by the co-operation of two boats.
+They would take opposite sides in the channel, with a connecting rope
+extending out through the diving compartment. It is obvious that as
+they move along the rope will sweep the whole mine-field and gather in
+the connecting cables. This would be indicated at once to the operators
+in the diving compartment by the load upon the sweeping line. A grapple
+may then be attached to the rope and sent out of one boat and hauled
+into the other, and thus drag the mine so near that a diver could go
+out and destroy its electrical connections or cut it adrift. Should
+the latter operation be the aim, the grapple may be so fashioned as
+to accomplish this without the diver leaving the compartment. This
+latter method is one strongly recommended by some of the most prominent
+military authorities on submarine defense.]
+
+[Illustration: This picture indicates the manner in which the boats
+have traveled many miles over all kinds of bottom. In the present
+instance the boat is shown systematically searching the bottom with
+her diving door open and strong lights being used to facilitate a more
+perfect examination.
+
+There is no trim or equilibrium to maintain. When the propelling
+machinery stops the boat comes to rest. A cyclometer attached to
+these wheels gives a fairly reliable reading of the distance traveled
+under normal circumstances. As the currents do not carry her out of
+her course, and as her gauges give an absolute record of changing
+depths, it is possible to so navigate upon the bottom with remarkable
+precision. In shallow waters this method has many advantages.]
+
+[Illustration: A MACHINE WHICH MAKES THE DIVER’S TASK EASY
+
+SHOWING TUBE HANDLING CARGO IN SUNKEN SHIP.]
+
+
+Recovering Cargo or Submerged Objects Without the Aid of Divers.
+
+The operating tube is here shown within the body of a hulk and
+co-operating with the lifting derrick on the surface craft in the
+removal of the submerged cargo. A grab-dredge bucket of well-known
+construction is used, the jaws of which, when being lowered by one
+rope, open, and when strain is brought on the lifting rope, the
+jaws close. The working end of the tube is placed in the immediate
+neighborhood of the cargo to be lifted and, as the grab is being
+lowered from the boat above, the operator in the compartment controls
+the grab by means of the guide line shown attached to the small derrick
+boom, and leads it directly over the cargo to be lifted. The grab is
+then dropped and the signal sent to the vessel above to hoist. The
+moment the lifting line tautens the bucket grasps a load and fills
+itself with material in the manner common to this type of dredge. This
+method of directing intelligently and deliberately the dredge bucket
+may be applied as well to the removal of rock or any other obstruction
+or to any of those various services of kindred character familiar
+to submarine engineers. The great and prime advantage of the system
+is the fact that no divers are required, and the work is under the
+perfect control of an operator subject only to atmospheric pressure. In
+consequence, therefore, the only limit to the effective operating of
+this apparatus is the length of the tube, and, as has been said, this
+can be made long enough to reach depths denied to the diver simply by
+interposing additional sections.
+
+[Illustration: LIFE ABOARD A SUBMARINE
+
+LIVING QUARTERS ABOARD A SUBMARINE.]
+
+
+
+
+Where Do Sponges Come From?
+
+
+Until within comparatively recent years, the sponge was regarded as
+a plant; it is now known to belong to the animal kingdom, and to the
+order spongida of the class of rhizopoda. Sponge is an elastic, porous
+substance, formed of interlaced horny fibers, which produce by their
+numerous inosculations, a rude sort of network, with meshes or pores
+of unequal sizes, and usually of a square or angulated shape. Besides
+these pores there are some circular holes of large size scattered
+over the surface of most sponges, which lead into sinuous canals that
+permeate their interior in every direction. The oscula, canals, and
+pores, communicate freely together. The characteristic property of the
+sponge is the facility with which it absorbs a large quantity of any
+fluid, more especially of water, which is retained amid the meshes
+until forced out again by a sufficient degree of compression, when the
+sponge returns to its former bulk. From this peculiarity, combined with
+its pleasant softness, arises the value of the sponge for the purposes
+to which it is applied. In domestic economy and in surgical practice,
+there is no other product that can be satisfactorily substituted for it.
+
+Sponge is an aquatic production, indigenous to almost every sea and
+shore. It is abundant and varied between the tropics, but becomes
+less so in temperate latitudes and continues to diminish in quantity,
+variety, and size, as it is traced into European and colder seas, until
+it almost disappears in the vicinity of the polar circles. Some sponges
+are known to be hermaphrodite, but that the individual at one period
+produces chiefly male elements, and later, chiefly female elements.
+Fertilization takes place in the body of the mother, and the egg here
+undergoes its early development. The embryo eventually bursts the
+maternal tissue and, passing into one of the canals, is caught by the
+current sweeping through the canal system and is discharged into the
+surrounding water through one of the large apertures on the surface
+of the sponge. In the Bahama Islands and along the coast of Florida,
+the breeding time of many sponges covers the period from mid-summer on
+through early Autumn.
+
+There is propagation sometimes by ciliated gemmules, yellowish and
+oval, arising from the sarcode mass, and carried out by the currents.
+These are mostly formed in the spring, and after swimming freely about
+for a time, become fixed and grow. In its natural state, the sponge
+is a very different looking object from the article of commerce. The
+entire surface is covered with a thin, slimy skin, usually of a dark
+color, and perforated to correspond with the apertures of the canals.
+The sponge of commerce is in reality only the home or the skeleton of
+the sponge.
+
+There are a few sponges that inhabit ponds and sluggish rivers; the
+others are marine. Of these, many of the calcareous and siliceous kinds
+inhabit the shores between tide-marks, preferring a site near the low
+ebb, where, nevertheless, they are daily alternately submerged, and
+left exposed to the atmosphere. The figured sponges with a fibrous
+texture, to whatever genus they belong, are denizens of deeper water,
+and are never left uncovered. They grow usually in groups, on rock
+shells, shellfish, corallines, and seaweeds, and either have no power
+of selection, or the quality of the site is indifferent to them.
+
+
+
+
+How Do Sponges Grow?
+
+
+In their growth, some sponges assume a determinate figure or at least
+one whose variations are confined within certain limits. The greater
+number are irregular and variable, their shape depending in a great
+measure upon the peculiarities of their state, to which they easily
+accommodate themselves. They will incrust a shell, or a crab, a rock,
+or seaweed, following every projection and sinuosity. The offshoots
+will spring up with a more luxuriant growth in the deeper sheltered
+places until the original shape of the foundation they grow upon is
+lost to sight.
+
+Sponges are unmoving and inirritable. They never remain rooted to the
+places of the germination, and are incapable either of contracting or
+dilating themselves or even of moving any fiber or portion of their
+mass. The functions which distinguish them as living beings are few,
+and faintly imaged.
+
+
+
+
+How Do Sponges Eat?
+
+
+Although sponges lack the power of motion possessed by most animals,
+being nearly always attached, in one position or another, to some
+object, the study of their habits in captivity brings out many of their
+animal characteristics in a striking manner. Small specimens taken
+from the sea and placed in dishes of salt water may be kept alive for
+several hours if well cared for; and by using finely powdered coloring
+matter, such as carmine or indigo, the manner of their feeding may be
+readily observed. Sponges are more active in fresh sea water than in
+stale; they cannot be kept alive out of water and soon die if exposed
+to the air. Being unable to go in search of food, as a natural result,
+they can grow only in places where there is always an abundance of
+food suited to their wants. The great sponging grounds of the world
+are wholly confined within waters having a relatively high temperature
+during the entire year. The Old World sponges grow principally in
+the Mediterranean and the Red seas; the New World sponges are found
+about the Bahamas, southern and western Florida, and parts of the West
+Indies. The finest sponges come from the East, but one of the American
+species, the so-called “sheep’s wool,” stands high in favor.
+
+The commercial sponges are separated into six species, three of which
+are European and three American. They are all referred to a single
+genus called spongia, and though having much in common as regards
+structure, their texture varies to such an extent as to make them of
+very unequal value for domestic purposes.
+
+The Old World species may be arranged as follows, in order of their
+grade of excellence, beginning with the best quality: The Turkey cup
+sponge, Levant toilet sponge, the horse, honey comb, or bath sponge,
+and the Zimoca sponge. The American species include the sheep’s wool
+sponge, the yellow glove, violet, and grass, sponges. A very close
+relationship exists between the species of the two continents.
+
+All known regions in which useful specimens abound contribute to the
+world’s supply. The trade is extensive. The demands upon the fisheries
+are great. In the Mediterranean, the fishing is carried on in some
+places at a depth of forty fathoms. Divers, naked, or in armor, go down
+to the bottom and tear off the sponges from their places of growth. In
+some places drag dredges are employed.
+
+
+
+
+How Are Sponges Caught?
+
+
+In the past quarter-century the sponge-fishery of the Florida coast has
+grown remarkably. Its headquarters is at Key West and several hundred
+sailing vessels are engaged in the industry. The fishing appliances
+consist of a small boat, a long hook, and a waterglass. The hook is
+in reality a three-pronged spear attached to a pole thirty-five feet
+long. In searching for sponge the fishers row about in the small
+boat. By holding the glass on the surface of the water the bottom is
+plainly seen and small objects are readily discerned. When a sponge is
+sighted the pole with the hook attached is shot down and the product
+deftly gathered. The boat-load is brought to the deck of the schooner,
+allowed to remain there a few hours, and then is carried down into the
+hold. On Friday nights, the fishing generally ends for the week, and
+the vessel sails for some spot on the neighboring coast where there
+are established crawls, or places for curing the catch. These crawls
+are about 8 x 10 feet square, their purpose being to hold the sponges
+while maceration and decomposition take place. The resulting refuse is
+carried off by the tide.
+
+The fishermen go away for another catch and the sponges are left in the
+crawls until the end of the following week when a new cargo is brought
+in. The returning fishermen beat the decomposed sponges with clubs,
+removing the impurities. The water is squeezed out, then the sponges
+are allowed to dry on the ground.
+
+After drying, the hold of the large vessel is loaded to the utmost
+with the product and the voyage to Key West is made. Buyers from New
+York look over the sponges, and make offers for entire cargoes. The
+fishermen dispose of their goods rapidly and sail away for more. The
+buyers store the sponges in some dry building, and cause them to be
+bleached by lime. A popular manner of bleaching is to wash the sponges
+thoroughly in water, and then to immerse them in diluted hydrochloric
+acid to dissolve any of the calcareous substance. Having again been
+washed they are placed in another bath of dilute hydrochloric acid to
+which six per cent. of hyposulphite of soda, dissolved in a little warm
+water, has been added. In this bath the sponges remain for twenty-four
+hours, or until the bleaching process is completed. After bleaching,
+the sponges are pressed until their bulk is greatly reduced; they are
+then baled, and shipped to New York, which is the distributing point
+for the entire Florida product.
+
+Sponges are by far the most important fishery products of Florida,
+representing about one-third of the annual value of the fishing
+industry. In 1899, the yield was over 350,000 pounds of sponges of
+which the first value was nearly $400,000.
+
+
+
+
+Why Does Yeast Make Bread Rise?
+
+
+There is a lot of sugar in the dough from which bread is made. Sugar
+contains three things--carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. When sugar is
+fermented it amounts practically to burning it. To make good bread
+from the dough it is necessary to ferment the sugar which is in the
+ingredients from which it is made. Yeast, which is a simple living
+plant, has the power to ferment sugar. When sugar ferments, two things
+are produced. One thing is the formation of carbonic acid gas. A great
+deal of this carbonic acid gas is caught in the dough in the form of
+large or small bubbles and some of it escapes into the air. The other
+part tries to escape into the air also but cannot, and causes the dough
+to rise, which makes the bread light, as we say. The holes you see in
+the bread after it is baked are the little pockets where the carbonic
+acid gas was retained in the dough. These bubbles of gas all through
+the dough act like a lot of little balloons and lift the dough up with
+themselves as they try to get to the top and escape into the air.
+
+
+
+
+What Is Yeast?
+
+
+Yeast is a living plant that is used for the purpose of causing
+fermentation. The yeast we use in baking bread is an artificial
+yeast--really a dough made of flour and a little common yeast and made
+into small cakes and dried. If kept free from moisture it retains the
+power of causing fermentation for some time. The flour and other matter
+in a cake of yeast are only used to keep the yeast in a form where it
+can be preserved. It is necessary to add water to start fermentation
+and that is why we add hot water when we stir in the yeast for a baking.
+
+
+
+
+Is a Moth Attracted By a Light?
+
+
+It seems to be a strange contradiction of the nature of living things
+that a moth should fly deliberately into a light or dash itself to
+death against the glass surrounding a strong light. This is contrary
+to the usual law of nature which gives the living thing an instinct to
+protect itself against enemies.
+
+For a long time we thought that moths did not deliberately burn
+themselves up by flying right into a light, but our naturalists
+have proven that not only moths but certain birds, bees, flies and
+butterflies, burn themselves up by flying into the flame of a light or
+fire.
+
+[Illustration: HOW MAN LEARNED TO MAKE A FIRE
+
+SAWING
+
+This was probably man’s first method of producing fire. By rubbing two
+sticks together in this way sufficient heat was produced to set fire to
+easily burnable material such as dried grass, etc.]
+
+[Illustration: DRILLING
+
+An improvement came when man learned that by twirling a dry stick in
+a hole in another piece of dry wood the fire could be started more
+quickly.]
+
+
+
+
+How Man Discovered Fire
+
+
+Fire was probably one of man’s first, if not the first, great
+discoveries, and has been one of his greatest servants as well as
+one of his greatest dangers. We do not know who discovered fire, or
+what nation first used it. It is, however, one of the signs that
+distinguishes man from the other animals. Not any of the lower animals
+was acquainted with the use of fire, while probably the earliest races
+of mankind seem to have been acquainted with it.
+
+Mythology tells us wonderful stories of the origin of fire: according
+to these tales it was stolen from the sun, or the gods, and given to
+man; and Pandora, the first woman, was sent down to earth to punish man
+for his theft.
+
+The most popular of these stories is the legend of Prometheus.
+According to this legend, fire, in the early days, was under the
+exclusive control of the gods. Prometheus, brother of Atlas, the god
+who supported the world on his shoulders, determined that the use of
+fire should be given to the people. He decided by some means to send
+a spark of fire to the earth, believing that one spark caught by man
+would start a burning flame that would never go out.
+
+With this idea in mind, Prometheus visited Zeus, the great ruler, to
+carry out his purpose, for Zeus controlled fire. While Zeus was not
+looking, Prometheus “stole some brands of fire from the hearth, which
+he hid in the stalk of a fennel and sent it down to the earth.” Through
+this Prometheus gave to man his first knowledge of fire.
+
+But while this story of fire may or may not be true, the use of fire
+rests entirely with man and his ingenuity. Through his ingenuity man
+was able to subject fire to his will; making it perform certain of his
+labors; and to a certain extent making it his servant; although it
+always did and always will get beyond his control at times.
+
+Our ancestors were not satisfied with preserving the fire which the
+gods gave them; they tried and succeeded in producing it. One day one
+of them discovered that by rubbing two sticks together rapidly, the
+friction would create a fire. It was a most useful discovery. Before
+long the whole of mankind had learned this trick; others improved on
+this crude method until step by step men learned that by striking two
+pieces of flint or other hard mineral together, quicker action was
+obtained.
+
+[Illustration: DRILLING WITH BOW STRING
+
+Man’s ingenuity soon taught him that if he tied one end of a string to
+something and wrapped it around his drilling stick, one end of which
+was in a hole as in the first drilling picture, he could increase the
+rapidity of making fire.]
+
+[Illustration: DRILLING WITH HELP
+
+With some other to hold the drilling stick while he operated the string
+he was able to produce fire more quickly than he had ever done before.]
+
+All kinds of methods were devised to increase knowledge of producing
+fire. The early Greeks found out how to catch the rays of the sun on a
+burning-glass and produce fire; the Romans achieved the same results
+through the use of mirrors.
+
+[Illustration: PLOWING
+
+This is another method man used for rubbing two pieces of wood
+together. In following this plan he usually used one stick of bamboo
+and rubbed it back and forth in a slot he had made in another piece of
+bamboo.]
+
+[Illustration: FLINT AND PYRITES
+
+In some places it was discovered that if you struck a piece of hard
+stone, like flint, against another, a spark was produced which could be
+caught on a bunch of dry grass or moss and so start a fire.]
+
+In about A.D. 900, an Arab, named Bechel, discovered phosphorus, but it
+took almost 800 years more for Haukwitz to learn that when phosphorus
+was brought into friction with sulphur, fire would result. In another
+hundred years the world was benefited by the invention of the friction
+match--and since that time about one-half the people have been carrying
+matches about with them, able thus to start a fire easily any time.
+
+~FIRE A MARK OF CIVILIZATION~
+
+Fire and man’s knowledge of it have had much to do with man’s progress
+in civilization. Before man had fire, his life and movements were much
+like those of other animals. When man had learned to make a fire he was
+free to move and live anywhere and, therefore, people began to cover
+more territory.
+
+[Illustration: THE FLINT AND STEEL METHOD OF MAKING FIRE
+
+THE INTRODUCTION OF THE FLINT AND STEEL METHOD
+
+Because fire was so important to him, man kept on trying to make this
+task easier. He finally contrived a tinder box when iron and steel
+became known. The tinder box is where he kept his flint and the piece
+of steel which he struck upon the flint. He also kept in the box pieces
+of cloth or paper on which he caught the sparks so produced.]
+
+[Illustration: PISTOL TINDER BOX
+
+This is a picture of a tinder box in the form of a pistol. It enabled
+man to produce sparks in greater numbers and more rapidly.]
+
+[Illustration: PRODUCING SPARK WITH FLINT AND STEEL
+
+This shows the method for striking the piece of steel against the flint
+to make the sparks fall on the cloth or paper in the box.]
+
+[Illustration: A COMPLETE TINDER BOX SET
+
+This picture shows a very complete tinder box set used by the wealthy
+people in the old days. A man carried this outfit with him just as
+today he carries matches.]
+
+[Illustration: This tinder box set is very neat and compact. It is said
+still to be used among the Himalayan tribes where it was discovered.]
+
+[Illustration: THE FIRST MATCHES
+
+THE OXYMURIATE MATCH
+
+This match, the first, was introduced in 1505. It was a slip of wood
+tipped with a chemical mixture. To light it it was necessary to stick
+its head into a bottle containing acid.]
+
+[Illustration: PROMETHEAN MATCH
+
+This was a paper cigarette dipped in a mixture of sugar and potash.
+Rolled within the paper was a tiny glass bulb filled with sulphuric
+acid. To light the match you pressed the bulb with pincers hard enough
+to break the bulb. This released the acid which set fire to the paper.]
+
+
+What Would We Do Without Matches?
+
+If one were to ask the man in the street what invention of the
+nineteenth century is his most constant and invaluable ally he might be
+mystified for the moment, but the undoubted answer would surely come
+in the single word “Matches.” These familiar objects, apart from their
+luxurious use by smokers, are the indispensable servants of mankind
+from the moment of rising in the morning till the household is wrapped
+in sleep, and it is to them we turn when disturbed in the hours of
+darkness.
+
+[Illustration: FIRST LUCIFER MATCH
+
+Invented by John Walker in 1827. It consisted of a stick of wood tipped
+with sulphur and then with a chlorate mixture. To ignite it the match
+was drawn rapidly through a folded piece of sandpaper.]
+
+[Illustration: MODERN SAFETY MATCH
+
+The first practical match was made less than a century ago.]
+
+No doubt “familiarity breeds contempt,” and it is difficult to imagine
+how man would fare, bereft of his box of matches. It might help the
+world to realize how much it owes to the inventors of the Lucifer
+Match, were it possible to cut off the supply of these magic fire
+producers for only one brief day. It requires no very vivid imagination
+to picture the consternation and confusion that such a step would
+produce, and there is a grim humor in wondering how the primitive
+methods of obtaining a light would serve the public convenience in
+these days of strenuous hustle.
+
+Seeing that fire has been employed by man since prehistoric days, one
+would expect that easy means of obtaining it would have been devised
+in the early ages. We find, however, that until the beginning of the
+nineteenth century nothing in the nature of a match was available, and
+the crudest methods were still in use. We know from Virgil that in the
+reign of the Emperor Titus fire was obtained by rubbing decayed wood
+with a roll of sulphur between two stones, but it is not till Saxon
+times that we have evidence of the use of the tinder box with its flint
+and steel. That this latter was still regarded as something remarkable,
+as late as the fifteenth century, is proved by its representation in
+the collar of the Order of the Golden Fleece, which was founded in
+1429. Burning glasses had, of course, been employed from the most
+primitive times, but one can imagine the despair of an early Briton who
+had to wait for a sunny day before he could boil his kettle.
+
+Incredible as it may seem, it was not a time well within the memory
+of many people living to-day that matches in anything approaching
+the form now familiar were offered to the public. The way for their
+manufacture had been prepared by two discoveries; one by a German who
+isolated phosphorus in 1669; the other by a Frenchman who produced
+chlorate of potash in 1786. From this latter date the production of
+fire was much facilitated, and a few years before Queen Victoria came
+to the throne, John Walker--a chemist of Stockton-on-Tees--produced the
+first friction matches of which there is any certain record. These,
+called “Congreves,” were sold in boxes of fifty for 2/6, and their
+success soon led others to experiment in match manufacture, so that
+improvements were rapidly invented and factories sprang up in all parts
+of the country.
+
+It would be a difficult task to compute accurately the value to the
+human race of the introduction to general use of this little article.
+At the present writing, in America the consumption of matches amounts
+to over a billion of matches a day.
+
+
+How Matches Are Made.
+
+To-day matches are in such demand that the ingenuity of man has devised
+a machine which makes complete matches without the help of the human
+hand.
+
+At the very start of operations a man feeds blocks of wood into the
+jaws of the machine, and thenceforth the mechanical monster does its
+own work. Seizing the block from the man’s hand, the machine grips it
+between rollers and forces it against rows of keen-edged cutters, which
+are so arranged that there is little or no waste. Each of these cutters
+(and there are usually forty-eight in a machine) severs a piece of wood
+of exact size and shape. At the same moment a plate rises from beneath,
+which thrusts these little pieces of wood into a moving flexible
+cast-iron band, or rather into small holes in this band, from which the
+embryo matches project like bristles. This traveling band is about 700
+feet in length, and follows a serpentine course in its journey, which
+occupies about an hour from start to finish, the speed being regulated
+according to temperature so that the matches may be quite dry when they
+reach the boxes.
+
+When the band arrives at the finishing point, a steel bar punches out
+the matches stuck in its surface and they fall into the inside boxes
+placed ready to catch them. These boxes are kept continually shaking,
+to that no spaces are left and the matches fill them completely. As the
+inside boxes fill, a steel arm presses them forward into their covers,
+and they are passed along a trough in dozens, quickly wrapped in paper
+and sealed by a machine. Quick-fingered girls then wrap twelve of these
+dozen packages and we have the gross packages of boxes so familiar in
+the stores. It will be seen, that in spite of the marvellous machines
+which do so much, there is still plenty of work for human hands.
+
+
+How Match Boxes Are Made.
+
+The machines for making the wooden box which contain the matches are
+in themselves wonderful. First, a section of the trunk of an aspen
+tree, about 30 inches in length, is made to revolve in what is known
+as a peeling machine. After a few revolutions the rough outer surface
+is removed, and thin rolls of smooth-surfaced wood are peeled off
+or veneered. The machine at the same time scores the wood ready for
+folding by the boxmaking machine. Cut into skillets, i. e., into pieces
+of the size required for box covers or insides, the ends are next
+dipped in pink dye to cover the edge of the wood which is not covered
+by the label. The skillets then go to the box machines, which fold and
+label them, and after half an hour in a cleverly devised drying chamber
+they are ready for use. In one room alone sixty machines are labelling
+and folding the skillets to the number of several thousand gross a day.
+To see these machines take a strip of wood, push it forward to receive
+the pasted label, fold it, fasten the joint, wipe off the superfluous
+paste, and, finally, toss the finished “outside” into a receiving
+basket, is as fascinating an example of mechanical ingenuity as the
+industrial world can afford.
+
+
+Are Matches Poisonous?
+
+A non-poisonous “strike anywhere” safety match, made from selected,
+clear, strong cork pine is now made in this country, and is the first
+satisfactory non-poisonous match. It is also the first match to be
+endorsed by the country’s recognized leaders and authorities in fire
+prevention and the conservation of human life and property.
+
+The Hughes-Esch Anti-White Phosphorus Match Bill, which became a
+law during the administration of President Taft, was drafted by the
+attorneys of the American Association of Labor Legislation, and is
+the most drastic that our National Constitution will permit. It would
+be unconstitutional to absolutely prohibit the manufacture of white
+phosphorus matches, but the Hughes-Esch bill obtains the same result,
+viz.: absolute prohibition by means of excessive taxation. No match
+manufacturer in these days of keen competition can afford to pay a tax
+of ten cents on each box of white phosphorus matches made, and place
+his factory under government surveillance, for this tax of ten cents is
+over three times as much as his present selling price to the wholesale
+trade.
+
+As soon as man learned to make fire and light, he began to appreciate
+how much more comfortable he could be if he could keep his lights
+burning and to have his light independent of his fire, because it was
+at times very uncomfortable to sit by a fire on a hot night simply
+because he wished to use the light which it made. The first schemes
+devised for lighting purposes merely were the camp-fire torch and the
+rushlight. With these as a basis, man was enabled to fashion more
+convenient forms of lighting. He invented the candle and the lamp, and
+grown “enlightened,” boxed his light in iron and in other metals.
+
+
+
+
+Did Candles Come Before Lamps?
+
+
+The candle is in appearance a primitive affair, yet there is little
+doubt that its predecessor was the lamp. Those old Egyptian tombs,
+which have unlocked many mysteries, held lamps, and through them
+evidence of ancient burial customs. Lamps played a part in the solemn
+feasts of the Egyptians, who on such occasions placed them before their
+houses, burning them throughout the night. Herodotus, in one of his
+numerous references to Xerxes, alludes to the hour of lamp-lighting,
+and evidences abound regarding the use of lamps among the ancient
+Greeks. Lamps, indeed, are pictured upon some of their oldest vases,
+indicating the symbolic significance which attached to them.
+
+[Illustration: A French watch tower of the fifteenth century in time
+of siege. The tower is lighted by means of beacons and is protected by
+dogs. Ruins of such a tower can still be seen at Godesberger on the
+Rhine.]
+
+
+
+
+What Were the Earliest Lamps?
+
+
+It is probable that the earliest lamps were nothing more than
+convenient vessels, filled with oil and fired by means of rushes. Among
+the Romans pine splinters, the torch and the flambeau, supplied light
+until the fifth century before Christ, and even when the Roman began to
+use the lamp, it was by no means common, finding a place only in the
+homes of the rich, or on special festival days.
+
+The custom of burning funeral lights beside the dead before interment
+is a very old one. Gregory, interpreting its significance for the
+Christian, says that departed souls, having walked here as the children
+of light, now walk with God in the light of the living. The Roman,
+Pliny, refers to the use of the pith of brittle rushes in making
+funeral lights and watch-candles, which were probably the ancient
+prototype of the old rushlight of England. Again, in speaking of flax,
+Pliny states that the part of the reed that is nearest to the outer
+skin is called tow, and is good for nothing but to make lamp-matches or
+candlewicks.
+
+
+
+
+What Were the Lamps of the Wise and Foolish Maidens Made Of?
+
+
+When lamps had come into general favor, better attention was given
+to their form and construction. The first seem to have been made of
+baked clay, moulded by hand into elongated vessels to contain the oil,
+and provided at one end with a lip to admit the wick. These are the
+lamps which artists have pictured in the hands of the wise and foolish
+virgins, though in the opinion of some scholars they were merely rods
+of porcelain and iron, covered with cloth and steeped in oil. Another
+early type, which was less common, presents a simple disc with an
+aperture in the centre for the oil, and a hole for the wick, at one or
+both of the sides.
+
+Under the Empire, when the light of the lamp had become general, the
+better ones were made of bronze, ornamented with heads, animals, and
+other decorations, attached to the handles, while as life in Rome
+partook more of luxury and extravagance, gold, silver, or Corinthian
+brass were the materials, the designs being more elaborate and
+complicated. Many and beautiful examples of these ancient lamps have
+been unearthed from the ruins of Herculaneum and Pompeii.
+
+
+
+
+When Were Street Lamps First Used?
+
+
+Dark must have been the lives of those people who, until comparatively
+recent times, lived, in the absence of sunlight, by the feeble,
+uncertain light of the primitive illuminants borne by these lamps. And
+as for street lighting--that was a luxury but seldom indulged in, and
+then, not for public benefit, but to enhance the glory of a potentate,
+or grace the obsequies of some great man. Even Rome, at the height of
+her luxury and beauty, rarely exhibited more than one or two lanterns
+in her streets. These were suspended over the baths and places of
+public resort. Occasionally, however, the streets were illuminated
+during festivals and other public occasions, while the Forum was
+sometimes lighted for a midnight exhibition. With these glittering
+exceptions, and that memorable one when, to satisfy the homicidal
+impulses of a bad emperor, the bodies of Christians were made living
+torches, Rome was a city of darkness.
+
+[Illustration: THE FIRST STREET LIGHT IN AMERICA
+
+The first street light in America. Early in 1795 several large cressets
+were placed on the corners of Boston’s most frequented street.
+Pine-knots were placed in these fire baskets by the night watchman.]
+
+
+
+
+When Were Candles Introduced?
+
+
+Historical records indicate the prevalent use of candles in the
+earliest days of Rome, but these candles were of the simplest
+sort--mere string or rope which had been smeared with pitch or wax.
+In the early Christian centuries it was the custom to dip rushes in
+pitch and coat them with wax, a method of candle-making that was long
+continued, for it was not until the fourteenth century that dipped
+tallow candles were introduced. In the Middle Ages wax candles provided
+the usual means of illumination, and these were made, not by common
+craftsmen, but by monks, or by the servants of the rich. Until the
+fifteenth century their use was confined to churches, monasteries and
+the houses of nobles, but the demand for them had become so great that
+the chandlers of London obtained an act of incorporation. As late as
+the eighteenth century the candles were made by dipping the wicks
+into melted wax or tallow, but about this time an ingenious Frenchman
+conceived the idea of casting them in metal moulds.
+
+[Illustration: A part of the “Amende Honorable” of Jacques Coeur before
+Charles VII of France.]
+
+[Illustration: A pagan votive lamp of bronze, now in the museum at
+Naples.]
+
+It is only within a modern period that the state or city has assumed
+responsibility in the matter of public lighting, which for the most
+part had been left to the good will and public spirit of citizens.
+But in England a proclamation was issued to the effect that every
+individual should place a candle in each of the lower windows of his
+house, and keep it burning from nightfall until midnight.
+
+[Illustration: THE FIRST OIL LANTERN
+
+The first “Réverbère”--oil lantern--with a metal reflector, used
+to light the streets of Paris. It was invented by Bourgeois de
+Châteaublanc in 1765, and used until the introduction of gas.]
+
+Paris was the first city to improve upon this method of street
+lighting, and in 1658 huge, vase-like contrivances, filled with resin
+and pitch, were set up in the principal thoroughfares. The improvement
+proving, as may readily be seen, both dangerous and expensive, the
+falct, so-called, were replaced by the lantern. This was at first
+simply a rude frame, covered with horn or leather, within which a
+candle burned. For more than one hundred years this was the extent of
+the illumination which the authorities could provide. But of course
+it was understood that no honest man would venture abroad without his
+torch or flambeau, and as London, Berlin, Vienna, and all leading
+cities of Europe, were in like case, the darkness of Paris could be
+borne.
+
+[Illustration: Argand got his first suggestion for his burner--invented
+in 1780--from this style of alcohol lamp, then in general use
+throughout France.]
+
+But progress had been made, and early in the eighteenth century the
+Corporation of London entered into contract with a certain individual
+to set up public lights, giving him permission to exact a sum of six
+shillings from every householder whose actual rent exceeded ten pounds.
+In the middle of the same century the Lord Mayor and Common Council
+applied to Parliament for power to light the streets of London better.
+From the granting of this permission dates improvement in public
+lighting.
+
+
+
+
+Where Did the Word “Gas” Originate?
+
+
+A Belgium chemist, Van Helmont, coined the word “gas” in the first half
+of the seventeenth century. The Dutch word “geest,” signifying “ghost,”
+suggested the term to him, and his superstitious neighbors hounded him
+into obscurity for talking of ghosts.
+
+[Illustration: Hanging lamp from Nushagak in Southern Alaska. It is
+suspended from the framework of the tent by cords. Oils and fats from
+northern animals give a clear and steady light, and Eskimo lamps are
+frequently praised by travelers.]
+
+[Illustration: WHAT THE BIG TANK NEAR THE GASWORKS IS FOR
+
+SIX MILLION CUBIC FOOT GAS HOLDER.
+
+Almost every boy and girl has seen the big tank near the gas works, and
+most of them have wondered what was in it and what it is for. This big
+tank is a “holder” in which the gas is stored after it is manufactured.
+
+The giant holders are reservoirs from which gas is constantly being
+taken and the quantity on storage constantly replenished, as the
+ordinary gas plant never ceases manufacturing its product.
+
+There is little or no danger of an interruption of the supply by reason
+of accident, as gas plants are always equipped with duplicate apparatus
+for emergencies.]
+
+
+When Illuminating Gas Was Discovered.
+
+The first practical demonstration of the value of gas made from
+coal for lighting was made by a Scotchman--Robert Murdock--who in
+1797, after some years of experimenting, fitted up an apparatus in
+the workshop of Boulton and Watt, in Birmingham, England, which
+successfully lighted a portion of that establishment. The advantages
+of this kind of lighting were so apparent that its use was rapidly
+extended, although in many instances the people were afraid of it. For
+a time this kind of lighting was confined to street lights. One of the
+first great structures to be lighted by gas was Westminster Bridge in
+London, and great crowds gathered to watch the burning jets nightly. It
+was difficult to remove from the minds of the people the belief that
+the gas-pipes were filled with fire and the jets were only openings
+through which the flame in the pipes escaped. People sometimes touched
+the pipes expecting to find them hot, and when the pipes were put in
+buildings they made sure that they were placed several feet from the
+walls lest the fire in them set fire to the buildings.
+
+The use of illuminating gas for lighting private houses developed quite
+slowly because of this fear of the fire in the gas-pipes. This was not
+entirely unwarranted, however, because at first the plumbers did not
+know, as they do now, how to prevent leakage of gas from the pipes.
+The methods of joining the pipes were oftentimes imperfect and, not
+realizing the dangers which would follow leaks, causing explosions, the
+workmen were often careless in installing the pipes.
+
+The first American house in which gas was used for lighting was the
+home of David Mellville at Newport, R. I. Baltimore, Maryland, was the
+first American city to use gas for lighting. It was introduced there in
+1817.
+
+
+How Does Gas Get Into the Gas Jet?
+
+If you hold a cool drinking glass over a burning gas jet for a moment,
+a film of moisture will form on the inside of the glass and remain
+until the tumbler becomes warm, and then disappear. Now, then, you will
+remember that water is a mixture of oxygen and hydrogen, and that when
+hydrogen is burned in the air, water is formed. It is also true that
+whenever water is formed by burning anything, hydrogen is present in
+it. You see, therefore, that the gas used for lighting purposes must
+contain hydrogen.
+
+Let us now learn something more about what gas is made of. Wet a piece
+of glass with a little fresh lime water and hold this over the lighted
+gas jet. In a few moments a change takes place in the water. The water
+turns somewhat milky. This indicates the presence of carbonic acid gas,
+and the formation of carbonic acid gas, when burning is going on, means
+the presence of carbon.
+
+From these two experiments we gather that the gas in the jet contains
+hydrogen and carbon. All kinds of illuminating gas contain these two
+substances. Sometimes there are small quantities of other substances
+present, but the value of gas for lighting depends on hydrogen and
+carbon.
+
+We have already learned about hydrogen, but it would be well to
+re-learn about carbon.
+
+Carbon is an element, and an extremely important one, for a large part
+of the composition of every living thing is carbon. It is found in
+more compounds than any other element. Almost pure carbon can easily
+be obtained by heating a piece of wood, in a covered utensil, until it
+is turned into charcoal. Charcoal, which is black, is composed almost
+entirely of carbon. It is a very interesting product in all ways; in
+connection with gas we are particularly interested in the fact that
+carbon will burn when heated in the air or in oxygen.
+
+Charcoal is very much like hard coal, both being formed in practically
+the same way. Ages of years ago many large forests of trees were buried
+under a layer of soil and rocks, during changes that occurred in the
+earth’s surface, and the hot inside earth slowly heated the wood, until
+almost nothing was left but the carbon.
+
+[Illustration: WHERE THE GAS IS TAKEN FROM THE COAL
+
+GENERATOR HOUSE AND 175-FT. STACK.
+
+In the process of gas making, coal is placed in the generator and
+heated to an incandescent state, then from the top or bottom steam is
+admitted and forced through the heated coal, producing a crude water
+gas which is passed on to the carbureter. In this shell enriching oil
+is produced, but as the oil and the water gas do not effectually unite,
+they are passed on to the superheater, where, as its name implies, they
+are subjected to a high temperature which thoroughly gasifies them into
+a permanent gas.]
+
+[Illustration: AN INTERIOR VIEW OF GENERATOR HOUSE.]
+
+* Pictures on Gas Manufacture by courtesy of the Consolidated Gas,
+Electric Light and Power Co. of Baltimore.
+
+[Illustration: ILLUMINATING GAS MUST BE SCRUBBED
+
+SHAVING SCRUBBERS.
+
+After passing into the scrubbers the gas is cooled, passed into the
+scrubbers, and by contact with wooden slat trays, made up like screens;
+a large portion of the tar is removed from the gas, the tar passing off
+to large receptacles.]
+
+Soft coal was formed in much the same manner, but the process was not
+so completely finished. Mixed with the carbon in soft coal we find
+quite a good deal of other substances, of which hydrogen forms the
+principal part. This is what makes soft coal valuable in the making of
+illuminating gas.
+
+When soft coal is heated in a closed receptacle a gas is formed which
+will burn. To show this we have only to take an ordinary clay pipe,
+put a little piece of coal in the bowl, close the top with wet clay,
+and put the bowl part of the pipe in the fire. When it is quite hot, a
+gas will be found coming out of the stem of the pipe, which will, when
+lighted, burn.
+
+
+The Story In a Gas Jet.
+
+~HOW ILLUMINATING GAS IS MADE~
+
+Soft coal is heated in large tubes of fire clay called retorts, and the
+gas that is formed is then collected in a large tank and sent through
+pipes to our homes after being purified. The part of the coal that is
+left consists largely of carbon and is what we call coke.
+
+While the gas that comes directly from coal will burn if lighted, it is
+not a desirable gas to burn in our homes, because it contains a number
+of substances that should be eliminated before it is used for lighting.
+
+
+How the Gas Is Purified.
+
+From the clay retorts the gas passes through horizontal pipes
+containing water. This cools it and takes out of it most of the tar
+and water vapor that are driven off with the gas when formed. These
+substances settle in the water. The gas then goes through a series
+of curved pipes, which are air cooled. These pipes constitute what
+is known as an atmospheric condenser. From these the gas goes into
+a series of receptacles containing wooden slat trays, made up like
+screens. These receptacles are called the scrubbers, and they take out
+of the gas the last traces of tar and some of the other compounds found
+present. The removal of the sulphur is very important, for burning
+sulphur gives off a gas which is not only extremely impure to breathe,
+but also injurious to the health.
+
+From the scrubbers the gas goes on through pipes to the purifiers--boxes
+which contain wood shavings coated with iron rust upon which the sulphur
+is deposited by chemical action. At the same time the lime absorbs a
+small quantity of carbonic acid gas, which is formed with the other
+gases. From the purifiers the gas passes into the great iron tanks, in
+which it is stored until needed.
+
+The gas in the tanks consists chiefly of hydrogen, a number of
+compounds of hydrogen and carbon, and a small amount of a compound
+of carbon and oxygen containing less oxygen than carbonic acid gas,
+known as carbon monoxide. The hydrogen and carbon monoxide burn with
+a very pale flame, which gives but little light and much heat. The
+light-giving quality of the gas is found in the compounds of carbon and
+hydrogen. When these burn, the particles of carbon are heated white hot
+and glow very brightly, making a luminous flame.
+
+There are, of course, some impurities in the purified gas. These are
+compounds containing sulphur and ammonia. The quantities of these
+substances, however, are so small that they are harmless; but the
+compounds taken out in the process of purifying the gas are saved, as
+considerable use is made of them. The water used for washing the gas is
+heavily charged with ammonia and is, in fact, the chief source of the
+ammonia sold by druggists.
+
+[Illustration: HOW THE IMPURITIES ARE TAKEN FROM THE GAS
+
+PURIFYING BOXES.
+
+The principal impurity to be removed is sulphur, and this is
+accomplished by passing the gas through large iron rectangular boxes
+filled with wood shavings coated with iron rust upon which the sulphur
+is deposited by chemical action.]
+
+[Illustration: STATION METER HOUSE, SHOWING CONSTRUCTION OF TWO NEW
+13-FT. METERS.]
+
+[Illustration: HOW THE METER MEASURES THE GAS
+
+Fig 1
+
+Fig 3
+
+Fig. 2.
+
+Fig 4
+
+Gas first enters inlet pipe _A_ (Fig. 3) passing along _A1_ into
+covered valve chamber _B_ up through orifice _O_. It then passes down
+through two of the valve ports at the same time, ports _C_ and _D1_
+(Fig. 2). Before _C1_ (Fig. 3) has gotten to its extreme opening, the
+valve on the opposite side has moved to allow gas to pass down port
+_D_. On every quarter turn of tangent _P_, one port is opening to
+receive gas which passes down through the valve ports into the chambers
+below (see arrows on Fig. 2), which shows the gas passing into chamber
+_F_. The pressure being greater on the outside of the diaphragm, forces
+the diaphragm inward and expels the gas from the inside of _D2_ through
+_D_ and passes over the cross-bar into the fork channel (see Fig.
+1). On the other side gas is passing down through port _D1_ (Fig. 2)
+entering diaphragm _D3_, the pressure being greater on the inside of
+_D3_ therefore forces the diaphragm outward and expels the gas from
+the outside of diaphragm _D3_; out through port _C1_ into fork channel
+same as shown in (Fig. 1). All exhaust gas from the chambers below
+is checked from entering the chamber _B_ by the slide valve _G_ and
+_G1_ (Fig. 2). Instead of passing into chamber _B_ it passes over the
+cross-bars between _D1E1_ and _C1E1_ into the fork channels, then to
+outlet pipe _N_ (Fig. 3) to house pipe.
+
+NOTE: All gas registered must pass through outlet _N_.]
+
+In addition to coal gas made in the way just described, there is
+another form of illuminating gas, in the manufacture of which coal is
+indirectly employed. This gas, known as water gas, because it is formed
+by the decomposition of water, is produced by passing steam over red
+hot carbon, in the form of hard coal or coke. When this is done, the
+hydrogen in the steam is set free and the oxygen combines chemically
+with the carbon, to form the carbon monoxide, that was mentioned as
+being present, in small proportions, in ordinary coal gas. This carbon
+monoxide is poisonous, if much of it is breathed, and as it has no
+odor it is difficult to detect when escaping. A number of deaths have
+resulted from water gas for this reason, and in some states the laws
+forbid its use for lighting purposes.
+
+When water gas is used it must be enriched with some other substances
+before it will yield much light. You have already learned that neither
+hydrogen nor carbon monoxide burns with a bright flame, and you will
+see that water gas must have something added to it to fit it for
+lighting purposes. The substance usually added is the vapor of some
+light, volatile oil, like gasoline. This vapor is composed of compounds
+of carbon and hydrogen, and when it is mixed with the water gas it
+forms a gas that yields a very satisfactory light; and that may be
+produced more cheaply than common coal gas.
+
+There remains one more form of illuminating gas which has been the
+subject of much discussion in recent years, namely, acetylene. This is
+a compound of carbon and hydrogen, in which there is twelve times as
+much carbon as hydrogen. It has not been discovered recently, for it
+was known early in the nineteenth century, but its possible use for
+lighting purposes was not considered then.
+
+Attention was directed to it a few years ago by the discovery of a
+substance called calcium carbide. This is a compound of carbon and the
+metal calcium, formed by heating to a very high temperature a mixture
+of coal and lime. It has the peculiar property of decomposing, when
+treated with water. The calcium present combines with the oxygen and
+half the hydrogen of the water, to form common slacked lime or calcium
+hydrate, while the carbon and the remainder of the hydrogen combine to
+form acetylene gas.
+
+The gas formed in this way needs no purifications before burning; it
+can be produced in small generators, and the production can be checked
+at any time. When burned in the proper form of burner it yields the
+brightest of all gas flames. For these reasons it is adapted for use in
+small villages and for lighting single houses. It is also frequently
+used in magic lanterns, where a strong and steady light is necessary.
+But the cost of producing acetylene in large quantities is greater than
+that of coal gas, and it seems extremely unlikely that it will ever be
+much used for lighting large cities and towns.
+
+
+
+
+How the Light Gets Into the Electric Light Bulb.
+
+
+The incandescent lamp was invented in 1879 and the patents were granted
+to Thomas A. Edison. There were, however, a number of electrical men
+who were working on the idea at this time who deserve a great deal of
+credit for developing the lamp.
+
+The incandescent lamp, which is used chiefly for house lighting,
+consists of a glass bulb from which the air has been exhausted by
+pumps and chemical processes--in which there is a thin filament of
+tungsten metal wound on what is called an arbor (as shown in Fig. 4).
+This filament opposes high resistance to the passage of the current
+of electricity, and, consequently, is heated to incandescence when
+a current passes through it. The removal of the air from the bulb
+prevents the tungsten metal from burning up, as it would do if oxygen
+were present.
+
+The filaments of the first lamps were made of vegetable fibre. The next
+development was the cellulose process, which is still used in carbon
+and metallized lamps, although a number of processes are used now which
+improve the filament considerably.
+
+The discovery that tungsten metal could be used in incandescent lamps
+was made in 1906. The first tungsten lamp manufactured in America was
+made in 1907.
+
+[Illustration: THE DEVELOPMENT OF INCANDESCENT LAMPS
+
+Edison’s first lamp with a filament of bamboo fibre.]
+
+[Illustration: The carbon lamp--the oldest form of incandescent lamp.]
+
+[Illustration: Standard Mazda lamp--the highest development of the
+incandescent lamp.]
+
+[Illustration: The Tantalum lamp developed just before the Mazda lamp.]
+
+[Illustration: Improved Mazda lamp for lighting large areas--the most
+efficient lamp ever made.]
+
+The filaments of the first tungsten lamps were composed of two or
+three short pieces of wire. In 1910, however, a lamp with a continuous
+tungsten filament was invented which increased the strength of the lamp
+wonderfully.
+
+Mazda is a trade name given to all metal filament lamps made by the
+prominent American lamp manufacturers.
+
+The reason that the Mazda lamp is so much more efficient than the
+carbon filament lamp is because the tungsten filament can be burned at
+a much higher temperature than the present carbon filament, without
+seriously blackening the bulb.
+
+
+
+
+How Does an Arc Light Burn?
+
+
+In the arc light a current of electricity is made to leap across from
+the tip of one rod of carbon to the tip of another that is held a short
+distance from the first. In passing across the current does not follow
+a straight path, but makes a curve, or arc, whence comes the name “arc
+light.”
+
+In this form of light the carbons are not enclosed in a space from
+which air is excluded, consequently there is some destruction of the
+carbon. The light is due to the fact that the air between the tips of
+the carbon rods opposes a high degree of resistance to the current, so
+that the rods become intensely hot at their tips. The high degree of
+heat causes a slow burning of the carbon at the tips, and the small
+particles that burn are heated white hot before they are consumed, thus
+producing light.
+
+In order to keep the light from an arc light uniform in strength, it is
+necessary to keep the tips of the carbon rods always the same distance
+apart. This is practically impossible, and, as a result, the arc light
+does not produce light that is well adapted for reading or for other
+purposes that require constant use of the eyes. The light produced by
+the arc light is very powerful, however, and for that reason it is much
+used for street lighting.
+
+
+
+
+What Are X-Rays?
+
+
+It was discovered by Professor Conrad Roentgen in 1895, that if a
+current of electricity be passed through a certain form of glass
+bulb, from which most of the air has been exhausted, a disturbance
+is produced in the ether that bears some resemblance to light waves.
+For want of a better name to give to a disturbance which was not well
+understood, Roentgen called his discovery the X-Ray, but it is now
+frequently called in his honor the Roentgen ray. The nature of this
+disturbance is not yet known, but as it does not affect the eye it
+is not light. These rays are produced with a glass vacuum tube and a
+battery from which a current of electricity is sent through the tube.
+The wires of the battery are connected with two electrodes, one of
+which consists of a concave disk of aluminum, and the latter of a
+flat disk of platinum. The X-rays are discharged in straight lines as
+shown in the figure. The most striking properties of the X-ray is its
+power to penetrate many substances that are impermeable to light. All
+vegetable substances, and the flesh of animals, are penetrated by it
+very readily. Glass, metals, bones, and mineral substances generally
+are opaque to it. Consequently, when a limb, or even the body of an
+animal, is exposed to X-rays they pass through the fleshy parts,
+but are stopped by the bones. Certain substances have the property
+of glowing, or becoming fluorescent, when exposed to the X-ray, and
+when screens of paper are coated with these substances they form a
+convenient means of detecting the presence of X-rays. By holding the
+hand between a tube that is giving off X-rays and a screen of this
+kind, the bones of the hand will be outlined in shadow on the screen,
+and the rest of the surface will glow with a greenish light. If a
+bullet or other piece of metal has become imbedded in the body, it may
+easily be located, if it is not in a bone, and the extent of an injury
+to a bone or a joint may be plainly shown. For this reason the X-ray is
+now widely used by surgeons.
+
+
+
+
+How Man Learned to Fight Fire.
+
+
+When you see the modern fire engine racing through the streets, gongs
+ringing, with the firemen hanging on and the police clearing the track,
+you should remember that it has taken man a long time to learn as much
+as he has about fighting fire.
+
+No sooner did man learn to make fire than he found it necessary to
+learn how to put it out.
+
+The first fire apparatus of record is found in Rome. The Gauls burned
+the city in 390 B. C., each citizen was ordered to keep in his house a
+“machine for extinguishing fire.” This consisted of a syringe.
+
+The first record of an actual machine for putting out fire is by Hero
+of Alexandria. This contrivance, a “siphon used in conflagrations,” was
+used in Egypt about a hundred and fifty years before Christ.
+
+The first record of what we would call a fire department is also found
+in Rome. A disastrous fire, occurring in the reign of Augustus called
+his attention to the benefit of a regular fire brigade would bring. So
+he organized a fire department. It consisted of seven companies of a
+thousand men each.
+
+The first real fire engines were used in 1633 at a big fire on London
+Bridge. The first fire hose was invented by the two Van der Heydes in
+1672. One of the earliest engines used consisted of a tank drawn by two
+horses, which threw a stream an inch in diameter to a height of eighty
+feet. An improved engine was invented in 1721 by Newsham, of London,
+and the first engine used in the United States was made by Newsham. The
+first steam fire engine was invented by John Braithwaite, of London, in
+1829.
+
+Fire alarms came into use in medieval times. It was the custom, in many
+of the towns to have a watchman stationed on a high building whose duty
+it was to look for fires. As soon as he saw one, he gave warning by
+blowing a horn, firing a gun, or ringing a bell.
+
+The first London fire department consisted of ten men of each ward.
+
+The first municipal American fire department was created in Boston in
+1678. The fire engine was a hand pump bought in England.
+
+The first leather fire hose was made in America in 1808 in
+Philadelphia. Rubber hose was first made in England at about 1820.
+
+
+
+
+How Did Man Learn to Cook His Food?
+
+
+The primitive man lived on raw food--raw flesh, roots, fruits and nuts.
+There must have been a time when he lived thus because there was a time
+when he had no fires and no knowledge of how to make a fire. There are
+no records, however, to show when man learned that cooked food was best.
+
+It must have come about almost simultaneously with his knowledge of
+fire, for the art of cooking goes back to the first knowledge of fire.
+We do not know either how man learned to make a fire. The earliest
+nations of which we have any record seem to have been acquainted with
+fire and certain methods for producing it. Not only one but all early
+nations seem to have been possessed of this knowledge. Occasionally
+travellers have reported that people have been found who were
+unacquainted with either fire or cooking, but investigation has always
+proven these reports unauthentic. Cookery has always been found in
+practice where people knew about fire.
+
+It is strange how man has lost track of the beginning of his knowledge
+of fire and cookery, because fire represents the beginning of man’s
+culture and cookery goes hand in hand with it.
+
+There are many legendary accounts of how man learned the value of
+cooked food, all of which are based upon the accidental burning or
+roasting of animals or birds. Perhaps, therefore, Charles Lamb’s “Roast
+Pig” story, which we read with much laughter in our school readers, was
+quite accurate from a historical standpoint. According to the story
+a man’s house burned and he cried more over the fate of his pet pig
+than about the loss of his house. He kept his pig in the house you will
+remember and as soon as the fire died away he rushed into the debris
+to look for his pet pig, hoping still to rescue him. He found him in a
+corner and made haste to pick him up and carry him into the open air.
+But the poor pig had been roasted to a turn and was still hot. The
+man’s fingers went right into the well done roast pig and were burned.
+With a cry he withdrew his fingers and put them into his mouth to blow
+on them and thus he secured his first taste of roast pig, which he
+found so much to his taste that he repeated the operation of licking
+his fingers.
+
+While this is but a story, it is quite likely historically correct as
+to this discovery of the value of cooked food to some of the early
+nations. No doubt Fire and Cookery were developed together.
+
+When man had learned to make fire, he found that it often got beyond
+his control. Here and there he would set the woods on fire quite
+without intention perhaps, but with damaging results. He would watch
+the conflagration and, when it was passed, he would find the baked
+bodies of deer or other animals which had been overcome by the fire
+and learned that baked meats were good to the taste and more easily
+digestible than raw meats.
+
+
+
+
+Why Does a Sponge Hold Water?
+
+
+A sponge will hold water because it has, on account of the plan on
+which it is grown the power of capillary attraction. The sponge is made
+up of little hair like tubes. If you take a glass tube, open at both
+ends and immerse one end in a vessel of water, you will find that the
+water will rise in the tube to a level higher than the surface of the
+water in the vessel. The smaller the hole through the glass tube, the
+higher the water will rise. This is caused by the cohesion of the water
+against the inside surface of the hole in the tube and causes a pull
+upward. The water is pulled up into the tube because the surface of the
+tube has a greater cohesive attraction for the water than for the air
+which was in it and the air is forced out partly. Some liquids, such
+as mercury will not rise in the same way, but is depressed in a glass
+tube, since it cannot adhere to glass. Mercury however will run or rise
+in a tin tube, just as water in a glass tube, because it adheres to the
+tin.
+
+Now a sponge is merely a lot of capillary tubes which have the same
+power of pulling up the water as the glass tube. The tubes in a sponge
+are so fine that the water will rise to the entire length of the tubes.
+In addition, this adhesive quality of water to the inside of the tubes
+in the sponge is so strong, that the sponge can be taken entirely out
+of the water and the water will remain in it.
+
+
+
+
+Why Is the Right Hand Stronger Than the Left?
+
+
+The right hand is stronger than the left only in case you are
+right-handed. If you have the habit of being left-handed, your left
+hand becomes stronger. If you are truly ambidextrous, your strength
+will be the same in both hands.
+
+We get our strength by moving the various parts of the body, i. e., by
+using them. When a little baby stretches his arms and legs and kicks,
+he is only exercising naturally, making the blood circulate.
+
+You can prove that the fact that your right hand is stronger than your
+left because of the greater use or exercise you give it, by tying your
+right arm close to your side and keeping it in that condition without
+using it for several weeks. When you remove the bands which held it
+tight, you will find your arm has lost its strength and that now your
+left hand is stronger. If, however, you are left-handed and tie that
+hand down for the same length of time, your right hand would be the
+stronger. This shows that the strength we have in our arms and legs,
+and other parts of the body, is developed by using them and giving them
+rational exercise. Of course, it is possible to over-use a part of
+the body, but you will notice that nature always gives us a warning by
+making us tired before we come to the point where further use of that
+particular part of the body would cause injury.
+
+
+
+
+Why Do My Muscles Get Sore When I Play Ball In the Spring?
+
+
+They do this because you have probably not been exercising the
+particular muscles which you employ in throwing a ball enough in the
+winter to keep you in good condition. Muscles which have been developed
+through use or work need more work to keep them in condition. In a
+sense certain of the muscles which you employ in playing ball have
+been treated during the winter very much as if you had tied them down,
+as we suggested you might do with your arm. You have not been using
+them--they have not been doing enough work, and they begin to lose
+their strength when for any period they have not been used enough. The
+soreness that you feel is the natural condition that arises when you
+begin to use a muscle that has been idle for some time.
+
+
+
+
+Why Does a Barber’s Pole Have Stripes?
+
+
+In early years the barber not only cut hair and shaved people, but he
+was also a surgeon. He was a surgeon to the extent that he bled people.
+In early times our knowledge of surgery was practically limited to
+blood letting. A great many of the ailments were attributed to too much
+blood in the body, and when anything got wrong with a man or woman, the
+first thing they thought of was to reduce the amount of blood in the
+body by taking some of it out.
+
+The town barber was the man who did this for people and his pole
+represented the sign of his business.
+
+The round ball at the top which was generally gilded represents the
+barbering end of the business. It stood for the brass basin which the
+barber used to prepare lather for shaving customers.
+
+The pole itself represents the staff which people who were having blood
+taken out of their bodies held during the operation. The two spiral
+ribbons, one red and one white, which are painted spirally on the pole,
+represented the bandages. The white one stood for the bandage which was
+put on before the blood was taken out and the red one the bandage which
+was used for binding up the wound when the operation was completed.
+
+
+
+
+How Was the Flag Made?
+
+
+The design of our flag was outlined in a congressional resolution
+passed on June 14, 1777, which stated “that the flag of the thirteen
+United States be thirteen alternate stripes red and white; that the
+union be thirteen stars, white in a blue field, representing the new
+constellation.” After Vermont and Kentucky had been admitted to the
+Union, Congress made a decree in 1794 that after May 1, 1795, “the flag
+of the United States be fifteen stripes alternate red and white and
+that the Union be fifteen stars white on a blue field.” This made the
+stars and stripes again equal and it was the plan to add a new stripe
+and a new star for each new state admitted to the Union. Very soon,
+however, it was realized that the flag would be too large if we kept on
+adding one stripe for each new state admitted to the Union, so on April
+4, 1818, Congress passed a resolution reducing the number of stripes to
+thirteen once more to represent the original colonies, and to add only
+a new star to the field when a new state was admitted to the Union. At
+this time there were twenty states in the Union. Since that time none
+of the flags of the United States have more than thirteen stripes while
+a new star has been added for each state until now we have forty-eight
+stars, representing the forty-eight states.
+
+
+
+
+Why Are Some Guns Called Gatling Guns?
+
+
+A gatling gun is a kind of gun invented by Richard Jordan Gatling
+in 1861 and 1862 and so it receives its name from its inventor. The
+original gatling gun had ten parallel barrels and was capable of firing
+1,000 shots per minute when operated by hand power. It was discharged
+by turning a crank and would shoot in proportion to the rapidity with
+which the crank was turned. It was at first not a huge success but has
+from time to time been improved so that the crank is now turned by
+electric power and about fifteen hundred shots per minute can be fired
+with it.
+
+
+
+
+How Did Hobson’s Choice Originate?
+
+
+As used today, this expression means a choice with only one thing to
+choose. Tobias Hobson was a livery stable keeper at Cambridge, England,
+during the reign of King Charles I. He kept a stable of forty horses
+which he hired out by the hour or day, and was famous in his day so far
+as a livery stable keeper could be.
+
+When you went to Hobson to hire a horse, you had the privilege of
+looking over all the horses in the stable to decide which one you would
+like to drive, but he always made you take the one in the stall nearest
+the door. In this way all the horses in the stable were worked in turn
+and while you might pretend to choose your own horse, you really had no
+choice--you had to take the one nearest the door or none. As soon as a
+horse was hired, the other horses in the stable were moved up, each one
+to the stall next towards the door so there was always a horse in the
+stall nearest the door.
+
+
+
+
+Why Do They Call It a Honeymoon?
+
+
+The word Honeymoon which is commonly used to describe the first
+few weeks after marriage, has always meant the first month or moon
+after marriage, but does not have any reference to the month or moon
+excepting as that describes a certain period of time.
+
+The word originated in an old custom quite common among newly married
+couples among the ancient Teutons of drinking a kind of wine made from
+honey during the first thirty days after being married.
+
+In these days newly married couples generally take a trip away from
+home for a short or longer period after their wedding day and this is
+called the honeymoon whether it is but a few days or three months or
+more. The custom of drinking wine made from honey has been abandoned so
+that the word is now used in an entirely different sense than formerly.
+
+
+
+
+Why Is a Horseshoe Said to Bring Good Luck?
+
+
+The luck of the horseshoe comes from three lucky things always
+connected with horseshoes. These consist of the following facts: It is
+the shape of a crescent; it is a portion of a horse; it is made of iron.
+
+Each of these has from time immemorial been considered lucky. Anything
+in the shape of a crescent was always considered a thing to bring luck.
+From the earliest times, too, at least since the world knew something
+of the qualities of iron, iron has been regarded as a thing to give
+protection and incidentally that would involve good luck. And lastly
+the horse, since the days of English mythology, has been regarded as
+a luck animal. When, then, we had a combination of the three--the
+crescent, the iron and the horse in one object, it became a true lucky
+sign in the eyes of the people.
+
+
+
+
+Some Wonders of the Human Body.
+
+
+There are said to be more than two million little openings in the skins
+of our bodies to serve as outlets for an equal number of sweat glands.
+The body contains more than two hundred bones. It is said that as much
+blood as is in the entire body passes through the heart every minute,
+i.e., all the blood in the body goes in and out of the heart once every
+minute. The lung capacity of the average person is about 325 cubic
+inches.
+
+With every breath you inhale about two-thirds of a pint of fresh air
+and exhale an equal amount if you breathe normally.
+
+The stomach of the average adult person has a capacity of about five
+pints and manufactures about nine pounds of gastric juice daily.
+
+There are over five hundred muscles in the body all of which should be
+exercised daily to keep you in the best condition. The average adult
+human heart weighs from eight to twelve ounces and it beats about
+100,000 times every twenty-four hours. The perspiration system in the
+body has only very small ducts or pipes, but there are about nine miles
+of them. The average person takes about one ton of food and drink each
+year. We breathe about eighteen times a minute, which amounts to about
+3,000 cubic feet an hour.
+
+
+
+
+Where Did the Expression “Kick the Bucket” Originate?
+
+
+The expression originally came from the method used in stringing a
+hog after killing it. The pig after being slaughtered was hung by the
+hind legs. A piece of bent wood was passed in behind the tendons of
+each of the hind legs and the pig hung up by this stick of wood much
+like we hang up clothes with a clothes hanger today. The piece of wood
+was called a bucket. The “bucket” part of the expression does not,
+therefore, refer to a bucket at all but to this bent piece of wood. All
+are not agreed on this explanation, however, as it does not explain
+where the “kick” comes in. Many investigators hold to the belief that
+a man named Bolsover was the first to “kick the bucket” literally and
+that the expression came from the manner of his death. He stood on a
+pail or bucket while arranging to hang himself by tying a rope around
+his neck and to a beam which he could not reach without standing on the
+bucket. When ready he kicked the bucket out from under his feet and
+so succeeded in carrying out his own wishes and in so doing coined a
+famous expression which still means “to die.”
+
+
+
+
+How Did the Word “News” Originate?
+
+
+The word “News” which was created to describe what newspapers are
+supposed to print, came from the four letters which have for ages
+been used as abbreviations of the directions of the compass. In this
+N stands for North, E for East, S for South and W for West, and in
+illustrating the points of the compass the following diagram has long
+been used:
+
+     N
+     |
+  W--+--E
+     |
+     S
+
+The earliest newspapers always printed this sign on the front pages of
+their papers in every issue. This was done to indicate that the paper
+printed all the happenings from four quarters of the globe.
+
+Later on some enterprising newspaper man who may have forgotten the
+original significance of the letter in the diagram, arranged the
+letters N. E. W. S. in a straight line at the head of the paper and
+that is how what we read in the papers came to be known as news.
+
+Almost one-half the whole number of newspapers published in the world
+are published in the United States and Canada.
+
+
+
+
+Who Made the First Umbrella?
+
+
+No one knows who made the first umbrella but we know that Jonas Hanway
+of London was the first man to carry one over his head to keep off the
+rain.
+
+Umbrellas seem to have been known as far back as the days of Ninevah
+and Persepolis, for representations of them appear frequently in the
+sculptures of those early days. The women of ancient Rome and Greece
+carried them but the men never did.
+
+Mr. Hanway is said to be the first man who walked in the streets of
+London with an open umbrella over his head to keep off the rain. He is
+said to have used it for thirty years before they came into general use
+for this purpose.
+
+[Illustration: HOW MAN LEARNED TO TELL TIME
+
+The first picture shows what was probably man’s first method of telling
+time. The principle was the same as that of the sun-dial. It provides
+to-day an accurate method of telling time.
+
+Of course, man in the early days needed to find some other means of
+noting the passing of time at night, for then the sun cast no shadow
+for him. His ingenuity taught him to make a candle which was light and
+dark in alternate rings, and as each section burned he made a mark to
+record the passing of a certain length of time. Before candles were
+invented he used a rope in which he tied knots at equal spaces apart
+and which he burned as shown in the third picture.]
+
+
+
+
+The Story in a Time Piece
+
+
+What Is Time?
+
+Time, as a separate entity, has not yet been defined in language.
+Definitions will be found to be merely explanations of the sense in
+which we use the word in matters of practical life. No human being can
+tell how long a minute is; only that it is longer than a second and
+shorter than an hour. In some sense we can think of a longer or shorter
+period of time, but this is merely comparative. The difference between
+50 and 75 steps a minute in marching is clear to us, but note that we
+introduce motion and space before we can get a conception of time as a
+succession of events, but time, in itself, remains elusive.
+
+In time measures we strive for a uniform motion of something and this
+implies equal spaces in equal times; so we here assume just what we
+cannot explain, for space is as difficult to define as time. Time
+cannot be “squared” or used as a multiplier or divisor. Only numbers
+can be so used; so when we speak of “the square of the time” we mean
+some number which we have arbitrarily assumed to represent it. This
+becomes plain when we state that in calculations relating to pendulums,
+for example, we may use seconds and inches--minutes and feet--or
+seconds and meters--and the answer will come out right in the units
+which we have assumed. Still more, numbers themselves have no meaning
+till they are applied to something, and here we are applying them to
+time, space and motion; so we are trying to explain three abstractions
+by a fourth! But, happily, the results of these assumptions and
+calculations are borne out in practical human life, and we are not
+compelled to settle the deep question as to whether fundamental
+knowledge is possible to the human mind.
+
+
+What Was Man’s First Division of Time?
+
+Evidently, man began by considering the day as a unit and did not
+include the night in his time-keeping for a long period. “And the
+evening and the morning were the first day,” Gen. i, 5; “Evening and
+morning and at noonday,” Ps. lv, 17, divides the day (“sun up”) in two
+parts. “Fourth part of a day,” Neh. ix, 3, shows another advance. Then
+comes, “are there not twelve hours in a day,” John xi, 9. The “eleventh
+hour,” Matt. xx, 1 to 12, shows clearly that sunset was 12 o’clock. A
+most remarkable feature of this 12-hour day, in the New Testament, is
+that the writers generally speak of the third, sixth and ninth hours,
+Acts ii, 15; iii, 1; x, 9. This is extremely interesting, as it shows
+that the writers still thought in quarter days (Neh. ix, 3) and had
+not yet acquired the 12-hour conception given to them by the Romans.
+They thought in quarter days even when using the 12-hour numerals!
+Note, further, that references are to “hours”; so it is evident that
+in New Testament times they did not need smaller subdivisions. “About
+the third hour” shows the mental attitude. That they had no conception
+of our minutes, seconds and fifth-seconds becomes quite plain when
+we notice that they jumped down from the hour to nowhere, in such
+expressions as “in an instant--in the twinkling of an eye.”
+
+Before this the night had been divided into three watches (Judges vii,
+19). Poetry to this day uses the “hours” and the “watches” as symbols.
+
+This twelve hours of daylight gave very variable hours in latitudes
+some distance from the equator, being long in summer and short in
+winter. The amount of human ingenuity expended on time measures so as
+to divide the time from sunrise to sunset into twelve equal parts is
+almost beyond belief. In Constantinople, to-day, this is used, but in a
+rather imperfect manner, for the clocks are modern and run twenty-four
+hours uniformly; so the best they can do is to set them to mark twelve
+at sunset. This necessitates setting to the varying length of the days,
+so that the clocks appear to be sometimes more and sometimes less
+than six hours ahead of ours. A clock on the tower at the Sultan’s
+private mosque gives the impression of being out of order and about six
+hours ahead, but it is running correctly to their system. Hotels in
+Constantinople often show two clocks, one of them to our twelve o’clock
+noon system. Evidently the Jewish method of ending a day at sunset is
+the same and explains the command, “let not the sun go down upon thy
+wrath,” which we might read, “do not carry your anger over to another
+day.”
+
+This simple line of steps in dividing the day and night is taken
+principally from the Bible because every one can easily look up the
+passages quoted and many more, while quotations from books not in
+general use would not be so clear.
+
+
+How Did Man Begin to Measure Time?
+
+Now, as to the methods of measuring time, we must use circumstantial
+evidence for the prehistoric period. The rising and the going down of
+the sun--the lengthening shadows, etc., must come first, and we are on
+safe ground here, for savages still use primitive methods like setting
+up a stick and marking its shadow so that a party trailing behind can
+estimate the distance the leaders are ahead by the changed position of
+the shadow. Men notice their shortening and lengthening shadows to this
+day. When the shadow of a man shortens more and more slowly till it
+appears to be fixed, the observer knows it is noon, and when it shows
+the least observable lengthening then it is just past noon. Now, it is
+a remarkable fact that this crude method of determining noon is just
+the same as “taking the sun” to determine noon at sea. Noon is the time
+at which the sun reaches his highest point on any given day.
+
+[Illustration: The Sun-dial is only an improvement on the stick which
+cast a shadow which enabled man to tell the time of day at any hour.
+The shadow moves around the dial, falling on the numbers on the circle.]
+
+
+How Is the Time Calculated at Sea?
+
+At sea this is determined generally by a sextant, which simply measures
+the angle between the horizon and the sun. The instrument is applied a
+little before noon and the observer sees the sun creeping upward slower
+and slower till a little tremor or hesitation appears, indicating that
+the sun has reached his height--noon. Oh! you wish to know if the
+observer is likely to make a mistake? Yes, and when accurate local time
+is important, several officers on a large ship will take the meridian
+passage at the same time and average their readings, so as to reduce
+the “personal error.” All of which is merely a greater degree of
+accuracy than that of the man who observes his shadow.
+
+The gradual development of the primitive shadow methods culminated in
+the modern sun-dial. The “dial of Ahas” (Isa. xxxviii, 8), on which
+the sun went back ten “degrees,” is often referred to, but in one of
+the revised editions of the Bible the sun went back ten “steps.” This
+becomes extremely interesting when we find that in India there still
+remains an immense dial built with steps instead of hour lines.
+
+In a restored flower garden, within one of the large houses in the
+ruins of Pompeii, may be seen a sun-dial of the Armillary type,
+presumably in its original position. It looks as if the plane of the
+equator and the position of the earth’s axis must have been known to
+the maker.
+
+Both these dials were in use before the beginning of our era and were
+covered by the great eruption of Vesuvius in 79 A.D., which destroyed
+Pompeii and Herculaneum.
+
+~THREE GREAT STEPS IN MEASURING TIME~
+
+Modern sun-dials differ only in being more accurately made and a few
+“curiosity” dials added. The necessity for time during the night, as
+man’s life became a little more complicated, necessitated the invention
+of time machines. The “clepsydra,” or water-clock, was probably the
+first. A French writer has dug up some old records putting it back
+to Hoang-ti 2679 B.C., but it appears to have been certainly in use
+in China in 1100 B.C., so we will be satisfied with that date. In
+presenting a subject to the young student it is sometimes advisable to
+use round numbers to give a simple comprehension and then leave him to
+find the overlapping of dates and methods as he advances. Keeping this
+in mind, the following table may be used to give an elementary hint of
+the three great steps in time measuring.
+
+Shadow time, 2000 to 1000 B.C.
+
+Dials and water-clocks, 1000 B.C. to 1000 A.D.
+
+Clocks and watches, 1000 to 2000 A.D.
+
+Gear-wheel clocks and watches have here been pushed forward to 2000
+A.D., as they may last to that time, but no doubt we will supersede
+them. At the present time science is just about ready to say that a
+time measurer consisting of wheels and pinions--a driving power and a
+regulator in the form of a pendulum or balance, is a clumsy contrivance
+and that we ought to do better very soon.
+
+It is remarkable how few are aware that the simplest form of sun-dial
+is the best, and that, as a regulator of our present clocks, it is
+good within one or two minutes. No one need be without a “noon-mark”
+sun-dial; that is, every one may have the best of all dials. Take a
+post or any straight object standing “plumb,” or best of all the corner
+of a building. In the case of the post, or tree trunk, a stone (shown
+in solid black) may be set in the ground; but for the building a line
+may often be cut across a flagstone of the footpath. Many methods may
+be employed to get this noon mark, which is simply a north and south
+line: Viewing the pole star, using a compass (if the local variation
+is known) or the old method of finding the time at which the shadow of
+a pole is shortest. But the best practical way in this day is to use a
+watch set to local time and make the mark at 12 o’clock.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  Drawing by James Arthur.
+
+A form of Sun-dial that is as good to-day as any dial for determining
+noon.]
+
+On four days of the year the sun is right and your mark may be set at
+12 on these days, but you may use an almanac and look in the column
+marked “mean time at noon” or “sun on meridian.” For example, suppose
+on the bright day when you are ready to place your noon mark you read
+in this column 11.50, then when your watch shows 11.50 make your noon
+mark to the shadow and it will be right for all time to come. Owing
+to the fact that there are not an even number of days in a year, it
+follows that on any given yearly date at noon the earth is not at the
+same place in its elliptical orbit, and the correction of this by the
+leap years causes the equation table to vary in periods of four years.
+The centennial leap years cause another variation of 400 years, etc.,
+but these variations are less than the error in reading a dial.
+
+
+How Did Men Tell Time When the Sun Cast No Shadows?
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  Photo by James Arthur.
+
+WATER CLOCKS FOR TELLING TIME
+
+This picture shows the hour-glass or sand-glass. It is really a type of
+water-clock, being based on the same principle. The upper glass bulb
+was filled with sand and this sand fell through a little hole between
+the two bulbs. When the sand had all gone through, the glass was turned
+upside down and the operation repeated.
+
+TIME-BOY OF INDIA.--WATER-CLOCK.
+
+The Water-clock consisted of a large vessel filled with water, on the
+surface of which was placed a smaller vessel, really a gong, with a
+hole in the bottom. The water gradually filled the smaller vessel, and
+it sank. The Time-boy sat beside the Water-clock and as soon as the
+vessel sank he fished it out, emptied it, struck the gong one or more
+times and set it on the water again.]
+
+During the night and also in cloudy weather the sun-dial was useless,
+and we read that the priests of the temples and monks of more modern
+times “went out to observe the stars” to make a guess at the time
+of night. The most prominent type after the shadow devices was the
+“water-clock” or “clepsydra,” but many other methods were used, such as
+candles, oil lamps, and in comparatively late times, the sand-glass.
+The fundamental principle of all water-clocks is the escape of water
+from a vessel through a small hole. It is evident that such a vessel
+would empty itself each time it is filled in very nearly the same
+time. The reverse of this has been used, as shown in the picture of
+the Time-boy of India. He sat in front of a large vessel of water and
+floated a bronze cup having a small hole in its bottom in this large
+vessel, and as the water ran in through the hole the cup sank. The boy
+then fished it up and struck one or more blows on it as a gong. This he
+continued and a rude division of time was obtained--while the boy kept
+awake!
+
+[Illustration: Drawing from description by James Arthur.
+
+The “Hon-woo-et-low,” Canton, China. Copper jars dropping water.]
+
+The most interesting of all water-clocks was undoubtedly the “copper
+jars dropping water,” in Canton, China, where it can still be seen.
+Referring to the picture herewith and reading the four Chinese
+characters downwards the translation is “Canton City.” To the left and
+still downwards, “Hon-woo-et-low,” which is, “Copper jars dropping
+water.” Educated Chinamen inform me that it is over 3000 years old.
+The little open building or tower in which it stands is higher than
+surrounding buildings. It is, therefore, reasonably safe to state that
+the Chinese had a weather and time station over 1000 years before our
+era.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  Photo by James Arthur.
+
+TOWER OF THE WINDS.
+
+This tower is located at Athens, Greece. It was built about 50 B.C.
+It is octagonal in shape and had at one time sun-dials on each of its
+eight sides. On top was a bronze weather vane from which it derived its
+name.]
+
+~A PRIMITIVE TWELVE-HOUR CLOCK~
+
+It is a 12-hour clock, consisting of four copper jars partially built
+in masonry forming a stair-like structure. Commencing at the top jar
+each one drops into the next downward until the water reaches the solid
+bottom jar. In this lowest one a float, “the bamboo stick,” is placed
+and indicates the height of the water, and thus in a rude way gives the
+time. It is said to be set morning and evening by dipping the water
+from jar 4 to jar 1, so it runs 12 hours of our time. What are the
+uses of jars 2 and 3, since the water simply enters them and drips out
+again? No information could be obtained, but I venture an explanation
+and hope the reader can do better, as we are all of a family and
+there is no jealousy. When the top jar is filled for a 12-hour run
+it would drip out too fast during the first six hours and too slow
+during the second six hours, on account of the varying “head” of water.
+Now, the spigot of jar 2 could be set so that it would gain water
+during the first six hours, and lose during the second six hours, and
+thus equalize a little by splitting the error of jar 1 in two parts.
+Similarly, these two errors of jar 2 could be again split by jar 3
+making four small variations in lowest jar, instead of one large error
+in the flow of jar 1. This could be extended to a greater number of
+jars, another jar making eight smaller errors.
+
+The best thing the young student could do at this point would be to
+grasp the remarkable fact that the clock is not an old machine, since
+is covers only the comparatively short period from 1364 to the present
+day. Compared with the period of man’s history and inventions it is
+of yesterday. Strictly speaking, as we use the word clock, its age
+from De Vick to the modern astronomical is only about 540 years. If we
+take the year 1660, we find that it represents the center of modern
+improvements in clocks, a few years before and after that date includes
+the pendulum, the anchor and dead beat escapements, the minute and
+second hands, the circular balance and the hair spring, along with
+minor improvements. Since the end of that period, which we may make
+1700, no fundamental invention has been added to clocks and watches.
+This becomes impressive when we remember that the last 200 years have
+produced more inventions than all previous known history--but only
+minor improvements in clocks! The application of electricity for
+winding, driving, or regulating clocks is not fundamental, for the
+time-keeping is done by the master clock with its pendulum and wheels,
+just as by any grandfather’s clock 200 years old. This broad survey of
+time measuring does not permit us to go into minute mechanical details.
+
+[Illustration: THE FIRST MODERN CLOCK
+
+  Drawing by James Arthur.
+
+Modern clocks commence with De Vick’s of 1364, which is the first
+unquestioned clock consisting of toothed wheels and containing the
+fundamental features of our present clocks. References are often quoted
+back to about 1000 A.D., but the words translated “clocks” were used
+for bells and dials at that date; so we are forced to consider the De
+Vick clock as the first till more evidence is obtained. It has been
+pointed out, however, that this clock could hardly have been invented
+all at once; and therefore it is probable that many inventions leading
+up to it have been lost to history. That part of a clock which does the
+ticking is called the “escapement,” and the oldest form known is the
+“Verge.”]
+
+~EARLIEST CLOCKS HAD NO DIALS OR HANDS~
+
+Scattered references in old writings make it reasonably certain that
+from about 1000 A.D. to 1300 A.D. bells were struck by machines
+regulated with this verge escapement, thus showing that the striking
+part of a clock is older than the clock itself. It seems strange to us
+to say that many of the earlier clocks were strikers only, and had no
+dials or hands, just as if you turned the face of your clock to the
+wall and depended on the striking for the time.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  Photo by James Arthur.
+
+ENGLISH BLACKSMITH’S CLOCK.]
+
+A good idea of the old church clocks may be obtained from the picture
+herewith. Tradition has followed it down as the “English Blacksmith’s
+Clock.” It has the very earliest application of the pendulum. The
+pendulum is less than 3 inches long and is hung on the verge, or pallet
+axle, and beats 222 per minute. This clock may be safely put at 250
+years old, and contains nothing invented since that date. Wheels are
+cast brass and all teeth laboriously filed out by hand. Pinions are
+solid with the axles, or “staffs,” and also filed out by hand. It is
+put together, generally by mortise, tenon and cotter, but it has four
+original screws all made by hand with the file. How did he thread the
+holes for these screws? Probably made a tap by hand as he made the
+screws. But the most remarkable feature is the fact that no lathe was
+used in forming any part--all staffs, pinions and pivots being filed by
+hand. This is simply extraordinary when it is pointed out that a little
+dead center lathe is the simplest machine in the world, and he could
+have made one in less than a day and saved himself weeks of hard labor.
+It is probable that he had great skill in hand work and that learning
+to use a lathe would have been a great and tedious effort for him. So
+we have a complete striking clock made by a man so poor that he had
+only his anvil, hammer and file. The weights are hung on cords as thick
+as an ordinary lead-pencil and pass over pulleys having spikes set
+around them to prevent the cords from slipping. The weights descend 7
+feet in 12 hours, so they must be pulled up--not wound up--twice a day.
+The single hour hand is a work of art and is cut through like lace.
+Public clocks may still be seen in Europe with only one hand. Many have
+been puzzled by finding that old, rudely made clocks often have fine
+dials, but this is not remarkable when we state that art and engraving
+had reached a high level before the days of clocks.
+
+[Illustration: THE LARGEST CLOCK IN THE WORLD
+
+  Courtesy of Colgate and Company.
+
+THE HANDS OF THE LARGEST CLOCK IN THE WORLD--ON THE ROOF OF THE COLGATE
+FACTORY.
+
+This big clock faces the giant office buildings of down-town New York.
+Its dial is 38 feet in diameter and can be read easily at a distance
+of three miles, so that passengers on the incoming liners pick out the
+clock as one of their first sights of New York.
+
+The next largest clock (on the Metropolitan Tower) is 26¹⁄₂ feet in
+diameter; the Westminster clock of London, 22¹⁄₂ feet.
+
+The great clock weighs approximately 6 tons. The minute hand, 20 feet
+long, travels at its point 23 inches every minute; more than one-half
+mile each day.
+
+The bed of this clock is 4 feet in length, the wheels and gears being
+made of bronze and pinions of hardened steel. The time train occupies
+about one-third of the bedplate, and has a main time wheel measuring
+18¹⁄₃ inches in diameter. This train is equipped with Dennison’s double
+three-legged gravity escapement, which was invented by Sir Edmund
+Becket, chiefly for use on the famous Westminster clock, installed
+in the Parliament Buildings, in London, England. The use of this
+escapement is most advantageous for a gigantic clock of this kind as it
+allows the impulse given the pendulum rod to be always constant, and
+therefore does not permit any change of power or driving force of the
+clock to affect its time-keeping qualities.
+
+It requires about 600 pounds of cast-iron to propel this time train,
+and the clock is arranged to run eight days without winding. The
+gravity arms of the escapement are fastened at a point very near the
+suspension spring, and the arms are fitted with bronze roller beat pins.
+
+The dial contains 1134 square feet, or about one thirty-fifth of an
+acre. The numerals consist of heavy black strokes, 5 feet 6 inches
+long and 30 inches wide at the outer end, tapering to a point at the
+inner end. The circumference of the dial is approximately 120 feet. The
+distance from center to center of numerals is 10 feet, and the minute
+spaces are 2 feet.
+
+The background on dial is painted white, and in the daytime the black
+numerals show up distinctly. At night the numerals, or hour marks,
+are designated by a row of incandescent bulbs placed in a trough 5
+inches wide and 5 inches deep. The hands at night are outlined with
+incandescent electric lights, there being 27 lamps on the hour hand and
+42 lamps on the minute hand.]
+
+[Illustration: THE MACHINERY WHICH RUNS A BIG CLOCK]
+
+This picture shows the machinery necessary to operate a large modern
+tower clock.
+
+The mechanism is held in place and confined entirely within a cast-iron
+structure which is firmly bolted to the floor. The wheels are composed
+of bronze, the pinions of steel (hardened) and the gears are machine
+cut. At the front of the clock is a small dial which enables one to
+tell exactly the position of the hands on the outside dials, and there
+is also a second hand to permit of very close regulation and adjustment.
+
+Three ways are provided for the regulation. First by a knurled screw
+at the top of bed frame. Second by a revolving disc at the bottom of
+the pendulum ball. Very often by either of these two methods it is
+impossible to bring the clock to fractional seconds, and in order to
+permit of a nicety of adjustment there is a cup fitted at the top of
+the ball so that by inserting or taking out lead pellets, the rating
+can be brought to absolute time.
+
+[Illustration: THE CLOCK IN INDEPENDENCE HALL
+
+INDEPENDENCE HALL, PHILADELPHIA]
+
+[Illustration: NEW YORK CITY HALL]
+
+
+
+
+Where Does the Day Begin?
+
+
+To understand this subject we must first appreciate that a day as we
+think of it is a division of time made by man for the purpose of his
+own reckoning. So far as the beginning of day is concerned, it begins
+at a different place in the world every hour; yes, every minute and
+every second in the day. As, however, the distance in feet where the
+day begins from one minute to another is so short that we can hardly
+notice it in such short measurements of time, we will look at the
+answer to the question from hour to hour. When you understand the
+subject from that point you can yourself see that the day actually
+begins at a different point of the earth every minute and every second
+of time.
+
+
+
+
+How Much of the Earth Does the Sun Shine on at One Time?
+
+
+The sun is shining on some part of the earth all the time and the
+shining of the sun makes the difference between day and night. Wherever
+the sun is shining it is day-time, and where the sun is not shining it
+is night-time.
+
+To illustrate we will make use of an ordinary orange and a lighted gas
+jet. Let us take a long hat-pin and stick it through the orange from
+stem to stem. Now hold the orange by the ends of the hat-pin up before
+the lighted gas jet. You will notice that one-half of the orange is
+lighted, while the other half is dark. Of course, it is the half of the
+orange away from the light that is dark. Now, revolve the orange slowly
+on the hat-pin axis toward the light. When you have turned the orange
+half way round the part that was formerly dark is now lighted up and
+the other part is now dark.
+
+Now examine closely and you will see that just one-half of the orange
+is lighted at one time and the other half is dark. You revolve the
+orange in front of the light slowly and a portion of the surface of the
+orange is always coming into the light, while a corresponding portion
+of it on the opposite side is constantly going into the dark. In other
+words, whatever the speed at which you revolve the orange toward the
+light, one-half of it is always light and the other half is always dark.
+
+This is exactly what happens in the relation of the earth to the sun
+every day. One-half of the earth, which is continually revolving on
+its axis, is facing the sun, and is, therefore, in the daylight, while
+the other half of the earth’s surface is in darkness, because the
+light from the sun does not strike any portion of it. If the earth
+did not revolve one-half of it would always be in day-time, while the
+other half would be continually having night-time. As the earth is
+always moving or revolving the half where it is day-time is constantly
+changing, so that the day is beginning on one-half of the earth’s
+surface every second of the day. Actually, of course, then, if you live
+on the east side of town day begins with you a little sooner than with
+your chum who lives on the west side of town. We have come to measure
+the beginning of day as sunrise and the beginning of night as sunset,
+wherever we happen to be.
+
+For convenience in setting clocks and in measuring time we do not take
+into consideration these very slight differences in the rising and
+setting of the sun, but set our clocks all alike in different parts
+of the same town or city to avoid confusion. In fact, in order to
+overcome the difficulties and confusions arising in reckoning the time
+of the clock in different localities, and still keep the beginning of
+what we call day-time constant with the hands of the clock, we have
+agreed upon what we call standard time. We agreed upon this system
+of fixing standard time because the actual sun time by which people
+set their clocks up to a few years ago led to so many mistakes in
+catching trains, keeping engagements and other misunderstandings where
+the question of time was involved. Then when this system of standard
+time was adopted the confusion became even worse, and the mistakes and
+misses more numerous, because some people insisted on setting their
+clocks to standard time and others insisted on sticking to the old sun
+time schedule. So you could never tell by looking at the clock what
+time it really was unless they put a sign on the clock saying what kind
+of time they were going by. Finally, however, most of the people came
+to appreciate that it would be a good idea to use one uniform system of
+setting the clocks and of having them in harmony in a sense with the
+other clocks in the world, and the adoption of the standard time plan
+became universal. To make this system practical and effective, certain
+points about equally distant from each other were selected, at which
+point
+
+
+
+
+Where Is the Hour Changed?
+
+
+the hour would change for all points within that zone. Under this
+system all timepieces in any one zone point to the same hour. So the
+clock time changes only as you go east or west. All points on a north
+and south line have the same time as the zone in which it is located.
+
+For convenience in adjusting the time in America the country was
+divided into four east and west zones. The first zone takes in
+everything on a straight north and south line east of Pittsburg, and is
+called Eastern time. The second zone extends from Pittsburg to Chicago,
+and is called Central time; the third zone extends from Chicago to
+Denver, and is called Mountain time; while the fourth zone extends
+from Denver to the Pacific Ocean. These selections were made because
+the sun actually rises about one hour later in Pittsburg than in New
+York; one hour later in Chicago than in Pittsburg; one hour later in
+Denver than in Chicago, and one hour later on the Pacific Coast than in
+Denver. Under this plan when it is nine o’clock in New York it is only
+eight o’clock at Pittsburg and all points in the Central zone; seven
+o’clock in all points in the Mountain zone; six o’clock in Denver and
+five o’clock in San Francisco. As you keep travelling westward you drop
+one hour of the clock time in every zone, and as under this system the
+earth’s east to west distance is divided into twenty-four such zones,
+if you went west entirely around the world you would lose a whole day
+of clock time.
+
+If, however, you went around the world from west to east in the same
+manner you would gain a whole day.
+
+
+
+
+Where Does the Day Change?
+
+
+This system of agreeing on fixed places where the hour changes made it
+necessary to also fix a point where for the purposes of the calendar
+the day also changes. This imaginary north and south line is fixed
+upon at 180 degrees west longitude, which would cut the Pacific Ocean
+in two. This line makes it possible for a person to travel all day
+before approaching this line and then find himself after crossing it
+travelling all the next day with the same name for the day of the week.
+Thus he could spend all of Sunday travelling toward the International
+Day Line, as this is called, and after crossing it spend another
+Sunday, which would be the next day, going away from it. This would
+give him the novel experience of having two Sundays on successive days.
+The same thing would happen if he were travelling to the Day Line on
+Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday or Saturday. He would live
+through two succeeding days of the same name in the same week, one
+right after the other. This would be in going westward.
+
+If you were traveling eastward and crossed the International Day Line
+on Sunday at midnight you would lose a day completely out of the week,
+for when you woke up the next morning it would be Tuesday.
+
+
+
+
+Why Do We Cook the Things We Eat?
+
+
+We have several reasons for doing this. The first and most important
+reason to us is that the application of heat to food makes it more
+easy to digest. Other reasons are that when cooked our food is more
+palatable; the process of cooking kills all microbes, which, if taken
+into our bodies alive, would give us diseases, and also it is easier
+for us to chew food that has been cooked.
+
+[Illustration: WONDERS PERFORMED BY ELECTRIC LIFT MAGNET
+
+This picture shows the construction of a successful electric lift
+magnet. This device, by means of magnetic attraction, fastens itself
+to practically all kinds of iron and steel without the aid of slings,
+cables or chains.]
+
+
+
+
+The Story in a Magnet
+
+
+What Makes an Electro Magnet Lift Things?
+
+The working parts of an electric lift magnet are as follows:
+
+_A Shell._--This is a steel casting heavily ribbed on the top for
+strength, and also to assist in radiating the heating effect from the
+coil.
+
+It is usually made circular in shape, the outside rim forming one pole,
+while the lug in the center forms the other. The coil fits in between
+these poles, thus making a magnet similar to the ordinary horseshoe
+type.
+
+_A Bottom Plate._--The under side of the magnet is closed by a very
+tough and hard non-magnetic steel plate, in order to protect the coil.
+
+As well as being non-magnetic, this plate also has sufficient strength
+to resist the severe wear to which a magnet is necessarily subjected.
+
+_A Terminal Box._--A one-piece heavily-constructed steel casting bolted
+to the top of the shell, containing and protecting the brass sockets
+into which the wires from the coil terminate, forms the Terminal Box.
+
+The sockets are made to receive plugs placed on the end of the
+conductor wire, by which the magnet is connected with the generator.
+
+_A Coil._--This consists of a round insulated wire which is passed,
+while being wound, through a cement-like substance, heavily coating
+each individual strand.
+
+A low voltage of current is then passed through the coil, a sufficient
+length of time, to thoroughly dry out and bake the coating. This
+renders the magnet absolutely fireproof, eliminating all danger of
+short circuiting of the coil.
+
+When finished it is well taped to protect the outside wire from
+becoming chafed.
+
+The coil is made slightly smaller than the inside dimensions of the
+shell and the remaining space is filled with an impregnating compound,
+which hardens to the consistency of pitch.
+
+This renders the coil thoroughly waterproof; also forms a cushion to
+prevent injury from the severe jars and shocks, received when dropping
+a magnet on its load.
+
+_A Controller._--The rapidity with which it is necessary to turn
+current on and off while operating a magnet, creates what is called a
+“back kick.” Unless this is dissipated quickly it is very destructive
+to the coil.
+
+A special controller dissipates this back kick through a set of
+resistance coils placed in the controller. By means of an automatic
+arrangement, connection with these coils is made instantly upon
+breaking the current between the magnet and generator.
+
+A system of control used prevents undue heating of the coil. This
+enables the magnet to lift as large a load after a long steady run as
+at the start.
+
+
+
+
+What Is a Lodestone?
+
+
+A lodestone is a variety of the mineral named magnetite which is a
+natural magnet. The name magnet comes from the name of the mineral
+magnetite and this in turn derived its name from the fact that it was
+first discovered in Magnesia. The word magnet really means the “Stone
+of Magnesia.”
+
+A lodestone is one of the mysteries of nature. Its properties can
+more nearly be understood if we examine an artificial magnet, which
+is generally made in the form of either a straight bar or a shoe.
+An artificial magnet is made of iron. If you drop a bar magnet into
+a box of iron filings, the filings attach themselves to the bar. If
+you examine it closely you observe that most of the filings attach
+themselves to the ends of the bar. Therefore we call the ends of the
+bar the poles of the magnet.
+
+If you suspend a magnetic needle at its center of gravity so that it
+is absolutely free to turn, you will soon find one end of the needle
+pointing north and the other south of course. The end which is pointed
+toward the north is called the north pole and the other the south pole.
+If you have a horse-shoe magnet, you can demonstrate this for yourself.
+Rub the end of your magnet over a sewing needle and oil the needle so
+that when you lay it on the surface of a glass of water it will float.
+Then look at it closely. You will see the needle slowly turn until
+finally it becomes quite still. If you have a compass at hand so that
+you know surely which is north and which is south, you will find one
+end of the needle pointing north and the other south. You can then
+place the end of your magnet against the outside of the glass and draw
+the needle toward your magnet. Your horse-shoe magnet has its north and
+south poles close together.
+
+If you have a bar magnet and the end of the needle with the eye in it
+is pointing north, you can drive the needle on the surface of the water
+away from you by touching the outside of the glass opposite that end of
+the needle with the north pole of your magnet. On the other hand, if
+you reverse the experiment and place the south pole of your magnet to
+the side of the glass, the needle will come toward the magnet. In other
+words then the like poles of a magnet repel each other and the unlike
+poles attract each other.
+
+Another interesting way to show this is to take two lodestones or two
+magnets and let a lot of iron filings attach themselves to the ends
+of them. Then when you have done this, point the two north poles of
+the magnets or lodestones at each other close together. You will be
+intensely interested in seeing how quickly the mysterious something
+that is in the magnets makes the filings on the two ends of the magnet
+try to get away from each other. On the other hand when you put a north
+and south pole together, they form a union of the iron filings.
+
+Another strange thing about a magnet is that if you break it in two,
+each half will be a complete magnet in itself with a north and south
+pole also, and this is true no matter how many times you break it
+into pieces. From this we learn that each tiny particle or molecule
+throughout the bar is a magnet by itself.
+
+[Illustration: WHAT A LODESTONE IS
+
+This is a picture of a complete electro magnet. The magnet is attached
+to the arm of a crane by the loop in the center and when the magnet
+then comes in contact with any kind of iron or steel it lifts it as
+soon as the current is turned on. By making the electric current
+stronger, greater weight can be lifted. Many tons of material can be
+lifted at one time. An electro magnet will do the work of many men at
+much less cost.]
+
+[Illustration: In this picture we see the magnet lifting a great weight
+of miscellaneous pieces of scrap iron. As many as twenty tons can be
+lifted and transferred from one place to another at one time.]
+
+Some things can be magnetized while others cannot. Many substances have
+not the property of magnetizing other substances when they have once
+been attracted by a magnet. These are called magnetic substances. They
+remain magnetized only as long as they are in touch with the magnet;
+other substances when once magnetized become permanent magnets. Steel
+and lodestone have this faculty. A compass needle is an artificial
+magnet which becomes a permanent magnet when rubbed with a magnet.
+
+
+
+
+What Is Electricity?
+
+
+If you pass a hard rubber comb through your hair, in frosty weather, a
+crackling sound is produced, and the individual hairs show a tendency
+to stick to the comb. After being drawn through your hair a few times,
+you may notice that the comb has become charged with electricity. This
+electricity is produced by friction. Not only rubber but many other
+substances become electrified by friction, such as a bar of sealing
+wax rubbed with flannel, or a glass rod rubbed with silk, will show
+the same qualities, and these simple experiments teach us many of the
+fundamental facts about electricity.
+
+Some simple experiments will be found instructive and interesting. Rub
+with flannel a stick of sealing wax until it is electrified and then
+bring it close to a pith ball which should be hung by a silk thread.
+The pith ball will at once be attracted to the sealing wax, and, if
+brought quite close, the ball will adhere to the wax for a few moments,
+and then fly away from it. The ball will now be repelled by the sealing
+wax instead of being drawn toward it. Now take a glass rod, rub it with
+a silk cloth after drying it thoroughly. When the pith ball is brought
+close to the glass rod it also will at first be attracted toward the
+glass and, if brought in contact with the glass, the pith ball will
+adhere as before. It will also then fly away in the same way it did
+from the sealing wax. Repeat these experiments with the sealing wax now
+and you will find the ball will be attached, as it was at first, but if
+it touches the wax it will again adhere for a moment and then fly away.
+By using the sealing wax and glass rod alternately and bringing them
+into contact with the pith ball, you discover that when it is attracted
+by one, it is repelled by the other, and that, after it has been in
+contact with either for a few moments it is no longer attracted by it.
+
+We learn thus that the electricity in the glass and the sealing wax
+are not the same. To distinguish the two kinds of attraction, we say
+the glass is charged with positive, or vitreous electricity, while the
+charge on the sealing wax is called negative, or resinous electricity.
+
+When the pith ball was touched with the sealing wax, it became filled
+with negative electricity, and was then no longer attracted by the
+wax, but was repelled by it and attracted by the glass rod; but when
+the ball had been filled with positive electricity, it was repelled by
+the glass and attracted by the wax. We conclude from these facts that
+bodies filled with the same kind of electricity repel each other, while
+bodies filled with opposite kinds of electricity attract each other.
+
+When two substances are charged, as we say, with electricity of
+opposite kinds and are brought into contact, and left so for some time,
+the two charges disappear, one appearing to neutralize the other. From
+this, we conclude, and rightly, that any substance not electrified,
+contains equal amounts both positive and negative electricity. When,
+therefore, we rub a piece of glass with silk, we are not creating
+electricity, but only separating the different kinds. The positive
+electricity adheres to the glass, and the negative remains behind,
+on the silk. In the same manner, when we electrify sealing wax with
+flannel the negative kind remains in the sealing wax and the flannel
+becomes charged with the positive. Whenever a body is electrified by
+friction, both kinds of electricity are produced; it is impossible to
+produce one kind without the other.
+
+[Illustration: WHAT ELECTRICITY IS
+
+Magnets are particularly valuable in lifting raw material in a steel
+mill. The red-hot pig-iron, from which steel is made, can be handled
+easily in this way, whereas it would be impossible to handle same by
+hand. Sometimes great quantities of iron are broken up by the magnet. A
+weight of many tons is lifted by the magnet and allowed to fall on the
+material to be broken up. The weight falls as soon as the current is
+turned off.]
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  Weight of wheel, 8160 lbs.
+
+Pieces of machinery which cannot be lifted by men on account of their
+great weight and shape are handled easily.]
+
+You must rub the entire glass rod or bar of sealing wax to electrify
+the whole of it. If only a part of the glass rod or sealing wax is
+rubbed, only that part becomes electrified, as may be shown by trying
+to attract a pith ball with the part that has not been rubbed.
+
+~WHAT GOOD AND BAD CONDUCTORS OF ELECTRICITY ARE~
+
+If, however, the charged part of the sealing wax is brought into
+contact with a metal rod resting on, say, a drinking glass, the rod
+becomes charged, not only where it is brought into contact, but all
+over its surface. Substances over which electricity flows readily
+are called conductors of electricity. All metals are of this kind.
+Things like glass and sealing wax over which electricity does not flow
+readily, are called non-conductors, or insulators. Water, the human
+body, and the earth are good conductors and rubber, porcelain, most
+resins, and dry air are non-conductors.
+
+You have already learned that substances charged with opposite kinds of
+electricity attract each other, and substances charged with the same
+kind repel each other. We will try to discover why substances charged
+with either kind of electricity attract small light objects, such as
+pith balls, when these latter are not charged with electricity. As we
+have discovered, all substances which have remained undisturbed have
+both kinds of electricity present in them, in equal amounts. Now, when
+an uncharged body is brought near a charged body, the two kinds of
+electricity in the uncharged body have a tendency to separate. The kind
+opposite in character, to that on the charged body, is attracted toward
+the charged body, and the other kind is repelled. Thus, if our bar of
+sealing wax, charged with, let us say, negative electricity, is brought
+near a pith ball, the positive electricity in the ball is attracted
+to the side nearest the scaling wax, and the negative electricity
+is repelled to the farther side. As the positive electricity on the
+pith is nearer to the scaling wax than the negative, its attraction
+for the negative charge, on the sealing wax, is stronger than the
+repulsion between the negative electricities of the two objects, and
+consequently, the ball is attracted to the sealing wax. If the charged
+sealing wax is brought near a good conductor, which is supported on
+some non-conducting substance, such as glass, silk, or rubber, over
+which electricity will not flow, a much more complete separation of the
+two kinds of electricity occurs on the conductor than on the pith ball.
+If the charged sealing wax is brought near one end of a metal rod so
+placed, the charge of negative electricity upon the sealing wax will
+attract the positive electricity on the metal, to that end, and will
+repel the negative electricity to the other end. When a pith ball, hung
+by the silk thread, is brought close to either end of the metal rod,
+when the charged sealing wax is near the other end, the pith ball will
+be attracted toward the rod; but will not be attracted if placed close
+to the middle of the rod. This proves that the metal rod is electrified
+only in the parts nearest to and farthest away from the charged body.
+The two kinds of electricity neutralize each other at the parts in
+between.
+
+If now we take two conductors and place them end to end, we have
+for all practical purposes, a single conductor. It has the decided
+advantage, however, of being easily separated into two parts. When an
+electrified substance is brought close to one end of such a conductor,
+a charge of one kind is attracted to the near portion of the conductor,
+and a charge of the opposite kind is repelled to the farther part. By
+separating the two parts of the conductor, we learn that one of the
+ends, which have been in contact, is charged with positive and the
+other with negative electricity.
+
+This act of separating the two kinds of electricity upon a conductor by
+means of a charge upon another body which is not permitted to come into
+contact with the conductor, is called induction, and two charges of
+electricity produced in this way are known as induced charges.
+
+There are other ways in which a charge of electricity may be induced
+upon a conductor. One end of the conductor may be connected with the
+earth by means of some good conducting material, and the charged
+substance brought close to the other end. A charge, opposite in
+character to the initial charge, is attracted to the end of the
+conductor that is near the charged body, and the electricity of the
+opposite kind is repelled, through the conductor to the earth. By
+securing the connection with the earth, while the charged body is
+near the conductor, a charge is obtained upon the conductor, that is
+opposite in character to the initial charge. This method of charging
+conductors, by induction, is practically the same as the one first
+described, for the earth is a conductor of electricity, and corresponds
+to the more distant part of the two-piece conductor.
+
+An instrument, known as the electrophorus, is especially designed for
+the production of electric charges by induction in the manner just
+described. This instrument consists of a brass plate, on an insulating
+handle of glass, and a disk of sealing wax, fitted into a brass dish,
+whose edges rise somewhat higher than the surface of the wax. In using
+the electrophorus the brass dish, or sole, is placed upon some support
+that will conduct electricity, and the sealing wax disk is then rubbed
+vigorously with a piece of flannel, or catskin, which electrifies the
+sealing wax, with negative electricity. The brass plate is then taken
+by the glass handle and brought close to the charged sealing wax. The
+charge of negative electricity on the wax attracts a charge of positive
+electricity to the under surface of the plate and repels a negative
+charge to its upper surface. If the charged plate is now brought into
+contact with the edge of the brass dish the negative charge, on the
+back of the plate, flows away, through the legs of the dish, to the
+earth, but the positive charge remains on the under surface, where
+it is bound, by the attraction of the negative charge on the disk of
+sealing wax. If the brass plate is now removed, it will be found to be
+charged with positive electricity.
+
+The negative charge upon the sealing wax is not reduced or diminished
+by its action in charging the brass plate, and it is possible to charge
+the plate an indefinite number of times by means of one charge on the
+sealing wax.
+
+The charges of electricity, produced in any of the ways that have been
+described, are necessarily small, and the disturbance produced, when
+they are destroyed by bringing oppositely charged conductors together,
+is very slight, merely a little snapping noise and, perhaps, a small
+spark, that seems to leap from the positively charged conductor to
+the negatively charged one, when they come very close together. By
+the use of electrical machines of various kinds, in some of which
+the electricity is produced by friction, and in others by induction,
+conductors may be charged with much larger quantities of electricity,
+and the disturbance produced by their discharge is greatly increased.
+The noise produced is louder and the spark much brighter, and leaps
+from one conductor to the other, while they are much farther apart.
+It is possible to produce still larger charges of electricity upon
+conductors if they are arranged so as to form what are called
+condensers.
+
+
+
+
+What Is a Leyden Jar?
+
+
+One of the commonest forms of condenser is the Leyden jar, which is so
+named because it was invented at Leyden, in Holland. This is a glass
+jar, upon the outside of which is fastened a coating of tinfoil, that
+covers the bottom of the jar and extends two-thirds of the way up
+the sides. Inside the jar there is a similar coating of tinfoil, and
+through the top of the jar, which is usually made of wood, extends a
+metal rod. On the upper end of the rod, there is a metal ball, and, at
+the lower end, is attached a chain which runs down to the bottom of the
+jar and rests upon the inner tinfoil coating.
+
+In using the Leyden jar, the ball on the metal rod that runs through
+the top of the jar is connected with an electrical machine, and the jar
+is supported upon some conducting material, through which electricity
+may be conveyed from the outer coating of tinfoil to the earth. If the
+inner coating of tinfoil is now charged with positive electricity, by
+means of the electrical machine, it induces, upon the outer coating
+of foil, a charge of negative electricity, which is bound by the
+attraction of the positive charge on the inside of the jar. At the
+same time, the positive electricity, on the outer coating of foil, is
+repelled, through the conducting support, to the earth.
+
+The charge that can be communicated to the coating of the foil, inside
+the Leyden jar, is greatly increased by the presence of a charge of the
+opposite kind of electricity, on the coating on the outside of the jar.
+Each of these charges attracts the other, through the glass of the jar,
+and serves to bind or hold it. If either coating of foil is removed,
+the charge on the other coating tends to fly off the tinfoil, and will
+immediately do so, if a conductor is brought near. It is because the
+negative effects of the initial charge, inside the jar, and of the
+induced charge outside the jar, make it possible to communicate, to
+each coating of foil, a larger charge than it could otherwise be made
+to receive, that a Leyden jar is called a condenser.
+
+When a Leyden jar is disconnected from the electrical machine, two
+opposite charges of electricity are present on it, one inside and the
+other on the outside. If the two coats of tinfoil are now connected, by
+means of a condenser, they will at once neutralize each other, and the
+jar will be discharged. A jar may be discharged, by simply taking hold
+of the tinfoil on the outside of the jar, with one hand, and touching
+the metal rod, running through the top of the jar, with the other.
+If you do this, there will be a sudden flow of electricity through
+your body, your muscles will give a sudden jerk, and you will feel a
+peculiar tingling sensation. In other words, you will have received a
+shock.
+
+It is not necessary, for the hand that does not grasp the jar, actually
+to touch the rod that runs through the top. If the hand is brought
+toward the rod, rather slowly, you will see a spark leap across the
+space between the rod and your hand, while your hand is still some
+distance from the rod. The greater the distance, across which the spark
+leaps, the brighter will be the spark, and the stronger the shock
+produced. This distance is sometimes spoken of as the length of the
+spark, and it indicates the size of the charges on the tinfoil coatings
+of the jar.
+
+
+
+
+Who Discovered Electricity?
+
+
+It may seem difficult to believe, that the tiny spark and weak snapping
+noise that are produced when a Leyden jar is discharged, are, in many
+respects, the same as lightning and thunder, but it is nevertheless
+true. This was proved by Benjamin Franklin, about the middle of the
+18th century, in the following way. One afternoon, when a thunder
+shower was approaching, he sent up a kite, to the string of which he
+fastened a large metal key; and to the key, a ribbon of non-conducting
+silk, which he held in his hand. When the rain had been falling long
+enough to wet the string thoroughly, it become a good conductor of
+electricity, and Franklin found that the key had become charged with
+electricity transmitted from the clouds, along the wet kite string.
+The non-conducting silk ribbon, that formed the continuation of the
+kite string, from the key to his hand, was employed to prevent him from
+receiving shocks from the passage of the electricity, through his body,
+to the earth.
+
+Up to this point, your attention has been directed in charges of
+electricity. You have been told how they may be produced, what some of
+their leading properties are, and what effects they produce, when they
+are discharged. The subject that will now be explained to you is that
+of electric currents.
+
+
+
+
+What Is an Electric Current?
+
+
+By an electric current, is meant a flow of electricity along a
+conductor. The flow of electricity, through your body, when you receive
+an electric shock, is a current, but it lasts only for an instant, and
+it is difficult to learn much about its nature. By the use of various
+devices, it is possible to produce currents, that will continue as long
+as we want them, so that we are enabled to study their properties quite
+thoroughly.
+
+One of the oldest and simplest forms of apparatus, for producing
+electric currents, is that which is known as the voltaic cell. This
+form of apparatus may very easily be constructed. Pour some water into
+a glass jar, and add a little sulphuric acid. Now place in the water a
+strip of clean zinc and one of clean copper. Do not let the strips of
+metal touch in the water, but connect them outside the water by means
+of a piece of wire. When this has been done, a current of electricity
+will be sent up along the wire and through the water between the two
+strips of zinc and copper. This current is said to flow along the wire
+from the copper, which is called the positive pole of the cell, to the
+zinc, which is called the negative pole. In the liquid in the cell
+(i.e., the jar), the current travels from the zinc to the copper, thus
+completing what is called the electric circuit. Whenever the circuit it
+broken, that is, whenever there is a gap made in the wire connecting
+the poles, or anything else is done to destroy the completeness
+of the path, along which the current travels, the current ceases;
+consequently, when it is desirable to stop the current, all that is
+necessary is to cut the wire connecting the two strips of copper and
+zinc.
+
+The production of a current of electricity, by means of an apparatus of
+this sort, depends upon the chemical action of the acid in the water
+upon the strip of zinc. As long as the acid continues to act upon
+the zinc, the current is produced, and when the acid ceases to act
+upon the zinc, the current ceases to flow. If the zinc is clean, the
+chemical action of the acid ceases, whenever the circuit is broken, and
+consequently, when the cell is not being used to produce a current,
+the zinc is not destroyed by the acid. But if the zinc is not clean,
+small electric currents are set up, within the liquid, between the
+zinc and the impurities on its surface, and around the points where
+these impurities lie the acid acts upon the zinc and dissolves it. This
+action of the acid upon the zinc, when the circuit is broken, is known
+as local action, and it is very desirable to prevent it, as far as
+possible. For this purpose the zinc is often rubbed with mercury, which
+soaks into the zinc and forms a film on its surface, upon which the
+impurities float. This treatment of the zinc is known as amalgamation,
+and it serves to prevent almost all the local action, due to impurities
+of the zinc.
+
+Many other substances, besides zinc and copper, have been found capable
+of yielding an electric current, when placed in a suitable liquid, and
+many other fluids, besides water that contains a little sulphuric acid,
+have been employed to act upon the zinc and copper, or the substances
+used in their stead. Numerous cells of different kinds have, therefore,
+been devised, but, in all of them, the current is produced by chemical
+action. Most of them contain a liquid of some sort, which is called the
+exciting fluid, and two solid substances, which are called the elements
+of the cell. One of these elements is always much more susceptible to
+the chemical action of the exciting fluid, than the other, and this one
+is known as the positive element. The other element, upon which the
+exciting fluid may have no action, is called the negative element. In
+cells in which the elements are zinc and copper, the zinc is always the
+positive element. This may seem strange to you, for you have already
+learned that the zinc is the negative pole of the cell, but, to avoid
+confusion, you must fix well in your mind the fact that the zinc is
+not the positive element of a voltaic cell, but its negative pole,
+and that the copper, which forms the negative element is the positive
+pole of the cell. The currents produced by the various forms of voltaic
+cells, vary considerably in strength, but none of them are very strong.
+In order to obtain a stronger current, a number of cells must be used
+together. Such a collection of cells forms a voltaic battery, and in
+some instances, as many as fifty thousand cells have been used in a
+single battery.
+
+We have already learned in our study of water that it may be separated
+into its elementary gases by sending an electric current through it.
+The effect is a chemical one. Water, however, is not the only substance
+that is decomposed by electricity; almost all chemical compounds may be
+decomposed by the passage of a current through them, provided a current
+of sufficient strength is used.
+
+Another effect of the current is its heating effect. It has been found
+that the passage of an electric current, through any body, is always
+productive of a certain amount of heat. The amount of heat produced
+depends upon the strength of the current of electricity, and the
+resistance to its passage that is offered by the body through which it
+travels. This amount is increased by increasing either the strength of
+the current or the resistance of the conductor along which it travels.
+We have already learned, that some substances allow electricity to
+pass over them very readily, and are therefore called conductors,
+while substances through which electricity does not flow readily are
+known as non-conductors. No substance is a perfect non-conductor, for
+electricity can be made to pass through any substance, if the current
+is sufficiently powerful. Neither is any substance a perfect conductor,
+for all substances offer some resistance to the passage of an electric
+current. Those substances that are ordinarily considered good
+conductors offer varying degrees of resistance to electric currents.
+For example, a copper wire offers less resistance than an iron wire of
+the same length and diameter.
+
+The resistance of a body depends not only upon its material, but also
+upon its length and size. In conductors of the same material, the
+resistance is directly proportional to the length of the conductor,
+and inversely proportional to the square of its diameter. This is not
+surprising, for an electric current bears a strong resemblance to a
+current of water, in many of its properties, and you know that it is
+harder to force water through long, narrow pipes, than through short,
+wide ones.
+
+From what has been stated about resistance, you may see, that a current
+will produce more heat, in passing through a long fine wire, than
+through a shorter and thicker one, and that, of two conductors of the
+same length and size, but of different material, one may be heated much
+more by a current than will another.
+
+~HOW MAGNETS ARE MADE~
+
+A third effect of the electric current, which has not previously been
+mentioned is its magnetizing effect. It is upon this, that some of the
+most important effects of electricity depend.
+
+By coiling a wire around a bar of iron or steel, and then sending an
+electric current through it, the piece of iron, or steel, is made to
+show magnetic properties. By this is meant, as you doubtless know, that
+the iron will now attract other pieces of iron, or steel, to it. The
+strength of this attraction depends upon the strength of the current,
+and upon the number of turns of wire around the bar. By increasing
+either the strength of the current, or the number of turns in the
+coil of wire, around the bar of iron, the strength of its magnetic
+attraction is increased. When the current is stopped, the magnetic
+properties of the iron disappear almost completely. A magnet, that
+depends upon a current of electricity for its magnetic power, is called
+an electro-magnet.
+
+Besides electro-magnets there are others, which are called permanent
+magnets. Electro-magnets are composed of soft iron, the softer the
+better, and, as soon as the current of electricity ceases to flow
+around them, their magnetic properties disappear. Permanent magnets,
+on the contrary, are made of steel, and their magnetism is independent
+of the action of a current of electricity. No coil of wire is wound
+around them, and no current is employed to maintain their magnetic
+properties. A piece of steel may be made to become a permanent magnet,
+by passing a current of electricity, for a considerable time, through
+a coil of wire wound around it, or by allowing a piece of steel to
+remain for some time in contact with a strong magnet. When a current of
+electricity passes through a coil of wire, wound around a bar of steel,
+it takes longer to magnetize the steel than it would to magnetize iron,
+but, when the current ceases, the magnetism does not all disappear from
+the steel. A portion of it remains, and the steel becomes permanently
+magnetic.
+
+If a thin bar of steel is magnetized, and is then suspended by its
+middle, so that it can spring freely, it will be found that one end
+tends to point toward the north, and the other toward the south.
+Whenever the bar is swung out of this position, it swings back to it,
+and if the north end is turned entirely around to the south, it does
+not remain, but swings back to its former position. This shows that
+there is a difference in the magnetism at the two ends of the magnet.
+To indicate this difference, the north-seeking end of a magnet is
+called the positive pole of the magnet, and the south-seeking end is
+known as the negative pole.
+
+By suspending two bar magnets, in the manner described, it can be shown
+that the positive and negative poles of the magnets act like positive
+and negative charges of electricity. Poles of the same kind repel, and
+poles of opposite kinds attract, each other.
+
+Permanent magnets are usually made in two forms, either straight
+or horseshoe shaped. A compass needle, as has been shown, is an
+example of a straight magnet. The horseshoe variety, which has a
+little bar of iron, called the keeper, laid across the poles is a
+common toy. Electro-magnets are seldom seen, except in electrical
+instruments or machinery. The pictures shown on the following pages
+give us a bird’s-eye view of some of the wonders performed by these
+electro-magnets. Tons and tons of material are picked up and held
+securely by one of these magnets as easily as you can hold on to an
+apple.
+
+
+
+
+Why Does a Bee Have a Sting?
+
+
+The bee’s sting is given him as a weapon of defence. Primarily it is
+for the sole purpose of enabling him to help defend the hive from his
+enemies. Sometimes when he is attacked away from the hive he uses his
+sting to defend himself. When he does so, he injects a little quantity
+of poison through the sting and that is what causes the inflammation.
+
+
+
+
+How Does a Honey Bee Live?
+
+
+The bee lives in swarms of from 10,000 to 50,000 in one house. In the
+wild state the house or hive is located in a hollow tree generally.
+These swarms contain three classes of bees, the perfect females or
+queen bees, the males or drones, and the imperfectly developed females,
+or working bees. In each hive or swarm there is only one perfect female
+or queen whose sole mission is to propagate the species. The queen is
+much larger than the other bees. When she dies a young working bee
+three days old is selected as the new queen. Her cell is enlarged by
+breaking down the partitions, her food is changed to “royal jelly
+or paste” and she grows into a queen bee. The queen lays 2,000 eggs
+per day. The drones do not work and after performing their duty as
+males are killed by the working bees. The female bees do the work of
+gathering the honey. They collect the honey from the flowers, they
+build the wax cells, and feed the young bees. When a colony becomes
+overstocked, a new colony is sent out to establish a new hive under the
+direction of a queen bee.
+
+
+
+
+THE BEGINNING OF A STEAMSHIP
+
+
+[Illustration: Probably no form of construction is so interesting to
+everyone as the construction of a huge steamer, a wonderful “city”
+afloat, with its thousands of passengers, its thousand officers and
+crew, the tremendous stores of provisions and water, and the precision
+with which the great ship plows its way from one shore to the other.
+
+This picture shows the first work in building a modern steamer, laying
+the keel and center plate, upon which the massive hull is constructed.
+The rivets are driven by hydraulic power, noiselessly but firmly. In
+the new “Britannic”--largest of all British steamers and the newest
+(1915) modern leviathan--over 270 tons of rivets--nearly three million
+in all--were required to give staunchness to the steel-plated hull. The
+cellular double bottom is constructed between the bottom and top of the
+center plate.]
+
+[Illustration: A LONGER VIEW OF THE ABOVE OPERATION.]
+
+[Illustration: THE CRADLE OF A STEAMSHIP CALLED A “GANTRY”
+
+VIEW NEAR THE BOW.
+
+The “ribs” of the “Britannic,” showing the deck divisions, in outline.
+The huge “gantry” or cradle of steel, in which “Britannic” was built,
+cost $1,000,000.]
+
+[Illustration: THE DOUBLE BOTTOM OF MODERN STEAMSHIPS
+
+THE “BRITANNIC” OF THE WHITE STAR LINE. VIEW OF THE DOUBLE BOTTOM
+PLATED.]
+
+[Illustration: THE HUGE STEEL SKELETON OF THE “BRITANNIC” BEFORE THE
+PLATES WERE PLACED ON IT.
+
+The plates are seen piled in the foreground. The largest of them are 36
+feet long and weigh 4¹⁄₄ tons each.]
+
+[Illustration: THE SHIP READY TO LAUNCH
+
+NOT A “SKYSCRAPER,” BUT A FLOATING HOTEL IN PROCESS OF CONSTRUCTION.
+
+THE HULL ITSELF IS 64′ 3″ DEEP, AND FROM THE KEEL TO THE TOP OF THE
+FUNNELS IS 175 FEET. THE NAVIGATING BRIDGE IS 104′ 6″ ABOVE THE KEEL.]
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  WHITE STAR
+  ROYAL MAIL STEAMER
+  “BRITANNIC”
+
+READY TO LAUNCH.
+
+The “Britannic” on the ways at Belfast (Harland & Wolff’s). The largest
+gantries ever constructed to hold a ship.]
+
+[Illustration: THE MACHINERY USED IN LAUNCHING A SHIP
+
+FORWARD LAUNCHING GEAR (HYDRAULIC).
+
+The ship went from the ways into the water in 62 seconds and was
+stopped in twice her own length.]
+
+[Illustration: THE HUGE HULL LEFT THE WAYS EASILY AND CREATED ONLY A
+SMALL SPLASH.]
+
+[Illustration: A CLOSE VIEW OF A SHIP’S RUDDER
+
+“BRITANNIC” HELD UP JUST AFTER THE LAUNCH.]
+
+[Illustration: “BRITANNIC.” THE 100-TON RUDDER. THE (CENTER) TURBINE
+PROPELLER SHAFT AND ONE OF THE “WING” PROPELLER SHAFTS.]
+
+[Illustration: WHAT A SHIP’S PROPELLER LOOKS LIKE
+
+THE COMPLETED SHIP
+
+The center (the turbine) propeller, 16′ 6″ in diameter, cast of one
+solid piece of manganese bronze, 22 tons in weight. The “Britannic”
+like “Olympic,” is propelled by two sets of reciprocating engines, the
+exhaust steam from these being reused in the low-pressure turbine,
+effecting great economy in coal. The two “wing” propellers are 23′ 6″
+in diameter and weigh 38 tons each.]
+
+[Illustration: WHAT A SHIP’S TURBINE LOOKS LIKE
+
+The turbine motor, 130 tons in weight (Parsons type). The steam plays
+upon the blades with such power that they develop 16,000 horse-power
+and revolve the propeller (turbine) 165 times a minute. The motor is 12
+feet in diameter, 13′ 8″ long, the blades (numbering thousands) ranging
+from 18 to 25¹⁄₂ inches in length.]
+
+[Illustration: THE IMMENSE TURBINE MOTOR FULLY ENCASED--WEIGHT 420
+TONS.]
+
+[Illustration: HOW A FUNNEL APPEARS BEFORE IT IS IN PLACE
+
+One of the four immense funnels--without the outer casing. Each is 125
+feet above the hull of the ship and measures 24′ 6″ by 19′ 0″.]
+
+[Illustration: WHAT A GREAT STEAMSHIP WOULD LOOK LIKE IF SPLIT END TO
+END]
+
+This view will give some idea of the interior arrangement of the
+huge White Star Line triple-screw steamer “Britannic.” Many features
+undreamed of a dozen years ago have been introduced in the passenger
+quarters of this ship. As many decks are necessary to provide the
+required space for state-rooms, public apartments, promenades, etc.,
+several passenger elevators have been installed, which are a great
+convenience for those who find the use of stairs irksome. There is
+a fully equipped Gymnasium, a children’s Play Room for the younger
+passengers, a Squash Racquet Court, a Swimming Pool with sea-water, and
+the Turkish Bath establishment.
+
+There are accommodations for over 2500 passengers as well as a crew of
+950. The view shows how the ship is divided into numerous water-tight
+compartments, so that should several of these sections become flooded
+the rest of the ship would remain intact.
+
+The lifeboats, of which there are sufficient to carry all on board, are
+handled by a new device, by means of which the boats can be launched,
+when filled, with greater ease and safety than hitherto. Each of the
+great davits can handle several boats and they are long enough to carry
+the boats clear of the side of the ship, should any accident cause her
+to list to one side.
+
+The “Britannic” is nearly 900 feet in length, and with her gross
+tonnage of 50,000 is the largest British steamer in the world.
+
+
+
+
+What Is Water Made Of?
+
+
+Every kind of substance in the world is made up of tiny portions, each
+of which is distinctly just what the whole mass is, but which are so
+small you cannot see them. A pile of sand, or a cupful of sugar or salt
+consists of a great many small grains. A cup of water too is made up of
+what we would call small grains of water, or what we would call grains
+of water if we could think of them in the same way as we do sugar or
+salt or sand. These particles are so small that they could not be seen
+separately, even if the particles did not have the ability to stick so
+close together that we could not distinguish them even if they were
+large enough to be seen.
+
+The word used in describing these tiny particles in any substance,
+water, sugar, sand, salt or anything else is molecule.
+
+
+
+
+What Is a Molecule?
+
+
+The word molecule means “smallest mass,” which indicates the very
+smallest division that can be made of any substance without destroying
+its identity. Every substance is made up of molecules, and in many
+cases the molecules of one substance will mix with those of another
+substance, while in other cases they will not. When you dissolve sugar
+in water or melt lead or change water into steam, the physical body of
+the substance is changed, but the molecules remain as they were. They
+are only changed in so far as their relations to each other and to
+those of another substance are concerned.
+
+
+
+
+How Do We Know a Thing Is Solid, Liquid or Gas?
+
+
+The relations of the molecules in any substance to each other is what
+determines whether a substance is a solid, a liquid or a gas. A gas is
+a substance in which the molecules are constantly moving rapidly about
+among each other, but always in straight lines. A liquid substance is
+one in which the molecules are also constantly moving about but which
+do not move in straight lines. Solids are substances in which the
+molecules stick together in one position by the power of cohesion which
+they have. Cohesion means the power of sticking together.
+
+
+
+
+How Big Is a Molecule?
+
+
+We do not as yet know all there is to be learned about molecules. We
+know through the wonders of chemistry that small as a molecule is, it
+is still made up of smaller particles called atoms. An atom is the
+smallest division of anything that can be imagined. We have found by
+chemistry that even a molecule is capable of being divided, i.e., it
+is made up of still smaller particles, but molecules are small enough.
+An eminent scientist, Sir William Thomson, has given us probably the
+nearest approach to a correct way of saying something of the size of a
+molecule. “If a drop of water were magnified to the size of the earth,
+the molecules would each occupy spaces greater than those filled by
+small shot and smaller than those occupied by cricket balls.”
+
+To get at what water is made of we must separate it through chemistry
+into its parts or atoms. When we do this we find that a molecule of
+water is made of three atoms or parts. Two of these are exactly alike
+and consist of a gas called hydrogen, and the other part is another
+gas called oxygen, concerning which gases we have already learned
+much in the answers to other questions in this book. In other words,
+when we separate water, which is a liquid, into its parts, we change
+the relations of the molecules in the water which move in irregular
+lines, into parts which move in straight lines and, when the molecules
+of a substance, as we have already seen, move in straight lines, the
+substance becomes a gas. On the other hand, when you freeze water, it
+becomes a solid (ice), and in doing that you fix the molecules in the
+water so that they stick to each other.
+
+Men thought for a long time that water was an element like oxygen and
+hydrogen, i. e., that its molecules could not be separated in its
+parts and was, therefore, considered one of the things which could not
+be divided up, but this was due to the fact that it requires a great
+amount of power to break up the molecules of water.
+
+
+
+
+What Is an Element?
+
+
+An element is any substance whose molecules cannot be broken up and
+made to form other substances. You can take one or more elements and
+make a compound, which is what water is. A compound is a substance in
+which the molecules are made up of at least two kinds of elements or
+elementary substances.
+
+~THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ELEMENTS AND COMPOUNDS~
+
+The things we find in the world are known as either compounds or
+elements. An element, as we have already learned, is something in
+which the molecules cannot be broken up. A compound is, therefore, a
+substance in which the molecules are made of molecules of one or more
+elements and is either gas, liquid or solid, according to the relations
+which these molecules have to each other. We have so far discovered
+less than eighty real elements in the world, although since we find
+a new one every little while, there are probably many more as yet
+undiscovered.
+
+Not all elements are gases, of course. Solids like copper, gold,
+iron, lead and a number of others are elements. Among liquids we have
+mercury, and of the gases we find hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen,
+which are the three wonderful gases about which we are about to learn
+something, and these three are also the world’s most important gases.
+Ammonia is an element, but, while we think of it as a liquid, the real
+ammonia is really a gas. Our household ammonia is really a compound of
+ammonia with something else.
+
+
+
+
+What Is Hydrogen Gas?
+
+
+Hydrogen is one of the elementary substances in the form of a gas. It
+has no color or taste or odor, so we can neither see, smell nor taste
+it. It is the lightest substance known to the world. We have by the aid
+of chemistry been able to catch and retain it in sufficient quantities
+to weigh it and have found it to be lighter than anything else in
+the world. It is soluble in water and some other liquids, but only
+slightly so. It refracts light very strongly and will absorb in a very
+remarkable manner with some metals when they are heated. It burns with
+a beautiful blue flame and very great heat. When burned it combines
+with oxygen in the air and forms water. Hydrogen is not poisonous but,
+if inhaled, it prevents the blood from securing oxygen, and so the
+inhaling of hydrogen will cause death. Hydrogen is not found free in
+the air except in small quantities like oxygen and nitrogen and is,
+therefore, secured by separating compounds by known methods. It can be
+secured by the action which diluted sulphuric acid has on zinc or iron,
+by passing steam through a red-hot tube filled with iron trimmings, by
+passing an electric current through water and in other ways. Hydrogen
+is absolutely necessary to every form of animal or vegetable structure.
+It is found in all acids.
+
+
+
+
+What Is Oxygen?
+
+
+Oxygen was discovered in 1774. It is an elementary substance in
+the form of a gas which is found free in the air. It is colorless,
+tasteless and odorless and, like hydrogen, cannot therefore be seen,
+tasted or smelled. It is soluble in water and combines very readily
+with most of the elements. In most cases when oxygen combines with
+other things the process of combining is so rapid that light and
+heat are produced--this combination is called combustion. Where the
+process of combining with other substances acts slowly the heat and
+light produced at one time are not enough to be noticed. Where metals
+tarnish or rust or animal or vegetable substances decay, the same
+thing chemically is taking place as when you light a fire and produce
+light or heat--you are making the oxygen combine with the substance
+in the material which is burning. When iron is rusting or vegetables
+decaying, the action is so slow that no heat or light is produced, but
+the result is the same if some outside force does not stop the action.
+The fire will burn until everything burnable which it can reach is
+burned out, and in the case of the piece of iron rusting, the action
+will go on slowly until the whole piece of iron is destroyed--or burned
+out. Like hydrogen, no vegetable or animal life can live without oxygen
+continually given it. Oxygen will destroy life and will sustain it.
+
+All of our body heat and muscular energy are produced by slow
+combustion going on in all parts of the body, of oxygen carried in
+the blood after it enters the lungs. In sunlight oxygen is exhaled by
+growing plants.
+
+Oxygen is the most widely distributed and abundant element in nature.
+It amounts to about one-fifth of the volume of the air belt of the
+earth; about ninety per cent of all the weight of water is oxygen. The
+rocks of the earth contain about fifty per cent of oxygen and it is
+found in most animal and vegetable products and in acids.
+
+
+
+
+What Is Nitrogen?
+
+
+Nitrogen is the third of the world’s wonderful and important gases.
+It is also without color, taste or smell. It will not burn or help
+other substances to burn and it will not combine easily with any other
+element. It will unite at a very high degree of heat with magnesium,
+silica, and other metals. About 7.7 per cent of the weight of the air
+is nitrogen, so that it is a very important part of the air we breathe
+and it is absolutely necessary in making all animal and vegetable
+tissues. When united with hydrogen, it produces ammonia, and with
+oxygen one of the most important acids--nitric acid. It is found free
+in the air and is thus easily secured. Nitrogen, while very important
+to all kinds of life, is known as the quiet gas. It stays quietly by
+itself unless forced to combine under great power with other things,
+and, even under those conditions, will combine rarely. We find a good
+deal of nitrogen in the blood but, while we need the nitrogen which is
+found in the blood, it does nothing particularly to the blood or the
+rest of the body. The nitrogen which the body uses is valuable to the
+body only when found in a compound. This nitrogen which the body needs
+is secured through vegetable products such as the wheat from which our
+bread is made, and which are said to secure their nitrogen through
+the aid of microbes which are able to force the nitrogen of the air
+into a compound. Some day perhaps we shall know all there is to know
+about nitrogen, which is the least known of these three wonderful and
+necessary gases.
+
+
+
+
+Why Are Some Things Transparent and Others Not?
+
+
+Transparency is produced by the way rays of light go through substances
+or not. When light strikes a substance that is almost perfectly
+transparent, it means that the rays of light go through it almost
+exactly as they come in. We think quickly of glass when we think of
+something readily transparent. Water is almost equally as transparent.
+When the sunlight is shining on one side of a pane of ordinary window
+glass, it causes every thing on that side of the window to reflect the
+light which strikes it in all directions. When these rays of light
+strike the window pane, they go right through and that is how we are
+able to see the trees and grass and everything else through a clear
+window pane. The same reason applies also to the water.
+
+Some kinds of window glass (the frosted kind) we cannot see
+through--they are not transparent. The surface of a frosted window pane
+is so made that when the light rays strike it the rays are twisted and
+broken, and do not come through as they entered the glass.
+
+Sometimes the water is almost perfectly transparent. When water is
+perfectly clear, it is quite transparent. When you look at or into
+water that is not transparent, you will know that there are particles
+of solid matter floating about in it which twist and mix the light
+rays. If the water is not too deep you can see the bottom sometimes
+even when there are some particles of solid substances floating about
+in it, but the deeper the water the more of these solid particles there
+are generally in it, so that it is impossible in most waters to see the
+bottom if the water is deep. In some places, however, the water is so
+free from floating particles that the bottom of the ocean can be seen
+at quite considerable depths.
+
+
+
+
+Why Is the Sea Water Salt?
+
+
+All water that comes into the oceans by way of the rivers and other
+streams contains salt. The amount is so very small for a given quantity
+of water that it cannot be tasted. But all this river water is poured
+into the oceans eventually at some point. After it reaches the oceans,
+the water is evaporated by the action of the sun. When the sun picks up
+the water in the form of moisture, it does not take up any of the solid
+substances which the water contained as it came in from the rivers, and
+while there is about as much water in the ocean all the time and about
+as much also in the air in the form of moisture also, the ocean never
+gets fuller; the solid substances from the river waters keep piling
+up in the ocean and float about in the water there. The salt which is
+in the river water has been left behind by the sun when it evaporated
+the water in the ocean for so long that the amount of salt has become
+very noticeable. The moisture which the sun takes into the air from
+the ocean is eventually turned back to the earth again in the form of
+rain. This process of evaporation and precipitation in the form of rain
+is going on all the time. When the water which is in the form of rain
+strikes the earth, it is pure water. It sinks into the ground and on
+the way picks up some salt, finds its way into a river sooner or later,
+and then evidently gets back into the ocean. All this time it has been
+carrying the tiny bit of salt which it picked up in going through the
+ground. But when it reaches the ocean again and is taken up by the
+sun, it leaves its salt behind and so the salt from countless drops of
+water is constantly being left in the ocean as it goes up into the air.
+This has been going on for countless ages and the amount of salt has
+been increasing in the ocean all the time, so that the sea is becoming
+saltier and saltier.
+
+
+
+
+Why Does Salt Make Me Thirsty?
+
+
+The blood in our body contains about the same proportion of salt as the
+water in the ocean normally. When the supply is normal we do not feel
+that we have too much salt in our systems, but when you take salt into
+your mouth the percentage of salt in the body is increased, and the
+being thirsty, or the desire to drink water afterwards is caused by the
+demand of the human system that the salt be diluted. The system calls
+for water or something to drink in order that it may counteract the too
+great percentage of salt in the system. Other things also, when taken
+into the body in too great a proportion, cause us to become thirsty.
+Thirst is merely nature’s demand for more water on account of the
+necessity of reducing the percentage of some substance like salt, or
+merely a necessity for having more water in the body.
+
+
+
+
+What Are Diamonds Made Of?
+
+
+We learned the definition of an element in our study of water and
+other substances. Many things which were at one time thought by our
+wisest men to be elements were later found to be compounds of other
+substances. Water is one of these which we have learned is really not
+an element at all, but compounded from two gaseous elements, hydrogen
+and oxygen.
+
+One of the most important elements in the world is the one out of
+which diamonds are formed. Not because diamonds are so valuable, but
+because the element referred to, carbon, is found in every tissue of
+every living thing, both animal and mineral. This carbon is one of the
+most useful of all elements, but is found in and used by living things
+always in combination with some other substance. Carbon is combustible,
+forming carbonic acid gas, from which the earth’s vegetation secures
+its necessary carbon, which is very great in amount.
+
+When heat is made to act in certain ways on the tissues of animal and
+vegetable life we get charcoal, lampblack and coke. Carbon will combine
+with more other substances than any of the other known elements. Its
+wonders lie in the fact that under various treatments it produces
+altogether different looking things, although remaining as pure carbon.
+Our diamonds, for instance, are pure carbon, but our lead pencils,
+that is, the part we write with, are also pure carbon, and the coal
+we burn is carbon also. It would be hard to say which of these three
+forms of pure carbon is most valuable to the world. A great many rich
+people might say diamonds, while the poor people would surely say
+coal, especially if you asked them in winter, while the people who
+write books, and newspaper reporters, would probably say lead-pencils.
+However, it would be better to choose diamonds, for if you have them
+you can always trade them for coal or lead-pencils. A very small
+diamond will buy quite a lot of either coal or lead-pencils. Carbon is
+one of the solid elements which are not metals. A great many of the
+important elements in the group of solids are metals.
+
+
+
+
+What Causes Dimples?
+
+
+A dimple is a dent or depression in the skin on a part of the body
+where the flesh is soft. The fibers which lay in the tissue under the
+outside skin help to hold the skin firm. These fibers which are, of
+course, small run in all directions and are of different lengths. Now
+and then these fibers will just happen to grow short in one spot or the
+other and pull the skin in, forming a little depression, but producing
+a very pleasing effect.
+
+
+
+
+Why Does the Dark Cause Fear?
+
+
+Fear is an instinct. We are by nature afraid of the things we do not
+know all about. That is why knowledge is so valuable; when we know
+about a thing we are sure of our ground. When we are where it is light
+we can see what is there; when it is dark our imagination becomes
+active and because we do not know for certain what is there in the dark
+before us, we imagine things.
+
+Fear of the dark, however, cannot be said to be entirely natural. It
+comes naturally only when we have come to the age when we begin to
+imagine things. Animals have no imaginative powers and they do not fear
+the dark. Some people say that the fear of the dark is bred in us,
+but little babies do not fear the dark. If they are properly trained
+they will go to sleep in the dark and will prefer the dark. As they
+grow older children begin to fear the dark, but that is because their
+imagination is coming to life and because parents so often make the
+mistake at this stage of training their children of either encouraging
+the feeling of fear that darkness brings for the convenient means of
+punishment it provides through threatening to put the light out, or
+because they do not take the pains to show that there is no reason for
+fear.
+
+Most children who fear the darkness are really taught to do so
+permanently by parents or servants. When a boy or girl first begins to
+imagine things in the dark, many parents run quickly to the child and
+say, “Don’t be afraid” or “There is nothing to be afraid of,” and in
+doing this they perhaps mention the word “fear” for the first time.
+Repetition of this will always cause the child to associate the word
+“fear” with “darkness.” As a matter of fact when the boy or girl first
+shows fear of the darkness, parents should go to them and quiet their
+fears, but talk about anything else but fear and direct the child’s
+mind away from any thought of fear.
+
+[Illustration: ANCIENT EGYPTIAN ROPE.]
+
+
+
+
+The Story in a Coil of Rope
+
+
+How many have ever given a thought to the question of where rope comes
+from and how it is made, or realize what a variety of uses it is put
+to, and how dependent we are upon it in many of the everyday affairs
+of life? But let us suppose for a moment that the world were suddenly
+deprived of its supply of this very commonplace material, and of its
+smaller relatives, cords and twine. We should then begin to realize
+the importance of a seemingly unimportant thing, and to appreciate the
+difficulty in getting along without it.
+
+Ancient civilized peoples had their ropes and cordage, made from
+such materials as were available in their respective countries. The
+Egyptians are said to have made rope from leather thongs, and our
+illustration will be found interesting in this connection. This is from
+a sculpture taken from a tomb in Thebes of the time of the Pharaoh of
+the Exodus.
+
+[Illustration: EGYPTIANS MAKING ROPE.]
+
+While this scene is said by the best authority to represent the
+preparation of leather cords for use in lacing sandals, it has been
+supposed by some to be a representation of rope making. In any event
+the process is undoubtedly the same as that used in making rope.
+
+The scene is depicted with the true Egyptian faculty for showing
+details, making words almost unnecessary to an understanding of their
+pictorial records. We see the raw material in the shape of the hide,
+and also two well-made coils of the finished product. One of the
+workmen is cutting a strand from a hide by revolving it and cutting as
+it turns. Any one who has not tried it will be surprised to see what a
+good, even string can be cut from a piece of leather in this way.
+
+Another man is arranging and paying out the thongs to a third, who is
+evidently walking backward in time-honored fashion, twisting as he goes.
+
+Coming down to more recent times we find that rope-making had been
+going on for centuries with probably very little change, up to the time
+of the introduction of machinery and the establishment of the factory
+system.
+
+[Illustration: HACKLING.]
+
+~HOW ROPE WAS LONG MADE BY HAND~
+
+In the early days to which we have referred, all the yarn for
+rope-making was spun by hand in the time-honored way. We are able to
+represent to our readers by the photographs shown, this now almost lost
+art. The material shown in the pictures is American hemp, which because
+the earlier machines were not adapted to working this softer fiber,
+continued to be spun by hand long after manila was spun chiefly on
+machines.
+
+[Illustration: NATIVE PHILIPINO SCRAPING THE FIBER FROM THE LEAF STOCK.]
+
+The hemp was first hackled, as is also shown by our photograph, the
+hackle or “hechel” being simply a board having long, sharp steel teeth
+set into it. This combed out the tow or short, matted fiber, leaving
+the clean, straight hemp. This “strike” of hemp the spinner wrapped
+about his waist, bringing the ends around his back and tucking them
+into his belt, thus keeping the material in place without knot or
+twist, and allowing the fibers to pay out freely.
+
+[Illustration: DRYING THE FIBER.]
+
+[Illustration: SCENE IN AN EGYPTIAN KITCHEN SHOWING USE OF A LARGE ROPE
+TO SUPPORT A SORT OF HANGING SHELF.]
+
+The workman in our picture is Johnny Moores, an old-time expert
+hand-spinner, who can walk off backward from the wheel with his wad of
+hemp, spinning with each hand a thread as fine and even as can be asked
+for. In the photograph, in order to show the process more clearly, one
+large yarn is being spun.
+
+[Illustration: AN OLD FASHIONED ROPE WALK
+
+HAND SPINNING.]
+
+The large wheel, usually turned by a boy, is used to convey power to
+the “whirls,” or small spindles carrying hooks upon which the fiber
+is fastened. These whirls, revolving, give the twist to the yarn as
+the spinner deftly pays out the fiber, regulating it with skillful
+fingers to preserve the uniformity and proper size of the yarn. As he
+goes backward down the long walk through the “squares of sunlight on
+the floor” he throws the trailing yarns over the “stakes” placed at
+intervals along the walk for the purpose.
+
+The spinning “grounds” were usually arranged with wheels at either
+end, so that spinners reaching the farther end, could go back to their
+starting point spinning another set of yarns.
+
+Then in the case of small ropes, the strands could be made by attaching
+two or more yarns to the “whirl” and twisting them together, reversing
+the motion to give the strands a twist opposite to that given the
+yarns. These strands were twisted together, again reversing the motion,
+making a rope. Thus it will be seen that, reduced to its lowest terms,
+rope-making consists simply of a series of twisting processes. The
+twisting of the yarns into the strand is known as “forming” or putting
+in the “foreturn.” The final process is “laying,” “closing” or putting
+in the “after turn.” Horse-power was used in old times for forming and
+laying rope which was too large to be made by hand.
+
+How all this work is now done in a modern rope factory by ingeniously
+devised machinery we shall now see.
+
+The opening room where the fiber is made ready for the preparation
+machinery is a reminder of the days when all rope-making processes
+were hand work. The bales are first opened up--in the case of Manila
+this means cutting the straw matting put on to protect the fiber in
+shipment. Then the hanks which are packed in various ways--sometimes
+doubled, sometimes twisted--are taken out and straightened and the band
+at the end of the hank removed.
+
+No machinery has yet been perfected for doing the work just described
+but the first of the preparation processes, a short step beyond, tells
+quite a different story. Here the hanks of such fibers as require a
+special cleaning treatment are placed on fast working hackling machines
+which comb away most of the snarls, loose tow and dirt.
+
+At this point hard fibers--Manila, Sisal and New Zealand--are usually
+oiled to soften them and to make them more workable for the operations
+that follow. The oil, furthermore, acts as a preservative. It is a
+matter of importance to the buyer, however, that the fiber should not
+be too heavily oiled, for that merely increases the weight and cost of
+the rope without improving its quality.
+
+The wonder of modernism in rope-making is nowhere more striking than
+in the preparation room. To pass from one end, where the raw hemp is
+received just as it left the hands of the native Filipino laborer with
+his crude methods, down through the long rows of machines to the draw
+frames from which the sliver is delivered in a form that can be likened
+to a stream of molten metal, is to cover decades of inventive genius
+and mechanical development.
+
+The mechanism performs its work so accurately that at first glance the
+man feeding the fiber into the machine and all the other men, busy
+about their various duties, would appear to be playing very minor parts
+in modern rope making. In reality, expert workmanship and watchfulness
+are very important factors. Good rope depends no more upon scientific
+machine processes than upon ceaseless attention to the little details,
+and this is especially true in the preparation room.
+
+Before taking up the distinctly modern machines so largely used now
+in the final processes of rope-making--the forming of strands, laying
+of common ropes and closing of cable-laid goods--we will describe the
+rope-walk where much of this work is still best carried on.
+
+[Illustration: HUGE BALES OF RAW ROPE MATERIAL
+
+MANILA HEMP IN WAREHOUSE.]
+
+For making tarred goods in all but the smaller sizes the walk has
+certain advantages not afforded by newer methods. It also provides
+efficient equipment for turning out the largest ropes, which would
+otherwise require special machinery.
+
+[Illustration: A MODERN ROPE WALK
+
+INTERIOR OF ROPE WALK, PLYMOUTH CORDAGE CO.]
+
+The long alleys or grounds where the work takes place are usually laid
+out in pairs, one for forming, the other for laying and closing. Each
+ground has a track to accommodate the machines used and an endless
+band-rope which conveys the power.
+
+[Illustration: NEAR VIEW OF MACHINE IN ROPE WALK.]
+
+~HOW ROPE IS FORMED AND TWISTED~
+
+At the head of the forming ground stand frames holding the bobbins of
+yarn. The yarns for each strand first pass through a plate perforated
+in concentric circles. This arrangement gives each yarn the correct
+angle of delivery into a tube where the whole mass gets a certain
+amount of compression.
+
+As the top truck is forced ahead by the twisting process, the ropemaker
+by means of greater or less leverage on the “tails”--the loose ropes
+shown in our picture--preserves a correct lay in the rope. The stakes
+on which the strands rest are removed one by one to allow the top truck
+to pass, and then replaced to support the rope until the laying is
+finished and the reeling in of the rope begun.
+
+The closing process on cable-laid goods is like the laying except
+that the twist is reversed. The work now being with three complete
+ropes--frequently very large--a heavier top truck is necessary, and
+this must often be ballasted, as shown in our illustration, to keep
+down the vibration which would otherwise tend to lift the truck off the
+track.
+
+[Illustration: NEAR VIEW OF MACHINE IN ROPE WALK.]
+
+Modern rope-making ingenuity reaches its high-water mark in the
+compound laying-machine where the two operations of forming the strands
+and laying them into a rope are combined. Up to a certain point this
+method is more economical than that in which the forming and laying are
+unconnected. Fewer machines are required for a given output--hence,
+less floor space and fewer workmen. The time-saving element also enters
+in.
+
+[Illustration: PREPARING THE FIBER IN ROPE MAKING
+
+OPENING BALES OF MANILA FIBER FOR PREPARATION.]
+
+[Illustration: PREPARATION ROOM.
+
+Here the fiber is carefully cleaned and combed by a series of fine
+tooth machinery through which it passes.]
+
+[Illustration: COUNTLESS SLIVERS STREAM FROM THE ROPE MACHINE
+
+FORMATION OF SLIVER--FIRST BREAKER.
+
+The hanks of fiber are fed by hand into this machine several at a
+time, where it is grasped by steel pins fitted to a slowly revolving
+endless chain. A second set of pins moving more rapidly draws out the
+individual fibers and combs them into a continuous form.
+
+The operations which follow are very similar. A number of “ropings”
+are allowed to feed together into a first slowly revolving set of pins
+and are drawn out again by a high speed set into a smaller sliver, the
+pins becoming finer on each succeeding machine until the draw frame is
+reached. Here the fiber is pulled from a single set of pins between two
+rapidly moving leather belts called aprons. On all of these machines
+the fiber passes between rollers as it goes onto and leaves the pins
+and the sliver is given its cylindrical form by being drawn through a
+circular opening.
+
+A finished sliver must conform to the special size desired for
+spinning.]
+
+[Illustration: SPREADER.]
+
+[Illustration: SECOND BREAKER.]
+
+[Illustration: DRAW FRAME.]
+
+[Illustration: A ROPE MACHINE THAT IS ALMOST HUMAN
+
+FOUR-STRAND COMPOUND LAYING-MACHINE.]
+
+The compound laying machine must, however, be stopped each time that
+the supply of yarn on any bobbin is so low as to call for a fresh one.
+This would occur so frequently in the case of the larger ropes as to
+offset the advantages just mentioned, hence the machine is used on a
+limited range of sizes only.
+
+As can be seen in the picture, the machine contains a vertical
+shaft with upper and lower projecting arms which support the
+bobbin-flyers--four in number in this particular case. The bobbins
+within each flyer turn on separate spindles, allowing the yarns to pass
+up through small guide plates and thence into a tube.
+
+Each flyer is geared to revolve on its own axis, thus twisting its set
+of yarns into a compact strand. At the same time all the flyers revolve
+with the main shaft in an opposite direction and form a rope out of the
+strands as the latter come together in a central tube still higher up.
+
+The rope is drawn through this tube by a series of pulleys which exert
+a steady pull and so keep the proper twist in the rope. From these
+pulleys the finished product is delivered onto a separately-driven
+coiling reel, an automatic device registering meanwhile on a dial the
+number of fathoms run.
+
+The small reel, seen near the head of the main shaft, holds the small
+heart rope which is fed into the center of certain four-strand ropes to
+act as a bed for the strands.
+
+Pure Manila rope is the very best and the most satisfactory for all
+around use. The character of good Manila fiber is such as to impart to
+a properly made rope such necessary factors as strength, pliability,
+and wearing qualities.
+
+Regular 3-strand Manila rope is universally used for all general
+purposes.
+
+For certain special uses, however, and particularly where the rope is
+to be used for any kind of sheave work, a 4-strand type of construction
+will be found the most suitable, as such a rope presents a much firmer,
+rounder, and greater wearing surface than the ordinary 3-strand. There
+are many different types of 4-strand rope.
+
+The picture shown on this page represents a coil of 4-strand Manila
+called “Best Fall.” This rope is made of carefully selected fiber;
+is 4-strand with heart, and is harder twisted than ordinary goods.
+Best Fall is adapted for heavy hoisting work, as on coal and grain
+elevators, cargo and quarry hoists and for pile-driver hammer lines.
+
+~AN AVERAGE COIL OF ROPE--1200 FEET~
+
+The standard length coil of rope is 1,200 feet, although extra long
+lengths are every day made for such purposes as oil-well drilling, the
+transmission of power, etc., etc.
+
+[Illustration: SECTION, CROSS SECTION AND COIL, FOUR AND THREE-FOURTH
+INCHES CIRCUMFERENCE. SECTION AND CROSS SECTION ONE-HALF ACTUAL]
+
+[Illustration: DIFFERENT KINDS OF KNOTS
+
+KNOTS.
+
+From Knight’s American Mechanical Dictionary.
+
+   1. Simple over hand knot.
+   2. Slip-knot, seized.
+   3. Single bow-knot.
+   4. Square or reef knot.
+   5. Square or bow-knot.
+   6. Weaver’s knot.
+   7. German or figure-of-8 knot.
+   8. Two half-hitches, or artificer’s knot.
+   9. Double artificer’s knot.
+  10. Simple galley-knot.
+  11. Capstan or prolonge knot.
+  12. Bowline-knot.
+  13. Rolling-hitch.
+  14. Clove-hitch.
+  15. Blackwall-hitch.
+  16. Timber-hitch.
+  17. Bowline on a bight.
+  18. Running-bowline.
+  19. Catspaw.
+  20. Double running-knot.
+  21. Double-knot.
+  22. Sixfold-knot.
+  23. Boat-knot.
+  24. Lark’s head.
+  25. Lark’s head.
+  26. Simple boat-knot.
+  27. Loop-knot.
+  28. Double Flemish knot.
+  29. Running knot, checked.
+  30. Croned running-knot.
+  31. Lashing-knot.
+  32. Rosette.
+  33. Chain-knot.
+  34. Double chain-knot.
+  35. Double running-knot with check-knot.
+  36. Double twist-knot.
+  37. Builder’s knot.
+  38. Double Flemish knot.
+  39. English knot.
+  40. Shortening knot.
+  41. Shortening knot.
+  42. Sheep-shank.
+  43. Dog-shank.
+  44. Mooring-knot.
+  45. Mooring-knot.
+  46. Mooring-knot.
+  47. Pig-tail, worked on the end of a rope.
+  48. Shroud-knot.
+  49. Sailor’s bend.
+  50. A granny’s knot.
+  51. A weaver’s knot.]
+
+[Illustration: HOW TO SPLICE A ROPE
+
+ENGLISH SPLICE.
+
+For transmission rope.
+
+The successive operations for splicing a 1³⁄₄-inch rope by this method
+are as follows:
+
+1. Tie a piece of twine (9 and 10, figure 6) around the rope to be
+spliced, about six feet from each end. Then unlay the strands of each
+end back to the twine.
+
+2. Butt the ropes together, and twist each corresponding pair of
+strands loosely, to keep them from being tangled, as shown (_a_) figure
+6.
+
+3. The twine 10 is now cut, and the strand 8 unlaid, and strand 7
+carefully laid in its place for a distance of four and a half feet from
+the junction.
+
+4. The strand 6 is next unlaid about one and a half feet, and strand 5
+laid in its place.
+
+5. The ends of the cores are now cut off so they just meet.
+
+6. Unlay strand 1 four and a half feet, laying strand 2 in its place.
+
+7. Unlay strand 3 one and a half feet, laying in strand 4.
+
+8. Cut all the strands off to a length of about twenty inches, for
+convenience in manipulation. The rope now assumes the form shown in
+_b_, with the meeting-points of the strands three feet apart.
+
+Each pair of strands is now successively subjected to the following
+operations:
+
+9. From the point of meeting of the strands 8 and 7, unlay each one
+three turns; split both the strands 8 and 7 in halves, as far back as
+they are now unlaid, and “whip” the end of each half strand with a
+small piece of twine.
+
+10. The half of the strand 7 is now laid in three turns, and the half
+of 8 also laid in three turns.
+
+The half strands now meet and are tied in a simple knot, 11 (_c_)
+making the rope at this point its original size.
+
+11. The rope is now opened with a marlin-spike, and the half strand of
+7 worked around the half strand of 8 by passing the end of the half
+strand through the rope, as shown, drawn taut, and again worked around
+this half strand until it reaches the half strand 13 that was not laid
+in. This half strand 13 is now split, and the half strand 7 drawn
+through the opening thus made, and then tucked under the two adjacent
+strands as shown in _d_.
+
+12. The other half of the strand 8 is now wound around the other half
+strand 7 in the same way. After each pair of strands has been treated
+in this manner, the ends are cut off at 12, leaving them about four
+inches long. After a few days’ wear they will all draw into the body of
+the rope or wear off, so that the locality of the splice can scarcely
+be detected.]
+
+
+
+
+Why Do We Go to Sleep?
+
+
+First, of course, we sleep to rest our body and brain. During our
+waking hours many, if not all, parts of our bodies are active all the
+time, and with every movement we exhaust or spend some of our strength.
+Take the case of your arm, for instance. You may be able to move it
+up and down fifty or a hundred or more times without getting tired,
+according to how strong you are, but sooner or later you will not be
+able to move it any more--it is tired--the life has all gone out of it
+and it needs rest, in order that it may become strong again. Every time
+you move your arm you destroy certain parts of its tissues, which can
+only be replaced during rest. Every activity of your body has the same
+experience, and the constant work of the brain in directing the various
+movements and activities of the body, tires it out too. As soon as this
+condition occurs, the brain tells the other parts of the body that it
+is time to rest, and even if we try to keep awake and go on with our
+work or play, or whatever it is we are doing, we find sooner or later
+that it is impossible. If we persist we fall asleep wherever we happen
+to be. It is not necessary for all parts of the body to be tired before
+we sleep. One part alone may be so affected by what it has been doing
+that it alone causes us to fall asleep. Sometimes the eyes become so
+tired, while we are looking at the pictures in a book or reading, for
+instance, that we fall off to sleep quickly. It is perhaps easier to
+bring on sleep by making the eyes tired than in any other way. That
+is why so many people read themselves to sleep. It is such a gradual
+passing into unconsciousness that you can hardly ever tell where you
+left off reading. It is said that when we are awake our bodies are
+continually planning for the time when we shall need sleep and are
+continually making some little germ which is carried to the brain as
+soon as made, and when there are a sufficient number of these little
+germs piled up in the brain, we go to sleep. The process of sleeping
+then destroys these germs, and when they are destroyed we again wake up.
+
+
+
+
+Why Do We Wake Up in the Morning?
+
+
+To answer this we must go back to the answer to the question, “What
+makes us go to sleep?” We go to sleep in order to secure the rest which
+our body and brain need to build up the parts which have been destroyed
+during our active work or play.
+
+We wake up naturally when we have had sufficient rest. We wake up
+naturally, however, only when the destroyed parts of the body have
+been replaced. Other things may waken us--a noise of any kind, loud
+or slight, a startling dream or a moving thing that disturbs our
+sleep--according to how fully we are asleep. It is said that sometimes
+only parts of the body are asleep; that we are not always all asleep
+when we appear to sleep, and that we dream because some part of the
+body is awake or active. This is probably true. Now then, when all of
+anyone of us is sleepy, we go into what is called a deep sleep and
+at such times only something out of the ordinary would awaken us.
+Gradually, however, various parts of the body become rested and they
+are said to wake up, and finally when all of us is rested, we naturally
+wake up all over. If you are healthy and sleep naturally, in a place
+where you cannot be disturbed by noises or movements of others, you
+should be “wide awake” when your eyes open and be ready to get up at
+once. If you feel like turning over for another snooze, when it is time
+to get up, you did not go to bed as early as you should have done,
+or else some part of you did not get the required amount of sleep it
+should have had.
+
+
+
+
+Where Are We When Asleep?
+
+
+We are just where we lie. It seems to us, of course, because of our
+dreams when we are asleep that we are away off some place else. Often
+when we wake up we wonder for a minute or two where we are, as
+everything seems so strange to us, and it takes a minute or so for us
+to remember that we are in our own bed, if that is where we went to
+sleep. This is because of the dreams we have while asleep. In past
+times the uncivilized savages in various parts of the earth believed
+that when any of them went to sleep that the real person so asleep
+actually went away, leaving the body behind; in other words, that
+the soul went traveling. They thought this because it was the only
+explanation they could think of for the dreams they had, since almost
+invariably the dream was about some other place.
+
+
+
+
+Why Does It Seem When We Have Slept All Night That We Have Been Asleep
+Only a Minute?
+
+
+This is because all our ideas of passage of time are based on our
+conscious periods. When we are asleep we are unconscious. It is the
+same as if time did not pass, and when we wake up the tendency is to
+start in where we left off. We have learned by experience that when
+we go to sleep at night and wake up in the morning that much time has
+passed and this unconscious knowledge keeps us from thinking always
+that we have been asleep but a minute. But if you drop asleep in the
+day time, no matter how long you sleep, you wake up thinking that
+you have been asleep only a minute, and sometimes it is difficult to
+convince yourself that you have been asleep at all. Sometimes after
+being asleep for hours, your first waking thought is a continuation of
+what your mind was on when you went to sleep. The reason for this, as
+stated above, is that we cannot keep track of passing time when we are
+asleep, because we are perfectly unconscious.
+
+
+
+
+Why Should We Not Sleep With the Moon Shining On Us?
+
+
+There is no harm in letting the moon shine on us while we are asleep.
+This is one of the queer superstitions that has developed in the world.
+A great many people think that something terrible will happen if the
+moon is allowed to shine into the room where they are asleep. Not so
+many believe this as used to do so, thanks to the more enlightened
+condition of things in the world.
+
+To prove to yourself that no harm can come to you through the moon
+shining into your bedroom or upon you as you are asleep, you have only
+to remember that a great many men and very many more animals sleep out
+under the sky every night and that the moon must shine on them while
+they are asleep. As a matter of fact, people who sleep out under the
+open sky are generally in possession of more rugged health than people
+who sleep in beds in closed rooms. So it is rather better to let the
+moon shine on you while asleep than not.
+
+This belief probably started with some one who had trouble in going to
+sleep with the moon shining on him, because the light of the moon might
+have a tendency to keep him awake. It is easier to go to sleep in a
+dark room than in one that is lighted, because when there is no light
+there is less about you to keep you awake.
+
+
+
+
+What Makes Us Dream?
+
+
+Dreams originate in the brain. The brain has many parts and some parts
+of it may be asleep while others are not. If all parts of the brain
+are actually asleep, it is said there can be no dreams. We have dreams
+about things which seem very natural while we are having them, and
+which we know would be impossible if we were wholly awake, because
+those parts of the brain which control the other parts are probably
+asleep while the dream is taking place, and it is then that we have
+those fantastic and highly imaginative dreams, for the brain is not
+under control in every sense.
+
+We used to believe that dreams have no purpose, just as now we know
+that they have no meaning. But it has been discovered that dreams
+have a purpose in that they protect our sleep. You see, every dream
+is started by some disturbance or excitement of the body or mind.
+Something may be pressing or touching us while we sleep, or a strange
+sound may start a dream, or perhaps it is some uncomfortable position
+in which we are lying or trouble in the stomach on account of eating
+something we should not. Whatever it may be, those things wake up some
+part of the brain, because if all parts of the brain were asleep, we
+could not feel or hear anything. Any such disturbance or excitement
+would naturally excite the whole brain and wake us up completely if it
+were not for dreams. The dream takes care of this and enables the rest
+of the body and brain to sleep while one or more parts of the brain are
+disturbed and even perhaps awake. We may perhaps have become uncovered
+in some way. This would produce a cold feeling and might wake a part
+of the brain and cause a dream about skating or some other winter
+amusement or experience, or even perhaps one about falling through the
+ice, and still we might not be uncovered so much that it would make any
+great difference. The dream comes and we go on with our sleep without
+waking up, whereas if it were not for the dream we would awaken. In
+other words, dreams are just another wise provision of nature which
+enables us to go right on and get the rest we need, even if our
+digestion is out of order, or some part of our brain is disturbed
+through something we read about, or were told of, or we thought of
+while still awake.
+
+
+
+
+Why Do We Know We Have Dreamed When We Wake Up?
+
+
+Because we remember some of our dreams. Sometimes we do not remember
+the dreams we dreamed. This is just like what happens when we are
+awake. We remember some things and forget others.
+
+Dreams are a sort of safety valve in our sleep. We dream because not
+all of our brain is asleep at the time and it is a wise provision of
+nature that permits the waking part of the brain to go on working
+without disturbing the sleep of the other parts of the brain. If a
+large part of the brain is awake and engaged in making the dream,
+we are very apt to remember the dream; but when we dream and cannot
+remember what the dream was, it is because only a very small portion of
+the brain was awake and making a dream.
+
+
+
+
+What Causes Nightmare?
+
+
+A nightmare is a dream of what we might call a vigorous kind. A
+nightmare is caused by a feeling of intense fear, horror, anxiety
+or the inability to escape from some great danger. A nightmare is
+the result of either an irregular flow of blood to the brain or by a
+stomach that is not in proper condition.
+
+The name for this kind of a dream comes from the words night and mare.
+The latter word in one of its several meanings indicates an incubus or
+evil vision, and a dream of an evil vision involving fear or horror
+came to be termed a mare. Since they occurred generally at night, since
+most people sleep at night, they became known as nightmares. Nightmares
+are more common to children than grown-up people because children are
+more apt to have an uneven flow of blood to the brain and also are more
+apt to eat the things which put the stomach in a state of unrest which
+causes nightmares. Grown-up people are more likely to have learned to
+avoid the abuses of the stomach which are apt to produce nightmares.
+
+
+
+
+What Are Ghosts?
+
+
+The idea of ghosts is the result of a mistake of the brain or an
+attempt to account for something of which we see the results, but have
+no actual knowledge. There are no ghosts. There are many forces at work
+in the world of which we know nothing as yet. Many of the wonderful
+things that occur in the world are as yet mysteries to the mind of
+man. Every little while man discovers one of these new forces, and
+then he is able to understand many things plainly which were up to
+then surrounded with mystery and in the minds of superstitious people
+attributed to spirits or ghosts. Long before we understood as much as
+we do now of the workings of electricity (and they say we know only a
+little of its wonders as yet) many of the natural wonders produced by
+electricity were attributed to ghosts.
+
+Most of the marvelous tales of the wonders performed by and visits from
+ghosts are the result of disturbances of the brain in the people who
+think they see the ghosts and the results of their work.
+
+A creature without imagination does not pretend to see or believe in
+ghosts. Man is the only animal which possesses the ability to imagine
+things and so the ghosts we hear about are the creatures of the
+disturbed brains of men. Generally in the ghost stories we hear of,
+the ghost is described as wearing clothes--usually white. A bed sheet
+thrown over the foot of the bed may appear to a half-awake person as
+the outline of the figure of a ghost and to one of a highly imaginative
+temperament without the courage of investigation, become forever a real
+ghost. Usually what is supposed to be a ghost is only a creation of
+the mind--a vision such as we can develop during a dream--oftentimes,
+however, what you look at when you think you see a ghost is an actual
+something such as the sheet referred to, but which takes the form of
+the ghost in the brain of the person who is looking at it through eyes
+that really see it, but out of a brain that for the moment at least is
+far off its balance.
+
+
+
+
+Why Do Girls Like Dolls?
+
+
+Girls like dolls because they come into the world for the purpose of
+becoming mothers and the love which they display for dolls is the
+mother instinct which begins to show itself early in life. To the
+little girl the doll is a make-believe child. It satisfies her as long
+as there are no real babies to take its place, but any little girl will
+drop her dollie if she is given an opportunity to play at dolls with a
+real live baby instead. This is a very interesting fact in connection
+with the human race. Boys sometimes play with dolls, but not so often,
+and any kind of a boy will give up playing with a doll as soon as a
+toy engine or some other boy’s toy appears for him. A boy has certain
+mannish instincts which a girl has not. We have many other instincts
+besides the instinct of parenthood and each of them has its origin in
+some certain kind of feeling which is born within us and is capable of
+development along interesting lines.
+
+
+
+
+What Makes the Works of a Watch Go?
+
+
+A watch like any other machine which we have, only goes when power is
+applied in some form or another. In the case of a watch it is a spring.
+A spring is an elastic body, such as a strip of steel, as in the case
+of the watch, coiled spirally which, when bent or forced out of its
+natural state, has the power of recovering its shape again by virtue of
+its elastic power. The natural state of a watch spring is to be open
+flat and spread out to its full length. When you wind a watch you coil
+this spring, i.e., you bend it out of its natural shape. As soon as you
+stop winding the spring begins to uncoil itself, trying to get back to
+its natural shape, and in doing so makes the wheels of the watch which
+operate the hands go round. The spring then, or rather its elasticity,
+which always makes an effort to get back to its natural state, is the
+power which makes the watch go. Men who make watches arrange the spring
+and the other machinery in the watch in such a way that it will uncoil
+itself only at a certain rate of speed. Sooner or later the spring
+loses its elasticity and then its power to make the watch go.
+
+
+
+
+What Makes a Hot Box?
+
+
+When you put oil on the axle, however, the oil fills up the hollows
+between the little irregular bumps on both the axle and the hub, and
+makes them both smooth--almost perfectly so. This reduces the friction
+and keeps the axle and hub from becoming hot and expanding. The less
+friction that is developed, the more easily the wheel will turn.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+The Story in a Moving Picture
+
+
+How Are Moving Pictures Made?
+
+To begin at the beginning, we must start with the negative stock,
+or film on which the pictures are taken. This material is very much
+like the films you buy for the ordinary snap-shot camera, slightly
+heavier and of more durable quality, to stand the wear and tear of
+passing through the picture camera and the projecting machine used in
+exhibition. This film is 1³⁄₈ inches wide and comes in rolls of 200
+feet in length. This negative stock has to be carefully perforated,
+making the holes necessary to conduct the film by aid of sprockets
+through the camera and the projectoscope. To still further understand
+this explanation, see illustrations of the negative stock. Having
+prepared the film in the dark room, we can load the camera in the dark
+room and proceed to take the picture.
+
+In taking an industrial or travelogue picture, after the camera is
+in readiness, is not so much of an undertaking as taking a picture
+of a drama or comedy, wherein a plot and players are concerned. The
+travelogue or industrial pictures are simply photography, with the
+additional manipulation of panoraming or turning the camera, which
+requires an expert knowledge, acquired from experience and years of
+study. There is a distinction and a big difference between the ordinary
+photographer and the moving picture photographer, who is generally
+known as a “camera-man.” A photographer, therefore, though of vast
+experience, cannot step into a “camera-man’s” place and expect to “make
+good.” The latter has to depend entirely upon his special experience
+and judgment as to light and distance, focusing and general physical
+conditions of the moving-picture camera, which is affected by static
+and other electrical peculiarities of the atmosphere, to be avoided
+by him. These, and many other points, are convincing evidence that
+the moving-picture camera is entirely different from an ordinary
+photographic camera. A moving-picture camera and tripod weigh from
+fifty to one hundred pounds. There are two styles of cameras, one
+which takes a single film and one which takes two films at once,
+and each lens of the double camera must be equally well focused and
+every feature to be depicted must be brought within the focus, which
+generally occupies a radius of 8 feet in width by 10 feet in height.
+
+[Illustration: SCENES FROM “OFFICER KATE.”]
+
+[Illustration: RAW NEGATIVE STOCK. PERFORATED NEGATIVE STOCK.
+
+Exact size of a Motion Picture Film]
+
+When it comes to taking a photo-play, a drama or comedy, different
+conditions of a varied nature have to be contended with. To proceed
+intelligently in taking a photo-play, a scenario or manuscript is
+essential. It must be prefaced with a well-written synopsis of the
+story involved, cast of characters, scenes to be enacted and a list of
+properties required in the scenes. The director, or producer, of the
+play, being furnished with such a guide, proceeds to select the actors
+and actresses (called players) suitable for the parts and the filling
+of the cast. This being accomplished, he insists that each one of the
+players read the scenario in order to be familiar with his or her
+part and understand the whole play before going into the picture. The
+director instructs them as to the costumes fitting the parts and then
+confers with the costumer concerning the furnishing of proper dress
+for each one of the players. The director is ready to go on with the
+performance of the play, and tells his cast to appear for rehearsal
+at a set hour. At that time he puts them through a thorough course of
+training or rehearsal, to “get over” and register the meaning of each
+thought which is to be expressed by their actions. Sometimes a scene is
+rehearsed four to six hours before it is photographed. A one-reel play
+is generally 1000 feet in length, and it is very important that the
+director, if he has twenty scenes, for instance, to introduce within
+that 1000 feet, to time the scenes to the length of his film; that is,
+if he has twenty scenes within one thousand feet, each of the twenty
+scenes must not average more than one minute each. If one should happen
+to be more than one minute, then he has to condense another scene less
+than one minute, in order to bring all within the twenty minutes or
+1000 feet.
+
+[Illustration: STAGING A MOTION PICTURE IN A STUDIO
+
+REHEARSING SCENE IN STUDIO]
+
+
+The Size of Each Picture on the Film.
+
+So you can see from this that it needs very careful rehearsal and nice
+calculation to bring a well-acted and convincing play within so short
+a time, to tell the whole story intelligently. Having done all this,
+the director is ready to have the “camera-man” do his part of the
+work. He draws his lines within the range of the camera, which do not
+exceed eight or ten feet in the foreground. This is another point to be
+considered on the part of the director, because all the action has to
+be carried out within the eight feet of space, which is really confined
+to that much stage width. Here again is where the camera-man has to
+watch very carefully, not only the workings of his camera, but the
+players; always alert that they are in the picture, and assisting the
+director by his observations. The size of each picture as taken on the
+film is ³⁄₄ by 1 inch. It is magnified ten thousand times its actual
+size when we see it on the screen in a place of exhibition. A full reel
+of 1000 feet shows 16,000 photographs on the screen during the twenty
+minutes it consumes in its showing. The future of moving pictures is
+no longer a matter of speculation. The business is an established
+one, and its further developments are only matters of time. The
+possibilities and uses of the animated art are unlimited. Already it
+is felt in educational, religious, scientific, and industrial affairs.
+Their influence in matters of sanitation and all civic improvements,
+construction and mechanics, is invaluable. As a medium of wholesome
+entertainment and solid instruction it is unsurpassed.
+
+These are merely suggestions of a few phases of its utility and it is
+only a natural conclusion that it will be so far-reaching in its uplift
+that it will surpass the expectations of the most sanguine.
+
+[Illustration: THE DEVELOPING ROOM.]
+
+To develop, tint and clear the films, large tanks of wood or soapstone
+are used. The films, which are wound upon the wooden frames, or racks,
+are dipped into these vats, filled with the necessary chemicals and
+liquids. The films being wound on frames enables the developers to
+examine them without handling them. The tinting is done by similar
+methods to give the necessary tint, coloring in red, sepia, blue, green
+or yellow, imparting to them the effect of night, sunlight or evening,
+whichever the case may be. The films are finally cleared, to wash them
+clear of any extraneous chemicals or matter which might streak or
+scratch the films, and avoid any objectionable matter that might mar
+their appearance when shown on the screen or in the process of handling.
+
+~EACH PICTURE IS FIRST EXHIBITED AT THE STUDIO~
+
+As soon as convenient after a film is finished it is taken to the
+exhibition rooms, at the studio, where it is thrown onto the screen. It
+is reviewed first by the heads of the departments and the directors,
+and later by players and all those interested in it. The projectoscopes
+or moving-picture machines are run by motor, presided over by licensed
+operators, who are kept on the job continually.
+
+These exhibition rooms are called, in the parlance of the studios,
+“knocklodeums,” for here is where everything is criticised. Players’
+acting and fitness are judged by their appearance and conduct on the
+screen and decision given as to their qualifications. The quality of
+the photography, developing and the picture as a finished production is
+here determined by the heads of the concern.
+
+[Illustration: DRYING ROOM.]
+
+~THE BOARD OF CENSORS PASSES ON EVERY PICTURE~
+
+Every picture before it is released for exhibition must be passed upon
+by the Board of Censors. It is run upon the screen and thoroughly
+inspected, criticised, and every point involved thoroughly weighed
+as to its effect upon the mind of the general public. If, in their
+estimation, it is found objectionable in any particular, the
+objectionable parts are eliminated, and if considered entirely harmful,
+in its sentiments or influence, the picture is condemned. The majority
+rules in the board’s judgment, although it is by no means infallible in
+its decision. This board is composed of about sixty persons, who are
+appointed by the government for their general qualifications, their
+interest in the general welfare of the public, keenness as to morals
+and uplift of the people at large. They do not receive salaries; their
+services are _pro bono publico_.
+
+[Illustration: TAKING A MILITARY SCENE OUTDOORS.]
+
+
+
+
+THE STORY IN “PIGS IS PIGS”
+
+
+[Illustration: “PIGS IS PIGS.”]
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  VITAGRAPH FAMOUS AUTHORS’ SERIES BY ELLIS PARKER BUTLER.
+
+  _You Have Seen Pigs, but Never Such Pigs as These. Two of Them Become
+  Eight Hundred Pigs so Rapidly, They Set Bunny Daffy and Almost Ruin
+  the Express Business._
+
+  _Director_--GEORGE D. BAKER. _Author_--ELLIS PARKER BUTLER.
+
+  CAST.
+
+  _Flannery, an Express Agent_                  JOHN BUNNY
+  _Mr. Morehouse_                         ETIENNE GIRARDOT
+  _Clerk in Complaint Dept._          COURTLAND VAN DEUSEN
+  _Head of Claims Dept._                      WILLIAM SHEA
+  _Mr. Morgan, Head of Tariff Dept._       ALBERT ROCCARDI
+  _President of Company_                    ANDERS RANDOLF
+  _Prof. Gordon_                            GEORGE STEVENS
+
+After a strenuous argument with Flannery, the local Express Agent,
+Mr. Morehouse refuses to pay the 30c charges on each of two guinea
+pigs shipped him, claiming they are pets and subject to the 25c rate.
+Flannery replies, “Pigs is pigs and I’m blame sure them animals is
+pigs, not pets, and the rule says, ‘30c each.’” Mr. Morehouse writes
+many times to the Express Company, claiming guinea-pigs are not common
+pigs, and each time is referred to a different department. Flannery
+receives a note from the Tariff Department inquiring as to condition
+of consignment, to which he replies, “There are eight now! All good
+eaters. Paid out two dollars for cabbage so far.” The matter finally
+reaches the President, who writes a friend, a Zoological Professor.
+Unfortunately that gentleman is in South Africa, causing a delay of
+many months, during which time the pigs increase to 160. At last word
+is received from the learned man proving that guinea-pigs are not
+common pigs. Flannery is then ordered to collect 25c each for two
+guinea-pigs and deliver the entire lot to consignee. There are now 800
+and Flannery is horrified to find Morehouse has moved to parts unknown.
+He is about to give up in despair when the company orders him to
+forward the entire collection to the Main Office, to be disposed of as
+unclaimed property, in accordance with the general rule.]
+
+[Illustration: BUNNY FEEDING THE PIGS.]
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+Who Made the First Moving Pictures?
+
+~THE FIRST MOVING PICTURE CAMERA~
+
+The first device which produced the motion-picture effect was nothing
+but a scientific toy. The idea is almost as old as pictures themselves.
+This toy we speak of was called a zoetrope. It consisted of a whirling
+cylinder having many slits in the outside through which you could see
+by looking into the cylinder a picture opposite each slit. The pictures
+were drawn by hand and the artist aimed to place the pictures within
+the cylinder in such order that each succeeding one would represent the
+next successive motion of any moving object in making a movement as
+near as he could draw it; when the cylinder was whirled with the slits
+on a level with the eye, the effect produced was of a continuous moving
+picture.
+
+A great many devices were produced as a result of this toy for
+presenting the effect of pictures so arranged, but until photography
+was invented no way was found for making the pictures to be viewed
+except such as were drawn by artists. But when photography was
+developed it was possible to get actual successive photographs.
+The greatest difficulty was found in taking photographs in such
+quick succession that all of the motions in the moving object were
+taken without any skipping. This difficulty was for the first time
+successfully overcome by Muybridge in 1877. He arranged a row of
+twenty-four cameras with string trigger shutters, the string of each
+shutter being stretched across a race track. A moving horse approaching
+down the track broke the strings as he came to them, thus operating
+each of the cameras in turn in quick succession and securing a series
+of pictures of the moving horse within a very short time. There were
+twenty-four pictures to this film when reproduced in the devices then
+known for projecting pictures, and this method required one camera for
+each section of the picture produced. Of course, the length of the
+series was thus limited greatly.
+
+About ten years later Le Prince arranged what he called a multiple
+camera. This was as a matter of fact a battery of sixteen automatically
+reloading cameras in which strips of film were used. Each of the
+sixteen cameras took a picture in turn and then automatically brought
+another strip of the film into position, so that camera number one took
+the seventeenth picture, the twenty-third, the forty-ninth, etc., and
+each of the other cameras took their various pictures in turn. With
+this camera a film of any required length could be produced.
+
+The Le Prince camera was therefore the real parent from which
+the modern motion-picture camera sprang. The first really modern
+motion-picture camera was built in a single case with a battery of
+sixteen separate lenses and sixteen shutters. These were operated by
+turning a crank. The pictures were taken on four strips of film. When
+the crank was turned the exposure was made to each of the sixteen
+lenses in succession, and when the series was completed the films
+were cut apart and pasted together in a single strip of film, the
+pictures themselves being arranged in the proper order. The principal
+development of this camera, as found in the present method of making
+motion pictures, is the invention of the flexible film negatives; the
+transparent support for the print which permits the pictures to be
+projected in enlarged form upon a screen; and the system of holes in
+the margin of the film by which the film is held in perfect alignment
+for projecting the pictures.
+
+But a few years ago, then, the motion picture was a child’s toy. To-day
+it forms the basis for not only a very large and profitable business
+for many people, but a source of amusement and education to millions
+of people at reasonable prices. To-day the motion-picture business is
+regarded as one of the world’s greatest industries.
+
+No corner of the world is so far remote but the motion-picture man
+finds his way there, either as an exhibitor or as a producer. Nothing
+happens in the world to-day but the motion-picture man with his
+camera is on the job if it is a happening that can be preserved in
+motion pictures and worthy of that. The dethronement of kings and the
+inaugurations of presidents are all alike to him. If there is a war, he
+is found in all parts of the field, and is the first to see the parade
+when there is a peace jubilee. Disasters, horrors, heroes and criminals
+pass before his lens and he gives us a moving panorama of everything
+that is interesting, in nature, in real life, and in fiction.
+
+
+Taking Motion Pictures a Simple Operation.
+
+Motion-picture photography is mechanically simple and the projection of
+the pictures on the screen was made possible by the improvement in dry
+plates which made instantaneous photography successful, together with
+the invention of the process of using celluloid films for negatives.
+Motion pictures consist of a series of photographs made rapidly and
+then projected rapidly on the screen. In this way one picture follows
+another so quickly that the change from one picture to another is
+not noticed and the movements and actions of the persons or things
+photographed are reproduced in a life-like manner.
+
+
+Is the Hand Quicker Than the Eye?
+
+There is no question that the hand can be moved so quickly that the
+eye cannot detect the movement. This is proved by the motion picture
+when projected on the screen. In moving pictures the quickness of
+the machine deceives the eye and the transition from one picture to
+another is done so rapidly that the change is not seen and the apparent
+movement is continuous and unbroken.
+
+The film made by the motion picture is a “negative” in which the colors
+are reversed, the blacks being white and the whites black, exactly as
+in still photography. The film used in the projection machine is a
+“positive,” in which the lights and shadows have their proper values.
+The principle and process is exactly the same as in making lantern
+slides and window transparencies.
+
+
+Does the Film Move Continuously?
+
+In making the negative for the motion picture the film does not move
+forward regularly, but it goes by jumps. It is absolutely still at the
+moment of exposure. The same is true in projecting the picture on the
+screen. In most projection machines the film is stationary three times
+as long as it is in motion, though in some machines the proportion is
+one in six. In the taking of the picture, the film is really stationary
+one-half of the time. As pictures are usually projected at the rate
+of fourteen or sixteen to the second, this means that each separate
+picture appears on the screen three-fourths of one-sixteenth of a
+second, or three-sixty-fourths of a second, and
+
+
+How Are Freak Pictures Made?
+
+Freak pictures are usually the result of clever manipulation of the
+camera or the film. Articles or individuals can be made to instantly
+disappear by stopping the camera while the article is removed or the
+person walks off the stage, the other characters holding their pose
+until the camera is again put in motion. In some films in which a
+person is thrown from a height or is apparently crushed under a steam
+roller the effect is gained by the live person walking away after the
+camera is stopped and a dummy substituted to undergo the death penalty.
+
+By projecting the picture at a faster rate than it was taken,
+excruciatingly comic scenes are sometimes devised. An automobile going
+ten miles an hour, by speeding up the projection machine, may be made
+to apparently move at a hundred miles an hour, and by increasing in
+the same way the apparent speed of persons dodging the demoniac auto
+exceedingly ludicrous effects are had.
+
+By mechanical means in combining two or more negatives into one
+positive a man can be shown fencing with himself or even cutting his
+own head off.
+
+  Pictures by courtesy of the Vitagraph Company.
+
+[Illustration: HOW RUBBER TIRES ARE MADE
+
+WASH ROOM.[4]]
+
+  [4] These and the following Pictures by courtesy of the Goodyear Tire
+  and Rubber Co.
+
+
+
+
+The Story in a Ball of Rubber
+
+
+How Crude Rubber Is Treated.
+
+_Washing._--When the crude rubber arrives at the factory of the rubber
+manufacturer, it is generally stored in bins in dark and fairly cool
+store-rooms, where it is kept until ready to be used. The rubber passes
+directly from the storage bins to the wash-room, where it is cut up
+into small pieces, put into large vats of warmed water and allowed
+to soak, in order to soften it sufficiently to be broken down in the
+machines. It is then fed into a cracker, a machine consisting of two
+rolls with projections on their surfaces shaped like little pyramids,
+the two rolls revolving with a differential, one going considerably
+faster than the other, and being adjustable, so that they can work
+close together or with some distance between them. The rubber is fed
+between these rolls and broken down into a coarse, spongy mass. Water
+flows on to the rubber during the process, bringing down sand, dirt,
+bark, and the many other foreign materials which come mixed with the
+rubber. The rubber is put through this machine a number of times, until
+it is worked into a uniform condition. Some of the rubbers, like the
+Ceylons and Paras, will sheet out into a coarse sheet by being put
+through this machine; others, like the majority of the African rubbers,
+will fall apart and come down in chunks and have to be fed into the
+machine with a shovel.
+
+[Illustration: PREPARING CRUDE RUBBER FOR MAKING TIRES
+
+CALENDER ROOM.]
+
+After the rubber is broken down sufficiently in the cracker, it is
+next put through a washing machine, which is built very similar to
+the cracking machine, except that the rolls are grooved or rifled, so
+that their action is not so severe on the rubber. A large quantity of
+water is kept constantly running over this machine while the rubber
+is being put through, and the rolls work very close together, so that
+the rubber is finely ground and run out into a thin and comparatively
+smooth sheet, allowing the water flowing between the rolls to take out
+practically all of the foreign matter that remains. The rubber is run
+through this machine a number of times until the experienced inspectors
+in charge are satisfied that it is thoroughly washed. Some types of
+rubber, such as Manicoba, which have large quantities of sand in them,
+are washed in a special form of washing machine known as the beater
+washer. This is an endless, oval-shaped trough with a fast-revolving
+paddle-wheel. In this machine the rubber is submerged in water, after
+being broken down in the cracker, and the sand is literally knocked out
+of it by the paddle-wheel. The sand drops to the bottom of the machine,
+where if is drained off, while the rubber floats to the top and is
+there gathered and then put through a regular washing machine for the
+final sheeting out.
+
+_Drying._--From the wash-room the rubber goes to the dry-room. Before
+the rubber can be used in any articles of commercial value, it must
+be thoroughly dried, as any moisture in the stock would turn to steam
+during the vulcanizing process and cause blisters or blow-holes to form
+in the goods. There are two ways in which rubber is usually dried.
+The method mostly used, and which is generally practiced with all the
+better grades of gums, is to hang the washed strips on horizontal
+poles and space them in aisles, so that air can freely circulate all
+around the surface of the rubber, the dry-room being kept at a constant
+temperature. To properly dry the rubbers by this method takes from four
+to six weeks. The other method of drying is by means of a vacuum-drier.
+Low-grade rubbers which have a comparatively large percentage of
+resin in their composition cannot bear their own weight when hung on
+horizontal poles, but drop off and stick in piles on the floor. Hence,
+these rubbers have to be dried in a peculiar manner. They are laid in
+trays which are placed into a large air-tight receptacle. The air is
+then withdrawn from this receptacle and the interior heated by means of
+steam coils. This allows the water to be evaporated off from the rubber
+at a considerably lower temperature than that at which water boils
+under atmospheric pressure, and at such a low temperature, and in such
+a short time, that the rubber is not affected. By this process these
+rubbers can be dried in a few hours.
+
+_Mixing._--After the rubber has been thoroughly dried, it is ready to
+be mixed in proper proportions with the various ingredients which are
+used in rubber compounding, to give the desired quality of rubbers for
+the various products for which they are intended. In order that rubber
+shall vulcanize, it is necessary to mix with it a certain proportion
+of sulphur, vulcanizing, or curing, as it is sometimes called, being
+merely the changing of a physical mixture of rubber and sulphur into
+a chemical compound of these ingredients, by the application of heat.
+Besides sulphur, some of the more important ingredients used in
+compounding rubber are:
+
+_Zinc oxide._--This toughens the rubber and increases its wearing
+properties and tensile strength.
+
+_Barium sulphate._--This stiffens the rubber and adds weight, so
+reducing the cost.
+
+_Lithopones._--This whitens the stock and makes it soft, and is used
+extensively in druggists’ sundries.
+
+_Antimony sulphide._--This makes the stock red and is a preservative
+against oxidation.
+
+_Litharge._--This has the same action as antimony sulphide, but makes
+the stock black.
+
+_White lead._--This hastens the cure and is extensively used in gray
+and black stocks, and is a good filler or weight adder.
+
+_Magnesia oxide and carbonate._--These are used as fillers for white
+stocks.
+
+_Oxide of iron._--Used for coloring red and yellow stocks.
+
+_Lime_ (unslacked).--This hastens vulcanization and chemically removes
+any water left in the rubber.
+
+_Whiting._--This is used only as a cheap filler to increase quantity
+and lower cost.
+
+_Aluminum silicate._--This is used chiefly as a filler.
+
+There are also used in compounding what are known as the various
+substitutes. These are chiefly linseed oil products and mineral
+hydrocarbons which are more or less elastic, and act somewhat as a flux.
+
+
+Why Don’t We Use Pure Rubber?
+
+There seems to be a general impression that the various ingredients
+which are mixed with rubber are put into the compounds merely to
+cheapen the product and to lower the grade of the material. This
+is true in many cases, such as the general line of molded goods,
+rubber heels, bicycle grips, automobile bumpers, etc., but in many
+cases, such as tires, packing, belting, etc., these ingredients are
+added to toughen the gum, increase its wearing qualities, to make it
+indestructible when subjected to heat, or to make it soft and yielding
+so that it can be forced into fabric, etc.
+
+~PROCESS NECESSARY TO MAKING RUBBER GOODS~
+
+In the general process of manufacture the sheeted rubber is sent
+directly from the dry-room to the compound-room, where the various
+ingredients are weighed out into proper proportions along with the
+rubber to make up a batch, and placed in receptacles ready to be mixed.
+The batch is then sent into the mill-room to be mixed into a uniform
+pasty mass, which is the characteristic uncured, or so-called green,
+rubber compound. The mixing is done in the mill. This is a very heavy
+machine, constructed similarly to a cracker and a washer except that
+it is much larger and heavier, and the rolls are perfectly smooth and
+run closer together. No water at all is used on the batch during the
+mixing. There are steam and cold water connections to the mills which
+are connected with hollow spaces inside the rolls, so that the latter
+can be kept at any temperature desired. The general process of mixing
+is as follows:
+
+First the rubber portion of the batch is thrown into the mill and
+is worked and warmed up until it takes on a very sticky and plastic
+consistency. When it has arrived at a certain stage of plasticity,
+the various compounds in the batch, which are always in the form of
+very fine powders, are thrown in the mill, being worked by the rolls
+into the rubber. The compounds are generally thrown on, a small amount
+at a time, until they are all taken up by the rubber. The batch is
+then allowed to go through and through the mill, over and over again,
+until the mixture is absolutely uniform throughout the whole mass. The
+consistency of the rubber, during this operation, is such that the
+batch can be made endless around one of the rolls of the mill, so that
+it is constantly feeding itself between the rolls.
+
+After the batch is properly mixed, it is cut off the rolls in sheets
+and rolled up and sent to the green-stock store-room. In this
+store-room the compounded, uncured gums are kept in different bins,
+according to the nature of the compound, and are there allowed to
+season a certain length of time, after which they are delivered to the
+various departments of the factory in which they are going to be used.
+
+Another form in which rubber is used is the so-called Rubber-Cement.
+Rubber or any of its compounds are readily soluble in naphtha. In this
+process, the compounds, after being milled, are chewed up and washed
+in specially constructed cement-mills and there mixed with a certain
+proportion of naphtha which gives a thick solution.
+
+_Spreading and calendering._--Rubber which is used for the general
+line of molded goods, solid tires, some kinds of tubing, etc., goes
+directly to the various departments from the green-stock store-room,
+while rubber used for boots and shoes, waterproof fabrics, many of
+the druggists’ sundries, belting, pneumatic tires, inner tubes, etc.,
+has to be sheeted out, and some of it forced into fabric before it
+goes to the various departments. This sheeting-out of the gum, as well
+as applying the rubber to fabrics, is done generally by two methods;
+either by spreading a solution of the rubber and naphtha onto the
+fabric, or by calendering the rubber between heavy rolls in a rubber
+calender.
+
+In the spreading process, a machine called a spreader is used. The
+fabric to which the rubber is to be applied is mounted in a roll at
+one end of the spreader and from the roll passes through a trough of
+rubber-cement, and then up over a so-called doctor roll, and under a
+knife edge, which allows only enough cement to pass through to fill the
+pores of the fabric. From this knife the cemented fabric passes over
+a steam drying chest and is then rolled up with a roll of liner cloth
+to prevent its sticking together. Fabric treated in this manner must
+be put through the spreader a number of times before it has sufficient
+rubber on it to be used in the products for which it is intended.
+
+For calendering rubber, a machine called a rubber calender is used.
+This machine is made with three and sometimes four heavy rolls, which
+are capable of very fine adjustment. The rubber from the green-stock
+store-room is first warmed up on a small mixing mill and is then fed
+between the rolls of the calender, coming through in a thin sheet of
+required thickness, and is wound up in a liner cloth and sent directly
+to the departments, where it is used for inner tubes, druggists’
+sundries, etc., where only rubber and no fabric is used. Where the
+rubber is to be applied to fabric, the fabric is put through the
+calender rolls with the rubber, and the rubber is literally ground into
+the fabric. Fabric treated in this manner is known to the trade as
+friction, and is generally used in the manufacture of pneumatic tires,
+belting, hose, etc. For boots, shoes, and other special work, calenders
+are used which are equipped with rolls engraved with the shapes of the
+soles and other parts of the articles in question, so that the sheet
+of rubber coming from the machine has imprinted on it the shapes and
+thickness of the articles for which it is intended.
+
+After passing through such of the above processes as are required
+the rubber is ready to be made up into the various articles known to
+the rubber trade, such as boots and shoes, mackintoshes, waterproof
+fabrics, for balloons, aeroplanes, tentings, etc., mechanical goods,
+such as rubber heels, horseshoe pads, packing, tiling, automobile and
+other bumpers, artificial fish bait, etc., druggists’ sundries, such as
+nursing-bottles, nipples, syringes, bulbs, hot-water bottles, tubing,
+etc. tobacco pouches, rubber belting, golf and other balls, insulated
+wire, fire and garden hose, inner tubes, tires, and the many other
+commodities into the manufacture of which rubber enters.
+
+[Illustration: TRADING ROOM]
+
+
+How Are Automobile Tires Made?
+
+From the calender room of the rubber factory the stock is received
+in the automobile tire department, in the form of large rolls of
+rubber-coated fabric, and in rolls of sheeted rubber of various
+thicknesses and widths. The rubber-coated fabric is first cut into
+strips of proper widths so that the edges will extend from bead to
+bead over the crown of the tire. These strips are always cut on the
+bias, generally at a 45-degree angle, with the edge of the roll, and
+were formerly all cut on a cutting-table, a table about 50 feet long
+and 6 feet wide, covered with sheet metal. The cutting was done by two
+men, each having a knife and each cutting half-way across the cloth
+along the edge of a straight-edge so arranged as to be always set at 45
+degrees with the edge of the table. This method of cutting is gradually
+being put aside by the use of the bias cutter, an extremely up-to-date
+machine having jaws which ride up to the end of the fabric and pull
+it for a certain distance under a knife set at a 45-degree angle, the
+knife being set to cut just when the jaws have arrived at the limit of
+their motion. The action is repeated so that the machine cuts about
+eighty strips a minute. These strips are fed onto a series of belts
+which carry them to where they are placed, by boys, into a book having
+a leaf of common cloth between each strip of gum fabric, to prevent the
+strips from sticking together.
+
+[Illustration: CURING ROOM--SOLID TIRES.]
+
+[Illustration: MAKING A PNEUMATIC TIRE
+
+CURING ROOM, FIRST CURE--PNEUMATICS.]
+
+[Illustration: SPREADER ROOM.]
+
+The majority of automobile tires to-day are machine built, but there
+are still a great many built by hand and this is the process we shall
+describe first. In this process the books of fabric are laid up and
+spliced into proper lengths to go around the tire and allow a proper
+lapping for the splices. The proper number of these laid-up pieces,
+or plies, as they are called, are placed together with cotton cloth
+between and taken to the tire builder. The tire builder mounts the
+core, upon which the tire is to be built, on the building stand,
+generally cementing it so that the first ply of fabric will stick in
+place. The first ply is then stretched onto the core and spliced,
+rolled down with a hand roller onto the sides of the core, and trimmed
+with a knife at the base. The following plies are put on and rolled
+down in the same manner, the beads being put in at the proper time,
+according to the size and the number of plies to be used. After all the
+plies have been put onto the core the so-called cover rubber is put on.
+This cover rubber is generally a sheet of rubber about one-sixteenth of
+an inch thick or more, and of the same compound as the rubber on the
+fabric.
+
+[Illustration: HOW THE TREAD OF A TIRE IS MADE
+
+TREAD LAYING ROOM.]
+
+In the case of the machine-built tire, the result is the same, but the
+stock is handled as follows: After the rubber-coated fabric has been
+cut on the bias cutter, the strips are spliced and rolled up in rolls
+on a spindle which is placed in the so-called tire-building machine.
+The tire core is mounted on a stand attached to the machine, so that it
+can be revolved by power, and the fabric is drawn onto the core from
+the spindle under a certain definite tension. The tire-machines roll
+the fabric down by power, and the beads are put into place before the
+tire and core are removed from the machine. Thereafter the process is
+the same as in the case of the hand-built tires.
+
+After the cover rubber is in place the tire is ready to have the tread
+applied. The tread is made up independently of the tire by laying up
+narrow strips of rubber, in different widths, in such a way that the
+center of the tread is thicker than the edges. In the case of the
+so-called single-cure tires, which are wholly vulcanized at one time,
+this tread is applied to the tire directly after the cover, a strip of
+fabric called the breaker-strip generally being placed underneath, and
+the building of the tire so completed.
+
+In the general method of curing, the tire is allowed to remain on
+the core, and is either bolted up in a mold and put into an ordinary
+heater, or it is laid in a mold and put into a heater press, where the
+hydraulic pressure keeps the two halves of the mold forced together
+during the vulcanizing process. After the vulcanizing is completed, the
+tire is removed from the mold, the inside is painted with a French
+talc mixture, the tire inspected and cleaned, and so made ready for the
+market. In some methods of curing, instead of the tire being put in a
+mold, it is put into a so-called toe-mold, which is virtually a pair of
+side flanges only reaching up as high as the edges of the tread on the
+side of the tire. After the flanges are fastened into place, the whole
+is cross-wrapped, the cross-wrapping coming in direct contact with
+the tread. The tire in this condition is then put into the heater and
+vulcanized, giving the so-called wrapped tread tire. Still another form
+of curing is to inflate a kind of canvas inner tube inside the tire and
+place the whole in a mold. This is known as the air-bag mold process.
+
+[Illustration: PNEUMATIC-TIRE ROOM--SHOWING TIRE-BUILDING MACHINES.]
+
+
+How Are Inner Tubes Made?
+
+Inner tubes for pneumatic tires may be classed under three headings,
+according to the methods used in their manufacture, viz., seamed tubes,
+rolled tubes, and tube-machine tubes. By far the greater number of
+tubes come under the first two headings. For seamed tubes, the rubber
+is taken from the calender in the form of sheets from one-sixteenth to
+three-sixteenths of an inch in thickness. These sheets are cut into
+strips of proper length and just wide enough to make a tube of proper
+cross-section diameter when the two long edges are folded over and
+fastened together with rubber cement. These two long edges are cut on a
+bevel so that they make a good lap seam. The tube is then pulled over a
+mandrel of proper size and a thin piece of wet cloth rolled around it,
+and then it is spirally cross-wrapped with a long, narrow piece of wet
+duck for its entire length. The whole is then put into a regular heater
+and the tube vulcanized. After vulcanizing the wrapping is removed and
+the tube stripped from the mandrel, turning the tube inside out, so
+that the smooth side which is vulcanized next to the mandrel appears
+outside, and the rough side showing the marks of the cross-wrapping is
+inside. The valve hole is then punched in the tube, the valve inserted
+and the open ends of the tube buffed down to a feather edge. The tube
+in this state passes to the splicers, who cement the buffed ends and
+splice them together, placing one open end within the other, making a
+lapped seam around the tube about 2¹⁄₂ inches long. The cement used
+in splicing is generally cured by an acid which chemically vulcanizes
+the rubber without the application of heat. The tube is thus finished
+and ready for the market. Rolled tubes are made from very thin sheet
+rubber by rolling same over a mandrel of proper size, until the
+required number of layers of thin rubber have been rolled on to give
+the tube the desired thickness. The tube is then wrapped, cured and
+spliced, in exactly the same manner as a seamed tube.
+
+
+What Is Rubber?
+
+Crude rubber is a vegetable product gathered from certain species of
+trees, shrubs, vines and roots. Its characteristic peculiarities were
+early recognized by the natives of the tropical countries in which it
+is found. Records of the earliest travelers in these countries show
+that the natives had used various articles, such as receptacles, ties,
+clubs, etc., made from rubber, but it was not until about 1735 that
+rubber was first introduced into Europe. In civilization rubber was
+first used for pencil erasers and in waterproof cloth, and finally in
+cements. Vulcanizing, or the curing of rubber, was not discovered until
+1844, and thereafter the development of the rubber industry was very
+rapid, especially in Great Britain.
+
+[Illustration: WRAPPING ROOM--PNEUMATICS.]
+
+There are many kinds and grades of rubber, and to-day these can be
+divided into two chief classes, wild and cultivated.
+
+[Illustration: PNEUMATIC-TIRE ROOM, SHOWING TIRE FINISHING.]
+
+[Illustration: HOW THE CRUDE RUBBER IS SECURED
+
+Gathering Rubber in South America.]
+
+[Illustration: 1. Tapping Axe. 2. Tin Cup to Catch the Rubber Milk. 3.
+The Beginning of a Rubber “Biscuit.” 4. A Palm Nut.]
+
+[Illustration: Making Balls of Crude Rubber.]
+
+[Illustration: Tapping the Trees in Japan.]
+
+[Illustration: How the Rubber Looks when it comes to Market.]
+
+[Illustration: Carrying Balls of Crude Rubber to Native Market.]
+
+Pictures herewith by courtesy of The B. F. Goodrich Company, Ltd.
+
+
+What Is Wild Rubber?
+
+~WHERE RUBBER COMES FROM~
+
+The first class, or wild rubbers, are collected from trees which have
+grown wild and where no cultivation processes whatsoever have been
+used. These rubber-producing trees, shrubs, etc., are found mostly in
+Northern South America, Central America, Mexico, Central Africa and
+Borneo.
+
+The finest rubber in the world is Fine Para, and is gathered in the
+Amazon regions of South America. This rubber has been gathered in
+practically the same way for over a century. The natives go out into
+the forests and, selecting a rubber tree, cut “V”-shaped grooves in the
+bark with a special knife made for the purpose, these grooves being
+cut in herring-bone fashion diagonally around the tree, with one main
+groove cut vertically down the center like the main vein in a leaf.
+The latex, or milk-like liquid, of the tree, from which the rubber is
+taken, flows from these veins and down the center vein into a little
+cup which the natives place to receive it. After the little cups are
+filled they are gathered and brought into the rubber camp, and there
+the latex is coagulated by means of smoke. This is done by the use of
+a paddle which is alternately dipped into a bowl of the latex and then
+revolved in the smoke from a wood or palm-nut fire. This smoke seems to
+have a preservative effect on the rubber as well as drying it out and
+causing it to harden on the paddle, each successive layer of the latex
+causing the size of the rubber ball or biscuit to increase. When a
+biscuit of sufficient size has been thus coagulated it is removed from
+the paddle and is ready for shipment to countries where rubber products
+are manufactured.
+
+Para rubber is sold in three grades. Fine Para, which is the more
+carefully coagulated or smoked rubber; Medium Para, which is rubber
+gathered and smoked in the same way as Fine, but which has had
+insufficient smoking, and, therefore, more subject to deterioration due
+to oxidation, etc.; and Coarse Para, which is rubber gathered from the
+drippings from the rubber trees after the cups have been removed. This
+latter grade has generally a large percentage of bark and other foreign
+substances mixed with it, and is subject to even more deterioration
+than is Medium Para, as it is oftentimes not smoked at all.
+
+Another important grade of rubber coming from South America is Caucho.
+This tree grows similar to the Para trees and the rubber is gathered
+in a similar manner, but is cured by adding to the latex some alkaline
+solution and allowing the whole to dry out in the sun. The value of
+this rubber can be greatly improved by better methods of coagulation.
+
+From Central America and Mexico comes the Castilloa rubber. This
+rubber is gathered from trees in a very similar manner to Para, and is
+coagulated by being mixed with juices which are obtained by grinding
+up a certain plant which grows in the Castilloa districts. After being
+mixed with this plant juice, the Castilloa is spread out in sheets on
+bull hides, where it is allowed to dry in the sun, after which the
+rubber is rolled up and is ready for shipment. Castilloa is gathered
+mostly from wild trees, but in Mexico it has recently been cultivated
+to some extent.
+
+From Mexico we also get Guayule. This rubber is obtained from a certain
+species of shrub, the shrub being cut down and fed into a grinding or
+pebble mill where the branches are crushed and ground and mixed with
+water, and the rubber, which is contained in little particles all
+through the wood, is worked out, being taken from the pebble mills in
+chunks as large as a man’s fist.
+
+From Central Africa and from Borneo come the so-called African gums,
+such as Congo, Soudan, Massai, Lapori, Manicoba, Pontianic, etc. Some
+of these rubbers are gathered from trees, but most of them from vines
+and roots, and the methods of coagulation are varied. Practically all
+of them are dried out in the sun. These rubbers are all of lower grade
+than the Para rubbers of South America.
+
+[Illustration: BAGS OF CACAO BEANS.]
+
+
+
+
+The Story in a Stick of Chocolate
+
+
+Where Does Chocolate Come From?
+
+Perhaps no other one thing is so well known to boys and girls the world
+over as chocolate. Yet there was a time, and not so many years ago, as
+we figure time in history, when there were no cakes of chocolate, or
+chocolate candies to be had in the candy shops, no chocolate flavored
+soda water or chocolate cake. To-day quite a panic would be started if
+the world’s supply of chocolate were cut off.
+
+Chocolate is obtained from cacao, which is the seed of the cacao tree.
+It is quite often called cocoa, although this is not quite a correct
+way of spelling the word. The cacao tree grows to a height of sixteen
+or eighteen feet when cultivated, but to a greater height when found
+growing wild. The cacao pod grows out from the trunk of the tree as
+shown in the picture, and is, when ripe, from seven to ten inches
+long and from three to five inches in diameter, giving it the form
+of an ellipse. When you cut one of these pods open, you find five
+compartments or cells, in each of which is a row of from five to ten
+seeds, which are imbedded in a soft pulp, which is pinkish in color.
+Each pod then contains from twenty-five to fifty seeds, which are what
+we call “cocoa beans.”
+
+The cacao tree was discovered for us by Christopher Columbus, so that
+we have good reason to remember him aside from his great discovery of
+America. The discovery of either of these would be fame enough for any
+one man, and it would be difficult for some boys and girls to say just
+which of the two was Columbus’ greater discovery.
+
+Columbus found the cacao tree flourishing both in a wild and in a
+cultivated state upon one of his voyages to Mexico. The Indians of
+Peru and Mexico were very fond of it in its native state. They did not
+know the joy of eating a chocolate cream, but they had discovered the
+qualities of the cacao bean as a food and had learned to cultivate it
+long before Columbus came to Mexico.
+
+Columbus took some of the cacao beans back with him to Spain and to
+this day cacao is much more extensively used by the Spaniards than by
+any other nation. The first record of its introduction into England is
+found in an announcement in the _Public Advertiser_ of June 16, 1657,
+to the effect that:
+
+“In Bishopgate Street, in Queen’s Head Alley, at a Frenchman’s house,
+is an excellent West Indian drink called chocolate, to be sold where
+you may have it ready at any time and also unmade, at reasonable rates.”
+
+Of course, by the time America became settled the people brought their
+taste for chocolates with them.
+
+[Illustration: VIEW OF COCOA BEANS IN BAG AND COCOA-GRINDING MILL.]
+
+
+What is the Difference Between Cacao and Chocolate?
+
+When the cacao seeds are roasted and separated from the husks which
+surround them, they are called cocoa-nibs. Cocoa consists of these nibs
+alone, whether they are ground or unground, dried and powdered, or of
+the crude paste dried in flakes.
+
+Chocolate is made from the cocoa-nibs. These nibs are ground into an
+oily paste and mixed with sugar and vanilla, cinnamon, cloves, or other
+flavoring substances. Chocolate is only a product made from cocoa-nibs,
+but it is the most important product.
+
+[Illustration: CACAO CRACKING MILL AND SHELL SEPARATOR.]
+
+[Illustration: COCOA CRACKING AND SHELL SEPARATOR.
+
+  WHERE THE SHELLS ARE SEPARATED FROM THE BEAN.]
+
+[Illustration: COCOA MILL.]
+
+
+What Are Cocoa Shells?
+
+There are other products which are obtained from the cacao seed. One is
+called Broma--which is the dry powder of the seeds, after the oil has
+been taken out.
+
+Cocoa shells are the husks which surround the cocoa bean. These are
+ground up into a fine powder and sold for making a kind of cocoa for
+drinking, although the flavor is to a great extent missing and it is,
+of course, not nearly so nourishing as a drink of real cocoa.
+
+[Illustration: COCOA ROASTER.
+
+  MILL IN WHICH THE BEANS ARE ROASTED.]
+
+
+What is Cocoa Butter?
+
+The oil from the cacao seeds, when separated from the seeds, is what we
+call cocoa butter. It has a pleasant odor and chocolate-like taste. It
+is used in making soap, ointments, etc.
+
+[Illustration: HOW CACAO BEANS GROW
+
+COCOA TREE WITH FRUIT KNOWN AS COCOA PODS, WHICH CONTAIN THE COCOA
+BEANS.]
+
+
+How is Cacao Gathered?
+
+When the cacao pods ripen on the tropical plantations, where the
+climate is such that they can be grown successfully, the native laborer
+cuts off the ripened pods as we see him doing in the picture showing
+the pods on the tree. He does this with a scissors-like arrangement of
+knives on a long pole.
+
+As he cuts off the pods he lays them on the ground and leaves them to
+dry for twenty-four hours. The next day they are cut open, the seeds
+taken out and carried to the place where they are cured or sweated.
+
+In the process of curing or sweating, the acid which is found with the
+seeds is poured off. The beans are then placed in a sweating box. This
+part of the process is for the purpose of making the beans ferment and
+is the most important part of preparing the beans for market, as the
+quality and the flavor of the beans and, therefore, their value in the
+market, depends largely upon the ability of whoever does it in curing
+or fermenting.
+
+Sometimes the curing is done by placing the seeds in trenches or holes
+in the ground and covering them with earth or clay. This is called
+the clay-curing process. The time required in curing the cacao beans
+varies, but on the average requires two days. When cured they are
+dried by exposure to the sun and packed ready for shipping. At this
+time beans of fine quality are found to have a warm reddish color. The
+quality or grades of beans are determined by the color at this stage.
+
+[Illustration: CHOCOLATE MILL.]
+
+
+How Chocolate is Made.
+
+When the cacao beans arrive at the chocolate factory they are put
+through various processes to develop their aroma, palatability and
+digestibility.
+
+~PROCESSES IN CHOCOLATE MAKING~
+
+The seeds are first roasted. In roasting the substance which develops
+the aroma is formed. The roasting is accomplished in revolving
+cylinders, much like the revolving peanut roasters, only much larger.
+After roasting the seeds are transferred to crushing and winnowing
+machines. The crushing machines break the husks or “shells,” and the
+winnowing machine by the action of a fan separates the shells from the
+actual kernel or bean. The beans are now called cocoa-nibs. These nibs
+are now in turn winnowed, but in smaller quantities at a time, during
+which process the imperfect pieces are removed with other foreign
+substances. Cacao beans in this form constitute the purest and simplest
+form of cacao in which it is sold. The objection to their use in this
+form is that it is necessary to boil them for a much longer time, in
+order to disintegrate them, than when they are ground up in the form of
+meal. For that reason the nibs are generally ground before marketing as
+cacao or cocoa.
+
+Another form in which the pure seeds are prepared is the flaked
+cocoa. This is accomplished by grinding up the nibs into a paste.
+This grinding is done in a revolving cylinder machine in which a drum
+revolves. In this process the heat developed by the friction in the
+machine is sufficient to liquefy the oil in the beans and form the
+paste. The oil then solidifies again in the paste when it becomes cool.
+
+[Illustration: CHOCOLATE FINISHER.]
+
+What we know as cakes of chocolate are made from the cocoa-nibs by
+heating the mixture of the cacao, sugar and such flavoring extracts as
+vanilla, until an even paste is secured. This paste is passed several
+times between heavy rollers to get a thorough mixture and finally
+poured into molds and allowed to cool. When cool it can be taken from
+the molds in firm cakes and wrapped for the market. This is the way
+Milk Chocolate is made. The difference in the taste and consistency of
+milk chocolate depends upon how many different things the chocolate
+maker adds to the pure cocoa-nibs to produce this mixture. Often
+substances such as starchy materials are added to make the cakes more
+firm. They add nothing to the quality of the chocolate.
+
+[Illustration: CHOCOLATE MIXER.]
+
+~HOW CHOCOLATE CANDIES ARE MADE~
+
+Chocolate-covered bonbons, chocolate drops, and the many different
+kinds of toothsome confections are prepared in the American candy
+factories, as we all well know. The chocolate covering of this
+confectionery is generally put on by dipping the inside of the choice
+morsel in a pan of liquid chocolate paste and then placing the bits in
+tins to allow them to cool and harden.
+
+[Illustration: CHOCOLATE MIXING AND HEATING MACHINE.]
+
+A great many of the choicest bits of confectionery are now produced by
+machines entirely. These machines are almost human, apparently, as we
+see them make a perfect chocolate bonbon which is delivered to a candy
+box all wrapped for packing. These wonderful machines thus give us
+candy which has not been touched by the hands of any one prior to the
+time we thrust our own fingers in the brightly-decorated box and take
+our pick of the assortment it offers.
+
+[Illustration: WHERE THE INDIVIDUAL PIECES OF CONFECTION ARE WRAPPED.]
+
+[Illustration: THE TALLEST BUILDING IN THE WORLD
+
+WOOLWORTH BUILDING, NEW YORK CITY.
+
+This building, the tallest in the world, is equipped with 26 gearless
+traction elevators.
+
+Two of the elevators run from the first to the fifty-first floor with
+actual travels of 679 feet 9¹⁄₂ inches and 679 feet 10¹⁄₄ inches,
+respectively. There is also a shuttle elevator which runs from the
+fifty-first to the fifty-fourth floor.
+
+Total height of building from curb to base of flagstaff, 792 feet.]
+
+[Illustration: HOW AN ELEVATOR GOES UP AND DOWN
+
+COMPLETE GEARLESS TRACTION ELEVATOR INSTALLATION.]
+
+
+
+
+How Does an Elevator Go Up and Down?
+
+
+Ordinarily, when we think of an elevator we think merely of the cage or
+car in which we ride up or down. But the car is really only the part
+which makes the elevator of service to man, and from the standpoint of
+the machinery, is a relatively unimportant part of the equipment.
+
+There are two principal types of elevators used to-day; the hydraulic,
+which is worked by water under pressure, and the electric, which is
+worked by electricity through an electric motor. The latter type,
+because of the tendency towards the general use of electricity in
+recent years, has largely superseded the hydraulic, and, as when you
+think of elevators you probably have in mind those you have seen in
+some huge skyscraper, we shall look at one of these.
+
+
+What are the Principal Parts of an Elevator?
+
+The most advanced type of elevator to-day is called a Gearless Traction
+Elevator. In this elevator the principal parts are a motor, a grooved
+wheel on the motor shaft called a driving sheave and a brake, all
+mounted on one cast-iron bed-plate; a number of cables of equal length
+which pass over the driving sheave and thence around another grooved
+wheel called an idler sheave, located just below the driving sheave,
+and to one end of which is attached the car or cage, and to the other
+end a weight called a counterweight; also a controller which governs
+the flow of electric current into the motor and thereby the speed,
+starts and stops of the elevator car. Although the controller, motor,
+brake and sheaves are usually placed way at the top of the building out
+of our sight, they are really very important parts of the elevator.
+
+The cage or car in which we ride is held in place by tracks built
+upright in the elevator shaft, and the counterweight at one side of the
+shaft travels up and down along two separate upright tracks. When the
+car goes up the counterweight on the other end of the cables goes down
+an equal distance. The counterweight is used to balance the load of the
+car and to make it easier for the motor to move the car.
+
+Electricity is the power that makes the car go up or down. The operator
+in the car moves a master switch--in one direction if he wishes to go
+up, in the other direction if he wishes to go down. This master switch
+sets the electro-magnetic switches of the controller at the top of the
+hatchway into action, electrically, and the controller in turn allows
+the electric current to flow into the motor. The motor then begins
+to revolve, gradually at first, and then faster, turning the driving
+sheave with which it is directly connected. As this driving sheave
+revolves, the cables passing over it are set in motion, and the car and
+counterweight to which they are attached begin to move.
+
+
+Why Does Not the Car Fall?
+
+[Illustration: THE PRINCIPAL PARTS OF AN ELEVATOR]
+
+Of course, the question of safety is a very important one in any
+elevator, and you wonder what would happen if the cables broke. You
+think of this especially when you are going up in one of the big
+skyscrapers--where the elevators sometimes travel to a height of 700
+feet. It can be truthfully said that on every modern elevator there
+are safety devices which should make it practically impossible to have
+a serious accident, due to the fall of the car. Every elevator is
+equipped with wedging or clamping devices which automatically grip the
+rails in case the car goes too fast either up or down. These gripping
+devices can be adjusted to work at any speed that is desired above the
+regular speed. It is not at all probable that all the cables will break
+at once, because there are usually six of these, and any one of them is
+strong enough to hold the car if the others break; but even if they all
+should break the gripping devices on the rails will operate and hold
+the car safely, just as soon as it starts down at great speed.
+
+Suppose that the car should descend at full speed, but not sufficiently
+fast to work the rail-gripping devices, it would be brought to a
+gradual rest at the bottom of the hatchway, because of the oil-cushion
+buffer against which it would strike. This is a remarkable invention,
+with a plunger working in oil in such a way that a car striking it
+at full speed will come to rest so gradually that there is scarcely
+any shock. You have perhaps seen a clever juggler on the stage throw
+an ordinary hen’s egg high into the air and catch it in a china dish
+without cracking it He does it by putting the dish under the falling
+egg just at the right moment, and bringing the dish down with the egg
+at just the right speed, so that eventually he has the egg in the dish
+without cracking it. The trick is in calculating the rate of speed of
+the falling egg accurately and adjusting the insertion of the dish
+under the falling egg to a nicety. The oil-cushion buffer in the modern
+elevator works in very much the same way.
+
+[Illustration: GENERAL ARRANGEMENT OF ROPING FOR GEARLESS TRACTION
+ELEVATOR INSTALLATION.]
+
+If it were not for the genius which has made possible these new types
+of elevators we could not have the high buildings. The elevators in the
+Woolworth Building are the latest type in modern elevator construction.
+In this one building alone there are 29 elevators, and when you are
+told that the electric elevators in the United States installed by
+a single company represent a total of 525,000 horse-power, you will
+have some idea of the power required to operate elevators all over the
+country.
+
+
+
+
+Does Air Weigh Anything?
+
+
+Air is very light, so light that it seems to have no weight at all;
+but, if you will think a minute you will see that it must have some
+weight, because birds fly in it and balloons can be made to float
+through it. It has been found that one hundred cubic inches of air
+at the sea level weighs, under ordinary conditions, about thirty-one
+grains. This seems a very small weight, but when we remember the
+thickness of the atmospheric envelope over the earth we see that it
+must press quite heavily upon the earth’s surface. There is a very
+simple instrument called a barometer, which is used for measuring the
+amount of this pressure. The name means pressure-measure.
+
+Another striking feature of air is its elasticity, and this explains
+something that is noticed by all mountain climbers. On a high mountain,
+it is difficult to get enough air to the lungs, though one breathes
+rapidly and deeply. The reason is, that the air at the foot of the
+mountain is compressed by the weight of that above it, and consequently
+the lungs can hold more of it than of the air on the mountain top,
+which has less weight resting upon it and is, therefore, not so much
+compressed. On account of the ease with which it is compressed, we find
+that more than half of all the envelope of air that surrounds the earth
+is within three miles of the surface.
+
+When air is chemically analyzed it is found to consist of a number of
+substances mingled together, but not chemically united. These include
+nitrogen, oxygen, argon, carbonic acid gas, water vapor, ozone, nitric
+acid, ammonia, and dust.
+
+Oxygen is the most important of these constituents, for it is the part
+that is necessary to support life. Yet, notwithstanding its importance,
+it forms only about one-fifth of the entire bulk of the atmosphere.
+
+Oxygen is a very interesting substance and many striking experiments
+may be performed with it. If a lighted candle is thrust into a vessel
+filled with oxygen, it burns very much more rapidly and brilliantly
+than in air. A piece of wood with a mere spark on it bursts into flame
+and burns brightly when thrust into oxygen, and some things that will
+not burn at all in air, can be made to burn very rapidly in oxygen. For
+example, if a piece of clock spring be dipped in melted sulphur and
+then put into a jar of oxygen, after the sulphur has been set on fire,
+the steel spring will take fire and burn fiercely. The heat produced is
+so great that drops of molten steel form at the end of the spring, and
+falling on the bottom of the jar, melt the surface of the glass where
+they strike.
+
+The other two substances found in pure air, nitrogen and argon, are
+very much alike. They make up the remaining four-fifths of the air, and
+are very different from oxygen in nearly every respect.
+
+Nitrogen and argon resemble oxygen in being colorless, odorless, and
+tasteless gases; and they are of nearly the same weight as oxygen,
+argon being a little heavier and nitrogen a little lighter; but here
+the similarity ends. Oxygen is what we call a very active substance.
+As we have seen, it causes things to burn very much more rapidly in it
+than in air. Nitrogen and argon, on the contrary, put out fire. If a
+lighted candle is put into a jar of nitrogen or argon its flame will be
+extinguished as quickly as if put into water.
+
+We must now consider the impurities found in air. Of these the most
+important is carbonic acid gas, or, as it is frequently called, carbon
+dioxide. It is always produced when wood or coal is burned, and
+is, of course, constantly being poured out of chimneys. It is also
+produced in our lungs and we give off some of it when we breathe. It
+is colorless, like the gases found in pure air, has no odor or taste,
+and is considerably heavier than oxygen or nitrogen. In its other
+properties it is much more like nitrogen than oxygen, for when a
+candle is put into it the flame is extinguished at once. To find out
+whether air contains carbonic acid gas, it is only necessary to force
+it through a little lime water, in a glass vessel, and watch what
+change takes place in the water. Fresh lime water is as clear as pure
+water; but after forcing air containing carbonic acid through it, it
+becomes turbid and milky. If the turbid water is allowed to stand for
+a time, a white powder will settle to the bottom, and if we examine
+this powder, we find it to be very much the same thing as chalk. While
+it is true that air generally contains only a very small portion of
+carbonic acid gas, there are some places in which it is present in such
+large quantities as to render the air unfit for breathing. The air at
+the bottom of deep mines and old wells often has an unusually large
+proportion of this gas, which, because of its great weight, accumulates
+at the bottom, and remains confined there. The presence of a dangerous
+quantity of the gas in such places may be detected by lowering a candle
+into it.
+
+
+
+
+Why Does the Scenery Appear to Move When We Are Riding in a Train?
+
+
+When you sit in a moving train looking out of the window it appears
+as though the fields, the telegraph poles and everything else outside
+were moving, instead of you. This is because our only ideas of motion
+are arrived at by comparison, and the fact that neither you nor the
+seats of the car or any other part of the inside of the car is changing
+its position, leads you to the delusion that the things outside the
+car are moving and not you. If you were to pull down all the curtains
+and the train were making no noise at all, you would not think that
+anything was moving. It would appear as though you were motionless just
+as everything in the car appears so. When you turn then to the window,
+and lift the curtain you carry in the back of your mind the idea of
+being at rest and that is what makes it appear as though the fields and
+everything outside were moving in an opposite direction.
+
+This is particularly noticeable when you are in a train in a station
+with another train on the next track. There is a sense of motion if one
+of the trains only is moving and you feel that it is the other train,
+because you are surrounded by objects in the car which are at rest,
+and when you look out at the other train with this half consciousness
+of rest in your mind, it appears as though the other train were moving
+when as a matter of fact it is your train. If the delusion happens to
+be turned the other way, it will appear as though you are moving and
+the other is still. It depends upon what cause the impression starts
+with.
+
+
+
+
+Why Don’t the Scenery Appear to Move When I am in a Street Car?
+
+
+If you are in a street car in the country and moving along fast you
+will receive the same impression, especially in a closed car, because
+you are looking out of one hole or one window. In an open car you
+do not receive the same impression because your range of vision is
+broader. You can and do, although perhaps unconsciously, look out on
+both sides and the impression your mind gets through the eyes is not
+the same. If you were to pull down all the storm curtains in a moving
+open street car, and then look out of one little crack, you would think
+the outside was moving. But if you stop to remember that you are moving
+and not the things outside the car, then the impression vanishes. In
+the city, of course, your brain is so thoroughly impressed with the
+fact that houses and pavements do not move, and the cars move so much
+more slowly, that it is difficult to make yourself believe otherwise.
+The impression is more difficult always when you are moving through
+or past objects with which you are perfectly familiar. It is all, of
+course, a question of impressions.
+
+
+
+
+Why Does the Moon Travel With Us When We Walk or Ride?
+
+
+The moon does not really travel with us. It only seems to do so. The
+moon is so far away that when we walk a block or two or a hundred, we
+cannot notice any relative difference in the relative positions of the
+moon and ourselves. When a thing is close at hand we can notice every
+change in our position toward it, but when it is far away the change of
+our position toward it is so slight that it is hardly perceptible. A
+very good way to illustrate this is to ask you to recall the last time
+you were in a railroad train looking out at the scenery in the country.
+The telegraph poles rush past you so fast you cannot count them. The
+cows in the pasture beside the railroad do not seem to go by so fast.
+You can count them easily. The tree farther over in the next field does
+not appear to be moving but slightly, while the church steeple which
+you can see far in the distance, does not go out of sight for a long
+time--in fact, seems almost to be moving along with you. The moon is
+just like the church steeple in this case, except that it is so much
+farther away that it seems to travel right with you. It is all due to
+the fact as stated at the beginning of this answer, that the relative
+positions of yourself and the moon are only slightly changed as you
+move from place to place, so slight in fact as to appear imperceptible.
+
+
+
+
+Is There a Man in the Moon?
+
+
+The markings which we see on the face of the moon when it is full can
+by a stretch of the imagination be said to form the face of a man. On
+some nights this face appears to be quite distinct. If, however, we
+look at the moon through a telescope, we see distinctly that it is
+not the face of a man. Through a very large telescope we can see very
+plainly that the marks are mountains and craters of extinct volcanoes.
+It just happens that these marks on the moon, aided by the reflections
+of the light from the sun, which gives the moon all the light it has,
+make a combination that looks like a face.
+
+
+
+
+Does the Air Surrounding the Earth Move With It?
+
+
+This is one of the old puzzling questions which many a high-school
+student has had to struggle with to the great amusement of the teacher
+who asks for the information and such other scholars who have already
+had the experience of trying to solve it.
+
+To get at the right answer you have merely to ask one other question.
+If the air does not revolve with the earth, why can’t I go up in
+a balloon at New York, and stay up long enough for the earth to
+revolve on its axis beneath me, and come down again when the city of
+San Francisco appears under the balloon, which should be in about
+four hours? If that were possible, travel would be both rapid and
+comfortable, for then we could sit quietly in a balloon while the earth
+traveling beneath us would get all the bumps.
+
+No, the atmosphere surrounding the earth moves right along with the
+earth on its axis. If it were not so, the earth would probably burn
+up--at least no living thing could remain on it--since the friction of
+the surface of the air against the surface of the earth would develop
+such a heat that nothing could live in it.
+
+
+
+
+Why Does Oiling the Axle Make the Wheel Turn More Easily?
+
+
+If you look at what appears to be a perfectly smooth axle on a bicycle
+or motor car through a powerful magnifying glass, you will find that
+the surface of the axle is not smooth at all, as you may have thought,
+but covered with what appear to be quite large bumps or irregularities
+in the surface. If you were to examine the inside of the hub of the
+wheel in the same way, you would find that it also is like that. Now,
+when you attempt to turn a wheel on the axle without oil, these little
+irregularities or bumps grind against each other, producing what we
+call friction. As friction develops heat, the metal of the axle and the
+hub expand and the wheel gets stuck.
+
+
+
+
+What Made the Mountains?
+
+
+There is no question but that at one time the surface of the earth was
+smooth, i. e., there were no big hills and no deep valleys. That was
+before the mountains were made. The earth was a hot molten mass that
+began to cool off from the outside inward. It is still a hot molten
+mass inside today. The outside crust became cooler and cooler and the
+crust became deeper and deeper all the time. Then when there would be
+an eruption of the red-hot mass inside, the earth’s crust would be
+bulged out in some places and sucked in in others and would stay that
+way. The bulged out place became a range of mountains and the sucked
+in place became a valley. This process went on happening over and over
+again until the crust of the earth became firmly set. Volcanos caused
+some of these eruptions, as also did earthquakes. There are today
+gradual changes occurring which to a certain extent change the outside
+surface of the earth, and it is possible that new mountain ranges will
+be produced in this way.
+
+
+
+
+What Makes the Sea Roar?
+
+
+The roar of the sea is a movement of the sea which causes the same kind
+of air waves or sound waves that you make when you shout, excepting
+that, of course, the vibrations do not occur so quickly in the sea and,
+therefore, the sound produced is a low sound. It is no different in
+any sense than the same noise would be if the same air waves could be
+produced on the land away from the water.
+
+
+
+
+Why Is Fire Hot?
+
+
+When a fire is lighted it throws off what we call heat rays or waves.
+These waves are very much like the waves of light which come from a
+light or fire or the air waves which produce sounds. The rays of light
+and heat which come from the sun are like the rays of light and heat
+from a fire. Heat is of two kinds--heat proper which is resident in the
+body, and radiant heat which is the kind which comes to us from the
+sun or from a fire. This radiant heat is not heat at all, but a form
+of wave motion thrown out by the vibrations in the ether. The heat we
+feel is the sensation produced upon our skins when it comes in contact
+with the waves created by the fire. Heat was formerly thought to be an
+actual substance, but we know now that radiant heat is known to be the
+energy of heat transferred to the ether which fills all of space and is
+in all bodies also. The hot body which sets the particles of either in
+vibration and this vibrating motion in the form of waves travels in all
+directions. When these vibrations strike against our skin they produce
+a heat sensation; striking other objects these vibrations may produce
+instead of a heat sensation, either chemical action or luminosity. This
+is determined by the length of the vibratory rays in each case.
+
+
+
+
+When I Throw a Ball Into the Air While Walking, Why Does It Follow Me?
+
+
+When you throw a ball into the air while moving your body forward or
+backward, either slowly or fast, the ball partakes of two motions--the
+one upward and the forward or backward motion of your body. The ball
+possessed the motion of your body before it left your hand to go up
+into the air because your body was moving before you threw it up, and
+the ball was a part of you at the time.
+
+If you are moving forward up to the time you throw the ball into the
+air and stop as soon as you let go of the ball, it will fall at some
+distance from you. Also if you throw the ball up from a standing
+position and move forward as soon as the ball leaves your hand the ball
+will fall behind you, provided you actually threw it straight up.
+
+Of course, you know that the earth is moving many miles per hour on
+its axis and that when you throw a ball straight into the air from a
+standing position, the earth and yourself as well as the ball move
+with the earth a long distance before the ball comes down again. The
+relative position is, however, the same. We get our sense of motion by
+a comparison with other objects. If you are in a train that is moving
+swiftly and another train goes by in the opposite direction moving just
+as fast, you seem to be going twice as fast as you really are. If the
+train on the other track, however, is going at the same rate of speed
+and in the same direction as you are, you will appear to be standing
+still.
+
+Going back to the ball again, you will find that it always partakes of
+the motion of the body holding it in addition to the motion given when
+it is thrown up.
+
+
+
+
+What Good Are the Lines On the Palms of Our Hands?
+
+
+It cannot be said that the lines on the palms of our hands are of any
+great service to us. Indeed it is doubtful if they are of any value
+in themselves, outside of the possible aid they may be in helping us
+to determine the character of the surface of things which we grasp or
+touch. It is possible that they aid in some slight degree in this way.
+There is little doubt, however, that they are a result of the work the
+hands are constantly called upon to do rather than contrived for any
+particular service. The habitual tendency of the fingers in grasping
+and holding things throws the skin of the palms into creases which
+through frequent repetition make the lines of the palms permanent in
+several instances.
+
+The peculiarities of these lines or creases in various individuals
+as to details and length and variations is the chief basis of the
+so-called science of palmistry.
+
+
+
+
+What Makes Things Whirl Round When I Am Dizzy?
+
+
+The medical term that describes this condition of turning or whirling
+is vertigo, which means in simple language “to turn.” There are two
+kinds of dizziness--one where the objects about us seem to be turning
+round and round and the other where the person who is dizzy seems to
+himself to be turning round and round.
+
+One cause of this is due to the fact that when you are dizzy the
+eyes are not in complete control of the brain and the eyes moving
+independently of each other look in different directions and produce
+this turning effect on the brain, since each eye then sends a different
+impression to the brain instantly.
+
+The principal cause of the sense of dizziness is, however, the little
+organ which gives us our power to balance and which is located near the
+ears. Sometimes this organ becomes diseased and people affected in this
+way are almost continually dizzy. Whenever this organ of balance is
+disturbed we lose our idea of balance and the turning sensation occurs.
+
+It is easy to make yourself dizzy. All you do is to turn round a few
+times in the same direction and stop. In doing this you disturb the
+little organ of balance and things begin to turn apparently before your
+eyes. If you turn the other way you right matters again or if you just
+stand still matters will right themselves. There is no great harm in
+making yourself dizzy and very little fun.
+
+
+
+
+Why Are the Complexions of Some People Light and Others Dark?
+
+
+This difference in the complexions of people is due to the varying
+amounts of pigment or coloring material in the cells of which the skins
+of all animals is made up. Very light people have very little pigment;
+very dark people, those with dark eyes and black hair, have a great
+deal of this coloring material in their cells. A great many people are
+neither light or very dark. They have less than the dark-complexioned
+people and more than the light-complexioned people. When the hair
+turns gray it is because the pigment has disappeared. As this is due
+to the loss of this coloring material, dark-complexioned people turn
+gray sooner than light-complexioned people. The structure of the skin
+showing how these cells are made in layers can be seen by examining the
+skin with a microscope.
+
+
+
+
+What Makes Me Tired?
+
+
+Men were wrong for a long time in their conclusions as to what produced
+the tired feeling in us.
+
+We know now that every activity of our body registers itself on the
+brain. When we move an arm or leg a great many times we soon feel
+tired. Every time you move your arm the movement is registered in the
+brain, and after a number of these movements are registered the tired
+feeling in the arm appears. It is said that every movement of any part
+of the body really produces certain defective cells and that these
+accumulate in the blood. When these reach a certain number the tired
+feeling takes possession of us, and when we rest, the blood under
+the guidance of the brain, goes to work and rebuilds these defective
+cells. We know that a change takes place in the blood when we become
+tired because, if you take some of the blood from an animal that shows
+unmistakable signs of fatigue and inject it into an animal that shows
+no tired feeling at all, the second animal will begin to show signs of
+fatigue even though it is not active at all.
+
+We used to think that being tired indicated that our bodies were in
+need of food and that the way to overcome it was to eat a big meal.
+We did not stop to think that even when we are hungry the human body
+has sufficient food supply stored up to keep it going for days without
+taking in new food. Of course, this mistake was made because we knew
+that our power and energy came as a result of the food we took into our
+systems, but this belief was exploded when it was found that a really
+tired person could hardly digest food while tired, and that it is best
+for people who are very tired to eat only a light meal.
+
+
+
+
+Why Are Most People Right-Handed?
+
+
+Most people are right-handed because they are trained that way. Being
+right-handed or left-handed depends largely on how we get started in
+that connection. When we are young we form the habit generally of
+being either right-handed or left-handed, as the case may be. Most
+people correct their children when it appears they are likely to
+become left-handed, as we have come to think that it is better to be
+right-handed than left, and that is the reason why most people are
+right-handed. As a matter of fact, if we were trained perfectly, we
+should all be both right-handed and left-handed also. Some people are
+so trained and, when we refer to their ability to do things equally
+well with both hands and wish to bring out this fact, we say they are
+ambidextrous. It is not natural that one hand should be trained to do
+things while the other is not.
+
+
+
+
+Why Are Some Faculties Stronger Than Others?
+
+
+All of our senses are capable of being developed so that our ability
+along these lines would be about equal. The trouble is that we soon
+begin to develop one or more of our faculties in an unusual manner at
+the expense of the development of others. Many people have a keener
+sense of observation than others because they have had more and better
+training along that line. It is a pity that more attention is not given
+to the development of the power of observation in children, because
+it is one of the most valuable accomplishments that we can possess
+ourselves of. With the sense of observation developed to the highest
+degree, many of the other faculties need not be developed so strongly
+because, if we notice every thing that it is possible for us to see,
+we do not have the need of the development of other powers to the same
+extent.
+
+It is said that it would be possible to so train an infant and bring
+him up to maturity with all his faculties developed and in practically
+an even way. If we did that we would have a wonderfully intelligent
+being.
+
+[Illustration: Glazing plates.]
+
+[Illustration: Decorating china cups.]
+
+
+
+
+The Story in a Cup and Saucer
+
+
+~HOW CHINA IS MADE~
+
+Many different kinds of raw materials are required to produce the clay
+from which china is formed, and these ingredients come from widely
+separated localities. Clays from Florida, North Carolina, Cornwall and
+Devon. Flint from Illinois and Pennsylvania. Boracic acid from the
+Mojave Desert and Tuscany. Cobalt from Ontario and Saxony. Feldspar
+from Maine. All these and more must enter into the making of every
+piece.
+
+[Illustration: Grinders for reducing glazing materials.]
+
+These materials are reduced to fine powder and stored in huge bins.
+Between these bins, on a track provided for the purpose, the workmen
+push a car which bears a great box. Under this box is a scale for
+weighing the exact amount of each ingredient as it is put in, for too
+much of one kind of clay or too little of another would seriously
+impair the quality of the finished china.
+
+[Illustration: Mill for pulverizing materials.]
+
+From bin to bin this car goes, gathering up so many pounds of this
+material and so many pounds of that, until its load is complete. Then
+it is dumped into one of the great round tanks called “blungers,” where
+big electrically driven paddles mix it with water until it has the
+consistency of thick cream. From the blungers this liquid mass passes
+into another and still larger tank, called a “rough agitator,” and is
+there kept constantly in motion until it is released to run in a steady
+stream over the “sifters.”
+
+These sifters are vibrating tables of finest silk lawn, very much
+like that used for bolting flour at the mills. The material for
+china making strains through the silk, while the refuse, including
+all foreign matter, little lumps, etc., runs into a waste trough and
+is thrown away. From the sifters the liquid passes through a square
+box-like chute, in which are placed a number of large horseshoe
+magnets, which attract to themselves and hold any particles of harmful
+minerals which may be in the mixture.
+
+After leaving the magnets the fluid is free from impurities, and is
+discharged into another huge tank called the “smooth agitator.” While
+the fluid is in this tank a number of paddles keep it constantly in
+motion.
+
+[Illustration: Pressing the water from the clay.]
+
+From the smooth agitator the mixture is forced under high pressure into
+a press where a peculiar arrangement of steel chambers packed with
+heavy canvas allows the water to escape, filtered pure and clear, but
+retains the clay in discs or leaves weighing about thirty pounds each.
+From the presses this damp clay is taken out to the “pug mills,” where
+it is all ground up together, reduced to a uniform consistency, and
+cut into blocks of convenient size. It is now ready to use. Automatic
+elevators carry it to the workmen upstairs.
+
+[Illustration: Molding Dishes. The racks to the left are full of molds
+on which the clay is drying.]
+
+[Illustration: Molding sugar bowls and covered dishes.]
+
+~HOW THE DISHES ARE SHAPED~
+
+The exact process of handling the clay differs with articles of
+different shapes. Some are molded by hand in plaster of paris molds of
+proper shape, while others are formed by machine. To make a plate, for
+example, the workman takes a lump of clay as large as a teacup. He lays
+this on a flat stone, and with a large, round, flat weight, strikes it
+a blow which flattens the material out until it resembles dough rolled
+out for cake or biscuits, only instead of being white or yellow it is
+of a dark gray color. A hard, smooth mold exactly the size and shape
+of the inside of the plate is at hand. Over this the workman claps the
+flat piece of damp clay. Then the mold is passed on to another workman,
+who stands before a rapidly revolving pedestal, commonly known as the
+potter’s wheel. On this wheel he places the mold and its layer of clay.
+He then pulls down a lever to which is attached a steel scraper. As the
+plate rapidly revolves, this scraper cuts away the surplus clay, and
+gives to the back of the plate its proper form. The plate, still in its
+mold, is placed on a long board, together with a number of others, and
+shoved into a rack to dry. One workman with two helpers will make 2,400
+plates per day. It is fascinating to watch the molders’ deft hands at
+work swiftly changing a mass of clay into perfectly formed dishes. Such
+skilled workmen are naturally well paid.
+
+[Illustration: Interior of a kiln showing how the “saggers” are packed
+for firing.]
+
+When the clay is sufficiently dry, the plate is taken from its mold,
+the edge smoothed and rounded, and any minor defects remedied. It
+is then placed in an oval shaped clay receptacle called a “sagger,”
+together with about two dozen of its fellows, packed in fine sand,
+and placed in one of the furnaces or kilns. Each kiln will contain on
+an average two thousand saggers. When the kiln is full the doorway
+is closed and plastered with clay, the fires started, and the dishes
+subjected to terrific heat for a period of forty-eight hours. The
+fuel used is natural gas, piped one hundred miles from wells 2,000
+feet deep. Natural gas gives an intense heat, and yet is always under
+perfect control--features which are vital in producing uniformly good
+china.
+
+When the plate is taken from the kiln after the first baking, it is
+pure white, but of dull, velvety texture, and is known as bisque ware.
+
+In order to give it a smooth, high finish, the plate is next dipped
+into a solution of white lead, borax and silica, dried, placed in a
+kiln and again baked. When it is taken out for the second time it
+has acquired that beautiful glaze which so delights the eye. In this
+condition it is known as “plain white ware,” and is finished, unless
+some decoration is to be added.
+
+[Illustration: Taking the dishes from a kiln.]
+
+~HOW CHINA IS DECORATED~
+
+Most people are surprised to learn that the greater part of the
+gold which adorns dishes is put on by a simple rubber stamp. Two
+preparations of gold are used. One is a commercial solution called
+“liquid bright gold,” the other is very expensive, and is simply gold
+bullion melted down with acids to the right consistency.
+
+Decorating in colors is now done almost exclusively by decalcomania art
+transfers. These are made principally in Europe.
+
+After the gold and colors are applied, the China must again go through
+the oven’s heat for a period of twelve hours. Then the piece finished
+at last, is ready to grace your table. The dull gray clay has become
+beautifully finished china, which will delight alike the housekeeper
+and her guests.
+
+
+
+
+How Do Birds Find Their Way?
+
+
+The most interesting phase of the movement of animals from place to
+place is found in the flight of birds during the spring and fall. In
+the spring the birds come north and in the fall they go south. This is
+called “migration” and the reason given for the ability of some birds
+to come back every year to build a nest in the same tree is usually
+attributed to the “instinct of migration,” and yet that is more a
+statement of fact rather than an explanation of the wonderful ability
+of the birds to do this.
+
+
+
+
+How Does a Captain Steer His Ship Across the Ocean?
+
+
+Man, the most intelligent animal, can also find his way about, but
+he has had to learn to do this step by step. When an explorer first
+travels into the unexplored forest, he carries a compass which tells
+him in what direction he is traveling, but this is not sufficient to
+tell him the exact path he came and return the same way. In order that
+he may do this, he must make marks on the trees and other objects
+to find his way back. When these marks are once made, other men can
+follow the path by their aid, and eventually a path becomes worn so
+that men can find their way back and forth without the aid of the marks
+especially.
+
+A trained ship captain can take his ship from any port in the world to
+another port. He can start at New York City and in a given number of
+days, according to how fast his ship can travel, land his passengers
+and cargo in the port of London or Johannesburg, South Africa, or at
+any desired port in China, Japan or any other country. But he cannot do
+this by any kind of instinct. He takes his directions from information
+that was furnished him by some one who went that way before him--some
+other captain of a vessel who made marks in his book of his position
+in relation to the sun and stars. This is practically the same as the
+traveler in the forest who made marks on the trees to make a map of the
+way back and forth. Even with these charts, compasses and other guiding
+marks, however, man, even though he is the most intelligent of all the
+animals, makes very grave mistakes and sometimes brings disaster upon
+himself and the lives in his care.
+
+
+
+
+Why the Birds Come Back in Spring?
+
+
+The birds, however, have no charts or compasses to guide them. We do
+not know as yet absolutely what it is that enables the bird to find its
+way back and forth to the same spot year after year. As nearly as we
+have been able to ascertain, the birds after they mate and build their
+first nest and bring up their first family, develop a fondness for that
+particular spot which is much the same as the instinct in man which we
+call the “homing instinct.” Man becomes attached to one particular spot
+which he calls home and wherever he is thereafter, he is very likely to
+think of the old locality when he thinks of home, and there are very
+few of us but have yearnings to go back to the old “home locality”
+every now and then. The environment in which a bird or human being is
+brought up generally becomes to a greater or less extent a permanent
+part of him in this sense.
+
+
+
+
+Why Do Birds Go South in Winter?
+
+
+We know why birds go south in the winter. The necessity of finding
+food to live upon has everything to do with that. As food grows
+scarce towards the end of summer in the farthest northern places where
+birds live, the birds there must find food elsewhere. They naturally
+turn south and when they find food, they have to divide with the birds
+living there. The result is that soon the food becomes scarce again
+and both the new-comers and the old residents, so to speak, are forced
+to seek places where food is plentiful. So both of these flocks, to
+use a short term, fly away to the south until they find food again
+and encounter a third flock or group of the bird family crowding the
+locality and exhausting the food supply. So in turn each flock presses
+for food upon the one in the locality next further to the south until
+we have a general movement to the south of practically all the birds
+until they reach a point where the food supply is sufficient for all
+for the time being.
+
+
+
+
+Why Don’t the Birds Stay South?
+
+
+The result of all this is that the south-land is crowded with birds of
+all kinds and the food supply is enough for all. But soon in following
+the laws of nature in birds, as in other living things, comes the time
+for breeding. The south-land is warm enough for nesting and hatching,
+but it is so crowded that there wouldn’t be enough food for all the old
+birds and the little ones too and so the birds begin to scatter again.
+Just think of what would happen in the south-land if all the birds that
+stay there in the winter built their nests there and brought up a new
+family. A bird family will average four young birds, so that if all the
+bird families were born and raised in the south the bird population
+would quickly multiply itself by three and there would be the same old
+necessity of traveling away to look for food. To avoid this the birds
+begin to scatter to their old homes before the breeding season begins.
+
+
+
+
+How Do They Find the Old Home?
+
+
+The return of the birds to their old homes and how they find their
+way back to the same spot every year, to do which they must sometimes
+travel thousands of miles, is one of the most marvelous things in
+nature and has not as yet been satisfactorily determined. The nearest
+approach we have to a satisfactory answer to this is that birds do have
+a memory, that they can and do recognize familiar objects, and that
+their love for the old home causes them to fly to the north until they
+recognize the landmarks of their former habitation. In this it is said
+that the older birds--those who have gone that way before--lead the
+flocks and show the way.
+
+There is no doubt that birds have a more perfect instinct of direction
+than man. They can follow a line of longitude almost perfectly, i.e.,
+they can pick out the shorter route by instinct, and this is, of
+course, a straight line. They just keep on going until they come to the
+familiar place they call home and then they stop and build their nests.
+That it is not memory and sight of places alone that guides the birds
+is shown by the fact that some birds when migrating fly all night when
+there is no light by which to recognize familiar objects.
+
+
+
+
+Why Do Birds Sing?
+
+
+The song of the birds is a part of the love-making. The male bird is
+the “singer,” as we call them at home, when we think of the canary in
+the cage near us. The male bird sings to his mate to charm her and to
+further his wooing. This wooing goes on after the eggs have been laid
+in the nest and while the mother bird is keeping them warm until they
+hatch out, but almost instantaneously with the birth of the little
+birds, the song of the male bird is hushed. Take the case of the
+nightingale. For weeks during the period of nest-building and hatching
+he charms his mate and us with the beautiful music of his love song.
+But as soon as the little nightingales come from the eggs, the sounds
+which the male nightingale makes are changed to a gutteral croak, which
+are expressive of anxiety and alarm, in great contrast to the song
+notes of his wooing. And yet, if you were at this period--just after
+the birds are born, and when his song changes--to destroy the nest
+and contents, you would at once find Mr. Nightingale return to his
+beautiful song of love to inspire his mate to help him build another
+nest and start all over again to raise a family.
+
+
+
+
+What Causes an Arrow to Fly?
+
+
+It is caused by the power generated when you bend the bow and string
+of the bow and arrow out of shape. The bow and string have the quality
+of elasticity which causes a rubber ball to bounce. When you force
+anything elastic out of shape, this quality in it makes it try to
+get back to its natural shape quickly. In doing this it acts in the
+direction which will take it back to its normal shape most quickly. The
+arrow is fixed on the string in a way that will not interfere with the
+bow and string getting back to its shape and, when they bounce back,
+the arrow goes with it. The real cause for the arrow’s flight, however,
+comes not from the bow, because the bow cannot put itself out of
+shape, but comes from the person who causes it to be out of shape and,
+therefore, the person who pulls the string back really causes the arrow
+to fly.
+
+
+
+
+Why Do Children Like Candy?
+
+
+Children crave candy because the sugar which it contains largely is in
+such a condition that it is the most suited of all our foods for quick
+use by the body. It is actually turned into real energy within a few
+minutes after it is eaten.
+
+All the things we eat are for the purpose of supplying energy to our
+bodies to replace the energy that our daily activities have dissipated.
+Nature takes the valuable parts of the foods we eat and changes them
+into energy. The waste parts she throws off. Many things we eat have
+little real value as food and many also nature has to work upon a long
+time before their food value is available in energy. Sugar, however,
+represents almost energy itself.
+
+Children are, of course, more active than grown-ups. They are never
+still. They are, therefore, almost always burning up or using up their
+energy. They are also, therefore, almost always in need of food that
+can be made into energy, and as sugar does this almost more quickly
+than any other food, nature teaches the children to like candy or
+sweets.
+
+
+
+
+Why Does Eating Candy Make Some People Fat?
+
+
+Eating as much as one can of anything at any time will produce fat,
+provided you do not do sufficient physical work or take enough exercise
+to counteract the effect of generous eating. When you see a person who
+eats a great deal and is growing fat, you may know that he or she is
+not taking sufficient bodily exercise to work off the energy produced
+by the body from the food that has been eaten. When this happens the
+energy in the form of fat piles up in various parts of the system.
+Candy will do this more quickly than any other thing we eat because it
+contains so much sugar and because sugar is so easily changed by our
+system into usable energy. You generally find a fat person who eats
+much candy to be a lazy person.
+
+
+
+
+What Makes Snowflakes White?
+
+
+A snowflake is, as you are no doubt aware, made of water affected in
+such a way by the temperature as to change it into a crystal. Water, of
+course, as you know, is perfectly transparent. In other words, sunlight
+or other light will pass through water without being reflected. A
+single snow flake also is partially transparent, i.e., the light will
+go through it partially, although some of it will be reflected back.
+When a drop of water is turned into a snowflake crystal, a great many
+reflecting surfaces are produced, and the whiteness of the snowflake is
+the result of practically all of the sunlight which strikes it being
+reflected back, just as a mirror reflects practically all the light or
+color that is thrown against it. If you turn a green light on the snow,
+it will reflect the green light in the same way. When the countless
+snow crystals lie on the ground close together, the ability to reflect
+the light is increased and so a mass of snow crystals on the ground
+look even whiter than one single snowflake.
+
+
+
+
+What Makes the White Caps on the Waves White?
+
+
+In telling why the snowflake is white we have practically already
+answered this question also. Instead of little crystals formed from the
+water, the foam produced by the waves of the ocean are tiny bubbles
+which have the same ability to reflect the light as the snow crystals.
+
+
+
+
+What Good Can Come of a Toothache?
+
+
+Very few of us realize that an aching tooth is a good thing for us,
+provided we have it attended to and the ache removed. Any one who has
+had toothache will hardly agree that there can be a blessing attached
+to this excruciating pain.
+
+But the good comes from the warning it gives us of the condition of our
+teeth on the inside of our mouths. The arrangement of the interior of
+the mouth and the use we make of it in passing things into our systems,
+favors very much the development and increase of microbes, and when
+they once get in they are difficult to remove. It is said that the
+greatest percentage of cases of stomach trouble come from teeth which
+are in bad condition and that a very large percentage of people who
+have bad teeth are in grave danger of blood poisoning or other troubles
+due to the microbes. When these microbes lodge in the mouth, they find
+conditions favorable to their development when there are bad teeth, and
+spread through the system.
+
+
+
+
+How Can Microbes Spread Through the Body?
+
+
+The various parts of the body, including the gums, are connected by
+a lymphatic tissue, which is practically a series of canals. If the
+teeth are not properly attended to and kept in good condition, both as
+to cleanliness and repair, the microbes or germs collect on the gums
+and teeth, and increase in numbers. Soon the mouth is over-populated
+with microbes and are pushed off the gums or teeth into the lymphatic
+canals, where they succeed in developing a disease in your body.
+
+Now the ache in the tooth becomes a blessing very promptly if it
+begins soon after the tooth begins to decay, because in that event the
+dentist is visited and the tooth filled or pulled. Therefore, while
+it hurts terribly, it might be well to remember that a toothache is a
+timely warning of danger which, if not heeded, will likely develop into
+something quite serious.
+
+
+
+
+What Causes Toothache?
+
+
+The ache comes when the tiny nerve at the heart of the tooth is
+exposed to the air. When the tooth begins to decay, it starts to do so
+generally from the outside, and after the decaying process has gone far
+enough, it reaches the nerve in the tooth, which aches when exposed to
+the air. The ache is the signal which the nerve sends to the brain that
+there is an exposure and a cry for help.
+
+
+
+
+Of What Use Are Pains and Aches?
+
+
+All pains and aches are helpful in sounding a warning. A headache may
+be the result of improper sleep and rest and, therefore, warns us to
+take the needed rest or sleep. A pain in the stomach is only nature’s
+way of telling us that we have been unwise in our eating and drinking.
+As a matter of fact, short though our lives are, they would probably
+be still shorter, on the average, if it were not for pains and aches,
+because without these warnings we would never have sense enough to stop
+doing the things we should not do if we lived normally.
+
+
+
+
+What Causes Earache?
+
+
+Earache is caused by the nerves in the ear being affected by something
+either from within or without which produces a swelling of the parts
+immediately adjacent to the nerves in the ear, and which press against
+the nerves; as the nerves cannot go any place else they send a warning
+to the brain that they are being crowded and pressed against. The pain
+you feel is the nerve in the ear warning the brain that something is
+wrong in the ear.
+
+
+
+
+What Is Soap Made Of?
+
+
+Soap is not a very modern product, although we have rarely read of soap
+in olden times. As long ago as two thousand years, the Germans had an
+ointment which was made in practically the same way as we now make
+soap. A soap factory was engaged in making soap in France in 1000 A. D.
+
+Even before soap was manufactured, people knew that ashes of some
+plants, when mixed with water, gave it a peculiar, smooth, slippery
+feeling, and added to the cleansing qualities of water. Although they
+did not know it, this was due to the soda of potash which was in the
+ashes. Pure soda and potash both have excellent qualities for cleaning,
+but are likely to injure the skin, and other things coming in contact
+with them.
+
+Soap is made by boiling together oil or fat and “caustic” soda or
+potash. Caustic soda is a substance made from sodium carbonate by
+adding slaked lime to a solution of it. The slaked lime contains
+calcium in combination with hydrogen and oxygen, and is known in
+chemistry as calcium hydrate. When calcium hydrate is added to a
+solution of sodium carbonate, the sodium present combines with the
+oxygen and hydrogen to form a compound, variously called sodium
+hydrate, sodium hydroxide, or caustic soda. A similar compound of
+potassium is formed when the same kind of lime is mixed in a solution
+of potassium carbonate. In both cases the calcium is converted into
+calcium carbonate, which is not soluble in water and settles to the
+bottom; but the caustic soda or potash is dissolved.
+
+The word “caustic” means to burn. Both will burn the skin if allowed to
+touch the skin for a short time.
+
+The fats used for making soap consist of glycerine, in chemical
+combination with what are called fatty acids. When these fats are
+boiled with caustic soda, or caustic potash, the fat is decomposed; the
+fatty acid combines with the sodium or potassium to form soap and the
+glycerine is left uncombined.
+
+In modern soap factories the manufacture is carried on in large iron
+vessels. Some fat and oil are put into the vessel and a little lye,
+which is really caustic soda or potash, is added and the mixture
+boiled. The fat and the lye combine very quickly and form a whitish
+fluid. More lye is now added and the boiling continued. This process
+is repeated until nearly all the oil or fat has combined with the lye.
+If yellow laundry soap is being made, some rosin is put in, and this
+gives the yellow color. If toilet soap is being made, common salt is
+put in instead of rosin. The addition of the salt has the effect of
+separating the water and the glycerine from the soap. The soap rises to
+the surface and is skimmed off. As soon as the separation is complete,
+and the soap is then cut or pressed into cakes after it has become hard.
+
+Soaps referred to above are the ordinary hard soaps. In making soft
+soaps no salt is added to separate the soap from the liquid. As the
+water and glycerine do not separate from the soap, the entire mixture
+remains of a soft consistency. Soft soap is also made with a lye, that
+is obtained from wood ashes. The ashes are placed in barrels and water
+poured upon them. The water drips down through the ashes in the barrel
+and dissolves the potash contained in them, making lye or caustic
+potash. This lye is then in liquid form and is mixed and boiled with
+grease or fat to make soap.
+
+There are many different fats used in soap making. Palm oil is perhaps
+the most common, but tallow, olive oil, cotton seed oil, and many other
+fats are used. The hardness of the soap varies with the kind of fat
+and lye used. Palm oil or tallow soap is very hard, and other oils are
+sometimes mixed with it to soften it.
+
+These are the main facts connected with the making of soaps. There may
+appear to be different kinds all of which look and smell differently.
+The difference in them is largely due to the presence of different
+perfumes and coloring matters.
+
+[Illustration: INDIAN SENDING MESSAGE WITH SMOKE SIGNALS.
+
+The savage Indians found their system of smoke signals quite effective
+in sending messages from place to place. With a good burning fire
+before him, and a blanket or shield at hand, the Indian was equipped
+to send his messages. The code consisted of the varying kinds of smoke
+clouds produced. These were made large or small by covering the fire
+at intervals with the blanket or shield, thus making interruptions of
+various lengths in the rising clouds of smoke. By dropping moss or
+other things into the fire, he made the smoke clouds either light or
+dark at will.]
+
+
+
+
+The Story in a Telegram
+
+
+How Man Learned to Send Messages.
+
+From the time when man had learned to protect himself from the beasts
+of the forest, and thus was able to move about more freely, and live by
+himself rather than remain with the tribe, he has found it necessary to
+send messages.
+
+One of the most interesting of the early methods for sending messages
+was the Indian way of smoke signalling with the simple equipment of a
+fire with its rising column of smoke and a blanket or shield. Messages
+were sent, relayed, received and answered, at points hundreds of miles
+apart. Among savages still found in remote parts of the earth this and
+other primitive methods are still in use. In the wilds of Africa to-day
+at points where the electric telegraph service has not yet penetrated,
+the natives by the simple method of beating drums, which can be heard
+from one relay point to another, are able to send the “news of the day”
+across the country with marvellous rapidity. In some parts of South
+America, the natives long ago discovered that the ground is a good
+conductor of sound and send their messages almost at will, making their
+signals by tapping against poles which they have planted in the ground
+at various points and which constitute both their sending and receiving
+instruments.
+
+The Signal Corps in the army uses flags for sending messages, where
+the telegraph is not available, the flags being of different colors,
+and the signals are produced by waving the flags in different ways.
+The army heliograph is also used as a telegraph line--a mirror which
+reflects the sun’s rays in a manner understood by a prearranged code.
+These and other similar methods are merely elaborations of devices
+developed and used by the savages as a solution of the ever present
+need of sending a message to some other point.
+
+[Illustration: THE FIRST MESSENGER BOY
+
+THE GREEK RUNNER.
+
+In this picture we see the Greek Runner on the last leg of his journey
+and the man to whom he is to deliver the message waiting for him. This
+method of sending messages was not very fast, although the runners were
+picked because of their speed and endurance.]
+
+[Illustration: THE PONY TELEGRAPH.
+
+Here we see the fast riders of the Pony Telegraph, which increased the
+speed of delivering messages quite a good deal, but, of course, there
+was danger of losing the message to enemies or through accident, so
+that it might be difficult under such circumstances to send a secret
+message or to even be certain that it would arrive at destination.]
+
+[Illustration: IT IS EASY TO CALL A TELEGRAPH MESSENGER...
+
+RINGING THE CALL BOX.]
+
+The great Marathon runner was nothing more or less than a telegraph
+messenger hastening with his written message, from the man who
+delivered it to him, to its destination, and his work was harder than
+that of the messenger boy to-day, for he not only had to deliver the
+message himself to its destination, but had to run fast all the way or
+lose his job.
+
+The messenger on foot finally gave way to the Pony Telegraph, which not
+only shortened the time necessary to deliver a message, but marked the
+beginning of a system.
+
+[Illustration: MESSENGER BOYS WITH BICYCLES WAITING THE CALL.]
+
+
+How Does a Telegram Get There?
+
+The next time your daddy takes you down to the office, ask him to show
+you the telegraph call box. When you see it, you will perhaps not think
+that by merely pulling down the little lever you can so start things
+going that, if you wish, you can cause men who are on the other side
+of the earth to work for you in a few minutes, and to make little
+instruments all along the way which, with their other equipment, have
+cost millions of dollars, click, click, click at your will.
+
+[Illustration: ...BUT MANY TELEGRAPH EMPLOYEES MUST WORK...
+
+Here we see the messenger calling at the office from which the call box
+registered a call and receiving the telegram to be taken by him to the
+central office to be put on the wire.]
+
+[Illustration: When the messenger gets back to the office, he hands the
+message to the receiving clerk who stamps it, showing the exact time
+received and sends it by pneumatic tube to the operating room.]
+
+Sooner or later during the day your father will be wanting to send a
+telegram. He steps to the call box, pulls the little lever and goes
+back to his desk. In a few minutes, sometimes before you realize it,
+the little blue-coated messenger appears and says “Call?” Father
+hands him a telegraph blank on which he has written the message, the
+messenger takes off his cap, puts the message inside and the cap back
+on his head and away he goes on his bicycle as fast as his legs can
+pedal, to the central office, to which point you follow him to see what
+he does with the message.
+
+If you had been at the telegraph office instead of your father’s
+office, you would have seen one of these boys start off on his wheel to
+get the message your father wished to send. When the little lever on
+the call box is pulled down, it is pulled back by a spring which sets
+some clock work going which sends a signal over the wire on a circuit
+which runs out from a register at the main office. The register has a
+paper tape running through it, and the signal from the call box appears
+as a series of dots on the tape. The clerk knows from the number and
+spacing of the dots that it was your father that called and not some
+other business man whose box might be on the same circuit.
+
+[Illustration: ...BEFORE THE TELEGRAPH SERVICE IS POSSIBLE AND...
+
+We have now followed the telegram to the point where it is to start
+on its real journey. Here we see the operator preparing to send the
+message. He first must “get the wire.” By this is meant to get a
+through connection to the town where the message is to be delivered.
+Each office along the line has a signal. The other operators can hear
+the call, but since it is not their signal, they pay no attention.
+Almost immediately, however, the operator at the delivery point hears
+the signal. He signals back “I I” and repeats his own office call,
+which means “I hear you and am ready.” The message is then ticked off,
+until finished and the operator at the delivery point signals “O. K.,”
+together with his personal signal, which means he has received the
+whole message and has it down on paper.]
+
+[Illustration: Here we see the operator at the delivery office. She
+has translated the dots and dashes as they came to her over the wire
+into plain words on a regular telegraph blank, putting down the time
+received, the amount to be collected, if it is a “collect” message, or
+marking it “Paid” if it was so sent. She has handed it to one of the
+blue-clad messengers in her office who starts off at once to deliver
+it. The operator has also made a copy of the message for the office
+files.]
+
+[Illustration: ...THE TELEGRAM ARRIVES AT DESTINATION
+
+Here we see the messenger delivering the telegram to the person to
+whom it is addressed. It may be good news or bad news for the person
+receiving it, but it is all in the day’s work for the messenger boy.
+But let us see how many people have to work to deliver the message. We
+have followed it through from the original call box. First there was
+the messenger who came for it, then the receiving clerk, the sending
+operator and the operator who receives it and last of all the messenger
+boy who delivered it. This does not take into account the men who must
+look after the many miles of wires, the machinery which supplies the
+current, or the great army of men who are constantly laying new wires
+so that you can send a telegram from almost anywhere to any other
+place.]
+
+The operators you have seen working in these pictures are Morse
+operators. They send the message by Morse Code in dots and dashes
+which are sent over the wire as electric impulses. At the other end
+the message is read by listening to the clicks the sounder makes as
+it receives these same electric impulses. This is the simplest way of
+telegraphing.
+
+The number of messages sent between two big cities in a day is
+tremendous--many more than could be transmitted over one Morse wire.
+Many wires would be needed. But wire costs money, so ingenious men
+set to work to find some way to send more than one message over a
+single wire at the same time. They succeeded. There is now the duplex
+telegraph, which sends a message each way simultaneously over a single
+wire, the quadruplex, which sends two messages each way simultaneously
+over a single wire. Last but not least there is the multiplex, which
+sends four messages each way simultaneously over a single wire.
+This seems almost unbelievable, but it is done. In the case of the
+duplex and quadruplex, the different messages are sent by currents
+of different strength, and by changing the direction of the current.
+Receiving instruments are designed so as to separate the messages by
+being affected only by the currents of certain strength or polarity,
+as the direction of flow is termed. It can easily be seen that by
+these ingenious devices, the telegraph company saves many thousands
+of dollars in the miles and miles of wire, and hundreds of telegraph
+poles which would be required if all the messages had to be sent over a
+simple Morse wire, one message only upon the wire at a time.
+
+[Illustration: THE WONDERFUL ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH SYSTEM...
+
+In this picture we see the interior of a telegraph office along the
+line of a railroad. The operator has her hand on the “key” or sending
+instrument. At her left in a stand called the resonator, is the
+receiving instrument called the “sounder” which clicks off the message.
+In front of her is an instrument called the “relay.” Current from two
+of the batteries goes through the key when it is pressed down, through
+the relay and out on to the wires of the pole line, then through the
+relay of the receiving operator at the other end, (see picture on
+opposite page) through his key and through two more batteries to the
+ground. The earth forms the return wire of an electric circuit when
+both keys are “closed” or pressed down. You know all electricity has to
+flow in a closed circuit. The “sounder” has to make good strong clicks
+to be understood, and the current after it has gone through miles of
+wire and ground may not be strong enough so the sounder is put on a
+local circuit of its own, with a special battery. In this circuit is a
+contact maker which is part of the relay. When the key is pressed down
+and current flows over the wires on the poles and through the relays,
+the magnets of the relay pull on a little piece of metal called the
+“armature,” which makes a contact and closes the local sounder circuit,
+so current from the single local battery can flow up through the
+magnets of the sounder and back to the battery. This makes the sounder
+click. When the key is released, the relay armature is pulled back by
+a spring and breaks the circuit of sounder, which then emits another
+click. By the number and duration of the clicks and the time between
+them, the receiving operator knows the meaning of the signal. The Morse
+Code, which is used throughout the United States, is shown on next
+page.]
+
+[Illustration: ...SENDS MESSAGES THOUSANDS OF MILES INSTANTANEOUSLY
+
+  MORSE TELEGRAPH CODE
+
+  Letters  Morse
+  A        · --
+  B        -- · · ·
+  C        · ·  ·
+  D        -- · ·
+  E        ·
+  F        · -- ·
+  G        -- -- ·
+  H        · · · ·
+  I        · ·
+  J        -- · -- ·
+  K        -- · --
+  L        ----
+  M        -- --
+  N        -- ·
+  O        ·  ·
+  P        · · · · ·
+  Q        · · -- ·
+  R        ·  · ·
+  S        · · ·
+  T        --
+  U        · · --
+  V        · · · --
+  W        · -- --
+  X        · -- · ·
+  Y        · ·  · ·
+  Z        · · ·  ·
+  &        ·  · · ·
+
+  Numerals
+
+  Figures  Morse
+  1        · -- -- ·
+  2        · · -- · ·
+  3        · · · -- ·
+  4        · · · · --
+  5        -- -- --
+  6        · · · · · ·
+  7        -- -- ·
+  8        -- · · · ·
+  9        -- · · --
+  0        ----
+
+  Punctuations
+
+  . Period          · · -- -- · ·
+  : Colon           -- · -- · ·
+  ; Semicolon       · · ·  ·  ·
+  , Comma           · -- · --
+  ? Interrogation   -- · · -- ·
+  ! Exclamation     -- -- -- ·
+  - Fraction Line   ·
+  ¶ Paragraph       -- -- -- --
+  () Parenthesis    · -- ·· --]
+
+The multiplex telegraph is truly a marvellous invention. It has been
+developed by the engineers of the Western Union Telegraph Co. working
+with the engineers of the Western Electric Company. The principle
+on which this instrument works is that if separate instruments are
+given connection with the wire one after the other during very short
+intervals of time, the effect is as though the wire were split up, and
+each instrument works just as if it alone were on the wire. Not only
+does the multiplex telegraph thus send four messages in one direction
+and four messages in the opposite direction, simultaneously over a
+single wire, thus keeping no less than sixteen operators employed on
+one wire, four sending and four receiving at each end, but each message
+instead of being sent by the ordinary Morse key, is written upon a
+typewriter keyboard at one end of the line and appears automatically
+typewritten at the other end.
+
+If you live in a big city, go into one of the larger branch offices
+of the Western Union Telegraph Co. and ask to see printing telegraph.
+Most of the large branch offices communicate with the general operating
+department in the city by means of what they term “short line
+printers,” which are instruments on which the message is written upon a
+typewriter keyboard and appears typewritten at the other end.
+
+
+Who Invented the Electric Telegraph?
+
+It is hard to say just how the telegraph originated in the mind of men.
+We have already shown how the savages sent signals over distances by
+means of the smoke rising from his fire. Every boy and girl has used a
+little mirror, held in the sun to flash a bright spot here and there.
+This principle has been used by the army to signal at distances. The
+sun’s rays are flashed from a small mirror, long and short flashes
+indicating the dashes and dots of the Morse telegraph code.
+
+[Illustration: PROFESSOR S. F. B. MORSE, INVENTOR OF THE TELEGRAPH.]
+
+Progress towards the perfection of the electric telegraph began with
+the first researches of scientists into the natural laws which govern
+that great natural agent, electricity. Clever, painstaking men,
+studying and experimenting for the love of the work, discovered bit
+by bit how to control the force. Stephen Gray with his Leyden jars,
+which stored up a charge of electricity, inspired Sir William Watson to
+experiment, and he sent current from one jar to another two miles away.
+
+
+The First Suggestion of the Electric Telegraph.
+
+For a long time no one thought that this opened the way for the making
+of a useful servant for man. In 1753 this thought occurred to an
+unknown man in Scotland, who wrote a letter to a newspaper suggesting
+that messages be sent by electric currents.
+
+One of his schemes was that there should be a light ball at the
+receiving end of the wire which would strike a bell when it felt
+the electric impulse come over the wire from the Leyden jar, and by
+devising a code depending upon the number of strokes of the bell and
+the time between them, he suggested that messages could be sent and
+interpreted. Some believe this man to have been a doctor named Charles
+Morrison of Greenock, Scotland. Whoever he was, he suggested a method
+which comes very near to being that in use to-day.
+
+The difficulty with proceeding on this suggestion was that the current
+from the Leyden jar was static electricity, which has not the strength
+nor can it be controlled as can the current of low potential which
+is used to-day. Volta discovered this new and more stable form of
+electricity and many different men labored investigating what could
+be accomplished with it. The names of Sir Humphry Davy and Michael
+Faraday are inseparably connected with this advance. It was Oersted’s
+and Faraday’s discovery of the connection between electricity and
+magnetism, and how an electric current may be made to magnetize a piece
+of iron at will, that really opened the way for the invention of the
+telegraph we know to-day.
+
+
+The First Real Telegraph.
+
+But before the much greater practical value of Volta’s current was
+discovered, one man developed a real telegraph which worked with
+electricity of the static kind, produced by friction. This man was
+named Sir Francis Ronalds. He worked along the lines laid down by the
+unknown Scotchman, whom we have supposed to be Charles Morrison. The
+machine he built and operated in his garden at Hammersmith utilized
+pith balls, which actuated by the charge of static electricity sent
+along the wire caused a letter to appear before an opening in the dial.
+When perfected he offered it to the British Government, who refused
+it. They were very stupid in their refusal, for they said “telegraphs
+are wholly unnecessary.” Sir Francis Ronalds’ invention cost him much
+care, anxiety and money. He lived to see the more practical voltaic
+current taken up by others and put to successful use. Being unselfish
+he rejoiced that others should succeed where he had failed.
+
+
+Two Men who Invented our Telegraph almost Simultaneously.
+
+The telegraph, working on the electro-magnetic principle, as used
+to-day, was developed almost simultaneously on the two sides of the
+Atlantic Ocean. In England Sir Charles Wheatstone and Sir William
+Fothergill Cooke worked out a practical method and instruments, which
+with few changes, are in use to-day. Cooke was a doctor and had
+served with the British army in India. Wheatstone was the son of a
+Gloucester musical instrument maker. The latter was fond of science and
+experimented continually with electricity and wrote about it and other
+scientific subjects. As a result of his work he was made a professor
+at King’s College. There he conducted important researches and tests,
+among which was one which measured the speed at which electricity
+travels along a wire. So Cooke, who was a doctor and a good business
+man, entered into partnership with the scientist Wheatstone, and
+together they completed their invention. It was first used in 1838
+on the London and Blackwall Railway. At first it was expensive and
+cumbersome, using five lines of wire. Later this number was reduced
+to two, and in 1845, an instrument was devised which required but one
+wire. This instrument, with a few minor changes, is the one in use
+to-day in England.
+
+While these two men were working in England, an American artist, S. F.
+B. Morse, was studying and experimenting in the United States along his
+own lines but with the same end in view, namely to produce instruments
+which would satisfactorily send messages over a wire by electricity.
+
+
+An American, however, is given the honor of First by Slight Margin.
+
+Morse was born in Charlestown, Massachusetts, in 1791. He was gifted as
+an artist, both in painting and sculpture, and in 1811 went abroad to
+England to study. While on a voyage from Havre to America in 1832 he
+met on board ship a Dr. Jackson, who told him of the latest scientific
+discoveries in regard to the electric current and the electro-magnet.
+This set Morse to thinking and after three years’ hard work on the
+problem he produced a telegraph which worked on the principle of the
+electro-magnet. With the apparatus devised by Morse and his partner
+Alfred Vail, a message was sent from Washington to Baltimore in 1844.
+
+There has been some question as to whether Morse or Wheatstone first
+invented a workable telegraph. As will be evident from this history,
+the telegraph in principle was a gradual development, to which many
+minds contributed. To Morse, however, the high authority of the
+Supreme Court of the United States has given the credit of being
+the first to perfect a practical instrument, saying that the Morse
+invention “preceded the three European inventions” and that it would
+be impossible to examine the latter without perceiving at once “the
+decided superiority of the one invented by Professor Morse.”
+
+
+Uncle Sam Helped Build the First Telegraph Line.
+
+~FIRST TELEGRAPH LINE FROM BALTIMORE TO WASHINGTON~
+
+At the time Morse’s Recording Telegraph was invented there were, of
+course, no telegraph lines in any part of the world, with the exception
+of the short lines of wire put up by investigators for experimental
+purposes. To remove the obscurity as to the purpose to be served by the
+telegraph was the first problem which presented itself to Morse and his
+backers. In 1843 an appropriation was secured of $30,000 from the U. S.
+Government, with which a line was built from Washington to Baltimore.
+This was built and operated by the Government for about two years, but
+the Government refused to purchase the patent rights. So the owners
+of the patents endeavored to get the general public interested in the
+telegraph as a commercial undertaking and gradually companies were
+founded and licensed to use the invention.
+
+By 1851 there were as many as fifty different telegraph companies in
+operation in different parts of the United States. A few of these
+used the devices of a man named Alexander Bain, which were afterwards
+adjudged to infringe the Morse patents, and one or two used an
+instrument invented by Royal E. House of Vermont, which printed the
+messages received in plain Roman letters on a ribbon of paper. This at
+first seemed to have an advantage over that of Morse, which received
+the message in dots and dashes, in the Morse Code, and these had
+to be translated and written out by an operator before they could
+be delivered. However, as time went on, the operators came to read
+the Morse messages by the sound of the dots and dashes, instead of
+waiting to read the paper tape having the dots and dashes marked on
+it, and finally the recording feature was given up and the sounder, or
+instrument which simply clicks out the message, came into general use.
+
+In the early days, the possibility of the business were little
+understood and many telegraph companies failed. April 8, 1851,
+papers were filed in Albany for the incorporation of the New York
+and Mississippi Valley Printing Telegraph Co. This company, which
+soon afterwards changed its name to Western Union, was destined to
+absorb the various companies throughout the country until it, in time,
+operated the telegraph lines over practically the entire United States,
+and has its blue sign in nearly every town and hamlet in the country.
+
+[Illustration: AN EXPENSIVE EQUIPMENT NECESSARY TO-DAY
+
+OPERATING ROOM.
+
+In large cities like New York and Chicago, the operating rooms are very
+large. For instance, the main operating department of the Western Union
+Telegraph Co. in New York City has 1000 operators. This picture shows
+an operating room. The men and women sit in opposite sides of long
+tables. On the tables are the keys and sounders by which they send and
+receive the messages. Each operator has a typewriter, or “mill,” as he
+calls it, on which he writes off the message as it comes to him over
+the wire.]
+
+[Illustration: MAIN SWITCHBOARD.
+
+The picture shows a main switchboard in a large operating room. To this
+come the ends of the wires from other cities, and to it are connected
+the wires from the instruments in front of the operators. By putting
+plugs, attached to each end of a wire, into the sockets in the board,
+any wire can be connected with any operating position, or several local
+circuits can be connected up with a main line from the outside.]
+
+[Illustration: A THOROUGH SYSTEM MUST HANDLE THE MESSAGES
+
+A SECTION OF THE REPEATER ROOM.
+
+When a wire runs to a distant point from the main operating department
+of the telegraph company in a large city, the same electric current
+which runs through the key of the operator as he sits at his place,
+busily sending messages, does not go out over the wire to that distant
+point. It simply goes to the repeater room and operates a repeater,
+which sends out another current over the long wire which leads to the
+destination of the message. This is necessary because the condition
+of the weather affects the lines and the current strength has to be
+changed to suit the changing line conditions. The operators haven’t
+time to make these adjustments, and so all the repeaters are grouped
+together in the repeater room where they are under the watchful eyes
+of experts. Here also are the delicate instruments which separate the
+messages coming over duplex and quadruplex wires, by responding to
+impulses of various strengths. These messages which have been separated
+are then transmitted by the duplex or quadruplex repeaters to different
+operators in the operating room, who hear their sounders tick out the
+message just the same as if it came over a simple Morse wire.]
+
+[Illustration: CABLES ENTERING A CENTRAL OFFICE.
+
+You may not but your father will remember the time when in large cities
+there were tall telegraph poles with hundreds of wires on them running
+along the main streets, so that the town seemed to be bound with great
+spiders’ web. That is all changed now, and the telegraph wires are run
+through ducts, placed underground. For this purpose they are made up
+in cables, and in the picture you see a number of cables entering a
+central office.]
+
+[Illustration: THE MARVEL OF TELEGRAPH INSTRUMENTS
+
+WHEATSTONE SENDING INSTRUMENT.
+
+These two photographs show the most modern form of the instruments
+which, as we are told on another page, were invented in England by
+Wheatstone and Cooke. In sending a paper tape is punched in what
+is called a perforator, which has a keyboard like a typewriter. A
+certain combination of holes means a certain letter. This tape is then
+automatically fed through the sending instrument, which sends impulses
+over the wire. The tape with the holes punched through it can be seen
+in the picture.
+
+On the right is the Wheatstone receiving instrument. It prints the
+signals received in dots and dashes on a tape, which is translated by
+the operator who typewrites the translation on a message blank for
+delivery.]
+
+[Illustration: The automatic telegraph typewriter shown here is one of
+the wonderful instruments mentioned on one of the preceding pages. The
+operator at the other end of the line writes on a typewriter keyboard,
+on the sending instrument. The electric impulses are received by the
+machine shown above, which automatically typewrites the message on a
+blank, ready for delivery.]
+
+On this page we see some of the first telegraph instruments, in
+fact, the very instruments which Professor Morse used in the early
+demonstrations of his invention. These instruments may be seen in the
+Smithsonian Institution at Washington, D. C. The key is known as the
+Vail key, because it is supposed to have been constructed by Alfred
+Vail, who worked with Morse in his experiments with the telegraph. As
+can be seen it is very simple. One wire was connected to the spring
+piece and the other to the post beneath it. When the key was pressed
+down, the contact was made and an impulse sent over the wire, either a
+dot, if the key was pressed down and immediately released, or a dash if
+it were held down for just the fraction of a second before releasing.
+
+From the very first it was found that relays were necessary, because
+the current after coming a long way over the wire often was not
+strong enough to operate the recording instrument. Therefore, this
+weak current was made to go though the electro-magnets of the relay,
+magnetizing these and pulling to the left the upright arm which can be
+seen in the photograph with a little block of iron attached to it. This
+arm, when pulled by the magnets, made a contact at the top and allowed
+a strong current from a battery to flow through the magnets of the
+recording instrument.
+
+The first practical recording telegraph instrument devised by Morse
+is shown. It looks like a clumsy affair compared to the instruments
+of to-day, but it worked so effectively as to convince people of the
+possibilities of the great invention. In the wooden box, attached to
+the frame at the right, is clockwork which pulled a paper tape at an
+even rate of speed over a pulley just beneath a needle point. This
+needle point is attached to a light framework having a piece of iron
+fastened in it. Below this iron are the electro-magnets, and when they
+received an impulse of current from the battery, through the relay,
+they pulled down the frame so that the point made a mark upon the paper
+tape which moved under it. Thus in the tape appeared a series of dots
+and dashes, which the operator, knowing the Morse Code, could easily
+translate into English.
+
+[Illustration: THE FIRST TELEGRAPH INSTRUMENTS
+
+ONE OF THE FIRST KEYS FOR SENDING TELEGRAMS.]
+
+[Illustration: ONE OF THE FIRST RELAYS.]
+
+[Illustration: The first recording apparatus. The box on the right
+contains clock work for pulling a paper tape beneath a sharp point
+actuated by magnets.]
+
+[Illustration: THE LITTLE INSTRUMENTS THAT CHECK OFF THE WORDS
+
+A LATER KEY.]
+
+[Illustration: A LATER AND IMPROVED RECORDING INSTRUMENT.
+
+Here we see some early telegraph instruments which have been improved
+somewhat from the crude devices illustrated on the preceding page.
+The key answers the same purpose as before, but has been improved by
+pivoting the lever arm, and having a coil spring, adjustable by means
+of a screw, so that the weight necessary to press it down can be varied
+to suit the likings of the operator who uses it. The play of the key
+or the distance it must be pressed down before it makes an electric
+contact, can be adjusted by another screw.
+
+The recording instrument here shown is a much neater affair than the
+cumbersome device which Professor Morse first built. The cumbersome
+wooden box has been replaced with a neat brass frame containing the
+clockwork for drawing the paper tape beneath the marking point, which
+is attached to a piece of iron, or armature, placed just above the
+magnet.
+
+Below we see the most modern types of Morse instruments. In the center
+is the key, which is not much changed except that it is built to be
+low down to a table, so that the operator may rest his forearm on the
+table top in front of it, and operate the key with his wrist, with less
+fatigue. The relay at the left is interesting. It shows how little this
+instrument has changed, except for refinement in its appearance, from
+the first relay built by Professor Morse. At the right is the Morse
+sounder, which has replaced the old Morse tape recording instrument.
+When current goes through the magnets they attract a piece of iron
+attached to the metal arm and pull it down to strike the brass frame.
+This makes a click, and when the current is intercepted, the magnets
+release the arm and a spring pulls it back, making another click. The
+operator reads the message by listening to the clicks. If the up click
+comes right after the down click it represents a dot. If there is a
+pause between them, a dash is represented.]
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  Relay
+
+  Key
+
+  Sounder
+
+MODERN MORSE INSTRUMENTS]
+
+[Illustration: WHAT OCEAN CABLES LOOK LIKE WHEN CUT IN TWO
+
+  _Light Intermediate_
+
+  _Heavy Intermediate_
+
+  _Main Cable_
+
+  _Rock Cable_
+
+  _Heavy Shore End_
+
+  _Rock Cable_
+
+  _Heavy Shore End_
+
+  _Heavy Intermediate_
+
+  _Light Intermediate_
+
+  _Deep Sea_
+
+  _Bay Cable_
+
+FIG. 1.--CABLES ON VANCOUVER-FANNING ISLAND SECTION.
+
+Full size.
+
+Core, 600/340.]
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  Yarn Serving & Compound
+
+  16 No. 13 (·095) Galvanized Wires
+
+  Jute Serving
+
+  Gutta Percha
+
+  Copper Conductor
+
+FIG. 2.--CABLES USED ON FIJI-NORFOLK ISLAND-QUEENSLAND AND NEW ZEALAND
+SECTIONS. Full size. Core 130/130.
+
+This picture shows cross-sections of a cable which runs from Vancouver,
+B. C., to Australia and New Zealand. A cable is not laid with a
+uniform cross-section. On the floor of the ocean, perhaps miles below
+the surface, the cable rests quietly and is not moved by storms
+which generate great waves on the surface of the water. As the cable
+approaches the shore, the movement of the water goes deeper and the
+cable must be made heavier to prevent it from being worn by movement on
+the bed of the ocean. Where the cable passes over a rocky bottom, it is
+made much larger in diameter and is heavily armored.]
+
+[Illustration: Here is the cable steamship “Colonia” laying the shore
+end of a cable. Note the row of floats upon the water which carry the
+cable until the end in the cable office is firmly fastened. When this
+is accomplished the floats are removed and the cable sinks to the
+bottom.]
+
+
+
+
+The Story in an Ocean Cable
+
+
+What is a Cable Made of?
+
+A submarine telegraph cable as usually made consists of a core in the
+center of which is a strand of copper wire which varies in weight from
+seventy to four hundred pounds to the mile. Strands of copper wire
+instead of one thick wire of copper are used, because the former is
+more flexible. The copper conductor is covered with several coatings of
+rubber of equal weight to the copper wires. After this comes a coating
+of jute serving, then a layer of galvanized iron wires and finally a
+layer of yarn and compound which forms the outer covering of the cable.
+In addition to this where the cable lays among rocks that might injure
+it, chains are securely wrapped around it, so as to prevent wear and
+tear as much as possible.
+
+You may not have known it, but the cable which lies on the bottom
+where the water is deepest is never so large as nearer the shore or
+in shallow water. Little by little the men who lay and look after
+cables have found that it is best to have a specially constructed outer
+covering for different depths and character of bottoms so as to provide
+the least possible danger of damage through the action of the water on
+the bottom.
+
+
+How is a Cable Laid?
+
+When the cable of sufficient length is completed, it is carried to
+a specially equipped vessel which has a great tank for holding the
+cable and the necessary machinery for lowering it over the end of the
+ship into the water. The cable is carefully coiled in the tank, the
+different coils being prevented from adhering by a coat of whitewash.
+First then, a sufficient length of cable is paid out to reach the cable
+house or shore. Here it is finally tested to see that the entire length
+of cable is in working order. If satisfactorily tested, the vessel
+steams slowly away on the course outlined, paying out the cable as she
+goes.
+
+[Illustration: STORING A CABLE LONG ENOUGH TO CROSS THE OCEAN
+
+Here we see a cable coiled round and round in the tank which holds it
+on board the cable ship.]
+
+[Illustration: In the front of the picture we see the cable coming from
+the tank in which it is coiled. It goes over the drum of the paying-out
+machine and thence to the bow of the ship, where it passes over big
+sheaves or pulleys and down into the ocean.]
+
+[Illustration: THE MACHINERY ON A CABLE SHIP
+
+The paying-out machine. The cable makes a couple of turns around the
+big drum, which is connected to the dial, so that the dial indicates
+the length of cable which has been paid out into the sea.]
+
+[Illustration: The upper forward deck of the cable steamship
+“Telconia,” showing the gear which is used in paying out the cable.
+Away in the bow are the big sheaves over which the cable goes into the
+sea. Nearer is a dynamometer which measures the tension on the cable.]
+
+[Illustration: HOW THE CABLE IS DROPPED INTO THE OCEAN
+
+Here we see the cable on the lead, as it is called, passing over the
+big bow sheave from which it dives into the depths of the sea.]
+
+The vessel must pay out more than a mile of cable for every mile she
+travels because there must be enough slack allowed at the same time
+to provide for the unevenness of the bottom of the sea. For this
+purpose the amount of cable paid out must be measured. This is done
+by the paying-out machine, which is shown in one of the pictures.
+The difference between the speed of the ship and the amount of cable
+paid out gives the amount of slack. Too much slack would also be bad,
+so that it is a very pretty problem to pay out just enough and both
+the speed of the vessel and the rate of paying out the cable must be
+watched carefully.
+
+One of the greatest wonders accomplished by the ingenuity of man is the
+ocean telegraph, by which we flash messages back and forth under the
+sea between the continents and completely around the world.
+
+Hardly had the telegraph become an established fact, before Professor
+Morse, who made the telegraph practical, expressed the belief that a
+telegraph line to Europe by means of a wire laid on the bottom of the
+ocean was easily possible at some future time. Mr. Cyrus W. Field, the
+first to lay an ocean cable successfully, heard him and in his own
+mind said “Why not now?” The idea fixed itself so thoroughly in his
+resolute mind that he soon said to himself “It shall be done,” and
+went to work, and labored incessantly through twelve years of failure
+and discouragement before he accomplished his task, which was a great
+compliment to this giant of American stick-to-it-iveness.
+
+While many doubted the feasibility of the project and others thought
+it the dream of a disordered brain, Mr. Field found many who believed
+in him and his idea and who loaned him their financial support for the
+undertaking.
+
+[Illustration: THE CABLE ARRIVES ON THE OTHER SIDE
+
+Landing the shore end of a cable. The cable is supported on several
+boats and this picture shows the inshore boat with the end of the cable
+reaching the beach with the seas breaking over her.]
+
+[Illustration: THE MEN WHO MADE THE OCEAN CABLE POSSIBLE
+
+THE PIONEERS OF THE FIRST OCEAN CABLE.]
+
+American genius had not at that time asserted its supremacy in
+mechanics and so the first cable had to be made in England; so Mr.
+Field ordered one long enough to stretch from the west coast of Ireland
+to the eastern point of Newfoundland. English capitalists subscribed
+the money and the United States provided the vessel in which to store
+and from which to drop the cable into the ocean.
+
+Upon the first attempt to lay the cable, every thing went along nicely
+for six days, and then suddenly the cable broke when three hundred and
+thirty-five miles had been laid, and many said it could not be done.
+Mr. Field, however, full of American pluck and determination, said “We
+will try again.” A second attempt was made with two ships, the U. S. S.
+“Niagara” and H. M. S. S. “Agamemnon.” Each ship carried half the cable
+and they traveled in company to the middle of the ocean. There the two
+pieces of the cable were spliced together and the ships started for the
+shores in opposite directions. Again, however, when only a little of
+the cable had been paid out--a little more than one hundred miles in
+fact--the cable broke and both ships were forced to return to England.
+
+In his third attempt the cable was finally laid clear across the
+ocean and fastened at both ends. When tried it was found to work
+successfully and Queen Victoria and President Buchanan were able to
+exchange greetings upon the achievement of a wonderful work. The people
+celebrated the event on both sides of the ocean, but in the midst of
+the festivities, while a message was being flashed, something happened
+to the cable--what, we have never been able to learn--and the cable was
+silent, forever.
+
+Nothing daunted, however, Mr. Field by his great courage induced his
+backers to buy him another cable and the “Great Eastern” sailed upon
+what was to be a most successful mission. Starting from the American
+side with the greatest steamship then known in charge of the previous
+cable, the other end was successfully landed at Hearts Content,
+Ireland, on July 27, 1866, in perfect working order, and the question
+of the ocean telegraph was solved.
+
+[Illustration: HOW CABLES ARE REPAIRED
+
+Here is a buoy which is anchored to the cable. The cable ship will pick
+it up and haul up the cable to the surface for inspection and perhaps
+it will have to be repaired.]
+
+[Illustration: Three grapnels used for picking up a cable from the
+bed of the ocean. On the left is a common grapnel. In the middle is a
+special grapnel known as Trott-Kingsford. On the right is the ordinary
+cutting grapnel. Note the knives on the shaft and the insides of the
+prongs.]
+
+[Illustration: In this picture we see a portion of a cable which has
+been fouled by the anchor of a ship and badly damaged. Note how the
+wires are bunched. The cable splicers will go to work on this and put
+in a new piece of cable, after which it will be let down into the sea
+again.]
+
+[Illustration: The Western Union Cable ship “Minia,” fast in an ice
+field.]
+
+[Illustration: POWERFUL ENGINES NEEDED ON CABLE REPAIR SHIPS
+
+Here are the powerful engines which are used for picking up a cable
+which has to be raised from the bottom of the sea for inspection or
+repair.]
+
+[Illustration: In this picture we see men at work splicing a cable
+which has been picked up out of the depths of the sea and found to be
+damaged.]
+
+[Illustration: THE SHIP WHICH HELPED IN LAYING THE FIRST CABLE
+
+  ARMORING MACHINE
+
+Here is one of the machines used for armoring the cable. By armoring
+is meant winding steel wires around and around the cable to protect it
+from being cut by sharp rocks on the bottom or by deep sea animals like
+the teredo, which might attack it.]
+
+[Illustration: The “Great Eastern” which was the first ship to carry a
+cable across the Atlantic Ocean.]
+
+[Illustration: This is a section of a telephone cable, known as a
+“bulge.” It contains inductance coils to offset what is called the
+condenser capacity of the cable, which would otherwise cause the
+talking to become blurred.]
+
+[Illustration: THE DOTS AND DASHES WHICH FLASH ACROSS THE SEA
+
+CONTINENTAL MORSE CODE SIGNALS USED IN CABLE WORKING]
+
+Making repairs to a cable where it comes out of the sea on to a bold
+rocky shore. Note how the cable is wound with chain to protect it from
+the rocks.
+
+[Illustration: Facsimile of Continental Morse Alphabet as Signalled
+Across the Atlantic and Copied on Tape by Siphon Recorder Instrument
+at the Receiving Station. Signals Enlarged for Purposes of this
+Illustration.
+
+Same Signals as They Appear in Actual Working
+
+Here are two photographs showing the continental Morse code signals
+used in cable working and the signals as they are received by the
+siphon recording instrument at the receiving station. This siphon
+recorder is in practical use in the cable world. The dots and dashes
+sent into the wire on one side of the ocean according to the Morse
+code, cause the siphon recorder through the means of electrified ink to
+make a waving line on a tape. The signals are readily reducible again
+if necessary to the dots and dashes of the Morse code because dots make
+deflections to one side of the center of the tape and dashes to the
+other. The operator who receives the message can therefore readily read
+it.
+
+  ALPHABET:
+
+  A · --
+  B -- · · ·
+  C -- · -- ·
+  D -- · ·
+  E ·
+  F · · -- ·
+  G -- -- ·
+  H · · · ·
+  I · ·
+  J · -- -- --
+  K -- · --
+  L · -- · ·
+  M -- --
+  N -- ·
+  O -- -- --
+  P · -- -- ·
+  Q -- -- · --
+  R · -- ·
+  S · · ·
+  T --
+  U · · --
+  V · · · --
+  W · -- --
+  X -- · · --
+  Y -- · -- --
+  Z -- -- · ·
+
+  FIGURES:
+
+  1 · -- -- -- --
+  2 · · -- -- --
+  3 · · · -- --
+  4 · · · · --
+  5 · · · · ·
+  6 -- · · · ·
+  7 -- -- · · ·
+  8 -- -- -- · ·
+  9 -- -- -- -- ·
+  0 -- -- -- -- --
+  OR --]
+
+[Illustration: TO-DAY THERE ARE MANY CABLES ON THE BOTTOM
+
+MAP No. 1
+
+  WESTERN UNION
+  TRANS-ATLANTIC CABLES
+  AND CONNECTIONS]
+
+
+
+
+THE STORY IN A RAILWAY LOCOMOTIVE
+
+
+[Illustration: One of the Most Powerful Locomotives in the World]
+
+[Illustration: BOILER OF ARTICULATE COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVE.
+
+The wonder of our railroad systems to-day is the growth of the
+locomotive. The necessity for economy in hauling long freight trains
+has led to the development of this type of engine. Some idea of its
+size can be had from the second picture, which shows the boiler and
+firebox of the locomotive shown in the first picture. The firebox is so
+large that an ordinary narrow-gauge locomotive of the old style can be
+comfortably stored in it.
+
+  LOADED WEIGHTS
+
+  On driving wheels        475,000 lbs.
+  On truck wheels           30,000 lbs.
+  On trailing wheels        35,000 lbs.
+  Total of engine          540,000 lbs.
+  Total of tender          212,000 lbs.
+
+  WHEEL BASE
+
+  Driving, rigid                15 ft. 6    ins.
+  Total of engine               57 ft. 4    ins.
+  Total of engine and tender    91 ft. 5³⁄₁₆ ins.
+
+  CYLINDERS
+
+  Diameter           H.P. 28 ins., L. P. 44 ins.
+  Stroke of piston                       32 ins.
+
+  WHEELS
+
+  Diameter of driving wheels, outside    56 ins.
+  Diameter of truck wheels               30 ins.
+  Diameter of trailing wheels            30 ins.
+  Diameter of tender wheels              33 ins.]
+
+[Illustration: CYLINDERS BIG ENOUGH FOR MEN TO SIT DOWN IN
+
+LOW PRESSURE CYLINDERS OF ARTICULATED COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVE.
+
+In the picture we see the cylinders of the locomotive shown on the
+previous page. Some idea of their size can be had from the fact that a
+good-sized man can sit comfortably in each of them.
+
+  BOILER
+
+  Type                              Ex. Wagon Top
+  Working pres. per sq. in.              200 lbs.
+  Outside diam. at front end             100 ins.
+  Outside diam. at back end              112 ins.
+  Length firebox inside              173¹⁄₁₆ ins.
+  Length firebox, actual, inside         132 ins.
+  Width of firebox inside             108¹⁄₄ ins.
+  No. and diam. of tubes           334, 2¹⁄₄ ins.
+  No. and diam. of flues            48, 5¹⁄₂ ins.
+  Length of tubes                   24 ft. 0 ins.
+  Combust. chamber length             39¹⁄₁₆ ins.
+  Grate area                         99.2 sq. ft.
+
+  HEATING SURFACE
+
+  Tubes and flues                   6462 sq. ft.
+  Water tubes                         67 sq. ft.
+  Firebox                            380 sq. ft.
+  Total                             6909 sq. ft.
+  Superheating surface              1311 sq. ft.
+
+  CLEARANCE LIMITATIONS
+
+  Extreme height               16 ft. 5¹⁄₈ ins.
+  Extreme width                11 ft. 8¹⁄₂ ins.
+  Length over all              99 ft. 9⁵⁄₈ ins.
+
+  MAXIMUM TRACTIVE POWER
+
+  Working compound                       115,000 lbs.
+  Working simple                         138,000 lbs.
+  Factor of adhesion (working compound)          4.13
+  Factor of adhesion (working simple)            3.44
+
+  TENDER CAPACITY
+
+  Water              12,000 gals.
+  Fuel                    16 tons]
+
+[Illustration: THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEER’S WORKROOM
+
+Here is a picture of one end of the boiler of this giant locomotive.
+It would take a man more than seven feet high to bump his head in the
+middle of it while standing on his feet.]
+
+[Illustration: This shows a picture of the engineer’s cab of one of
+these great railroad machines. We are accustomed to see the levers
+and other machinery for operating the engine right in the back of the
+engine cab. Over or near the firebox. Upon looking closely we find
+that the operating machinery is at the side of the locomotive and
+far forward in the cab. In fact there is a complete set of operating
+machinery on both sides of the cab, so that the engineer can run the
+engine from whatever side he happens to be on. This is very necessary,
+particularly in switching. Near the end of the cab where the engineer
+used to sit you will notice a peculiar pipe-like arrangement. This
+is not for operating the engine, but is the automatic stoker, which
+is fully explained in the next picture. An engine of this size will
+require seven tons of coal per hour.]
+
+[Illustration: A MACHINE WHICH DOES THE WORK OF FOUR FIREMEN
+
+When these large locomotives were first used it was found that no one
+fireman could shovel in enough coal to keep the steam up. It would
+require three or four firemen working constantly to shovel enough coal
+to keep this engine going. Man’s inventive genius came to the front,
+however, and now we have an automatic fireman, so to speak. Instead of
+shoveling coal on one of these engines the fireman merely operates a
+lever. This is a picture of the Sweet locomotive stoker installed in
+a railroad engine. This machine automatically conveys coal from the
+tender to the locomotive, raises it by an elevator to a point above the
+fire door, dumps it into the firebox and spreads it evenly over the
+grate.]
+
+[Illustration: This is the new type of electric locomotive being used
+by the New York Central system]
+
+[Illustration: HOW A FAST TRAIN TAKES WATER WITHOUT STOPPING
+
+The fast express trains haven’t time to stop and take water from the
+tank at the side of the railroad as in former days. This picture shows
+a tank built between the tracks which enables the engineer to fill
+his boilers without slackening speed. When approaching this tank the
+engineer simply lowers a tube into the water, the end of which is a
+scoop. The moving engine thus forces the water up into the tube, from
+which it runs into the boiler.]
+
+[Illustration: This is an improved signal tower from which switches are
+operated. If you were ever in a signal tower you will not recognize
+this as one, for you are used to seeing a room full of levers which the
+tower man had to pull hard when he wished to throw a switch. By the old
+way the end of the lever was attached to a wire which was connected
+with the switch. The wire running through pipes, when the operator
+pulled the lever the switch was pulled shut by the pull on the wire. In
+this new plan the switch is controlled by electricity, and the operator
+has merely to pull out a plug as shown in the picture, which is much
+easier than operating a lever.]
+
+[Illustration: WHAT MAKES A WIRELESS MESSAGE GO
+
+Sketch showing arrangement of aerial on ship equipped with the Marconi
+Direction Finder, an instrument which tells the sea captain the exact
+points of the compass from which wireless distress signals are being
+sent and enables ships to avoid collisions in fog.]
+
+
+
+
+The Story in the Wireless
+
+
+What is the Principle of the Wireless Telegraphy?
+
+Drop a stone in a pool of water. Circular waves or ripples will travel
+outward in all directions. That is the principle of wireless telegraph.
+
+If a chip be floating on the water it will be rocked by each ripple,
+just as a wireless receiving station will respond to the electrical
+waves or impulses that make up a wireless message. It is not known
+just how the invisible wireless waves are propelled through space,
+but they travel through the ether in the air in very much the same
+way as do sound waves. The electrical signals, too, are received only
+by apparatus that is attuned to them; that is, they can not be heard
+except at wireless stations, any more than sound can be heard by the
+ears of a deaf person.
+
+The wireless waves have a definite length, can be measured in feet or
+meters, and are regulated according to the distance the message is to
+travel. Stations that send a few hundred miles use a wave length of six
+hundred meters, or less, while at the powerful land stations used for
+trans-atlantic work the wave lengths used run into as many thousands.
+
+
+Why Don’t the Messages Go to the Wrong Stations?
+
+So that the hundreds of messages hurtling through space at the same
+time will not interfere, the wireless stations are equipped with
+tuning-apparatus through which they can adjust their wave length to
+receive the particular message desired. A different wave length is
+used by each ship or wireless shore station, and even though dozens of
+messages fill the air, the minute the wireless operator adjusts his
+tuner to the length of the station he is after, that particular message
+stands out very strongly and all the others grow dim.
+
+[Illustration: The Marconi Wireless station at Miami, Fla., which is
+typical of the shore stations that handle messages to several thousand
+ships at sea.]
+
+
+How Does the Wireless Reach Ships at Sea?
+
+All ships at sea report their positions regularly; thus it is a simple
+matter for a shore station to send a wireless message to the ship to
+which it is addressed. For example, the Marconi station at Sea Gate,
+New York, wants to reach the Lusitania. The operator looks up that
+vessel on the list and notes her call signal and wave length. He
+adjusts his tuner to correspond and calls her signal, M F A, repeating
+it three times.
+
+The wireless man on the vessel, knowing that he is within range of a
+shore station, has set his tuner at the wave length assigned to him and
+is listening. When his call letters are heard, he acknowledges them
+and signals to go ahead with the message. When it has been given, the
+Sea Gate station “signs off” with its call letters W S E and the ship
+operator enters in his record that that particular message reached him
+via the Marconi station at Sea Gate. Thus, with the wide variety in
+wave lengths, no confusion of messages exists and any desired ship or
+shore station can be called, just as a direct telephone connection is
+secured by giving the central station the call number of the subscriber
+wanted.
+
+
+What Kind of Signs Are Used in the Wireless?
+
+The actual wireless message is composed of dots and dashes, which, in
+certain combinations, stand for certain letters of the alphabet. This
+is done through opening and closing the electrical circuit by pressing
+a key, a sharp touch forming a dot and a longer pressure a dash, as
+with the wire telegraph.
+
+If secrecy in a wireless message is wanted, the words are sent in
+cipher which, of course, cannot be understood by outsiders. The
+Government sends thousands of words each day without a single word
+meaning anything to the wireless stations that happen to be “listening
+in.” While it is true that any one owning a wireless receiving set may
+listen to messages flying through the air, every person within hearing
+who understands the Morse Code can read the telegrams that come into a
+telegraph office. Knowledge thus gained, however, is of little value,
+as the law provided heavy penalties for disclosing the contents of any
+kind of telegraph message.
+
+
+What Does a Wireless Equipment Consist of?
+
+The various apparatus that comprises a wireless equipment can not be
+properly explained without the use of technical language, but the
+general principle of operation is somewhat as follows: If a small loop
+of copper wire, with a slight separation between the ends, is placed
+across a room from an electric spark, it will be slightly affected.
+Increase the electrical current to far greater power and control it,
+and the invisible electrical wave may be thrown many miles. To send
+a message across the ocean, the current used by the modern wireless
+station is so powerful that it will pass through storm and fog,
+even through mountains, without losing much of its force. When this
+tremendous force is released by pressing the telegraph key, it leaps
+from the aerial wires, or antennae, travels across the Atlantic and is
+picked up by a corresponding aerial, attuned to receive the signal.
+
+[Illustration: Pack and riding horses grouped together ready for
+unloading the Marconi wireless set used in the cavalry.
+
+Station set up and working.
+
+WORKING THE WIRELESS IN THE ARMY.]
+
+The aerial, or antennae, as it is called in a wireless work, is made up
+of copper wires. On a ship these are strung between the masts, usually
+consisting of two, four or six wires held apart by crosspieces. Two or
+more wires lead down from this to the wireless cabin.
+
+The coil or transformer is the apparatus which produces the spark that
+forms the electrical waves. In small stations, the length and thickness
+of the spark and the speed of vibration is regulated by a thumb screw.
+Transformers are used when the power is taken from the alternating
+current of an electric light circuit.
+
+The gap, which the electrical current jumps when the telegraph key is
+pressed down, is composed of two rods which slide together or apart to
+vary the length of the spark.
+
+The simplest type of sending station consists of the antenna, battery,
+coil, wireless key and spark gap. If a change in wave length is desired
+a transmitting tuning coil must be added.
+
+The receiving apparatus contains a detector, which is chiefly two
+mineral points lightly touching and connected with a sensitive head
+telephone. The incoming signals are heard as long and short buzzing
+sounds corresponding to the dots and dashes. The receiving tuning coil,
+used to adjust wave lengths, is operated by simply moving sliding
+contacts along a bar until the signals are more plainly heard. While
+the large stations have more complicated apparatus, the principle
+remains the same.
+
+[Illustration: The masts for the cavalry wireless sets are so attached
+that they can be loaded and unloaded with the utmost rapidity; a
+complete station can be erected or dismantled in less than ten minutes.]
+
+[Illustration: The gasoline engine which supplies the power for
+operating a cavalry wireless station is fitted to the saddle frame and
+is light enough to be carried by one horse.
+
+THE WIRELESS IN THE ARMY]
+
+
+How High Do Wireless Masts Have to be?
+
+The towering masts of the Marconi Trans-Oceanic stations are often
+supposed to rise to their great height, so that an antennae will be
+raised above the obstructions between. If this were necessary, two
+wireless stations separated by the Atlantic would have to have masts
+one hundred and twenty-five miles high to rise above the curvature
+of the earth. The path of the wireless waves, however, is not in a
+straight line, but follows the curvature of the earth. Scientists
+explain this by saying the rarefied air above the earth’s surface acts
+as a shell enclosing the globe.
+
+The speed of wireless messages is placed at 186,000 miles per second. A
+wireless message will thus cross the Atlantic in about one-nineteenth
+of a second--a period of time too small for the human mind to grasp.
+In other words, the wireless flash crosses in a fraction of a second a
+distance that the earth requires five hours to turn on its axis and the
+fastest ships take nearly a week to cross.
+
+The longest distance over which a wireless message can be sent is not
+definitely known; the present record was made in September, 1910, by
+Marconi from Clifden, Ireland, to Buenos Aires, Argentina, a distance
+of 6700 miles.
+
+[Illustration: THE WIRELESS PREVENTS ACCIDENTS AND SAVES MANY LIVES
+
+This photograph makes us appreciate what a wonderful aid is wireless to
+navigators. On Easter Sunday, 1914, the U. S. Revenue Cutter “Seneca,”
+patrolling the North Atlantic, found these two gigantic icebergs in
+the regular steamer lanes and sent out wireless warnings to all nearby
+steamships.]
+
+[Illustration: HOW THE WIRELESS IS INSTALLED ON FAST TRAINS
+
+RAILROAD WIRELESS.--ANTENNA ON CARS.]
+
+[Illustration: WIRELESS STATION ON TRAINS.]
+
+[Illustration: WIRELESS STATION IN U. S. ARMY
+
+City side of Scranton station, Lackawanna R.R., showing aerial of
+wireless which communicates with trains.]
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  Photo by Stefano
+
+WIRELESS RECEIVING STATION IN U. S. ARMY.]
+
+[Illustration: Guglielmo Marconi, Inventor of wireless telegraphy.]
+
+
+The Man Who Invented Wireless Telegraphy.
+
+Communication without wires for thousands of miles across oceans, from
+continent to continent, is a far cry from sending a wireless impulse
+the length of a kitchen table. That is the development of twenty years.
+
+To properly trace the development of wireless telegraphy, however, it
+is necessary to go back eighty-three years to when, in 1831, Michael
+Faraday discovered electro-magnetic induction between two entirely
+separate circuits. Steinheil, of Munich, too, in 1838, suggested
+that the metallic portion of a grounded electrical circuit might be
+dispensed with and a system of wireless telegraphy established. Then,
+in 1859, Bowman Lindsay demonstrated to the British Association his
+method of transmitting messages by means of magnetism through and
+across the water without submerged wires. In 1867 James Clerk Maxwell
+laid down the theory of electro-magnetism and predicted the existence
+of the electric waves that are now used in wireless telegraphy.
+Dolbear, of Tufts College, in 1836, patented a plan for establishing
+wireless communication by means of two insulated elevated plates, but
+there is no evidence that the method proposed by him effected the
+transmission of signals between stations separated by any distance.
+A year later Heinrich Rudolph Hertz discovered the progressive
+propagation of electro-magnetic action through space and accomplished
+the most valuable work in this period of speculation and experiment.
+
+Just twenty years ago, at his father’s country home in Bologna,
+Guglielmo Marconi, then a lad just out of his ’teens, read of the
+experiments of Hertz and conceived the first wireless telegraph
+apparatus. This was completed some months later and a message in the
+Morse Code was transmitted a distance of three or four feet, the length
+of the table on which the apparatus rested.
+
+Satisfied that he had laid the foundation of an epoch-making discovery
+young Marconi pursued his experiments and filed the first patent on the
+subject on June 2, 1896. Further experiments were carried on in London
+during that year and at the request of Sir William H. Preece, of the
+British Post Office, official tests were made, first over a distance of
+about 100 yards and later for one and three-quarter miles.
+
+During the year following Mr. Marconi gave several demonstrations to
+the officials of the various European governments and communication
+was established up to 34 miles. In July of this year, 1897, the first
+commercial wireless telegraph company was incorporated in England and
+the first Marconi station was erected at the Needles, Isle of Wight.
+
+On June 3, 1898, Lord Kelvin visited this station and sent the first
+paid Marconigram. A month later the events of the Kingstown Regatta in
+Dublin were reported by wireless telegraphy for a local newspaper from
+the steamer “Flying Huntress.” In August of that year the royal yacht
+“Osborn” was equipped with a wireless set, in order that Queen Victoria
+might communicate with the Prince of Wales, who was at Ladywood Cottage
+and suffering from the results of an accident to his knee. For sixteen
+days, constant and uninterrupted communication was maintained. Then on
+Christmas Eve was inaugurated the first lightship wireless service,
+messages being sent from the East Goodwin lightship to the lighthouse
+at South Foreland.
+
+[Illustration: PREPARING TO SEND MESSAGES ACROSS THE OCEAN
+
+This photograph shows how wireless messages are prepared for direct
+transmission across the ocean. The dots and dashes of the telegraphic
+code are punched on tapes by skilled operators, thus insuring accuracy
+and a permanent record of each message. Five or six operators, and
+sometimes more, are steadily preparing these tapes, which are pasted
+together and run through a machine which operates the key at each
+perforation. A speed of 100 words a minute is thus obtained.]
+
+Three months later the first marine rescue was effected through this
+installation. The steamship “R. F. Matthews” ran into the lightship
+and lifeboats from the South Foreland station promptly responded to
+the wireless appeal for aid. The most important wireless event abroad
+during the year 1899 was the establishing of communication across the
+English Channel, a distance of thirty miles.
+
+The American public next learned something of Marconi’s invention, for
+in September and October of that year wireless telegraphy was employed
+in reporting the International yacht races between the “Shamrock” and
+the “Columbia” for a New York newspaper. At the conclusions of the
+races, the naval authorities requested a series of trials, during which
+wireless messages were exchanged between the cruiser “New York” and
+the battleship “Massachusetts” up to a distance of about 36 miles. On
+leaving America, Marconi fitted the liner “St. Paul” with his apparatus
+and when 36 miles from the Needles Station, secured wireless reports
+of the war in South Africa. These were printed aboard the vessel in a
+leaflet called “The Transatlantic Times,” the first of the chain of
+wireless newspapers now published daily on practically all passenger
+steamships. Six field wireless sets were dispatched to South Africa
+about this time and were later of considerable service in the Boer War.
+
+[Illustration: In the foreground of this picture is seen the automatic
+transmitter with the message perforated tape running through. This is
+one of the smaller wireless equipments; much larger ones are used at
+the new Marconi stations.]
+
+The year 1900 brought the first commercial wireless contracts. By
+agreement with the Norddeutscher Lloyd, Marconi apparatus was installed
+on a lightship, a lighthouse and aboard the liner “Kaiser Wilhelm der
+Grosse.” On July 4th the British Admiralty entered into a contract
+for the installation of Marconi apparatus on thirty-two warships and
+shore stations and the erection of the high power station at Poldhu was
+commenced.
+
+~WORLD WIDE USE OF THE WIRELESS~
+
+Work on similar station at Cape Cod was begun early in 1901 and on
+August 12th the famous Nantucket Island and Nantucket lightship
+stations opened to report incoming vessels by wireless. Heavy gales
+in September and November wrecked the masts at both Poldhu and
+Cape Cod stations and these were replaced by four wooden towers,
+210 feet high. Important experimental work was then shifted to St.
+John’s, Newfoundland, and on December 12th and 13th, signals were
+received across the Atlantic from Poldhu. This to Marconi was a great
+achievement and the forerunner of the present day trans-atlantic
+service. But with the announcement that the long dreamt of feat had
+been accomplished a flood of vituperation from scientific men was let
+loose. It was nonsense; it was deliberate deception; the reading was
+in error, were among the comments. Another prank of the “young man
+with a box,” one scientist termed it. It is amusing now to recall this
+extraordinary treatment, but it was hardly so amusing to the young
+inventor, then in his twenty-seventh year.
+
+But in spite of the skepticism, developments followed rapidly from then
+on and in 1902, the year in which the American Marconi Company was
+established, full recognition to wireless telegraphy was given by the
+various governments.
+
+The wonderful growth of the Marconi system within the last twelve years
+is well known to all and does not require detailing. But in view of its
+youth as an industry and its inauspicious beginning, a glimpse into
+what the present day Marconi system comprises may be interesting.
+
+More than 1800 ships are equipped with Marconi wireless and its shore
+stations are landmarks in practically every country on the globe.
+
+Press and commercial messages are transmitted daily from continent to
+continent direct.
+
+Shore to ship and ship to shore business each year runs into millions
+of words.
+
+Marconi wireless within seventeen years, has become an absolute
+necessity in the maritime field, an invaluable aid in others. Regular
+communication has been established with icebound settlements and desert
+communities, and official running orders transmitted to moving railway
+trains. Its service is dependable under all conditions and embraces
+activities and locations inaccessible to any other telegraph system.
+Continuous service is maintained and wireless messages for all parts of
+the world at greatly reduced rates are received at any Western Union
+Office.
+
+The direction finder and wireless compass are recent Marconi inventions.
+
+A wide variety of types of Marconi equipment are designed for the
+merchant marine, warships, submarines, pleasure craft, motor cars
+and railroad trains; also portable signal corps sets, apparatus for
+aircraft, cavalry sets, knapsack sets and high-power installations for
+trans-ocean communication.
+
+
+
+
+How Does a Fly Walk Upside Down?
+
+
+There is a little sucker on the end of each of the fly’s feet which
+makes his foot stick to the ceiling or any other place he walks, and
+which he can control at will. It is made very much like the sucker
+you have seen with which a boy can pick up a flat stone--a circular
+piece of rubber or leather with a string in the middle and more or
+less bell shaped underneath. A boy can pick up a flat stone with this
+kind of a sucker by pressing the rubber or leather part down flat on
+the stone and then pulling gently on it by the string. When he does
+this he simply expels the air which is between the leather part of
+the sucker and the stone, which creates a vacuum and the pressure of
+the air on the outside part of the leather enables him to pick it up.
+The fly has little suckers like these on each of his feet, and they
+act automatically when he puts his foot down. Of course the sticking
+power of each foot is adjusted to the weight of the fly, just as the
+sticking or lifting power of the boy’s sucker is regulated by the
+weight of the stone or other object he tries to pick up. If the weight
+of the object is sufficient to overcome the sticking power which the
+vacuum creates, the stone cannot be lifted.
+
+
+
+
+What Is Money?
+
+
+It is quite difficult to give a broad definition of money that will be
+understood by all, for in different ages and lands many things have
+been used as money besides the coins and bills which we think of only
+when we think at all what money is. Anything that passes freely from
+hand to hand in a community in the payment of debts and for goods
+purchased, accepted freely by the person who offers it without any
+reference to the person who offers it, and which can be in turn used
+by the person accepting it to give to some one else in payment of debt
+or for the purchase of goods, is money. This is rather a long sentence
+and perhaps difficult to understand, and so we will try to analyze
+what this means. If some one offered you a pretty stone as money in
+payment of a debt, it would be as good as any kind of money if you in
+turn could pass it on to any other person to whom you owed a debt or in
+payment of something you bought. The stone might appear to you to be
+valuable but it would not be good money unless you could count on every
+one else in the community accepting it at the same value. If everybody
+accepts it at the same value, it is as good as any kind of money. So
+that anything which is acceptable to the people in any community as a
+unit of value to pay debts, is good money, provided everybody thinks so
+and accepts it that way. In this case, then any kind of substance might
+become money provided it was used and accepted by everyone.
+
+
+
+
+Why Do We Need Money?
+
+
+We need money for the sake of the convenience which it provides in
+making the exchange of one kind of wealth for another and as a standard
+of value. When a community has adopted something or anything which
+is regarded by all of the people as a standard of value, all of the
+difficulties of trading disappear.
+
+
+
+
+Who Originated Money?
+
+
+The earliest tribes of savages did not need money because no individual
+in the tribe owned anything personally. All the property of the tribe
+belonged to the tribe as a whole and not to any particular person.
+Later on, when different groups of savages came into contact with each
+other, there arose the custom of bartering or exchanging things which
+one tribe possessed and which the other tribe wanted. In that way arose
+the business of trading or of what we call doing business, and soon the
+need of something by which to measure the values of different things
+arose. Some of the old Australian tribes had a tough green stone which
+was valuable for making hatchets. Members of another tribe would see
+some of this stone and notice what good hatchets could be made from
+it--better hatchets than they had been able to make. Naturally they
+wanted it so much that it became very valuable in their eyes and so
+they came wanting to buy green stones. But they had nothing like what
+we could call money today. They had, however, a good deal of red ochre
+in their lands which they used to paint their bodies. They got this
+red ochre out of the ground on their own lands just as the other tribe
+got green stones out of its ground, and those who owned the green
+stones which were good for making hatchets, wanted some red ochre very
+much, and so they traded green stones for red ochre. The green stones
+then took on a value in themselves for making exchanges for various
+commodities, and before long became a kind of money inside and outside
+the community so that when they wanted to obtain anything, the price
+was put by the merchant as so many green stones and he accepted these
+in payment for goods given in exchange. He was willing to do this
+because he knew he could use them in making trades for almost anything
+he might want, provided he had enough of the green stones. So you see
+these green stones of the Australian tribe became a rudimentary kind of
+money, just because a desire had arisen to possess them; and the red
+ochre was actual money in the same sense, for when this tribe found
+that other tribes would value this red ochre, they began getting the
+things they wanted and paying for them in red ochre. But the “unit of
+value” had to be developed to make a currency that was elastic. It
+required something that could be carried about easily--in fact it had
+to be something small enough so a number of units of value could be
+carried about without too much trouble. The Indians of British Columbia
+solved this difficulty of making an elastic currency by adopting as a
+unit of value a haiqua shell which they wore in strings as ornamental
+borders of their dresses--and one string of these shells was worth
+one beaver’s skin. These shells then were real money and one of the
+earliest forms of it.
+
+The skins of animals were long used by savage tribes as money. The
+skins were valuable in trading and a man’s fortune was reckoned by the
+number of skins he owned. As soon as the animals became domesticated,
+however, the whole animal replaced the skin as the unit of value. This
+change undoubtedly came because a whole animal is more valuable than
+only its skin. The first skins obtainable however were worn by wild
+animals--the kind that the people could not deliver to someone else
+alive and whole. But when the animals became domesticated, which meant
+that man tamed them and kept them where he could control them at will,
+the skin and the wild animal ceased to be a unit of value because it
+was an uncertain kind of money. Among domestic animals, oxen and sheep
+were the earliest forms of money--an ox was considered worth ten sheep.
+This idea of using cattle as money was used by many tribes in many
+lands. We find traces of it in the laws of Iceland. The Latin word
+pecunia (pecus) shows that the earliest Roman money was composed of
+cattle. The English word fee indicates this also. The Irish law records
+show the same evidence of the use of cattle as money and within recent
+years the cattle still form the basis of the currency of the Zulus and
+Kaffirs.
+
+When slavery became prominent many lands adopted the slaves as the unit
+of value. A man’s wealth was reckoned by the number of slaves he owned.
+
+Then, when the practice of agriculture became more common, people
+used the products of the soil as money--maize, olive oil, cocoanuts,
+tea and corn--the latter is said to pass current as actual money in
+certain parts of Norway now. They used these products of the soil for
+money even in our own country. Our ancestors in Maryland and Virginia
+before the Revolutionary War, and even after, used tobacco as money.
+They passed laws making tobacco money and paid the salaries of the
+government officials and collected all taxes in tobacco.
+
+Other early forms of money were ornaments and these serve the purpose
+of money among all uncivilized tribes. In India they used cowrie
+shells--a small yellowish-white shell with a fine gloss. The Fiji
+Islanders used whales’ teeth; some of the South Sea Island tribes used
+red feathers; other nations used mineral products as money--such as
+salt in Abyssinia and Mexico.
+
+Up to this point we have talked about the things used as money from
+the standpoint of primitive forms of money. Today the metals have
+practically driven all these other crude forms of money out.
+
+
+
+
+Metallic Forms of Money.
+
+
+~WHY WE USE METALS FOR COINING~
+
+The use of metals as money goes far back in the history of civilization
+but it has never been possible to trace the historical order of the
+adoption of the various metals for the purposes. Iron according to the
+statement of Aristotle was at one time extensively used as money.
+Copper, in conjunction with iron, was used in early times as money in
+China; and until comparatively a short time ago was used for the coins
+of smaller value in Japan. Iron spikes were used in Central Africa
+and nails in Scotland; lead money is now used in Burmah. Copper has
+long been used as money. The early coins of England were made of tin.
+Finally, however, came silver and silver was the principal form of
+money up to a few years ago. It was the basis of Greek coins introduced
+at Rome in 269 B. C. Most of the money of Medieval times was composed
+of silver.
+
+The earliest traces of gold used as money is seen in pictures of
+ancient Egyptians “weighing in scales heaps of gold and silver rings.”
+
+
+
+
+Why Do We Use Gold and Silver as Money Principally?
+
+
+There are a good many reasons why gold and silver have become almost
+universal materials for use as money. Perhaps this will be better
+understood if these reasons are set down in order.
+
+1st. It is necessary that the material out of which money is made
+should be valuable, but nothing was ever used as money that had not
+first become desirable and, therefore, valuable as money. This is only
+one of the incidental reasons for taking gold and silver for coining
+money.
+
+2nd. To serve its purpose best, money should be easy to carry
+around--in other words, its value should be high in proportion to its
+weight.
+
+The absence of this quality made the early forms of money such as
+skins, corn, tobacco, etc., undesirable. It was difficult to carry very
+much money about. Imagine the skin of a sheep worth a dollar, say,
+and having to carry ten of them down to pay the grocer. To a certain
+extent this difficulty occurred with iron and copper money and in times
+when they used live cattle it was a pretty expensive job to pay your
+debts because, while the cattle could move, it was still expensive to
+drive them from place to place. A man who accepted a thousand cattle
+in payment had to go to some expense in getting them home. Then it was
+expensive to have money when live cattle were used because the cattle,
+of course, had to be fed and from that point of view the poor man who
+had no money was better off than the rich man who had money. When
+cattle were used as money it cost a lot to keep it. Our kind of money
+doesn’t eat anything; in fact, if you put it in a savings bank, it will
+earn interest money for you. But when cattle were used as money it cost
+a great deal to keep them and so it was worse than not earning any
+interest.
+
+3rd. Another quality that money should possess is divisibility without
+damage and also the quality of being united again. This quality is
+possessed by the metals in every sense because they can be fused, while
+skins and precious stones suffer in value greatly when they are divided.
+
+4th. The material out of which money is made should be the same
+throughout in quality and weight so that one unit of money should be
+worth as much as any other unit. This could never be true of skins or
+cattle as the difference in the size of skins is very great sometimes,
+and a small skin from the same animal could not be worth as much as a
+large one, or a skin of an animal of inferior quality so valuable as a
+very fine one.
+
+5th. Another quality which money should possess is durability. This
+requirement made it necessary to use something else besides animals or
+vegetable substances. Animals die and vegetables will not keep and so
+lose their value. Even iron is apt to rust and through that process
+lose more or less of its value.
+
+6th. The materials out of which money is made should be easy to
+distinguish and their value easy to determine. For this reason such
+things as precious stones are not good to use as money because it
+takes an expert to determine their value and even they are not always
+certain to be correct.
+
+7th. Then a very important quality that the material out of which money
+is made is that its value should be steady. The value of cattle varies
+very greatly and, in fact, most of the materials out of which the first
+currencies were made were subject to quick change in value in a short
+time. The value of gold and silver does not change excepting at long
+intervals. Gold and silver are both durable and easily recognizable.
+They can be melted, divided and united. The same is true of other
+metallic substances, but iron as stated is subject to rust and its
+value is low; lead is too soft. Tin will break, and both of them and
+copper also are of low value. Gold and silver change only slowly in
+value when the change at all; they do not lose any of their value by
+age, rust or other cause; they are hard metals and do not, therefore,
+wear. Their value in proportion to the bulk of the pieces used for
+money is so large that the money made from them can be carried without
+discomfort and it is almost impossible to imitate them.
+
+
+
+
+Who Made the First Cent?
+
+
+Vermont was the first state to issue copper cents. In June, 1785, she
+granted the authority to Ruben Harmon, Jr., to make money for the state
+for two years. In October of the same year, Connecticut granted the
+right to coin 10,000 pounds in copper cents, known as the Connecticut
+cent of 1785. Massachusetts, in 1786, established a mint and coined
+$60,000 in cents and half cents. In the same year, New Jersey granted
+the right to coin $10,000 at 15 coppers to the shilling. In 1781 the
+Continental Congress directed Robert Morris to investigate the matter
+of governmental coinage. He proposed a standard based on the Spanish
+dollar, consisting of 100 units, each unit to be called a cent. His
+plan was rejected. In 1784, Jefferson proposed to Congress, that the
+smallest coin should be of copper, and that 200 of them should pass for
+one dollar. The plan was adopted, but in 1786, 100 was substituted. In
+1792 the coinage of copper cents, containing 264 grains, and half cents
+in proportion, was authorized; their weight was subsequently reduced.
+In 1853 the nickel cent was substituted and the half cent discontinued,
+and in 1864 the bronze cent was introduced, weighing 48 grains and
+consisting of 95 per cent. of copper, and the remainder of tin and zinc.
+
+
+
+
+How Did the Name Uncle Sam Originate?
+
+
+The name Uncle Sam is a jocular name long in use for the Government of
+the United States.
+
+Shortly after the war of 1812 was declared, Elbert Anderson of New
+York State, who was a contractor for the army, went to Troy, New York,
+to purchase a quantity of provisions. At that place the provisions
+were inspected, the official inspectors being two brothers named
+Wilson--Ebenezer and Samuel. The latter was very popular among the men
+and was known as “Uncle Sam Wilson” and everybody called him that.
+The boxes in which the provisions were packed were stamped with four
+letters, E. A. for Elbert Anderson, and U. S. for United States. One of
+the men engaged in making the inspection asked another of the workmen
+who happened to be a jocular fellow, what the letters E. A. U. S. on
+the boxes stood for. He said in reply that he did not know but thought
+they probably meant Elbert Anderson and Uncle Sam Wilson, and that they
+had left off the W which would stand for Wilson. The suggestion caught
+on quickly and as such things often do, the joke spread rapidly so that
+everybody soon thought of the name “Uncle Sam” whenever they saw the
+letters U. S. on anything or in any place.
+
+The suit of striped trousers and long tailed coat and beaver hat
+in which Uncle Sam is now always represented in pictures, was the
+inspiration of the famous cartoonist.
+
+[Illustration: THE WORLD’S BREAD LOAVES
+
+  Egypt
+  2500 B.C.
+
+  Unleavened Bread
+  2000 B.C.
+
+  Pompeii
+  50 A.D.
+
+  Palestine
+
+  Modern American Loaf
+
+  England
+
+  England
+
+  France
+
+  Hungary
+
+  Spain
+
+  Switzerland
+
+  Bohemia
+
+  Holland
+
+  Italy
+
+  Austria
+
+  Germany
+
+  Balkan States]
+
+[Illustration: HARVESTING WHEAT.]
+
+
+
+
+The Story in a Loaf of Bread
+
+
+Why is Bread so Important?
+
+The history of bread as a food reads like a romance. It has played an
+important part in the destinies of mankind and its struggles through
+the ages to perfection. The progress of nations through their different
+periods of development can be traced by the quality and quantity of
+bread they have used.
+
+No other food has taken such an important part in the civilization of
+man.
+
+To a large extent it has been the means of changing his habits from
+those of a savage to those of a civilized being. It has supplied the
+peaceful pursuits of agriculture and turned him from war and the chase.
+
+It is an interesting fact that the civilized and the semi-civilized
+people of the earth can be divided into two classes, based upon their
+principal cereal foods: the rice eaters and the bread eaters.
+
+Every one admits that rice eaters are less progressive, while bread
+eaters have always been the leaders of civilization.
+
+It is an interesting fact that just as Japan is changing from a
+rice-eating nation to a bread-eating nation she is asserting her power.
+
+Any one who stops to consider the history of nations will see that this
+matter of what we eat is the one question of vital importance.
+
+Bread is one of the earliest, the most generally used and one of the
+most important foods used by man. Without bread the world would not
+exist without great hardship. On bread alone a nation of people can
+exist, and to sit down to a meal without it causes us to feel at once
+that something is missing.
+
+
+What Was the Origin and Meaning of Bread?
+
+Bread is baked from many substances, although when we think of bread,
+we usually think of wheat bread. It is sometimes made from roots,
+fruits and the bark of trees, but generally only from grains such as
+wheat, rye, corn, etc. The word bread comes from an old word _bray_,
+meaning to pound. This came from the method used in preparing the food.
+Food which was pounded was said to be brayed and later this spelling
+was changed to bread. Properly speaking, however, these brayed or
+ground materials are not really bread in our sense of using the term
+until they are moistened with water, when it becomes dough. The word
+_dough_ is an old one meaning to “moisten.” This dough was in olden
+times immediately baked in hot ashes and a hard indigestible lump of
+bread was the result. Accidentally it was discovered that if the dough
+was left for a time before baking, allowing it to ferment, it would
+when mixed with more dough, swell up and become porous. Thus we got our
+word loaf from an old word _lifian_, which meant to raise up or to lift
+up.
+
+
+When Was Wheat First Used in Making Bread?
+
+It is not clearly known when or by whom wheat was discovered, but it
+seems to have been known from the earliest times. It is mentioned in
+the Bible, can be traced to ancient Egypt and there are records showing
+that the Chinese cultivated wheat as early as 2700 B.C. To-day it
+supplies the principal article for making bread to all the civilized
+nations of the world.
+
+The origin of the wheat plant is said to have been a kind of grass
+which is given a Latin name _Ægilops ovata_ by the botanists.
+
+
+Will Wheat Grow Wild?
+
+This is a question that has puzzled the world’s scientists for more
+than two thousand years. From time to time it has been reported by
+investigators in various parts of the world that here and there wheat
+has been found growing wild and doing well, but every time a further
+investigation is made, it develops that the wheat has been cultivated
+by some one. There is as yet no evidence for believing that wheat will
+grow in a wild state.
+
+
+What is the Difference between Graham Flour and Whole Wheat?
+
+Graham flour from which Graham bread is baked is made from unbolted
+flour. The process of bolting flour, which is described in one of the
+following pages, consists briefly in taking out of it all but the
+inside of the grain of wheat. When this has been done, we have pure
+white flour.
+
+In making Graham flour every part of the grain of wheat is left in the
+flour, and ground up finely. Many people think that Graham flour is
+made from a special grain called Graham, but this is not true. It is
+said that Graham bread is not so good for you because it contains the
+outside covering of the wheat grain or bran which is composed of almost
+pure silica, the same substance of which glass is made, and cannot
+therefore be good for us.
+
+Whole wheat flour is made from the whole grain of wheat from which the
+outside covering or bran has been separated. It contains everything but
+the bran and is therefore the most nutritious flour made.
+
+The grain of wheat has several coverings of bran coats, the outer one
+of which is the one composed of silica, and which is not valuable
+as food. Underneath this husk--are found the inner bran coats,
+which contain the gluten. Gluten is a dark substance containing the
+flesh-forming or nitrogenous elements, which are valuable in muscle
+building. The inside or heart of the grain of wheat consists of cells
+filled with starch, a fine white mealy powder which has little value
+as food, but is a great heat producer. Sometimes in making whole wheat
+flour, the heart of the grain is also removed, making a pure gluten
+flour. The name whole wheat for flour is not accurate, therefore, for
+Graham flour is made of the whole wheat grain, while “whole wheat”
+flour is made of only certain parts of the grain of wheat.
+
+[Illustration: Wheat conditioners for tempering the wheat before being
+ground by the corrugated roller mills.]
+
+
+How is Flour Made?
+
+In great factories the raw material is frequently taken in at one end
+and comes out of the opposite end as a finished locomotive, a Pullman
+palace car, or a pair of shoes. There is no such progression in making
+flour. The wheat comes in at one place as a plain Spring or Winter
+wheat and at another goes out as flour, but in the process parts of
+it may go from top to bottom of the big mill 30 times. Instead of a
+factory where everything moves along from hand to hand or machine to
+machine, the flour mill is like a human body--a huge framework like the
+bones, with thousands of carrying devices, “elevators,” “spouts” and
+“conveyors,” like the veins and arteries of the blood-carrying system.
+Stop up a vein of wheat, the mill becomes clogged, and finally must
+shut down if it cannot be mechanically relieved. It is an intricate and
+intensely interesting process, the result of year-to-year experience.
+
+[Illustration: SEPARATING THE WHEAT FIBER AND GERMS
+
+Purifier for separating the fiber, germ, and other impurities from the
+semolina (grits) before it is finally crushed or ground into flour by
+smooth roller mills.]
+
+
+Scouring that Suggests a Dutch Kitchen.
+
+From the storage bins the wheat is drawn off through conveyors to the
+first of several cleaning processes, the “separators,” where the coarse
+grain which naturally comes with the wheat, such as corn and oats, and
+imperfect kernels of wheat, is taken out. After this general cleaning
+the grain goes to the “scouring machine,” which is an interesting
+device--a rapidly revolving cylinder with what are called “beaters”
+attached. The grain is thrown against perforated iron screens. Any
+clinging dirt is loosened, and a strong current of air passing through
+the cylinder is constantly “calling for dust,” as the miller aptly
+expresses it, and carries the impurities away as dust and dirt. Indeed,
+the cleaning process seems to be a constant one from the time the
+wheat enters the mill until the flour is made. Having been cleansed,
+the wheat is now ready for the rolls except for a “tempering” process,
+which is to prepare the grain, so that the outside of the wheat may be
+taken off without injury to the inside or kernel.
+
+Then as the grain passes to the rolls there begins a gradual reduction
+of wheat to flour which is most intricate.
+
+The first sets of rolls are corrugated and so adjusted as to “break”
+each grain of wheat into 12 to 15 parts. The “breaking” process goes on
+through five different sets of rolls.
+
+[Illustration: GRINDING THE WHEAT FOR MAKING FLOUR
+
+Corrugated roller mills for grinding the wheat after it has been
+cleaned.]
+
+[Illustration: Wooden spouts for conveying the different products, bran
+and partly ground wheat, from one machine to another.]
+
+[Illustration: THE FLOUR IS READY FOR BAKING
+
+Gyrating sifter for separating the bran particles from the flour and
+semolina.]
+
+
+The Big Bolters with Silken Sieves.
+
+Closely allied with the rolling process is the bolting process,
+which, working hand in hand with it has made modern flour making so
+perfect. The bolting process consists of a series of sieves--a sifting
+of the broken grain so that it is finally, after repeated breaking
+and sifting, a flour. The bolter machine contains a number of sieves
+covered with silk bolting cloth with varying mesh or number of threads
+to the square inch. This bolting machine, moving rapidly, makes from
+8 to 10 different separations of the material. From rolls to bolters,
+from bolters to purifiers, from purifiers to rolls, over and over, the
+process continues, until five different grades of “middlings” have
+been selected by the mechanical hands of the millers. The purifier is
+still another step to the process. It is a machine having eight sieves
+of different mesh. The “middlings” flow down over the different sieves
+in a thin sheet, a current of air meantime drawing all impurities out.
+With this purifying process completed, the material is ready for the
+smooth rolls.
+
+
+The Mill Tries to Catch Up with the Bins.
+
+When the flour is made it is conveyed to large round bins--five sheets
+of hard wood pressed together. These bins are being filled all the time
+and being emptied all the time, the mill being about seven hours behind
+the capacity of the bins, so that from start to finish the modern flour
+mill is a tremendously busy place.
+
+Underneath the bins and connecting with them are the flour
+packers--automatic devices which pack a 3¹⁄₂-pound paper sack as
+accurately as a 196-pound barrel. The filled packages are sent down
+“chutes” to the shipping floor. There they go to wagons or through
+other chutes to boats.
+
+
+
+
+The Story in a Lead Pencil[5]
+
+  [5] Courtesy of The Scientific American.
+
+
+Why Do They Call Them Lead-pencils?
+
+~WHERE LEAD PENCILS COME FROM~
+
+The lead-pencil so generally used today is not, as its name would
+imply, made from lead, but from graphite. It derives its name from
+the fact that prior to the time when pencils were made from graphite,
+metallic lead was employed for the purpose. Graphite was first used
+in pencils after the discovery in 1565 of the famous Cumberland mine
+in England. This graphite was of remarkable purity and could be used
+without further treatment by cutting it into thin slabs and encasing
+them in wood.
+
+
+Who Made the First Lead-pencils in America?
+
+For two centuries England enjoyed practically a monopoly of the
+lead-pencil industry. In the eighteenth century, however, the
+lead-pencil industry had found its way into Germany. In 1761, Caspar
+Faber, in the village of Stein, near the ancient city of Nuremberg,
+Bavaria, started in a modest way the manufacture of lead-pencils, and
+Nuremberg became and remained the center of the lead-pencil industry
+for more than a century. For five generations Faber’s descendants made
+lead-pencils. Up to the present day they have continued to devote
+their interest and energy to the development and perfection of pencil
+making. Eberhard Faber, a great-grandson of Caspar Faber, immigrated
+to this country, and, in 1849, established himself in New York City.
+In 1861, when the war tariff first went into effect, he erected his
+own pencil factory in New York City, and thus became the pioneer of
+the lead-pencil industry in this country. Since then four other firms
+have established pencil factories here. Wages, as compared to those
+paid in Germany, were very high, and Eberhard Faber realized the
+necessity of creating labor-saving machinery to overcome this handicap.
+Many automatic machines were invented which greatly simplified the
+methods of pencil making and improved the product. To-day American
+manufacturers supply nine-tenths of the home demand and have largely
+entered into the competition of the world’s markets.
+
+
+What Are Lead-pencils Made of?
+
+The principal raw materials that enter into the making of a
+lead-pencil are graphite, clay, cedar and rubber. Although graphite
+occurs in comparatively abundant quantities in many localities, it is
+rarely of sufficient purity to be available for pencil making. Oxides
+of iron, silicates and other impurities are found in the ore, all of
+which must be carefully separated to insure a smooth, serviceable
+material. The graphites found in Eastern Siberia, Mexico, Bohemia and
+Ceylon are principally used by manufacturers.
+
+  Pictures by courtesy Joseph Dixon Crucible Co.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.
+
+FIG. 2.
+
+FIG. 3.
+
+Fig. 1 shows the shape in which the cedar slats arrive at the factory.
+These slats after grading are boiled in steam to remove what remaining
+sap there may be in the wood. The slats are then dried in steam-drying
+rooms. Then the next step is grooving and gives the results shown by
+Fig. 2. Now the wood is ready to receive the “leads” (which you will
+remember are a mixture of graphite and clay), which are placed between
+two slats sandwich fashion, glued, put in forms that hold them over
+night under a thousand pounds pressure. Fig. 3 shows the leads laid in
+one of the grooved slats.]
+
+
+How Are Lead-pencils Made?
+
+The graphite, as it comes from the mines, is broken into small pieces,
+the impure particles being separated by hand. It is then finely
+divided in large pulverizers and placed in tubs of water, so that the
+lighter particles of graphite float off from the heavier particles of
+impurities. This separating, in the cheaper grades, is also done by
+means of centrifugal machines, but the results are not as satisfactory.
+After separation, the graphite is filtered through filter-presses.
+
+
+What Makes Some Pencils Hard and Others Soft?
+
+The clay, after having been subjected to a similar process, is placed
+in mixers with the graphite, in proportions dependent upon the grade
+of hardness that is desired. A greater proportion of clay produces a
+greater degree of hardness; a lesser proportion increases the softness.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.
+
+FIG. 5.
+
+FIG. 6.
+
+Fig. 4 shows a prospective view of the block as it appears when taken
+out of the form; the leads can be seen in the end. These blocks are fed
+to machines which cut out the pencils in one operation. An idea of this
+operation is given by Fig. 5, which shows a block half cut through. The
+pencils come out quite smooth, but are sand-papered to a finer finish
+before receiving the finishing coats. The finer grades of pencils are
+given from seven to nine coats of varnish before being passed along for
+the next process. Fig. 6 shows a pencil after it has been machined and
+before it has been varnished and stamped.]
+
+Furthermore, the requisite degree of hardness is obtained by the
+subsequent operation, viz., the compressing of the lead and shaping it
+into form ready to be glued into the wood casings. A highly compressed
+lead will produce a pencil of greater wearing qualities, an important
+feature in a high-grade pencil. Hydraulic presses are used for this
+purpose; and the mixture of clay and graphite, which is still in a
+plastic condition and has been formed into loaves, is placed into these
+presses. The presses are provided with a die conforming to the caliber
+of the lead desired, through which die the material is forced. The die
+is usually cut from a sapphire or emerald or other very hard mineral
+substance, so that it will not wear away too quickly from the friction
+of the lead. The lead leaves the press in one continuous string, which
+is cut into the lengths required (usually seven inches for the ordinary
+size of pencil), is placed in crucibles, and fired in muffle furnaces.
+The lead is now ready for use, and receives only a wooden case to
+convert it into a pencil.
+
+
+Where Does the Wooden Part of a Lead-pencil Come from?
+
+The wood used in pencil making must be close and straight grained,
+soft, so that it can readily be whittled, and capable of taking a good
+polish. No better wood has been found than the red cedar, a native of
+the United States, a durable, compact and fragrant wood to-day almost
+exclusively used by pencil makers the world over. The best quality is
+obtained from the Southern States, Florida and Alabama in particular.
+
+The wood is cut into slats about 7 inches long, 2¹⁄₂ inches wide, and
+¹⁄₄ inch thick. It is then thoroughly dried in kilns to separate the
+excess of moisture and resin and to prevent subsequent warping. After
+this the slats are passed through automatic grooving machines, each
+slat receiving six semi-circular grooves, into which the leads are
+placed, while a second slab with similar grooves is brushed with glue
+and covered over the slat containing the leads. This is passed through
+a molding-machine, which turns out pencils shaped in the form desired,
+round, hexagon, etc. The pencils are now passed through sanding
+machines, to provide them with a smooth surface.
+
+
+How is the Color Put on the Outside of the Pencil?
+
+After sand-papering, which is a necessary preliminary to the coloring
+process, when fine finishes are desired, the pencils are varnished by
+one of several methods. That most commonly employed is the mechanical
+method by which the pencils are fed from hoppers one at a time through
+small apertures just large enough to admit the pencil. The varnish is
+applied to the pencil automatically while passing through, and the
+pencils are then deposited on a long belt or drying pan. They are
+carried slowly a distance of about twenty feet, the varnish deposited
+on the pencils meanwhile drying, and are emptied into a receptacle.
+When sufficient pencils have accumulated, they are taken back to the
+hopper of the machine and the operation repeated. This is done as often
+as is necessary to produce the desired finish. The better grades are
+passed through ten times or more. Another method is that of dipping
+in pans of varnish, the pencils being suspended by their ends from
+frames, immersed their entire length and withdrawn very slowly by
+machine. A smooth enameled effect is the result. The finest grades of
+pencils are polished by hand. This work requires considerable deftness;
+months of practice are necessary to develop a skilled workman. After
+being varnished, the pencils are passed through machines by which the
+accumulation of varnish is sand-papered from their ends. The ends
+are then trimmed by very sharp knives to give them a clean, finished
+appearance.
+
+Stamping is the next operation. The gold or silver leaf is cut into
+narrow strips and laid on the pencil, whereupon the pencil is placed in
+a stamping press, and the heated steel die brought in contact with the
+leaf, causing the latter to adhere to the pencil where the letters of
+the die touch. The surplus leaf is removed, and, after a final cleaning
+the pencil is ready to be boxed, unless it is to be further embellished
+by the addition of a metal tip and rubber, or other attachment.
+
+
+How is the Eraser Put On a Pencil?
+
+In this country about nine-tenths of the pencils are provided with
+rubber erasers. These are either glued into the wood with the lead, or
+the pencils are provided with small metal ferrules threaded on one end,
+into which the rubber eraser-plugs are inserted. These ferrules are
+made from sheet brass, which is cupped by means of power presses, drawn
+through subsequent operations into tubes of four- or five-inch lengths,
+cut to the required size, threaded and nickel-plated.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  Courtesy of Doubleday, Page & Co.
+
+A SOUTHERN COTTON FIELD]
+
+
+
+
+The Story in a Bale of Cotton
+
+
+Where Does Cotton Come From?
+
+We get cotton from a plant which grows best in the warm climate of our
+Southern States. Cotton has been known to the people of the world for
+a long time. Before the birth of Christ people knew about cotton. They
+thought it was wool which grew on a tree instead of a sheep’s back.
+No other plant is of such value to man as cotton. We should learn
+something about a plant that is used by man in so many ways as cotton.
+
+The cotton plant of our Southern States is a small shrub-like annual
+about four feet high. The flowers of the cotton plant are white at
+first but change to cream color and then are tinged with red. This
+change takes place over a period of four days when the petals drop off
+and leave what is called a “boll” in the calyx of the flower. This
+boll, which is to contain the cotton, is really the seed container of
+the cotton plant and keeps on growing larger until it is about as big
+as a hen’s egg. When it is fully grown or ripe the boll cracks and the
+seeds and fibrous lint burst forth. The bolls are then gathered and
+taken to a cotton gin, where the seeds are separated from the lint and
+the lint prepared for weaving.
+
+The boll is divided into from three to five sections. Each section
+contains a quantity of lint and seeds. When the boll is fully grown
+the covering of each of the sections cracks and opens up, revealing
+the contents. It is just like opening the door of each section and
+having the contents burst out. When these bolls burst open, there is no
+more beautiful sight in the world than to look out over a cotton field
+and see the colored people--the “cotton pickers”--busy at their work
+picking off the bolls.
+
+When the crop is gathered and ginned, the lint is packed into bales and
+taken to the cotton mill, where it is made into cloth. One of the most
+interesting industrial processes in the world is to see the bale of
+cotton go into a cotton mill and come out a piece of cotton goods.
+
+[Illustration: THE COTTON ARRIVES AT THE MILL
+
+BALES OF COTTON AT COTTON MILL]
+
+[Illustration: OPENING MACHINES.
+
+The bales are opened, and the cotton is thrown into the large hoppers
+at the front of these machines, which open and loosen the fibers,
+work out lumps and remove the grosser impurities, such as dirt, leaf,
+seed and trash. A strong air draft carries off the dust and foreign
+particles, and lifts the cotton through trunks to the floor above.]
+
+[Illustration: LAPPER MACHINES.
+
+In these machines, known as Breaker and Finisher Lappers, more of the
+trash and impurities is beaten out of the cotton, and the lint is
+carried forward and wound into rolls of cotton batting, known as laps.
+Several of these are doubled and drawn into one so as to get the weight
+of each yard as uniform as possible.]
+
+[Illustration: FIRST STEPS IN MAKING COTTON CLOTH
+
+CARD ROOM.
+
+In these machines, known as Revolving Flat Top Cards, the cotton passes
+over revolving cylinders clothed with wire teeth, and the fibers are
+combed out and laid parallel with each other. They are delivered at the
+front of the machine as a filmy web, which is gathered together and
+formed into a soft downy ribbon or rope, known as card sliver. This is
+automatically coiled and delivered into cans.]
+
+[Illustration: DRAWING FRAMES.
+
+To insure uniformity in weight, so that the yarn when spun shall run
+even, the card slivers are doubled and drawn out, redoubled and again
+drawn out, somewhat in the manner of a candy maker pulling taffy, only
+here the process is continuous. Six strands of the card sliver are fed
+in together at the back of the drawing frames, pulled out and delivered
+as one; and the process repeated. This produces a sliver more uniform
+in weight, and in which the fibres are more parallel.]
+
+[Illustration: SLUBBERS.
+
+The sliver from the drawing frames is taken to machines called
+slubbers, where again the fibers are drawn out, and the strand of
+cotton, now much finer and known as slubber roving, is given a bit of
+twist to hold it together, and is wound on large bobbins.]
+
+[Illustration: PUTTING THE COTTON FIBER ON BOBBINS
+
+SPEEDERS.
+
+The large bobbins of roving from the slubbers are taken to other
+machines known as Speeders, and are unwound through the machine, again
+drawn out finer and finer, and rewound on smaller bobbins. The strand
+of cotton known as speeder roving is now ready to be taken to the
+spinning room for the final draft and twist necessary to turn it into
+yarn.]
+
+[Illustration: SPINNING FRAMES.
+
+The roving from the speeders is placed on the Spinning Frames, and now
+undergoes its final draft as it passes through the spinning rolls. The
+attenuated fibres are then twisted firmly together by the action of the
+spindles, which turn at a speed of about 10,000 revolutions per minute.
+The yarn thus formed is wound on bobbins and is ready to be dyed and
+weaved.]
+
+[Illustration: THE COTTON IS READY FOR DYEING
+
+SPOOLERS.
+
+Two kinds of yarn are delivered at the spinning frames, known as warp
+and filling, which make respectively the lengthwise and crosswise
+threads of the cloth. The filling is in its completed form ready for
+the loom; the warp must first be gotten into shape for dyeing and then
+arranged in parallel rows or sheets of thread for weaving. The first of
+these processes is spooling, and consists simply in unwinding the yarn
+from the small bobbins on which it is spun, and rewinding it on large
+spools.]
+
+[Illustration: WARPERS.
+
+The spools of warp yarn are placed in large wooden racks or creels from
+which they can conveniently unwind. The separate threads are drawn
+through little wires in the warpers, and are gathered into a bunch or
+rope of threads, which is wound in a large cylindrical ball known as a
+warp. If any thread breaks while passing through the warper, the little
+wire drops and stops the machine. In this way full count of threads and
+uniform weight of the goods is insured.]
+
+[Illustration: DYE-HOUSE.
+
+Here the warps, after being boiled and softened to enable the dye to
+penetrate, are passed through the indigo vats. Several runs are made to
+get the beautiful depth of color. This Dye-house is equipped with one
+hundred indigo vats, and is one of the best-lighted and cleanest-kept
+dye-houses in the world.]
+
+[Illustration: WHERE THE COTTON IS WOVEN INTO CLOTH
+
+BEAMING FRAMES.
+
+After being dyed, the warps are washed and then passed through drying
+machinery, from which they are delivered in coils. These are brought
+to the beaming frames, where they are again spread out into sheets of
+parallel threads, and passed through the teeth of a steel comb, which
+separates the threads and prevents tangling, and in this form they are
+wound on huge iron spools known as slasher beams.]
+
+[Illustration: SLASHERS.
+
+From the beaming frames the warps are taken to machines known as
+Slashers, where they are sized or stiffened to enable them to stand the
+chafing at the looms incidental to the process of weaving. The slasher
+beams are placed in an iron frame at the back of the slashers and
+unwound together through the machine. With them some additional threads
+of white yarn are unwound at either side to form the selvage of the
+cloth.]
+
+[Illustration: WEAVE ROOM.
+
+The sheet of warp threads unwinds from the loom beam, receives the
+filling threads and is wound into a roll of cloth at the front of the
+loom. This weave room contains 2000 looms. It is 904 feet long by 180
+feet wide (about four acres) and is the largest single weave room in
+the world. Overhead is the roof, which forms one vast sky-light, being
+of what is known as saw-tooth construction. The vertical sides of the
+teeth all face due north and are formed of ribbed glass, which affords
+the most perfect light to every section of the room.]
+
+[Illustration: THE COTTON CLOTH FINISHED
+
+INSPECTING TABLES.
+
+Before going to the baling presses every yard of cotton cloth passes
+under the vigilant eyes of the cloth inspectors, who mark as seconds
+and lay aside all pieces containing imperfections. This inspection
+is not a mere formality, but is conducted most carefully, and this
+department is specially located to get the best and most perfect light.]
+
+[Illustration: BALING PRESSES.
+
+The bolts of finished cloth are now placed in presses and made into
+bales of finished cloth and are ready for the market.]
+
+[Illustration: Shipping platform of the White Oak Mills, Greensboro, N.
+C., showing how the bales of finished cloth are handled in shipping.]
+
+  Pictures herewith by courtesy of White Oak Mills.
+
+
+Who Discovered Cotton?
+
+Just who discovered cotton is not known. The early records are so
+incomplete that no individual can be credited with the discovery of
+the value of this wonderful plant. Long before Cæsar’s time, among the
+Hindoos they had a law that if you stole a piece of cotton you were
+fined three times its value. Most of the early nations were familiar
+with cotton--the early Egyptians, Chinese and other ancient people used
+it and valued it.
+
+
+What Nation Produces the Most Cotton?
+
+The United States is the leader in the production of cotton, as in many
+other important world products. We produce more than seventy-five per
+cent of all the cotton grown in the world. The remainder is practically
+all grown by East India, Egypt and Brazil.
+
+
+What is Cotton Used For?
+
+The cotton plant is one of the wonder plants of the world, when you
+stop to think how well we could get along without wool or silk or other
+fabrics if we had to.
+
+Little would be lost to the world so far as actual comfort is concerned
+if all of the other fabric-making materials were lost. We would sleep,
+as we often do now, in beds the coverings of which were pure cotton,
+in a room in which the rugs were woven from cotton, the sun kept out
+of the room by cotton window shades. We could still have plenty of
+good soap to wash our bodies and clothing, for much of our soap to-day
+is made from cotton-seed oil; then we could use a cotton towel to dry
+ourselves; and put on a complete outfit of clothing made entirely of
+cotton. White cotton table cloths and napkins are not so fine as linen;
+they are good enough for anyone. Your breakfast rolls will taste quite
+as well if baked with cottolene instead of lard; the meat for your
+dinner would be fed and fattened on cotton-seed meal and hulls as they
+are now; you would have butter made from cotton-seed that compares
+favorably with the butter you now have on the table; the tobacco in
+your cigar would continue to be grown under cotton cloth and packed in
+cotton bags; armies would still sleep under cotton tents and could use
+gun-cotton to destroy the enemy.
+
+
+What Are the Principal Cotton Cloths?
+
+There are a great many different names given to cotton cloths, but
+they may in general be divided into five classes--plain goods, twills,
+sateen, fancy cloth and jacquard fabrics. The cotton cloth in each of
+these classes varies and goes by different names. For instance, in
+Plain Goods, the different kinds are lawn, nainsook, sheeting, mull,
+print cloth, madras. The difference lies in the number of threads in
+one inch of width, the fineness and the weave. The Twills have lines
+running diagonally and are used for linings mostly. The difference
+is in the weaving. Denim, largely used for overalls, belongs to the
+class of Twills. Sateen is used for dress linings, dresses and waists.
+Then there is the class of Fancy Cloths which is another kind of weave
+used largely in children’s clothes, shirt waists, etc., and under
+the name Scrim is fine for draperies and towelling. The other class,
+Jacquard Fabrics, represents the most complicated form of weaving and
+used largely under special individual names or brands for dress goods,
+novelties, etc.
+
+
+How Much Cotton Cloth Will a Pound of Cotton Make?
+
+When the cotton is spun into yarn it is no longer sold by the bale, but
+by the pound. It is impossible to make an exact statement of the amount
+of cotton cloth one pound of cotton yarn will make, because of the
+difference in weaving. It has, however, been figured out that a pound
+of cotton yarn should make
+
+  3¹⁄₂ yards of sheeting, or
+  3³⁄₄ yards of muslin, or
+  9¹⁄₂ yards of lawn, or
+  7¹⁄₂ yards of calico, or
+  5¹⁄₂ yards of gingham, or
+  57 spools of thread.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  Picture by courtesy Browne & Howell Co.
+
+CHRISTOFORI PIANO FROM THE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART, NEW YORK CITY.]
+
+
+
+
+The Story in a Piano
+
+
+What is Music?
+
+Music is one kind of sound. All sounds, whether musical or not, are the
+result of sound waves in the air. They travel almost exactly like the
+waves of the water. They go in circles in all directions at the same
+speed and will go on forever unless they meet something that has the
+ability to stop them. If you drop a pebble into the exact center of a
+basin of water, you will see the ring of waves produced start from the
+point where the pebble entered the water and travel to the sides of the
+vessel, which stop them. Also the pebble as it falls into the water
+will make ring after ring of waves.
+
+When you shout or ring or strike one of the keys of the piano you start
+a sound wave or a series of them, which you can hear as soon as the
+sound wave strikes your ear. When the series of waves is regular the
+sound produced is a musical sound, and when the sound waves are not
+regular in length we call it some other kind of a sound.
+
+Acting on the knowledge so learned, man has devised numerous
+instruments with which he can produce musical sounds, such as the
+piano, phonograph, and many others.
+
+
+Who Made the First Piano?
+
+The first real piano was made by Bartolomeo Christofori, an Italian.
+He invented the little hammers by the aid of which the strings are
+struck, giving a clear tone instead of the scratching sound which
+all the previous instruments produced. It took two thousand years to
+discover the value of the little hammers in making clearer notes. His
+first piano was made in 1709. The word by which we call the instrument
+pianoforte has, however, been traced back as far as 1598, when it is
+said to have been originated by an Italian named Paliarino. The first
+piano made in America was produced by John Behnud, in Philadelphia, in
+1775.
+
+
+How Was the Piano Discovered?
+
+~THE DISCOVERY OF STRINGED MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS~
+
+The piano is a stringed musical instrument. The name pianoforte comes
+from two Italian words meaning _soft_ and _loud_, and is accurately
+descriptive of the piano because the notes can at will be made soft or
+loud. The piano is a development of the simplest form of making regular
+sound vibrations by snapping or hammering a string of some kind which
+is stretched tight and fastened at both ends. We must go far back into
+history to find the earliest traces of stringed instruments, and even
+then we do not know where and when they originated, for there seem to
+be no records which help us to trace their origin. We know that the
+Egyptians as far back as 525 B.C. had stringed instruments, but we only
+know they had them--not where they got them or who made them. There
+is a legend that the Roman god Mercury, while walking along the Nile
+after the river had overflowed its banks and the land had again become
+dry, stubbed his toe on the shell of a dead tortoise. He picked it up
+to cast it aside and accidentally touched some strings of sinew with
+his finger. These strings were only what remained of the once live
+tortoise. At the same time Mercury heard a musical note and, after
+vainly trying to find a cause for the musical sound, twanged the string
+again and discovered the music in tightly-stretched strings. He set
+about making an instrument, using the tortoise shell for the sound box
+and stretching a number of strings of sinew across it. This is only a
+legend, of course, but if we examine the early musical instruments of
+the Greeks, which was the lyre, we always find the representation of a
+tortoise upon it.
+
+Other nations, such as the early Chinese, the Persians, the Hindus and
+the Hebrews, had stringed instruments much resembling the lyre. In the
+tombs of the great rulers of Egypt are found representations of harps,
+and one harp which had been buried in one of the tombs for more than
+3000 years was actually found to be in good condition.
+
+[Illustration: Picture by courtesy Browne & Howell Co.
+
+DULCIMER.]
+
+Wherever we search among the records of early nations we find evidence
+that they were familiar with the music obtainable from playing upon
+stringed instruments, but we have never been able to discover what
+people or what persons first learned that music could be produced with
+such instruments.
+
+~THE FIRST STRINGED MUSICAL INSTRUMENT~
+
+The harp was probably the first practical stringed instrument. Its
+music was produced by picking the strings with the fingers or with a
+piece of bone or metal.
+
+The next step was the psaltery, which was produced in the Middle Ages.
+It was a box with strings stretched across it and represented the first
+crude attempt at using a sounding board. A larger instrument which came
+about the same time and was very like the psaltery, was the dulcimer.
+Both were played by picking the strings with the finger or a small
+piece of bone or other substance.
+
+Then came the keyboard, first used on stringed instruments in what
+is called the _clavicytherium_. This consisted of a box with cat-gut
+strings ranged in a semitriangle. On the end of each key was a quill,
+which picked the string when the key was operated.
+
+After this came the clavichord. It was built like a small square piano
+without legs. The strings were made of brass and on the end of each key
+was a wedge-shaped piece of brass which picked the strings. The elder
+Bach composed his music on the clavichord, his favorite instrument, and
+that is why the music written by Bach is full of soft and melancholy
+notes. The clavichord produced only such notes.
+
+The next steps brought the virginal, spinet and harpsichord. The
+strings on all three were of brass with quills at the key ends for
+picking the strings. The virginal and spinet were very much alike. The
+harpsichord was larger and sometimes was made with two keyboards. These
+instruments had notes covering four octaves only.
+
+[Illustration: Picture by courtesy Browne & Howell Co.
+
+CLAVICHORD.]
+
+The arrangement of the strings in the harpsichord provided one step
+nearer to our piano. It had five octaves of notes and there were at
+least two strings to each note instead of only one, as in previous
+instruments.
+
+[Illustration: Picture by courtesy Browne & Howell Co.
+
+SPINET.]
+
+
+Why Do We Have Only Seven Octaves On a Piano? Why Not Twelve or More
+Octaves?
+
+Ordinarily the longest key-board of the piano has seven octaves and
+three notes in addition, or 52 notes, not counting the sharps and
+flats. An octave you, of course, know consists of the seven notes C D
+E F G A B. Every eighth note is a repetition of the one seven notes
+below or above. The reason that there are no more notes or octaves on
+the piano is that if we extended the key-board either way one or two
+octaves more, we should not be able to hear the notes struck on the
+keys. There would be sound produced, or course, but the vibrations
+would be too fine for the human ear to hear. It is said that the range
+of the human ear does not go beyond somewhere between eleven and twelve
+octaves.
+
+[Illustration: Picture by courtesy Browne & Howell Co.
+
+UPRIGHT HARPSICHORD.
+
+(From the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City.)]
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  Picture by courtesy Browne & Howell Co.
+
+QUEEN ELIZABETH’S VIRGINAL.]
+
+[Illustration: HOW THE MUSIC GETS INTO THE PIANO
+
+  Photo by Kohler & Campbell Piano Co.
+
+PUTTING ON THE SOUNDING BOARD.
+
+The first operation in producing the piano is to make a wooden frame
+or back on which is attached first the sounding board, then the iron,
+harp-shaped frame to which the strings are fastened.
+
+The tones of the piano are produced by felt-covered hammers striking
+the strings. The sounding board, which is made of wood, magnifies the
+tones.
+
+This picture shows the mechanics glueing the sounding board to the
+back.]
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  Photo by Kohler & Campbell Piano Co.
+
+FASTENING THE STRINGS.
+
+The strings are hitched on to pins in the iron frame at its lower end
+and fastened at the upper end by a metal pin or peg driven into the
+back. The peg is square on top, so that it can be turned with a tuning
+hammer or wrench in order to tighten or slacken the strings, which is
+the operation of tuning the piano.]
+
+[Illustration: THE LITTLE HAMMERS WHICH STRIKE THE PIANO STRINGS
+
+  Photo by Kohler & Campbell Piano Co.
+
+BUILDING THE CASE AROUND THE SOUNDING BOARD.
+
+As soon as the sounding board with its iron frame and strings is
+complete, the outside case is built up around it, the front being left
+open to receive the action and key-board.]
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  Photo by Kohler & Campbell Piano Co.
+
+ATTACHING THE LITTLE HAMMERS THAT STRIKE THE STRINGS.
+
+In this picture the workmen are placing the action and keys, to which
+are attached the little wooden felt-covered hammers, which will strike
+the strings and produce the tones. It took a great many years for our
+musical instrument makers to hit upon the idea of using these little
+hammers, and thus make the piano a perfect instrument.]
+
+[Illustration: REGULATING THE ACTION OF THE PIANO
+
+  Photo by Kohler & Campbell Piano Co.
+
+REGULATING THE ACTION AND KEYBOARD.
+
+This picture shows the piano partly assembled and the workmen adjusting
+each little black and white key to the proper touch.]
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  Photo by Kohler & Campbell Piano Co.
+
+TUNING, POLISHING AND FINISHING.
+
+The piano is now complete except for polishing and tuning. The tuning
+is left to the last. The tuner must have a good ear for music. With
+his key he tightens or loosens each of the pegs to which the wires are
+attached until it is perfectly in tune and all in harmony. The piano is
+now ready to play upon.]
+
+
+
+
+How Sounds Are Produced.
+
+
+If you look closely at a tuning fork, or a piano string, while it
+is sounding, you can see that it is swinging rapidly to and fro, or
+vibrating. Touch it with your finger and thus stop its vibration and it
+no longer produces sound. The only difference that you can discover in
+the fork or string when sounding and when silent is that when you stop
+the motion it is silent and when it vibrates it makes a sound. From
+this we learn that the sounds are due to the vibrations of sounding
+bodies. This has been proven by the examination of so many sounding
+bodies that we believe that all sounds are produced by vibrations.
+
+The question that next presents itself is, how the vibrations affect
+our ears, so as to produce the sensation of hearing. This may be made
+clear by a very simple, but striking, experiment. If a bell which has
+been arranged to be rung by clock-work is suspended under the receiver
+of an air pump, and the air pumped out, the sound of the bell will grow
+faint as the quantity of air in the receiver decreases, and finally
+will stop completely. By looking through the glass of the receiver,
+however, the bell may be seen ringing as vigorously as at first. We
+learn thus that the air around a sounding body plays an important part
+in the transmission of the vibrations to our ears. The way in which
+the air acts in transmitting the vibrations is as follows. At each
+vibration of the sounding body, it compresses, to a certain degree,
+a layer of air in front of it. This layer, however, does not remain
+compressed, for air is very elastic, and the compressed air soon
+expands, and in doing so compresses a layer of air just beyond it. This
+layer expands in its turn, and compresses another layer still further
+from the body. In this way waves of compression are sent through the
+air, at each vibration, in all directions from the vibrating body.
+
+It must not be thought that particles of air travel all the way from
+the vibrating body to the ear when a sound is heard. Each particle of
+air travels a very short distance, never any further than the vibrating
+body moves in making a vibration, and the movement of the air particles
+is a vibratory one, like that of the sounding body. But the particles
+of air near the sounding body communicate their vibrations to other
+particles, further from that body, and these, in turn, to others still
+further away, so, while the particles of air themselves move very short
+distances, the waves produced by their vibrations may be made to travel
+a considerable distance.
+
+The size of a sound wave ordinarily is very small, but sound waves are
+sometimes made of such size and strength as to strike our ears with
+a force sufficient to rupture the ear drum. Such large and forceful
+waves come during explosions, such as the discharges of cannon or the
+explosions of large quantities of gunpowder under any conditions.
+
+
+
+
+What Is Sound?
+
+
+From what has already been said, you will probably answer that sounds
+are waves in the air, which produce the sensation of hearing. This
+is correct, but sound is not limited to vibrations of the air. Other
+elastic substances can be made to vibrate in the same way, and the
+waves so produced when conveyed to our ears, produce the sensation of
+hearing. If you put your ear under water and then strike two stones
+together in the water you will hear a sound as readily as you would in
+air. Sound waves may be transmitted by solid bodies also, and some of
+these are better for this purpose than air or liquids. Perhaps you have
+tried the experiment of placing your ear against one of the steel rails
+on a railroad track to listen for the coming of a distant train. If you
+have tried this, you know that a sound that is too faint, or is made
+too far away, to be heard through the air, can easily be heard through
+the rail.
+
+In view of the fact that other substances than air can be thrown into
+waves that will affect the sense of hearing, we may define sound as
+vibrations in any elastic object, that produces the sensation of
+hearing.
+
+The definition is sometimes called the physical definition of sound,
+in contradistinction to the physiological definition of sound which
+is given as the sensation produced when vibrations in elastic
+substances are conveyed to our ears. You will see then that sound when
+referring to the physical definition is what makes sound known in the
+physiological definition. The term sound alone, without qualifications,
+may have either meaning, and therefore statements concerning sound may
+be misleading, unless we are exact in explaining the sense in which the
+word is used.
+
+
+
+
+How Fast Does Sound Travel?
+
+
+When a sound is made close to us, it reaches our ears so quickly that
+it seems as though it took no time to travel; but when a gun is fired
+by a person at a distance, you will notice that after you see the flash
+of the gun, a little time elapses before the sound reaches your ear. It
+takes a little time for the light from the flash to get to your eyes,
+but a very short time, which you cannot appreciate. Sound travels much
+more slowly and the time it takes to travel a few hundred yards is
+noticeable. Accurate measurements of the speed of sound have been made,
+and it has been found that sound usually travels in air at a speed of
+about eleven hundred feet a second. The speed is not always the same,
+however, for a number of circumstances may cause it to vary. In air
+which is heated, the speed at which sound travels in it is increased
+because hot air expands. At the freezing point, sound travels through
+the air at the rate of 1,091 feet a second, and for every increase
+in temperature of one degree of heat, the speed is increased about
+thirteen inches a second. Accordingly at 68° F. the speed would be
+approximately 1,130 feet a second. Sounds also travel faster in moist
+air than in dry.
+
+In other gases the speed of sound transmission may be greater or less
+than in air. For example, in hydrogen gas, which is much lighter than
+air, sound travels nearly four times as fast as it does in air. On the
+other hand, in carbonic acid gas, which is heavier than air, sound is
+transmitted more slowly.
+
+In liquids, which are always heavier than air, you would naturally
+think that sound would travel more slowly than in air, but this is not
+true. Liquids are less compressible than gases and this causes the
+speed with which sound is transmitted in them to be increased. In water
+sound travels about four times as fast as in air.
+
+
+
+
+What Are the Properties of Sound?
+
+
+Sounds differ from each other by the extent to which they possess three
+qualities, namely; intensity, pitch and quality.
+
+The intensity of any sound that we hear depends upon the size of
+the waves that reach our ears. The size of a sound wave gradually
+decreases, as the wave travels from its starting point, consequently
+the intensity of a sound depends upon the distance from the point
+at which the sound was produced. We know this from experience and
+if we think of the matter for a moment we will see why it is so. At
+the start of a sound wave, only a small quantity of air is affected,
+but for every inch it travels the quantity of air to which the wave
+is conveyed becomes larger, and the intensity of the waves must grow
+correspondingly smaller, just as when a pebble is dropped into water,
+the ripples produced by it are highest at the point where the pebble
+struck the water, and grows lower and lower as their circle widens.
+
+It has been found possible to measure the intensity of a sound wave,
+at different distances from the point from which it started, and from
+these measurements it has been learned that the decrease in the open
+air, follows a fixed rule that is stated thus: the intensity of a
+sound wave at any point is inversely proportional to the square of
+its distance from its starting point. This rule is called “the law
+of inverse square,” and it means that if the intensity of a wave be
+measured at two points, distant say one hundred, and two hundred yards,
+respectively, from the starting point of the sound, the intensity of
+the sound at the first point will be found to be four times as great as
+at the second point.
+
+
+
+
+Why Can You Hear More Easily Through a Speaking Tube?
+
+
+We have seen that the decrease in intensity of a sound wave as it
+travels through the air, is due to the fact that the quantity of
+air set in motion by it is constantly increasing. But, if a wave is
+conveyed through a tube containing air, the quantity of air to which
+the vibrations are communicated does not increase as the wave travels
+forward, and theoretically there is no decrease in intensity. When a
+wave is actually transmitted in this way, however, it is found that
+there is some decrease in intensity on account of the friction of the
+particles of air against the sides of the tube; but the decrease from
+this cause is much slower than that which occurs in the open air, and
+consequently sounds can be heard at much greater distances through
+tubes than through the open air. Tubes for speaking purposes are
+frequently used to connect different parts of the same building, and if
+the tubes are not too crooked they serve their purpose very well.
+
+Pitch is that property of sounds that determines whether they are high
+or low. The pitch of a sound depends upon the number of vibrations
+a second which the body that produces it makes. The sound of an
+explosion has no pitch because it makes but one wave in the air. The
+sound made by a wagon on a pavement has no definite pitch, for it is
+a mixture of sounds, in which the number of vibrations per second is
+not the same. Pitch is a property of continuous sounds only, and it is
+apparent chiefly in musical sounds, by which we mean sounds in which
+the vibrations are continuous and regular. In music, however, pitch
+is very important. In a musical instrument, the parts are so arranged
+that the sounds produced can be given any desired pitch, and it is by
+controlling the pitch that the pleasing effect of musical sounds in
+large measure is produced. Sounds of low pitch are produced by bodies
+making but a few vibrations a second while high-pitched sounds are made
+by bodies that vibrate rapidly.
+
+Quality, may be defined as that property of sounds which enable us to
+distinguish the notes produced by different instruments. Two notes,
+one of which is produced upon a piano, and the other upon a violin,
+may have the same pitch and be equally loud, yet they are easily
+distinguishable. The difference in them is due to the presence of what
+are called overtones.
+
+
+
+
+What Is Meant By the Length of Sound Waves?
+
+
+The length of a sound wave embraces the distance from the point of
+greatest compression in one wave to the same point in the next. This
+depends upon the pitch for if a sounding body is making one hundred
+vibrations a second, by the time the one hundredth vibration is made,
+the wave from the first vibration will have travelled about eleven
+hundred feet from the starting point, and the remaining ninety-eight
+waves will lie between the first and the one hundredth. In consequence
+of this, the wave length for that particular sound will be about eleven
+feet. If the sounding body had made eleven hundred vibrations a second
+by the time the first wave had travelled eleven hundred feet, there
+would have been eleven hundred waves produced, and the wave length for
+that sound would be one foot. The wave lengths of sounds produced by
+the human voice usually lay between one and eight feet, though some
+singers have produced notes having wave lengths as great as eighteen
+feet, and others have reached notes so high that the wave length was
+only about nine inches.
+
+When a tuning fork is struck, it produces a sound so faint that it can
+scarcely be heard unless the fork is held near the ear; but if the end
+of the fork is held on a box or table, the sound rings out loudly and
+seems to come from the table. The explanation of this is very simple.
+When only the fork vibrates, it produces very small sound waves,
+because its prongs are small and cut through the air. But when it is
+set on a box or table, its vibrations are communicated to the support,
+and the broader surface of the box or table sets a larger mass of air
+in vibration, and so amplifies the sound of the fork. When a surface
+is used in this way to reinforce the vibrations of a small body, and
+thus produce sound waves of greater volume, it is called a sounding
+board. Many musical instruments, like the violin and the piano, owe
+the intensity of their sounds to sounding boards, which reinforce the
+vibrations of their strings.
+
+~WHAT A SOUNDING BOARD DOES~
+
+Columns of air, like sounding boards, serve to reinforce sound waves.
+Unlike sounding boards, however, they do not respond equally well to a
+large number of different sounds. They respond to one sound only, or
+to several widely different ones. This may be shown as follows: Take a
+glass tube about sixteen inches long, and two inches in diameter, and
+after thrusting one end of it into a vessel of water, hold a vibrating
+tuning fork over the other end. By gradually lowering the tube into the
+water a point will be reached at which the sound becomes very loud, and
+as this point is passed the sound gradually dies away again. By raising
+the tube again the sound is again made loud when the tube reaches a
+certain point. This shows that to reinforce sound waves of a certain
+vibration frequency, the column of air in the tube must be of certain
+length.
+
+Let us now see why the waves produced by the tuning fork are reinforced
+only by a column of air of a certain length. When the prongs of the
+fork make a vibration, a wave of air is produced which enters the tube,
+goes down to the water, is reflected, and comes back toward the fork.
+Now, if the reflected wave reaches the fork at the precise moment when
+it has completed one-half of its vibration and is about to begin upon
+the second half, it will strengthen the wave produced by the second
+half of the vibration; but if the reflected wave reaches the fork
+before or after the beginning of the second half of the vibration, it
+will not reinforce it. At the downward movement of the lower prong of
+the tuning fork, a wave of compression is sent down into the tube, and
+is reflected at the surface of the water. In order to reinforce the
+wave produced by the prong when it moves upward, the reflected wave
+must reach the fork just at the time that the prong reaches its normal
+position and before it starts upon the second half of its vibration.
+
+Not only do columns of air tend to reinforce notes having a certain
+rate of vibration, but all elastic bodies have a certain rate at which
+they tend to vibrate, and when sounds having the same rate of vibration
+are produced near them, these bodies will vibrate in sympathy with
+them. If the sounds be kept up long enough, the sympathetic vibrations
+in objects near them sometimes become so great that they can easily be
+seen. Goblets and tumblers made of thin glass show this property very
+strikingly. When the proper notes are sounded the glasses take up the
+vibrations, and give a sound of the same pitch. If the note is loud,
+and is continued for some time, the vibrations of a glass sometimes
+become so great that the glass breaks. Large buildings, and bridges
+also, have rates at which they tend to vibrate, and this fact is the
+foundation for the old saying, that a man may fiddle a bridge down, if
+he fiddles long enough.
+
+
+
+
+Musical Instruments.
+
+
+By musical sounds, are meant sounds that are pleasant to hear, and
+their combination in such a way that their effect is agreeable
+produces music. Any instrument, therefore, that is capable of producing
+pleasing sounds may be called a musical instrument, and music is
+sometimes produced by very odd devices; but by musical instruments we
+ordinarily mean instruments that are especially designed to produce
+musical sounds. The number of such instruments that have been invented
+is enormous, but all of them may be divided into comparatively few
+classes, only two of which are of much importance. The two classes,
+only two of which are of much importance. The two classes referred to
+are stringed instruments and wind instruments.
+
+~WHAT PITCH IS IN MUSIC~
+
+Stringed musical instruments are those in which the sounds are produced
+by the vibration of a number of strings, and are generally reinforced
+by a sounding board. The strings are arranged in the instruments in
+such a way that the pitch of the sound produced by each string shall
+bear relation to the pitch of those obtained from the other strings. As
+long as this relation exists, the instrument is said to be in tune, and
+when the relation is destroyed, the instrument is out of tune, and the
+music produced by it is apt to contain what we call discords.
+
+The conditions that determine the pitch of sounds produced by strings
+can be very easily discovered by experiment. Thus, by taking two pieces
+of the same wire, one twice as long as the other, and stretching them
+equally, you will observe on striking them that the shorter one yields
+the higher note. If their vibration frequencies are measured it will
+be found that the shorter string has a vibration frequency just twice
+as great as that of the longer string. From this we conclude that when
+two strings of the same size (and material) are stretched equally taut,
+their vibration frequencies are inversely proportional to their lengths.
+
+By now taking two pieces of wire, of the same size and length, and
+stretching them so that the tension of one is four times as great as
+that of the other, we shall find that the vibration frequency of the
+tighter string is just twice as great as that of the looser. Thus, we
+see that the vibration frequency depends upon the tension applied to a
+string, and, that in strings of the same size and length, the vibration
+frequencies are proportional to the square roots of their tensions.
+
+Now taking two strings of the same length, but with the diameter of one
+twice as great as that of the other, and stretching them equally, we
+shall find that the vibration frequency of the smaller string is twice
+that of the larger; which shows that when the lengths and tensions
+of two strings are equal, their vibration frequencies are inversely
+proportional to their diameters.
+
+In constructing stringed instruments, advantage is taken of each
+of these conditions that affect the vibration of strings, and the
+requisite pitch is secured in a string by choosing one of convenient
+length and diameter, and by stretching it to just the right tension.
+
+When a string is plucked in the middle, it vibrates as a whole, and
+its rate of vibration, or vibration frequency, is determined by the
+three conditions that have just been discussed; but if a finger is
+laid on the string, in the middle, and the string is plucked between
+the middle and the end, the string will vibrate in halves, and the
+middle point will remain at rest. If the string had been touched at a
+point one-fourth of the length from the end it would have vibrated in
+fourths, and there would have been three stationary points.
+
+When vibrations are set up in a string, with nothing to prevent the
+free vibration of the whole string, it first vibrates as a whole, and
+the sound produced is known as the fundamental tone of the string; but
+very soon smaller vibrations of segments of the string begin, first
+of halves of the string, then of thirds, and then of fourths. These
+smaller vibrations produce sound waves that blend with the fundamental
+tone and are known as overtones. The combined sound of the fundamental
+tone and the overtones is called a note. The overtones present in
+notes that have the same fundamental tone are not the same when the
+notes are produced by different instruments, and, consequently,
+the sound of notes of the same pitch is not the same on different
+instruments. This difference in notes of the same pitch has already
+been mentioned, but the way in which overtones are produced was not
+explained in connection with it.
+
+In wind instruments the sounds are produced by the vibrations of
+columns of air in pipes. In the organ, which is probably the best
+example of a wind instrument, the vibrations are usually produced by
+causing a current of air to strike a sharp edge, just above the opening
+of the pipe, as is done in a common whistle. A portion of the air
+current is deflected into the organ pipe, and it sets up vibrations in
+the air within the pipe.
+
+The pitch of the sound produced by an organ pipe is determined by the
+length of the pipe. A pipe that is open at both ends, called an open
+pipe, produces a sound that has a wave length twice as great as the
+length of the pipe; and if the pipe is open at one end only, a closed
+pipe, the sound produced has a wave length twice the length of the open
+pipe. Hence it will be seen that a closed pipe produces a sound that
+has the same pitch as that produced by an open pipe that is twice as
+long.
+
+
+
+
+Talking Machines.
+
+
+The phonograph, graphophone, gramophone, sonophone, and other talking
+machines, furnish one of the best proofs of the wave theory of sound,
+because their invention was based upon that theory. The first talking
+machine was that invented by Thomas A. Edison and called by him the
+phonograph. The others merely show the principle of the phonograph
+applied in different ways, and need not be separately described. The
+reasoning that led Edison to invent the phonograph was that if the
+sound waves produced by the human voice were allowed to strike a thick
+disk of hard rubber or metal, they would cause the disk to vibrate in
+a certain way, and if the disk were again made to vibrate as it had
+done under the influence of the voice, the sounds of the voice would be
+reproduced. The difficult part of the task of making a talking machine
+was in finding a way to make the disk vibrate again as it did under
+the influence of the voice. This, however, was finally accomplished,
+providing the disk with a needle, that rests on a cylinder of hard
+wax, which turns slowly under the point of the needle while the sound
+waves are striking the disk. The vibrations of the disk cause the point
+to indent the surface of the wax so as to produce a groove of varying
+depth on its surface. After the vibrations of the speaker’s voice have
+been recorded in this way on the surface of the wax cylinder the needle
+can be made to retrace its path, and will cause the disk to vibrate as
+it did under the tones of the speaker’s voice. These last vibrations of
+the disk produce sound waves similar to those of the voice, but their
+amplitude is less and the sound is not so loud.
+
+
+
+
+Why Does Red Make a Bull Angry?
+
+
+It is very doubtful if a red flag really makes a bull more excited or
+more quickly than a rag of any other color or any other object which
+the bull can see plainly but does not understand. Conceding for the
+moment that red excites a bull more than any other color, the answer to
+the question will be found in the statement that anything unusual which
+the bull sees has a tendency to make him angry and the thing which he
+can see at a distance more quickly will start him going most quickly.
+He can see a red rag better perhaps than almost any other color. There
+may be something about the color which excites him just as some notes
+on the piano will worry some dogs, but there is no way of studying the
+bull’s anatomy to determine why red should excite him more than any
+other color, if that is so.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.]
+
+
+
+
+HOW A KEY TURNS A LOCK
+
+
+What Happens When the Knob is Turned?
+
+All of that portion of the lock which is shown above the round central
+post is operated by the knob, the spindle of which passes through the
+square hole. Before the knob is turned, the parts are in the position
+shown in figure 2, with the latch bolt protruding. Turning the knob to
+the left gives the position shown in figure 1, the upper lever in the
+hub pushing back the yoke, which in turn pushes back the latch bolt.
+When the hand is removed, the springs cause the parts to return to the
+position shown in figure 2. Turning the knob to the right also retracts
+the latch bolt, as shown in figure 3, by means of the lower lever on
+the hub.
+
+The spiral spring on the latch bolt is lighter than the one above
+it. This gives an easy, lively action to the bolt, with very little
+friction when the door is closed, while the heavier spring above gives
+a quick and positive action of the knobs.
+
+
+What Happens When the Key is Turned?
+
+All of that portion of the lock which is shown below the round central
+post is operated by the key. The square stud is attached to the bolt,
+and in figure 1, it is seen that the projections on the flat tumblers
+prevent the stud from moving forward, holding the bolt in retracted
+position. When the key is turned as shown in figure 2, it raises the
+tumblers releasing the stud, and then pushes the bolt out, the tumblers
+falling into position as shown in figure 3, with the projections
+again engaging the stud and preventing the bolt from moving until the
+key is turned backward, again raising the tumblers and releasing and
+retracting the bolt.
+
+
+How Key Changes Are Provided.
+
+There are three ways in which keys are made individual to the locks
+they fit.
+
+_a._ By changing the shape of the keyhole. This may be done shorter or
+longer, wide or narrow, straight or tapering and with projections on
+the sides which the key must fit, making it difficult or impossible
+for keys of a different class to enter the lock. In the lock shown, a
+projection on the keyhole will be noted, fitting a groove in the bit of
+the key.
+
+_b._ By wards attached to the lock-case. The two crescent-shaped wards
+seen near the key in figure 2 illustrate this feature. Similar wards
+are placed on the lock cover. These fit into the two notches shown on
+the key bit in figure 4, and their shape and position are varied at
+will.
+
+_c._ By changes in the tumblers. There are five flat tumblers in the
+lock shown, and their lower edges fit into the end of the key bit.
+By varying their height, changes in the cutting of the key are made
+necessary.
+
+The security of a lock depends very largely upon its being so made that
+no key will operate it except the one which belongs to it, and this
+is obtained by guarding the keyhole by means of _a_, by preventing
+the wrong key from turning by means of _b_, and by still further
+limitations by means of _c_.
+
+[Illustration: HOW A CYLINDER LOCK WORKS]
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 1. PARTS OF CYLINDER LOCK.]
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 2.
+
+FACE OF CYLINDER LOCK.]
+
+
+The Cylinder Lock.
+
+Door locks of the highest grade of security are made with a locking
+cylinder, which contains tumblers in the form of miniature bolts which
+make it impossible to operate the lock except with the key to which it
+is fitted. This is screwed into the lock-case through the side of the
+door, with the lever on the inner end engaging the end of the bolt in
+the lock, so that as it is moved it either retracts or “throws” the
+bolt as desired.
+
+Figure 1 shows all the parts of a modern master-keyed lock. Figure
+4 shows a broken view of the cylinder with all parts in position.
+Figure 3 shows a simpler form used when the master key is not desired.
+Figure 2 shows the front, the only part which is visible when the lock
+is in use, with its keyway of tortuous shape which will not admit
+flat-picking tools.
+
+When the lock is assembled, the pin tumblers project through the shell,
+the master cylinder and the key plug holding all parts firmly bolted or
+fastened together. When the proper key is inserted, the tumblers are
+raised until the “breaks” in all of them coincide with the surface of
+the key plug, releasing it and permitting the key to turn it. If any
+one of the five tumblers is .002 inch too high or too low, the key will
+not turn; so that no key except the one made for the lock can be used.
+
+In the master-keyed lock, the master key causes the breaks to coincide
+with the outer surface of the master ring. It is thus possible to
+have a master key which will fit any desired number of locks with the
+individual or change keys all different from each other and from the
+master key.
+
+The balls reduce friction to such an extent that a key has been
+inserted and withdrawn for a million times without affecting the
+accuracy of the lock.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 3.
+
+INTERIOR OF CYLINDER LOCK WITHOUT MASTER KEY.]
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 4.
+
+INTERIOR OF MASTER-KEYED CYLINDER LOCK.]
+
+
+
+
+Where Does Salt Come From?
+
+
+Salt is one of the things with which we come in contact with daily
+perhaps more than any other. With the exception of water, probably no
+one thing is used more by all civilized people than salt.
+
+You have already learned in our talk on elements the difference between
+a mere mixture of substances and a chemical compound. You remember
+that when some substances are only mixed together, they do not lose
+their identity. In a compound the substances are always combined in
+fixed proportions and the properties of the compound are often very
+different from those of the things that make it. Common salt is made of
+two substances, that are not at all like salt, and are very different
+from each other. One, sodium, is a soft, bluish metal, and the other is
+chlorine, a yellowish-green gas. The chemical name for salt is sodium
+chloride which is derived from the two names sodium and chlorine.
+
+Sodium and chlorine are both what we have learned to call elements. An
+element being a substance which cannot be separated into substances
+of different kinds. There are now known about seventy such elements.
+All the substances around us are composed of these elements alone, or
+chemically united in different compounds, or simply mixed together.
+Most of them, however, are mixtures, not of separate elements, but of
+compounds. The soil under our feet is a mixture of compounds. Water is
+also a compound. Pure compounds very rarely occur naturally. Salt is
+sometimes found almost pure; but generally is mixed with so many other
+things that we have to take them out to get absolutely pure salt. For
+practical every-day use it is unnecessary to purify the salt.
+
+Salt is found in large quantities in the sea water, in which it is
+dissolved with some other substances. It is also found in salt beds,
+formed by the drying up of old lakes that have no outlets; salt wells,
+that yield strong brine; and salt mines, in which it is found in hard,
+solid, transparent crystals, called rock salt. Rock salt is the purest
+form in which salt is found and, to prepare it for market, it is merely
+necessary to grind it or cut into blocks. The greatest deposit of salt
+in the world is probably that at Wielizka in Poland, where there is a
+bed 500 miles long, 20 miles wide, and 1,200 feet thick. Some of the
+mines there are so extensive that it is said some of the miners spend
+all their lives in them, never coming to the surface of the earth.
+
+A trip through these mines is interesting. In one of them can be seen
+a church made entirely of salt. The salt supply of the United States
+is obtained chiefly from the salt wells of Michigan and New York, the
+Great Salt Lake in Utah, and the rock-salt mines of Louisiana and
+Kansas.
+
+In the arts and manufactures, the most important uses of salt are
+in glazing earthenware, in extracting metals from their ores, in
+preserving meats and hides, in fertilizing arid soil, and also, as we
+shall presently see, in the manufacture of soda. Of equal importance,
+perhaps, is its use in food. Most people think it not only lends a
+pleasant flavor, but is itself an important article of diet. It is
+certain, that all people who can obtain it use salt in their food, and
+where it is scarce, it is considered one of the greatest of luxuries.
+
+Soda is of interest to us, not so much on account of its use in
+our households, as because it plays on extremely important part in
+two industries that contribute greatly to our comfort, viz., the
+manufacture of glass and soap.
+
+Soda is not found naturally in great abundance, as salt is, but is
+generally made from other substances. Formerly it was made almost
+entirely from the ashes of certain plants. One, known as the Salsoda
+soda-plant, was formerly cultivated in Spain for the soda contained
+in it, and the ashes, or Barilla, as they were called, were soaked in
+water to dissolve out the soda. Now, however, the world’s soda supply
+is produced from common salt by two processes, known from the names of
+their inventors as the Leblanc and Solvay processes.
+
+~WHERE WE GET SODA~
+
+In the Leblanc process the first step is to treat the salt, or sodium
+chloride, with sulphuric acid. As a result of this, a compound of
+sodium, sulphur, and oxygen, called sodium sulphate is formed, together
+with another acid containing hydrogen and chlorine, and called
+hydrochloric acid. This acid is driven off by boiling, and the sodium
+sulphate is left.
+
+The next step in the process is to convert the sodium sulphate, or
+“salt cake,” into soda, or, to give it its chemical name, sodium
+carbonate. This change is brought about by mixing the salt cake with
+limestone and coal and heating the mixture. Just what changes go on
+when this is done, are not known, but the chief ones are probably the
+following: the coal, which consists for the most part of an element
+called carbon, takes the oxygen out of the sodium sulphate, and unites
+with it to form carbonic acid gas, leaving a compound of sodium and
+sulphur called sodium sulphide; this acts on the limestone, which is
+composed of a metal, calcium, in combination with carbon and oxygen,
+and causes the sulphur in the sodium sulphide to combine with the
+calcium, forming calcium sulphide, while the sodium combines with the
+carbon and oxygen and forms the desired compound, sodium carbonate.
+After the heating, the resulting mass which contains calcium sulphide,
+sodium carbonate, and some unburned coal, and is known as “black
+ash,” is broken up and treated with water. This dissolves the sodium
+carbonate, leaving the rest undissolved, and when part of the water is
+evaporated crystals containing sodium carbonate and water are formed.
+By heating these the water may be driven off, and the sodium carbonate
+left behind as a white powder.
+
+The Solvay, or ammonia soda, process consists in forcing carbonic acid
+gas through strong brine, to which a considerable quantity of ammonia
+has been added. When this is done, crystals are formed in the brine,
+which are composed of a compound of hydrogen, sodium, carbon, and
+oxygen, and are called sodium bicarbonate. This substance, which is the
+soda we sometimes use in baking bread, is decomposed by heating, into
+water and sodium carbonate, the soda used for washing.
+
+The Leblanc process was formerly used almost altogether for making
+soda; but in recent years the Solvay process has come into extensive
+use, and it is said that now more than half the soda of the world is
+made in this way.
+
+
+
+
+Where Do All the Little Round Stones Come From?
+
+
+The little round stones you are thinking of are really pebbles which
+have been worn smooth and round by being rubbed against each other in
+the water, through the action of the waves on a beach, or the running
+water of brooks and streams. This sort of rock is called a water-formed
+rock. Some of them have travelled many miles before they are found
+side by side on the shore or in a large mass of what we would call
+conglomerate rock. But whenever you see a round smooth rock or pebble
+you may be quite sure that it was made round and smooth by the action
+of water.
+
+You sometimes see large rocks made of small stones of various colors
+and sizes. You can often find a large rock of this kind standing by
+itself. If you examine it carefully, you will find it consists of an
+immense number of small stones of different sizes and of a variety of
+colors, all fastened together as though with cement. This kind of rock
+is called conglomerate. We know two kinds of conglomerate rock, one,
+quite common, in which the little stones are round and smooth, and
+another, not seen so often, in which the stones are sharp. The latter
+sort is sometimes called breccia, to distinguish it from the former,
+which is called true pudding stone.
+
+
+
+
+What Is Clay?
+
+
+Clay is the result of the crumbling of a certain kind of rocks called
+feldspars. When feldspar is exposed to the action of the weather, it
+crumbles slowly at the surface and the little fragments combine with
+a certain amount of water, forming clay. Pure clay is white and is
+used in the manufacture of china and porcelain. The common clay that
+we usually think of when we think of clay, is generally yellowish,
+but there are many different colored clays. Most of these colors,
+particularly those of red clay, yellow clay and blue clay, come from
+the iron which is present in the clay. Clay which contains iron is
+useful for making bricks. Bricks are made from clay by first softening
+the clay and pressing it in molds, the size of a brick. When dried for
+a time in the sun they are put into an oven and baked in great heat
+and they become quite hard and generally red. Most of the clay from
+which bricks are made turns red when baked, whether blue, yellow or
+red, because the iron which is in the clay is generally turned red when
+subjected to heat.
+
+For making porcelains it is desirable to use the kinds of clay which
+contain nothing that melts when heated to a high degree. Clays which
+contain substances which melt in strong heat are, therefore, not good
+for making porcelains. There is a pure white clay called Kaolin which
+is very excellent for this purpose. Clay out of which we make firebrick
+for lining stoves and fireplaces is free from substances which melt.
+Several kinds of clay are good for making paints.
+
+
+
+
+Where Do School Slates Come From?
+
+
+Slates such as are used in school and as roofing material are formed of
+clay, which has been hardened under pressure and heat. When this occurs
+it does so because a number of layers of clay, one on top of the other,
+have at sometime been subjected to great heat and pressure within the
+earth with the result that the clay is pressed into very thick layers
+and changed in color by the heat and becomes hard. There are many kinds
+of slate. Some of the slate, as found in slate mines, is used to make
+roofs over buildings and for this purpose they are cut to shapes very
+much like wooden shingles. They are easily broken, however, as slate is
+very brittle.
+
+Slate is used in many other ways besides for roofs and school slates.
+Sometimes it is made into slate pencils but, since paper has become
+so cheap, comparatively few slate pencils are used in the school room
+today.
+
+
+
+
+What Causes Shadows?
+
+
+Where anything through which rays of light cannot pass intercepts the
+light rays coming from a luminous body, the light rays are turned back
+in the direction from which they come and the part on the other side
+of the object which intercepted the light goes into shade and a shadow
+results. A shadow then is produced by cutting off one or more light
+rays. We notice shadows when the sun is bright in the daytime and at
+night when we walk along the streets lighted partly by street lamps.
+The shadows we see in the daytime are caused by our cutting off and
+throwing back some of the light rays which come from the sun. These are
+not so dark as the shadows we see at night because the rays of light
+from the sun are so bright and are reflected from so many other objects
+to the side and in back of us.
+
+When, however, we are walking along a dimly lighted street and come to
+a street lamp the shadows our bodies cause are quite black. The night
+shadows are darker because the source of light is less intense and the
+objects to the side of and in back of us (if we are walking toward the
+light) do not reflect so much of the light rays as they do of the sun’s
+rays in the daytime.
+
+[Illustration: DRIVING THE HOLLOW STEEL PILES TO BED ROCK.]
+
+
+
+
+The Foundation of a Sky Scraper
+
+
+How Hollow Steel Piles, Compressed and Concrete Are Employed to Make a
+Foundation
+
+Rapidity of building construction is of primary importance in every
+city of metropolitan size. When real estate is sold at the rate of
+several hundred dollars a square foot it is self-evident that time is
+indeed money. The delay of a few days in completing a structure may
+deprive the owner of the chance of earning thousands in rental money.
+Because of the excessive depth of an open caisson, the completion of
+a foundation may be delayed for months. Hence the building may not
+be completed until the renting period has passed and the owner must
+wait an entire year before he can expect any financial return on his
+investment.
+
+Because rapidity is so essential in city building construction the
+method of first sinking an open pit to rock in providing a foundation
+has been displaced to a large extent by a system in which heavy hollow
+steel piles are employed in clusters to support a building. The hollow
+piles are driven through quicksand to rock, cleaned out and ultimately
+filled with concrete.
+
+~PILES ARE DRIVEN DOWN TO SOLID ROCK~
+
+In this method of constructing foundations, which is illustrated,
+hollow steel piles are driven in the well-known manner down to solid
+rock. The steel pile sections vary in length from 20 feet to 22 feet,
+and in diameter from 12 inches to 24 inches. If the ground is to be
+penetrated to a depth greater than 22 feet, the sections of piling
+are connected by means of a sleeve in such manner that a watertight
+joint is formed. Under a pressure of 150 pounds to the square inch a
+jet of compressed air is then employed to blow out the earth and water
+contained within the shell. A spouting geyser of mud rising sometimes
+to a height of 150 feet, and occasional large pieces of rock blown
+up from a depth of 40 feet below the ground, bear testimony to the
+terrific force of the air blast.
+
+[Illustration: THE PILES ARE ABOUT TWENTY-TWO FEET LONG. IF GREAT
+DEPTHS ARE TO BE REACHED SECTIONS OF PILING ARE JOINED TOGETHER BY
+MEANS OF A SLEEVE.]
+
+When the shell has been completely cleaned out by means of the blast
+of compressed air, the exposed rock can be examined by lowering an
+electric light. Steel sounding rods are employed to test the hardness
+of the rock and to detect the difference between soft and hard bed
+rock. After the piles in each pier have been cleaned out, they must
+be cut off at absolutely the same height--sometimes a very difficult
+task when there is little room. The oxy-acetylene torch is used for
+the purpose, the intensely hot flame cutting off the steel almost like
+butter at the exact elevation desired.
+
+[Illustration: CUTTING STEEL PILES WITH A HOT FLAME
+
+PILE BEING CUT TO PROPER LEVEL BY MEANS OF OXY-ACETYLENE TORCH.
+
+After the piles in each pier have been cleaned out they must be cut off
+at exactly the same height--sometimes a very difficult task when there
+is little room. The oxy-acetylene torch is used for the purpose, the
+intensely hot flame cutting off the steel almost like butter.]
+
+[Illustration: A CLUSTER OF PILES, CLEANED OUT, FILLED WITH CONCRETE
+AND CUT OFF FLUSH BY MEANS OF THE OXY-ACETYLENE FLAME.]
+
+~PILES ARE NEXT FILLED WITH CONCRETE~
+
+The hollow shell is next filled with concrete reinforced by means of
+long two-inch steel rods, sometimes fifty feet in length. On clusters
+of these concrete-filled piles, the weight of the building is supported.
+
+That this method of constructing foundations is indeed rapid, the
+story of the work at 145-147 West Twenty-eighth Street, New York City,
+proves. Rock was located 38 feet below the curb. The material above
+it was clay and water-bearing sand. Structural steel was due in three
+weeks, but the completion of the cellar was still ten days off. The
+steel pile foundation method offered the only solution of the problem.
+Specifications were drawn which called for eighty-five 12-inch steel
+piles, driven to rock, blown clean by compressed air, and filled with
+concrete, reinforced with 2-inch rods. Despite various obstructions on
+the ground (shoring of neighboring buildings and the like) the driving
+was started on June 30th. The excavator was still taking out his runway
+while the rear half of the lot was completely driven. After he had left
+the ground a compressor was set up, and the first pipe was blown on
+July 7th. Three days later all driving and cleaning had been completed.
+During the following two days all the piles were filled and capped. In
+a word, the entire foundation had been completed three days before the
+expected arrival of the steel.
+
+[Illustration: CONCRETE PILES WHICH HAVE BEEN SUNK TO ROCK BOTTOM AND
+IN WHICH TWO-INCH STEEL RODS HAVE BEEN INSERTED TO ACT AS REINFORCEMENT
+FOR THE CONCRETE WHICH WILL EVENTUALLY BE POURED IN.]
+
+Such rapid work is not unusual with the steel foundation method.
+On another contract, work was completed not in the three months
+stipulated, but in exactly one month and a half, during which brief
+time all the excavation had been done, including sheeting, shoring,
+pile-driving, the mounting of concrete girders to carry the wall and
+capping of the piles ready to receive the grillage.
+
+[Illustration: THE STEEL PILE IS EASILY FORCED EVEN THROUGH THE SOFT
+UPPER LAYERS OF BED ROCK. SOMETIMES VERY LARGE PIECES ARE BLOWN UP INTO
+THE AIR BY THE BLAST OF COMPRESSED AIR.]
+
+Sometimes difficulties are encountered which would prove all but
+insurmountable and certainly hopelessly expensive with other methods.
+Thus in carrying out the one contract, water was found 12 feet from the
+curb. Two running streams had intersected at that point. The piles were
+simply sunk through the stream to rock bottom without any difficulty.
+
+The excessive cost of open-pit work has sometimes made it impossible
+to build twelve or fourteen-story buildings in many sections of the
+city of New York. The steel pile has, however, made steel building
+construction profitable.
+
+The carrying capacity of a steel pile is enormous. On a single 12-inch
+steel pile one hundred tons can be safely maintained. Piers containing
+sixteen piles have been used, and loadings up to 1300 tons are not
+unusual.
+
+Naturally the question arises: Do the steel piles deteriorate in
+time? The question has been answered over and over again by the piles
+themselves. After a service of fifteen years the steel foundation
+piles were removed from the site of a building which now stands at the
+northwest corner of Wall and Nassau streets, in New York City. They
+showed practically no deterioration. The oxidation on the outside was
+almost negligible.
+
+[Illustration: BLOWING OUT MUD AND ROCK WITH COMPRESSED AIR
+
+CLEANING OUT A HOLLOW STEEL PILE BY MEANS OF COMPRESSED AIR A GEYSER OF
+MUD ALWAYS APPEARS.]
+
+[Illustration: A DRIVEWAY ALONG THE TOP OF THE OLIVE BRIDGE DAM.]
+
+
+
+
+The Story in a Glass of Water
+
+
+How Does the Water Get into the Faucet?
+
+It is easy for you boys and girls who live in the city to run into the
+kitchen or bathroom when you are thirsty and by a simple turn of the
+faucet tap secure a glass of cool and refreshing water, but did you
+ever stop to think how many men must constantly work and how great
+and perfect arrangements must be made before it is possible to supply
+a great city with water to drink, to bathe in, and for cooking and
+washing?
+
+No one who has never had the experience of being in a town or city
+from which the water supply has been cut off, for a day or a number of
+days, can realize how necessary water is in our daily lives. We are so
+used to having all the water we want at any time that we even complain
+when in summer we are asked to drink water which is not iced. Drinking
+ice-water is very much of a habit. In tropical countries where there is
+no ice, people drink the water just as they find it, and if you were to
+go there and drink the waters for a few days, you would soon find that
+the water slakes your thirst even when quite warm, so it is not the ice
+in the water that quenches your thirst, but the water itself, and the
+ice-water is not good for you, as the doctor will tell you, because it
+chills the stomach.
+
+
+Where Does Our Drinking Water Come from?
+
+The best way to find out where the water in the faucet comes from is to
+follow it back to its source. Let us see. Here we are in the kitchen
+and you have just had a drink of water taken from the faucet above the
+sink. The faucet, you will notice, is attached to a small pipe which
+is fastened to the wall back of the sink. We look under the sink and
+see that the pipe goes through a hole in the floor, so we reason that
+the water must come from the cellar. Let us go down cellar and see.
+Yes, here is the little pipe that comes down through the floor under
+the sink and we follow it along the wall toward the front of the house,
+and well, well, there it goes right out through the stone foundation of
+the house. So we conclude that the water comes from somewhere outside
+of the house, and that the little pipe we have been following is only
+a means of getting it from the outside into the house. We now mark the
+place in the wall where the pipe goes through and run around to the
+front of the house to see where it comes out, but we don’t see it. It
+must be buried in the ground, so we get a spade and pick and begin
+to dig a hole in the ground, and pretty soon we find the little pipe
+pointing straight out toward the street. We keep on digging the dirt
+away, and thus open a little trench from the house to the middle of
+the street and when we get there after a great deal of digging we find
+our little pipe attached to a larger pipe which seems to run along the
+ground in the middle of the street; so we are still in the dark as to
+where the water comes from, excepting that so far as our own home is
+concerned we know that it gets into the house through a little pipe
+which is attached to a big pipe in the middle of the street. By this
+time we know we have a big job on hand.
+
+[Illustration: HOW A BIG DAM IS BUILT
+
+BUILDING OLIVE BRIDGE DAM TO FORM THE ASHOKAN RESERVOIR.
+
+The great Ashokan reservoir is situated about fourteen miles west of
+Kingston on the Hudson River. Its cost is $18,000,000, and it will hold
+sufficient water to cover the whole of Manhattan Island to a depth of
+twenty-eight feet. The water is impounded by the Olive Bridge dam,
+which is built across Esopus Creek, and also by the Beaver Kill and
+the Hurley dikes, which have been built across streams and gaps lying
+between the hills which surround the reservoir.]
+
+[Illustration: THE OLIVE BRIDGE DAM, 4650 FEET LONG, 200 FEET HIGH.
+
+The dam is a masonry structure 190 feet in thickness at the base, and
+23 feet thick at the top. The surface of the water when the reservoir
+is full is 590 feet above tide level. The total length of the main dam
+is 4560 feet, and the maximum depth of the water is 190 feet. The area
+of the water surface is 12.8 square miles, and in preparing the bottom
+it was necessary to remove seven villages, with a total population
+of 2000. Forty miles of highway and ten bridges had to be built. In
+the construction of the dam and dikes it was necessary to excavate
+nearly 3,000,000 cubic yards of material, and 8,000,000 cubic yards of
+embankment and nearly 1,000,000 cubic yards of masonry had to be put in
+place. The maximum number of men employed on the job was 3000.]
+
+~HOW THE PIPES RUN THROUGH THE STREET~
+
+We are pretty tired of digging by this time, so we call in all the boys
+and girls in town to help us dig so that we may see where these pipes
+come from, and we have a regular digging carnival. We follow the big
+pipe along our own street until we come to the corner. Here we find
+that our larger street pipe is connected with a still larger pipe, so
+we think we had better follow the larger pipe. We keep on digging,
+getting more of the boys and girls to help, and we follow that big pipe
+right out to the edge of town where we see it runs into another stone
+wall which you knew all the time was the reservoir, but concerning what
+it was for you were perhaps never quite clear.
+
+Right near the place where the pipe goes in is a stairway which leads
+up to the top of the wall, so the whole crowd of boys and girls climb
+the steps and you are at the top of the reservoir; and there spread out
+before you, you see a big lake surrounded with a stone wall and you see
+where the water comes from--the reservoir--at least so you think. But
+you are wrong. You really haven’t come anywhere near the source of the
+supply. For soon as you walk around the broad top of the wall which
+surrounds your reservoir, you meet a man who asks you what you want,
+and you tell him that you have been finding out where the water in the
+faucet came from, but having found out you thought you would go back
+home.
+
+The man smiles at you, but, as he is good-natured and sees you are
+really trying to find out where the water comes from, he tells you that
+since you have gone to all the trouble of digging up the streets to
+follow the pipes, you might as well learn all about it.
+
+He first tells you that the reservoir is not really the place where the
+water comes from but only a tank, so to speak. He explains to you that
+most of the faucets in the city are higher than the real source of the
+water, which is out in the country miles away, and as water will not
+run up hill, it is necessary to keep the city’s daily supply in some
+place that is higher than the highest faucet in the city, so that it
+will force its way into and fill to the very end all of the large pipes
+in the streets and the small pipes which go into the houses, so that
+the water will come out just as soon as you turn the faucet.
+
+Then he takes you over to a large building near the reservoir which
+you have always called the water works, but never knew exactly what
+it was for. He takes you into a large room where there is a lot of
+nice-looking machinery working away steadily but quietly, and tells
+you that these are the great pumps which lift the water from the great
+pipes which bring it from far away in the country, into the reservoir
+we have just seen, from which the water runs into and fills all of the
+pipes into the city.
+
+He also tells you that in some cities it is impossible to find a place
+to build a reservoir which is higher than the highest places in the
+city. In such places, the pumps in the water works pump the water
+direct into the city water pipes and force the water to the very end of
+all the pipes and keep it there under pressure all the time.
+
+From the pumping station he takes you down stairs in the water works
+and shows you the huge pipe which brings the water to the water works
+from the country. It is quite the largest pipe you ever saw. You see it
+is not really an iron pipe, but built of concrete, which is quite as
+good. You will be surprised to have our friend, the water-works man,
+tell you that three average-sized men could stand up on each other’s
+shoulders inside the great pipe.
+
+[Illustration: HOW THE BIG PIPES ARE LAID THROUGH THE COUNTRY
+
+OLIVE BRIDGE DAM; ESOPUS CREEK FLOWING THROUGH TEMPORARY TUNNEL.]
+
+[Illustration: PLACING THE 9¹⁄₂ FOOT STEEL PIPES.]
+
+[Illustration: A HUGE UNDERGROUND RIVER
+
+The water is conducted from Ashokan reservoir as a huge, underground,
+artificial river. The aqueduct is ninety-two miles in length from
+Ashokan to the northern city line, and it should be explained that it
+is built on a gentle grade, and that the water flows through this at
+a slow and fairly constant speed. The aqueduct contains four distinct
+types: the cut-and-cover, the grade tunnel, the pressure tunnel,
+and the steel-pipe siphon. The cut-and-cover type, which is used on
+fifty-five miles of the aqueduct, is of a horseshoe shape and measures
+17 feet high by 17 feet 6 inches wide, inside measurements. It is
+built of concrete, and on completion it is covered in with an earth
+embankment. This type is used wherever the nature of the ground and
+the elevation allow. Where the aqueduct intersects hills or mountains,
+it is driven through them in tunnel at the standard grade. There are
+twenty-four of these tunnels, aggregating fourteen miles in length.
+They are horseshoe in shape, 17 feet high by 16 feet 4 inches wide, and
+they are lined with concrete. When the line of the aqueduct encountered
+deep and broad valleys, they were crossed by two methods: if suitable
+rock were present, circular tunnels were driven deep within this rock
+and lined with concrete. There are seven of these pressure tunnels
+of a total length of seventeen miles. Their internal diameter is 14
+feet, and at each end of each tunnel a vertical shaft connects the
+tunnel with the grade tunnel above. If the bottom of the valley did
+not offer suitable rock for a rock tunnel, or if there were other
+prohibitive reasons, steel siphons were used. These are 9 feet and 11
+feet in diameter. They are lined with two inches of cement mortar and
+are imbedded in concrete and covered with an earth embankment. There
+are fourteen of these pipe siphons of a total length of six miles. At
+present one pipe suffices to carry the water. Ultimately three will be
+required for each siphon.]
+
+Our water-works man sees how earnest you are in seeing just where the
+water comes from, so he proposes that we go find out. We go outside and
+there is an automobile all ready to go and we jump in and the machine
+starts off along quite one of the nicest roads you were ever on. Soon
+you exclaim, “Why, this is the aqueduct road,” and so it is. The great
+pipe through which the water comes to the city is an aqueduct and they
+have built the road right over the place where the aqueduct runs. Away
+we go as fast as the car can carry us, sometimes ten, or twenty or
+perhaps fifty miles, according to what city you are in. The city goes
+as far as it must to find a supply of pure water and plenty of it and
+spends millions upon millions of dollars to make its supply of water
+good and certain. Occasionally we come to a little stone house along
+the way where we can go down and see the sides of the great stone pipe.
+After a while, however, we find our aqueduct road comes to an abrupt
+stop before another great stone wall. It is the great dam which has
+been built out there in the country to form one end of a great tank
+that catches and holds the waters from the creeks and rivers that flow
+into it. Usually the dam is built up right across a river. They simply
+build the dam strong enough to stop the river from going any further.
+Then, of course, the water piles up on the other side of the dam and
+occasionally this tank, which is simply another huge reservoir, gets so
+full that the water flows over. It does not really overflow the top of
+the dam, because underneath the top the engineers have left openings
+here and there for the water to get through. If it were not for these
+loopholes, so to speak, the great wall of water within the reservoir,
+piled against the dam, would break down the wall no matter how well
+built, by the great pressure it exerts.
+
+[Illustration: THROUGH THIS CHAMBER THE FLOW OF WATER TO THE AQUEDUCT
+IS REGULATED.]
+
+~THE REAL SOURCE OF THE WATER~
+
+We are now near to the real source of the water. We take a trip around
+the top of the great reservoir. Around at the other end we find what
+looks like a river, excepting that there isn’t any current to speak of.
+It is a river, but a much deeper one than it would have been but for
+the dam which has been built across it, and originally its surface was
+quite far down in a valley. Sometimes man makes his water dam at one
+end of a lake, which has been formed by streams flowing into a valley
+which has no opening for the water to run out of. In these cases the
+lake will be high up in the hills and man simply builds his dam at one
+end, lets the end of his aqueduct into the bottom of the lake and the
+water flows. In other cases he picks out a valley where there is no
+lake at all, builds his dam and then drains the water which he finds in
+small lakes higher up in the hills into the one big valley and makes a
+very large lake. But the water in the lakes comes originally from the
+creeks, rivers or springs which run into it, and so we will follow our
+original river back into the hills. Here and there along its course we
+find a little stream flowing into our river and, as we go up higher and
+higher into the hills, we find our river getting smaller and smaller.
+Now it is only a creek and, if we go far enough, we find its source but
+the tiniest kind of a tinkling brook with the water dripping almost
+noiselessly between the rocks as it makes its path down the side of
+the hill. There is the source of the water in the glass you have just
+enjoyed.
+
+[Illustration: DIGGING A HOLE UNDER A RIVER
+
+DIAMOND DRILL BORING A HORIZONTAL HOLE 1100 FEET BELOW THE HUDSON
+RIVER.]
+
+[Illustration: HUDSON RIVER SIPHON, 1100 FEET BELOW THE RIVER.
+
+Of the many siphons constructed, by far the most interesting and
+difficult is that which has been completed beneath the Hudson River.
+The preliminary borings made from scows in the river showed that great
+depths would have to be reached before rock sufficiently solid and
+free from seams was encountered to withstand the enormous hydraulic
+pressure of the water in the tunnel. After failing to reach rock by the
+scow drills, two series of inclined borings were made from each shore,
+one pair intercepting at about 900 feet depth and the other at about
+1500 feet. Both showed satisfactory rock, and accordingly a shaft was
+sunk on each shore, to a depth of approximately 1100 feet, and then a
+horizontal tunnel was driven connecting the two. It is of interest to
+note that because of the enormous head, which must be measured from the
+flow line far above the river surface, the pressure in the horizontal
+tunnel reaches over forty tons per square foot.]
+
+[Illustration: THE HIGHEST BUILDING IN THE WORLD UPSIDE DOWN
+
+  SHAFT 752′-0 DEEP
+
+  WOOLWORTH BUILDING 750′ 0″ HIGH
+
+This picture shows the depth to which the pipes which carry the water
+through the city must sometimes be sunk in order that it will be
+certain to remain in place. To illustrate this in connection with the
+depth of the water tunnel in one place in the city of New York, our
+artist has taken the liberty of turning the Woolworth Building upside
+down. Even this building, which is the tallest business building in the
+world, and is 792 feet high, would not penetrate the water tunnel, at
+the point shown, which is at the Clinton Street shaft at the west bank
+of the East River.]
+
+
+
+
+What is Carbonic Acid?
+
+
+It was formerly called fixed air, and is a gaseous compound of
+carbon and oxygen. It is procured by the processes of combustion and
+respiration, and hence is always present in the air, though in minute
+quantity. Plants live upon it and absorb it into their tissues; they
+abstract and assimilate its carbon, and return its oxygen to the
+atmosphere in a pure condition. It is also present in spring water,
+and often in quantities, so that it sparkles and effervesces; it is
+also produced during the processes of putrefaction, fermentation, and
+slow decay of animal and vegetable substances in presence of air. It
+is largely employed by the manufacturers of aerated bread and aerated
+waters. Under a pressure of about 600 pounds it liquefies, and when
+allowed to escape through a small jet it rapidly evaporates and causes
+intense cold, so much so as to become frozen. It does not support
+burning. The gas derived from it, carbon dioxide, is invisible, and
+is heavier than air by one half, and has a pungent odor and slightly
+acid taste. In a pure state the gas cannot be respired, as it supports
+neither respiration nor combustion. When the portion in the atmosphere
+is increased to a considerable extent, as happens sometimes, it
+endangers life. The familiar “rising” of bread is brought about by
+carbonic acid gas escaping through and permeating the dough, making
+it light and porous. In this form it is known as yeast or as baking
+powder. We see its uses also in the chemical fire-engine.
+
+In some parts of the world large quantities of carbonic acid gas are
+constantly issuing from openings of the earth’s surface. Two such
+places are the famous Poison Valley of Java, and the Grotto del Cane,
+near Naples, in Italy. The former is a small valley about a half a mile
+around and about thirty-five feet deep, in which the air is so loaded
+with carbonic acid gas that animals entering it are killed in a few
+minutes. Even birds that fly over the valley are overcome if they do
+not rise high above it. The Grotto del Cane, or Grotto of the Dog, is
+a small cavern in the crater of a volcano. A stream of carbonic acid
+gas flows constantly into the grotto, but the level of the gas does not
+reach the height of a man’s mouth. When the same air is breathed over
+and over again, the quantity of carbonic acid in it is increased so
+much, that it may become as deadly as the air in the Poison Valley.
+
+Two other gases that may generally be found in air are ozone and
+ammonia. The first is merely a form of oxygen that is produced by the
+passage of lightning through the air. After severe thunderstorms, it is
+said to be present, sometimes, in sufficient proportion to give to the
+air a slightly pungent odor. It is more active chemically than is the
+ordinary form of oxygen, and consequently has a stimulating effect upon
+animals.
+
+Ammonia, or hartshorn, as it is sometimes called, from the fact that
+it was formerly obtained by distilling the horns of harts, or deer, is
+almost always present in the air in small quantities. It is produced
+chiefly by the decay of animal and vegetable matter, especially the
+former. Though present in the air in very small quantities, it is of
+much value to the plant world, because it contains nitrogen in a form
+in which it can be readily absorbed by plants. All plants contain some
+nitrogen, which is essential to their growth, but the greater part of
+the nitrogen in the air is not in such form that it can be absorbed
+by them. They must obtain their supply from the soil, which usually
+contains some nitrogen in a form that may be taken up by plants, and
+from the ammonia in the air. The latter is not taken directly out of
+the air by the plants, but the rains falling through the air absorb the
+ammonia and carry it to the soil, from which it is taken up into the
+plants by their roots.
+
+~VARIOUS GASES FOUND IN AIR~
+
+Besides the gases that have been mentioned, there is present in the
+air, at all times, a small quantity of water-vapor, which is, in many
+ways as important to mankind as is the oxygen itself. The quantity
+of water in the air is not always the same. As a rule, the quantity
+is greater in warm air than in cold, and is less over land than over
+water. Frequently the air feels damp in cold weather, and dry in hot
+weather, and it is natural to suppose that there is more vapor in the
+air on the damp day than on the dry one. This, however, is not always
+true. There is usually more moisture in the air on a warm summer day
+than on a cold day in winter, though the winter day may seem much more
+moist. You will be able to understand why this is so by comparing the
+air to a sponge. If we fill a sponge with water, and squeeze it gently,
+a little water will be forced out of it. If we then remove the pressure
+on the sponge. When the air cools, will appear dry on the surface, but
+there will still be water in it, and on being squeezed harder than
+before it will again become moist on the surface and more water will be
+forced out of it. Now cold has an effect upon moisture-laden air very
+much like that of pressure on the sponge. When the air cools, some of
+the moisture is forced out of it, and the air seems damp. When it warms
+again, the air seems dry, though there is still water-vapor in it. It
+seems dry because it can absorb more water-vapor, just as the sponge
+seems dry after you cease to squeeze it, though it still contains
+water. From this we see that the air does not always seem moist when
+there is much water-vapor in it, nor dry when there is only a little.
+It feels moist when there is as much water-vapor present as it can
+hold, and dry when it can held more than it already has. And we also
+see that in hot weather the air can hold much more moisture than it can
+in cold weather, so that whether the air feels dry or moist, there is
+generally much more water-vapor in it in hot weather than in cold.
+
+It is easy to see that, over water, the air naturally takes up more
+moisture than over land, because there is so much more water there to
+be transformed into vapor. Over the surface of seas, lakes and rivers,
+water is continually being converted into vapor by the process of
+evaporation, and this vapor is absorbed by the air.
+
+Let us now consider the solid particles floating in the air, the dust
+that is seen dancing in the path of a sunbeam. Whenever we examine the
+air, these small particles are found, even on the tops of mountains,
+and at points so high above the earth that they have been reached only
+by balloons. Of course, there is very much less dust high above the
+earth than near the surface, where the winds are constantly stirring
+up the loose soil, and throwing into the air small particles of every
+kind. In cities, where factory chimneys are continually pouring out
+clouds of smoke, and the people and vehicles are constantly disturbing
+the dust of the streets, the air always contains more dust than does
+the air of the country.
+
+In order that we may breathe air, the oxygen in it has been mixed with
+four times as much nitrogen and argon, which must be inhaled with the
+oxygen, though they have no more effect on the body than the water
+you take with a strong medicine to weaken it. The oxygen, however,
+has a very important effect upon the body, and if we compare the air
+we exhale with that we inhale we find considerably less oxygen in
+the former than in the latter. In place of the oxygen, the air has
+received carbonic acid gas. It may seem very strange to say that there
+is burning going on in the body, but that is very nearly what takes
+place. The chief difference from coal-burning is that in the body the
+process goes on so slowly that it does not make the body very hot;
+but when we set fire to coal, the process is much more rapid, and a
+large amount of heat is produced in a short time, so that the coal
+becomes very hot. The products of breathing and of coal-burning are the
+same, carbonic acid gas being the chief one. When coal is burned it
+disappears, together with some of the oxygen of the air, and in their
+stead we have carbonic acid gas. When a breath is taken some of the
+material of the body disappears, as does some of the oxygen of the air,
+and in place of them carbonic acid gas is found. If we could weigh the
+coal burned and the oxygen that disappears in the burning of it, and
+could then weigh the carbonic acid gas that is produced in the burning,
+we should find that the latter weighs just as much as the coal and the
+oxygen together. So, too, if we could weigh the oxygen that disappears
+from the air we breathe, and also find the weight of the material taken
+from our bodies by breathing, we should find that the two together
+weigh just as much as the carbonic acid gas given off in our breath. In
+neither case is anything absolutely destroyed; the substances resulting
+from the change weigh just as much as those that took part in it.
+
+Having learned that a quantity of oxygen disappears every time we
+take a breath, every time we build a fire, it would seem that in the
+thousands of years during which men and animals have been living on the
+earth, all the oxygen would have been exhausted and nothing left in
+its place but carbonic acid gas. That, however, is impossible, as the
+carbonic acid gas is used up almost as fast as it is produced and the
+oxygen is returned to the air in its stead.
+
+~HOW PLANTS EAT CARBONIC ACID~
+
+All trees and plants, from the great redwood trees of California to the
+smallest flowers that dot the fields, need carbonic acid gas to keep
+them alive and to make them grow. Their leaves have the power when the
+sun shines on them to take up carbonic acid from the air and to return
+oxygen in exchange. In this way you see that the balance is kept just
+as it should be. The oxygen needed by animals of all kinds is furnished
+by the plants, and the carbonic acid required by plants is thrown off
+in the breath of animals.
+
+
+
+
+Is It a Fact that the Sun Revolves On Its Axis?
+
+
+It is a proved fact that the sun revolves on its axis. All parts of its
+surface, however, do not rotate with the same velocity. The rotation of
+the sun differs from that of the earth in this respect.
+
+This constitutes the visible proof that the physical state of the sun
+is different from the earth’s, although they are composed of similar
+chemical elements.
+
+The earth, being covered with a solid crust, and being also, as recent
+investigation demonstrates, as rigid as steel throughout its entire
+globe, rotates with one and the same angular velocity from the equator
+to the poles.
+
+If you stood on the earth’s equator you would be carried by its daily
+rotation round a circle about 25,000 miles in circumference. If you
+stood within a yard of the North or South Pole you would be carried, by
+the same motion, round a circle not quite 19 feet in circumference. And
+yet it would require precisely the same time, viz., twenty-four hours,
+to describe the 19-foot circle as the 25,000-mile one.
+
+
+
+
+What Is the Most Usefully Valuable Metal?
+
+
+If you were guessing you would naturally say that gold is, of course,
+the most valuable of the metals. But you would be wrong. The proper
+answer to this is iron. We do not mean the pound for pound value, for
+you could get much more money for a pound of gold than for a pound
+of iron, but we mean in useful value--iron is in that sense the most
+valuable metal known to man. This is so because iron is of great
+service to man in so many different ways, and it is very well that
+there is so great a quantity of it for man’s use.
+
+[Illustration: WHERE DOES TOBACCO COME FROM?
+
+GROWING TOBACCO UNDER CHEESECLOTH.]
+
+
+
+
+The Story in a Pipe and Cigar[6]
+
+  [6] Copyright by Tobacco Leaf Publishing Co.
+
+
+Where Did the Name Tobacco Originate?
+
+It is now generally agreed that the word tobacco is derived from
+“tobago,” which was an Indian pipe. The tobago was Y-shaped, and
+usually consisted of a hollow, forked reed, the two prongs of which
+were fitted into the nostrils, the smoke being drawn from tobacco
+placed in the end of the stem. The island of Tobago, contrary to the
+belief of many, did not furnish the name for tobacco, but on the other
+hand, it was given that name by Columbus, owing to its resemblance in
+shape to the Indian pipe.
+
+
+How Was Tobacco Discovered?
+
+While tobacco is now found growing in all inhabited countries, it is a
+native of the Americas and adjacent islands. Its discovery by civilized
+man was coincident with the discovery of this continent by Christopher
+Columbus in 1492. Columbus and his adventurous sailors found the
+native Indians using the weed on the explorer’s first visit to the new
+world. Investigation has established that the plant was first used
+as a religious rite and gradually became a social habit among the
+natives. Columbus and his Castilian successors carried the weed to
+Spain. Sir Walter Raleigh took it to England, Jean Nicot, whose name
+is immortalized in nicotine, introduced it to the French; adventurous
+traders brought the seed to Turkey and Syria, and Spanish argosies
+carried it westward from Mexico to the Philippines and thence to China
+and Japan. Thus within two centuries after its discovery tobacco was
+being cultivated in nearly every country and was being used by every
+race of men.
+
+
+Where Does Tobacco Grow?
+
+While tobacco is a native of the Americas, it is a fact that it will
+grow after a fashion almost anywhere. Milton Whitney, Chief of the
+Division of Soils, United States Department of Agriculture, in his
+bulletin on tobacco soils says tobacco can be grown in nearly all
+parts of the country even where wheat and corn cannot economically
+be grown. The plant readily adapts itself to the great range of
+climatic conditions, will grow on nearly all kinds of soil and has
+a comparatively short season of growth. But while it can be so
+universally grown, the flavor and quality of the leaf are greatly
+influenced by the conditions of climate and soil. The industry has
+been very highly specialized and there is only demand now for tobacco
+possessing certain qualities adapted to certain specific purposes....
+It is a curious and interesting fact that tobacco suitable for our
+domestic cigars, is raised in Sumatra, Cuba and Florida, and then
+passing over our middle tobacco States the cigar type is found again
+in Massachusetts, Connecticut, Pennsylvania, Ohio and Wisconsin....
+It is surprising to find so little difference in the meteorological
+record for these several places during the crop season. There does not
+seem to be sufficient difference to explain the distribution of the
+different classes of tobacco, and yet this distribution is probably
+due mainly to climatic conditions.... The plant is far more sensitive
+to these meteorological conditions than are our instruments. Even in
+such a famous tobacco region as Cuba, tobacco of good quality cannot
+be grown in the immediate vicinity of the ocean or in certain parts
+of the island that would otherwise be considered good tobacco lands.
+This has been experienced also in Sumatra and in our own country, but
+the influences are too subtle to be detected by our meteorological
+instruments.... Under good climatic conditions, the class and type
+of tobacco depend upon the character of the soil, especially on the
+physical character of the soil upon which it is grown, while the grade
+is dependent largely upon the cultivation and curing of the crop.
+Different types of tobacco are grown on widely different soils all the
+way from the coarse sandy lands of the Pine Barrens, to the heavy,
+clay, limestone, corn and wheat lands. The best soil for one kind of
+tobacco, therefore, may be almost worthless for the staple agricultural
+crops, while the best for another type of tobacco may be the richest
+and most productive soil of any that we have.
+
+~WHERE HAVANA TOBACCO IS GROWN~
+
+Havana tobacco, which means all tobacco grown on the island of Cuba,
+possesses peculiar qualities which make it the finest tobacco in the
+world for cigar purposes. The island produces from 350,000 to 500,000
+bales annually, of which 150,000 to 250,000 bales come to the United
+States for use in American cigar factories. The best quality of the
+Cuban tobacco comes largely from the Vuelta Abajo section, although
+some very choice tobaccos are raised also in the Partidos section.
+Remedios tobaccos are more heavily bodied than others and are used
+almost exclusively for blending with our domestic tobaccos. While there
+are innumerable sub-classifications, such as Semi-Vueltas, Remates,
+Tumbadero, etc., the three general divisions named above, Vuelta
+Abajo, Partidos and Remedios, embrace the entire island. If a fourth
+general classification were to be added, it would be Semi-Vueltas.
+The Vuelta Abajo is grown in the Province of Pinar del Rio, located
+at the western end of the island. It is raised practically throughout
+the entire province. Semi-Vueltas are also grown in Pinar del Rio, but
+the trade draws a line between them and the genuine Vueltas. Partidos
+tobacco, which is grown principally in the Province of Havana, differs
+from the Vuelta Abajo in that it is of a much lighter quality. The
+Partidos country is famous for its production of fine light glossy
+wrappers. Tobacco from the foregoing sections is used principally in
+the manufacture of clear Havana cigars. Some of the heavier Vueltas,
+however, are also used for seed and Havana cigar purposes. Remedios,
+otherwise known as Vuelta-Arriba, is grown in the Province of Santa
+Clara, located in the center of the island. This tobacco is taken
+almost entirely by the United States and Europe and is used here for
+filler purposes, principally in seed and Havana cigars. Its general
+characteristics are a high flavor and rather heavy body, which make it
+especially suitable for blending with our domestic tobaccos. Havana
+tobacco is packed and marketed in bales.
+
+
+Preparing the Seed Beds.
+
+The first step is the preparation of the seed beds. For these beds
+low, rich, hardwood lands are selected. The trees are cut down and the
+wood split, converted into cord wood and piled up to dry. About the
+middle of January this wood is stacked up on skid poles and ignited.
+The ground is thus cleared by burning, the fires being moved from spot
+to spot until a sufficient area is cleared. By this process all grass,
+weeds, brush and insects are eradicated. The ground is then dug up with
+hoes and cleared off and a perfect seed bed is made.
+
+The tobacco seed is first mixed with dry ashes in the proportion of
+about a tablespoonful of seed to a gallon of the ashes, and about this
+quantity is sowed over a square rod of land. This amount is calculated
+to supply plants enough for one acre of ground, but the farmers usually
+double the planting as a precaution against emergencies. After the seed
+beds are sowed they are covered over with cheesecloth as a means of
+protection, and they are carefully weeded and watered until the leaves
+have attained a length of about four inches. They are then ready for
+transplanting, which operation begins about the middle of April.
+
+
+Fertilization.
+
+In the meantime, the tobacco-growing areas have been prepared by
+plowing and fertilizing. The matter of fertilization has been the
+subject of much study and many experiments, and it has been definitely
+established that cow manure is one of the best for this purpose.
+This natural fertilizer is distributed on the fields at the rate of
+ten to twenty two-horse loads to each acre. In addition to this from
+two hundred to three hundred pounds of carbonate of potash, and from
+two thousand to three thousand pounds of bright cottonseed meal are
+employed. The total cost of this fertilizer amounts to about $120 per
+acre.
+
+
+Planting.
+
+After the fertilizer is well plowed into the land the ground is laid
+off into ridges about four feet apart, made by throwing two one-horse
+furrows together. These ridges are about two feet in width and are
+flattened on the top so as to make a level bed for the young plant. The
+farmer then measures off and marks these rows at intervals of 16 to 18
+inches. At each mark he makes a small hole, and after pouring in a pint
+of water the plant is carefully set. Machine planters are used for this
+purpose to a limited extent.
+
+
+Care of the Growing Crop.
+
+The growers usually calculate on finishing their planting about the
+first of June. The young plants are then closely watched and are hoed
+and cultivated at least once a week. They are also supplied with
+sufficient water to keep them alive and growing. At this stage of the
+proceedings, the planter begins to look out for worms. The butter worm
+is one of his greatest enemies. This is a small green moth that lays
+its eggs in the bud of the plant and turns into a worm two days later.
+To stop the ravages of this insect, it is customary to use a mixture
+composed of some insecticide mixed with corn meal. A small pinch of
+this mixture is inserted at regular intervals in the bud of each plant
+until the plant is nearly grown.
+
+When the tobacco is about three feet high, all such leaves as were on
+the plant when it was first set out are picked off and thrown away.
+About this time the crop is usually threatened by another enemy known
+as the horn worm. This is a large, mouse-colored moth, which swarms
+over the field about sun-down, and deposits green eggs about the size
+of a very small bird shot, on the back sides of the leaves. This is a
+very ravenous insect and unless carefully watched it will devour every
+leaf of tobacco, leaving nothing but the stalks standing. It is removed
+by picking off and by insecticides.
+
+[Illustration: A FIELD OF FINE HAVANA.]
+
+
+Harvesting.
+
+About sixty to ninety days after setting, the bottom leaves on the
+plant are ripe and the grower is able to remove from three to four
+on each stalk. This is called priming. The primer detaches each leaf
+carefully and places it face down in his left hand, inspecting it at
+the same time to see that no worms are carried to the barns. Upon
+accumulating a handful, he places them in baskets that are lined with
+burlap to prevent injury to the leaf, and the filled baskets are either
+carried or hauled to the barns.
+
+About this time the plants have begun to bud out at the top, and
+this bud, with a few small leaves around it, is broken off. This
+process is called topping, and is done for the purpose of confining
+the development of the plant to the leaves below. After topping, the
+priming of the tobacco is continued for about three weeks, and until
+all the upper leaves of marketable value have been harvested. In the
+meantime, the suckering has to be looked after, which is the removing
+of the small branches that have a tendency to grow out of the main
+stalk of the plant.
+
+In the barns the leaves are placed on long tables, behind which stand
+the stringers. They string the leaves, each separately, on strong
+cotton twine, about thirty leaves to a string, spaced about an inch
+apart. If this is not done carefully and accurately, several leaves may
+become bunched together and the cure will thereby be impaired. It is
+attention to this detail which prevents the defect known as pole-sweat.
+These strings are tied at either end to a tobacco lath, and the lath is
+hung upon two poles. These poles are placed in courses in the barn, at
+spaces of two feet, one above the other.
+
+[Illustration: A MODERN CUBAN TOBACCO PLANTATION.]
+
+~HOW TOBACCO IS CURED~
+
+Here the tobacco undergoes its preliminary, or barn cure, and during
+this period the grower is constantly on the anxious seat, having to
+open and close his curing houses according to the changes in the
+weather, and to look closely after the ventilation of his crop in order
+to avoid the development of stem rot and other afflictions with which
+the tobacco is threatened at this stage of the proceedings.
+
+[Illustration: A STAND OF TOBACCO IN EACH HAND.]
+
+
+Bulk Sweating.
+
+In due course of time the laths are taken down, the strings removed and
+the leaves are formed into hands and tied with a string. The tobacco is
+then packed temporarily in cases and delivered at the fermenting house,
+where it is put into what is known as the bulk sweat. This consists
+of uniform piles of tobacco covered over with blankets, and which are
+frequently “turned” in order that they shall cure evenly and not become
+too dark in color. From the bulk sweat the tobacco goes to the sorting
+tables, where it is divided into numerous grades of length and color.
+It is then turned over to the packers, who form it into bales.
+
+
+How is Tobacco Cultivated?
+
+As the young plants spring up and begin to grow, they are thinned out,
+watered and cared for until along in October or November, and as soon
+as the weather becomes settled for the season, the little seedlings
+are transplanted into the field. Some growers use shade, but most of
+the tobacco is grown in the open. The plants are placed in rows, very
+much as corn is planted, only farther apart. The plants are carefully
+protected from weeds and insects, and in December the early tobacco is
+ready to be harvested. Here the mode of procedure differs according
+to the discretion of the grower. The plan universally in vogue until
+recent years was to cut the plant down at the base of the stalk.
+Lately, however, the more scientific growers harvest their tobacco
+gradually, picking it leaf by leaf, according as they ripen and mature.
+The tobacco is then allowed to lie in the field until the leaves are
+wilted. The stalks (or stems, according to the method followed) are
+then strung on _cujes_ or poles, so that the plants hang with the tips
+down. The tobacco is then allowed to hang in the sun until it is dry
+and later carried into the barns, where the poles are suspended in
+tiers until the barn is full. Tobacco barns everywhere are constructed
+with movable, or rather, adjustable, side and end walls which permit of
+a constant adjustment of the ventilation. While hanging in the barn the
+tobacco undergoes its preliminary cure and changes in color from the
+green of the growing plant to a yellowish brown. The climatic changes
+have to be carefully studied during this process. If the weather is
+extremely dry it is customary to keep the barns closed in the daytime
+and to open the ventilators at night. It is generally desirable to
+keep the tobacco fairly dry while it is undergoing the barn cure. After
+a few weeks, and when the hanging tobacco has reached the proper stage
+of maturity, a period of damp weather is looked for so that the dry
+leaves may be rehandled without injury. When the desired shower comes
+along the tobacco is stripped off the poles and placed in _pilon_--that
+is, in heaps, or piles, on the floors of the barns and warehouses, each
+pile being covered with blankets. Here, being in a compact mass, it
+undergoes the _calentura_, or fever, by which it is pretty thoroughly
+cured, the color changing to a deeper brown. After about two weeks in
+the piles it is sorted, tied into small bundles or carrots, and these
+in turn are packed in bales. After being baled the tobacco, if allowed
+to remain undisturbed, undergoes a third cure, by which it is greatly
+improved in quality. It is then ready for the factory.
+
+[Illustration: A TOBACCO BARN.]
+
+
+The Shade-growing Method.
+
+The shade-growing method is one of the institutions of modern tobacco
+cultivation. The principle is this: The sun, shining on the tobacco
+plants, draws the nutrition from the earth, and the plant ripens
+quickly, the leaves having a tendency to be heavy-bodied and not very
+large. To defeat these results and produce large, thin, silky leaves
+for cigar-wrapper purposes, the grower sometimes covers his field with
+a tent of cheesecloth or with a lattice-work of lathing which protects
+the growing tobacco from the direct rays of the sun. Thus the ripening
+process is slower, causing the leaves to grow larger and thinner and
+less gummy; and being thinner and less gummy, they are of a lighter
+color when finally cured. This method is employed by some growers in
+cigar-leaf districts, such as Cuba, Florida and Connecticut.
+
+[Illustration: TAKING TOBACCO FROM BALES]
+
+
+How Are Cigars Made?
+
+While many labor-saving devices have been introduced in all branches
+of tobacco manufacture, it is a curious fact that in the production
+of the best grade of cigars, namely, the clear Havana, the work is
+done entirely by hand. In fact, it may be said that in the process of
+manufacturing fine cigars exactly the same principles are followed
+as those of two centuries ago. There has been much improvement in
+the artisanship of the worker, of course, but no rudimentary change
+in method. In the manufacture of snuff, chewing and pipe tobacco,
+cigarettes and all-tobacco cigarettes, machinery plays an important
+part; and mechanical devices are also used extensively in the
+production of five-cent cigars and in the still higher priced grades
+of part-domestic cigars, such as the seed and Havana. Some of these
+appliances are almost human in their ingenuity. But in fashioning the
+tobacco of Cuba into cigars that are perfect in shape, in formation
+and in all the qualities that go to make a good cigar, there is no
+substitute for the human hand.
+
+Upon opening a bale of tobacco the workman takes each carrot out
+separately, shakes it gently to separate the leaves, and then moistens
+it, either by dipping it into a tub of water from which it is quickly
+removed and shaken to throw off the surplus water or else by spraying
+it with a blower. It is left in this condition over night, so that the
+leaves may absorb the moisture and become uniformly damp and pliable.
+
+The tobacco is then turned over to the strippers, who remove the midrib
+from each leaf, at the same time separating the wrapper from the
+filler. From this point on the treatment of the wrappers and fillers is
+different.
+
+The half leaves suitable for fillers are spread out and placed one
+on top of the other, making what are called books. These books are
+placed side by side, closely together, on a board, and a similar board
+is placed on top of the tobacco to hold it in position. Later, it is
+packed into barrels, the tops of which are covered with burlap, and
+there it undergoes a fermentation. It is usually allowed to remain in
+this condition for ten days or two weeks, when it is rehandled and
+inspected, and if found to be in the right condition, it is placed on
+racks, where it remains until it is in just the proper state of dryness
+to be ready for working.
+
+~THE GREAT CARE NECESSARY IN SELECTION~
+
+The wrapper leaves, after leaving the hands of the stripper, are taken
+by the wrapper selector, who sits, usually, at a barrel, and spreads
+out each leaf, one on top of the other, over the edge of the barrel,
+assorting them as to size, color, etc., into several different piles or
+books. Each of these piles is divided into packs of twenty-five each,
+and each lot of twenty-five is folded over into what is called a “pad”
+and tied with a stem. It is in this form that they go to the cigarmaker.
+
+Every morning the stock is distributed among the cigarmakers. Each
+workman is given enough tobacco to make a certain number of cigars,
+and when his work is finished he must return either the full number of
+cigars or the equivalent in unused leaves.
+
+The tools of the cigarmaker consist merely of a square piece of
+hardwood board, a knife and a pot of gum tragacanth. He sits at a
+table upon which rests the board, and at which there is also a gauge
+on which the different lengths are indicated. Fastened to the front
+of each table is a sack or pocket of burlap into which the cuttings
+that accumulate on the table are brushed. The operator deftly cuts his
+wrapper from the leaf, fashions the filler into proper form and size
+in the palm of his hand (this is known as the “bunch”) and rolls the
+tobacco into cigar form, In winding the wrapper around the “bunch” the
+operator begins at the “lighting end” of the cigar, called the “tuck,”
+and finishes at the end that goes into the mouth, which is called the
+“head.” A bit of gum tragacanth is used to fasten the leaf securely at
+the “head.” The cigar is then held to the gauge and is trimmed smoothly
+off to the proper length by a stroke of the knife at the “tuck.” The
+cigars are taken up in bundles of fifty each. They next pass into
+the hands of the selectors, who separate them into different piles,
+according to the color of the wrappers, and who also reject any cigars
+that may be of faulty construction. Broken wrappers, bad colors or any
+other defects are sufficient to cause the rejection of a cigar. The
+rejected cigars are known as _resagos_ (“throwouts”) or _secundos_.
+
+From the selectors the cigars go to the packers, whose duty it is to
+place them in the boxes, and to see that the colors in each box are
+uniform, marking the temporary color classification on each box in lead
+pencil. After being packed, the filled boxes are put into a press and
+so left for twelve hours or until the cigars conform somewhat to the
+shape of the box which contains them. On being removed from the press,
+if to be banded, the cigars are carefully removed in layers from the
+box, the bands affixed, and the cigars replaced. The goods are then
+placed in an air-tight vault to await shipment.
+
+When the cigarmaker ties up his bundle of fifty cigars, he attaches to
+it a slip of paper upon which is marked his number. This enables the
+manufacturer to keep an accurate account of the number of cigars made
+by each workman and also to place the responsibility for any defects in
+the workmanship. Cigarmakers are paid by the piece, the scale of wages
+ranging from $16 to $100 per thousand. In nearly every factory there
+may be found advanced apprentices or old men working at the rate of
+$14 per thousand and also there may be found skilled artisans making
+exceptionally large odd sizes at more than $100 per thousand, but these
+are not generally considered in the regulation scale of prices. In
+averages, the workmen earn about $18 a week and make about 150 cigars a
+day.
+
+
+Just a Few Figures About Tobacco.
+
+The internal revenue from tobacco for one year would build fourteen
+battleships of the first-class; or it would pay the salary of the
+President of the United States for nearly a thousand years. It would
+pay the interest on the public debt for three years, and there would be
+enough left over to add a dollar to the account of every savings bank
+depositor in the United States.
+
+The money spent by smokers for cigars only, _not counting_ cigarettes,
+smoking and chewing tobacco and snuff would more than pay for the
+building of the Panama Canal, besides taking care of the $50,000,000
+paid to the new French Canal Co., and the Republic of Panama for
+property and franchises. And in addition to this it would cover the
+cost of fortifying the Canal.
+
+Or it would build a fleet of thirty-five trans-Atlantic liners, each
+exactly like the lost _Titanic_, coal them, provision them and keep
+them running between New York and Liverpool with a full complement of
+passengers and crew, almost indefinitely.
+
+There are 21,718,448 cigars burned up in the United States every
+twenty-four hours; and 904,935 every hour; and 15,082 every minute; and
+251 _every second_.
+
+The annual _per capita_ consumption of cigars in the United States,
+counting men, women and children, is eighty-six cigars.
+
+_If all the cigars smoked in the United States in one year were put
+together, end to end, they would girdle the earth, at its largest
+circumference, twenty-two times._
+
+AS TO THE CIGARETTES, there are 23,736,190 of them consumed in the
+United States every day; and 989,007 every hour; and 16,482 every
+minute. With every tick of your watch, night and day, the year around,
+the butts of 275 smoked-up cigarettes are dropped into the ash tray.
+
+Cigarette smokers in the United States, not counting those who roll
+their own smokes from tobacco, spend $60,645,966.36 for the little
+paper-covered rolls.
+
+If all the cigarettes smoked in the United States in one year were
+placed end to end and stood up vertically they would make a slender
+shaft rising 512,766 miles into the heavens.
+
+_If strung on a wire they would make a cable that would reach from
+the earth to the moon and back again, with enough left over to circle
+one-and-a-half times around the globe._
+
+If this quantity of tobacco could be placed on one side of a huge
+balancing scale it would take the combined weight of four vast armies,
+each army consisting of 1,000,000 men, to pull down the other side of
+the scale.
+
+The weight of the tobacco consumed in the United States in a year is
+equal to the weight of the entire and combined population of Delaware,
+Maryland, West Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia,
+Florida, Tennessee and Alabama.
+
+[Illustration: HOW OUR FINGER PRINTS IDENTIFY US
+
+ARCH: IN THIS PATTERN RIDGES RUN FROM ONE SIDE TO ANOTHER, MAKING NO
+BACKWARD TURN.]
+
+[Illustration: LOOP: SOME RIDGES IN THIS PATTERN MAKE A BACKWARD TURN,
+BUT WITHOUT TWIST.]
+
+
+
+
+The Story in a Finger Print[7]
+
+  [7] Engravings and story by the courtesy of Scientific American.
+
+
+Our Fingers.
+
+One of the most interesting facts about our fingers is that every
+member of the human race, irrespective of age or sex, carries in
+person certain delicate markings by which identity can be readily
+established. If the inner surface of the hand be examined, a number
+of very fine ridges will be seen running in definite directions, and
+arranged in patterns, there being four primary types--arches, loops,
+whorls, and composites. It has been demonstrated that these patterns
+persist in all their details throughout the whole period of human life.
+The impressions of the fingers of a new-born infant are distinctly
+traceable on the fingers of the same person in old age. The fact that
+these patterns on the bulbs of the fingers are characteristic of and
+differentiate one individual from another, makes it an ideal means of
+fixing identity. Even men who look so much alike that it is virtually
+impossible to tell one from the other so far as facial characteristics
+are concerned, can be identified by their finger impressions.
+
+Innumerable illustrations can be given of how the perpetrators of
+crime have been identified and convicted by their finger prints.
+Impressions left by criminals on such articles as plated goods, window
+panes, drinking glasses, painted wood, bottles, cash boxes, candles,
+etc., have often successfully supplied the clue which has led to the
+apprehension of the thief or thieves. One of our illustrations is that
+of a champagne bottle which was found empty on the dining-room table
+of a house which had been entered by a burglar in Birmingham, England.
+There was a distinct impression of a thumb mark on the bottle. An
+officer of the Birmingham City Police took the bottle to New Scotland
+Yard, London, and within a few minutes a duplicate print was found in
+the records. The burglar was arrested the same evening.
+
+[Illustration: FINGER PRINTS OF DIFFERENT PEOPLE ARE DIFFERENT
+
+WHORL: RIDGES HERE MAKE A TURN THROUGH AT LEAST ONE COMPLETE CIRCUIT.]
+
+[Illustration: COMPOSITE: INCLUDES PATTERNS IN WHICH TWO OR MORE OF THE
+OTHER TYPES ARE COMBINED.]
+
+Many similar instances could be given of how thieves have been caught
+by handling bottles and glasses. On one occasion a burglar entered a
+house in the West End of London, and before leaving helped himself
+to a glass of wine. On the tumbler used he left two finger imprints,
+and these were subsequently found, upon search in the records at New
+Scotland Yard, to be identical with two impressions of a notorious
+criminal, who was in due course arrested and sentenced to four years’
+imprisonment.
+
+A somewhat gruesome relic is a cash-box which bears the blurred thumb
+mark of a man who was convicted of murder. The box was found in the
+bedroom of a man and his wife who were murdered at Deptford, London, in
+1905. The cash-box was taken to New Scotland Yard, and the impression
+photographed and enlarged. Two brothers, suspected of the crime, were
+arrested, and the thumb print of one was found to be identical with
+that on the lid of the box. Our photograph of a gate recalls a curious
+case that recently occupied the attention of a London magistrate. In
+this instance a thief successfully climbed the gate, which was ten feet
+high. In his attempt to reach the ground on the inner side he placed
+his feet on the center cross-bar, at the same time holding the spikes
+with his right hand. In this position he fell, and the ring he wore on
+his little finger caught on the spike indicated by the arrowhead. This
+caused him to remain suspended in the air until his weight tore the
+finger from his hand. The ring with the finger was found on the spike,
+and in due course was received at New Scotland Yard. An impression was
+taken of the finger, and search among the records revealed a duplicate
+print, which led to the man’s arrest.
+
+If a criminal handles a piece of candle or removes a pane of glass and
+leaves these behind, it is a hundred to one he has left a valuable
+clue for the police. The candle shown on the following page bears the
+imprint of a man’s thumb, and was found in a house which a burglar had
+entered. By handling the candle, the thief virtually signed the warrant
+for his own arrest.
+
+The system was first used by the police in the Province of Bengal,
+India, at the instigation of Sir William Herschel. Its value was at
+once apparent. The work of the courts was considerably lightened,
+as the natives recognized that a system of identification had been
+discovered which was indisputable. Then from the police it was
+introduced into various branches of the public service, and here again
+its value was quickly demonstrated. When native pensioners died, for
+instance, friends and relatives personated them, and so continued to
+draw their allowances. By recording the identity of pensioners by
+finger prints, this evil was quickly stamped out.
+
+[Illustration: IMPRESSIONS MADE BY THE FINGERS AND PALMS
+
+PALMARY IMPRESSIONS OF WHOLE HAND, SHOWING HOW IT IS COVERED WITH
+RIDGES AND PATTERNS.]
+
+[Illustration:
+
+                 RIGHT HAND  LEFT HAND
+  THUMB
+  FIRST FINGER
+  SECOND FINGER
+  THIRD FINGER
+  FOURTH FINGER
+
+FINGER IMPRESSIONS OF AN ORANG-OUTANG (ANTHROPOID APE) TAKEN AT THE
+LONDON ZOO. THEY WERE MADE BY SCOTLAND YARD.]
+
+The wonderful lineations, in the form of ridges and patterns, which
+adorn the palmar surface of the human hand, had, of course, been
+known for many years. Mr. Francis Galton, the famous traveler and
+scientist, was perhaps the first to give serious attention to the
+subject of finger prints. He discovered many interesting facts about
+them. Then, in 1823, Prof. Purkinje, of Breslau, read a paper before
+the University of Breslau on the subject. Up to this date, however, no
+practical use could be made of the impressions for the want of a system
+of classification. Prof. Purkinje certainly suggested one, but little
+notice appears to have been taken of it.
+
+Naturally, to be of any value to the police or to any government
+department, it is absolutely essential to classify the prints in such
+a way that they could be readily referred to and identity established
+without undue delay. It was virtually left to Sir William Herschel,
+of the Indian Civil Service, to invent a really practical system of
+classification, so it may be claimed that the finger-print method
+of identification, as at present adopted, is the discovery of an
+Englishman. Then it is only fair to add that Sir Edward R. Henry, the
+Commissioner of the Metropolitan Police of London, has also devoted
+much time and study to the subject. His book, “Classification and Uses
+of Finger Prints,” has passed through many editions, and has been
+translated into several foreign languages.
+
+[Illustration: HOW THIEVES HAVE BEEN CAUGHT THROUGH FINGER PRINTS
+
+A CHAMPAGNE BOTTLE HAVING THUMB IMPRINT, WHICH LED TO ARREST OF A
+BURGLAR.]
+
+[Illustration: CANDLE BEARING THUMB MARK OF A BURGLAR.]
+
+[Illustration: CASH-BOX IN BEDROOM OF MURDERED MAN AND WIFE. THE THUMB
+IMPRESSION (POINTED AT BY ARROW) LED TO ARREST OF THE MURDERER.]
+
+Impressions are divided up into four distinct types or patterns. First,
+we have arches in which the ridges run from one side to the other,
+making no backward turn. In loops, however, some of the ridges do make
+a backward turn, but are devoid of twists. In whorls some of the ridges
+make a turn through at least one complete circuit. Under composites are
+included patterns in which two or more of the former types are combined
+in the same imprint. Although similarity in type is of frequent
+occurrence, completely coincident ridge characteristics have never been
+found in any two impressions. It is not necessary here to enter into
+a detailed account as to how the classification of these wonderful
+lineations of the human hand is effected. It is based on a number
+value, attained by an examination, by means of a magnifying glass, of
+the “deltas” and “cores,” which break up a collection into as many as
+1024 separate primary groups, each of which can again, by a system
+of sub-classification, be further split up into quite a number of
+sub-groups. When the British police discover finger prints on articles
+at the scene of crime, the latter are at once conveyed to New Scotland
+Yard. If the impressions are very faint, a little powder, known to
+chemists as “grey powder” (mercury and chalk), is sprinkled over the
+marking and then gently brushed off with a camel-hair brush. This
+brings out the imprint much more clearly. If one places his dry thumb
+upon a piece of white paper no visible impression is left. If powder,
+however, is sprinkled over the spot and then brushed off, a distinct
+impression is seen. In the case of candles and articles of this nature,
+a drop of printer’s ink is lightly smeared over an impression, in order
+the more clearly to define the ridges and patterns.
+
+[Illustration: A SPIKE THAT CAUGHT A CRIMINAL
+
+ON THE SPIKE OF THE GATE (INDICATED BY AN ARROW) A CRIMINAL LEFT HIS
+FINGER AND RING, WHICH LED TO HIS CONVICTION.]
+
+At the headquarters of the British police at New Scotland Yard they
+possess special cameras and a dark room for photographing these thumb
+marks. The dark room is 21 feet long and 7 feet wide. When finger
+prints are required for production in court they are first enlarged
+five diameters with an enlarging camera. The negatives are afterward
+placed in an electric light enlarging lantern, with which it is
+possible to obtain photographic enlargements of a thumb mark 36 inches
+square. The lantern is arranged on a specially made table 12 feet long,
+the lantern running between tram lines, so that when moved it is square
+with the easel.
+
+Criminals have naturally come to dread the value of their thumb marks
+as a means of identifying their movements. Some will try to obliterate
+the markings by pricking their fingers, but so far this has not
+availed them. To successfully accomplish this it would be necessary
+to obliterate the whole of the palmary impressions on the tip of each
+finger of each hand.
+
+Then the system, too, is far in advance of any other, both in
+reliability and simplicity of working. Compared to anthropometry, for
+instance, invented by M. Bertillon, in which measurements of certain
+portions of the body are relied upon as a medium of identification, the
+finger-print system is certainly preferable. In the first place, the
+instruments are costly and are liable to get out of order; while the
+measurements can only be taken by a fairly educated person, and then
+only after a special course of instruction. In the finger-print system
+the accessories needed are a piece of paper and ink, while any person,
+whether educated or not, after half an hour’s practice, can take
+legible finger prints. Then the classification of the latter is much
+simpler and readier of access than the former.
+
+At the time of writing there are some 164,000 finger-print records in
+the pigeon-holes at New Scotland Yard, and the number now being added
+to it is at the rate of about 250 weekly. The system, too, is not only
+in use in Great Britain, but in all the provinces of India, including
+Burma, and in most of the British colonies and dependencies. It is
+being rapidly extended, not only throughout Europe, but also through
+North and South America.
+
+[Illustration: RECORDS OF FINGER PRINTS ARE KEPT AT HEADQUARTERS
+
+  SPECIMEN FORM.
+
+  This Form is not to be pinned.
+
+  MALE.
+
+  H.C.R. No. .....
+
+  Name .....
+
+  Aliases .....
+
+  Classification No.
+
+  28. MM.
+  32. II.
+
+  RIGHT HAND.
+   1.—Right Thumb.
+   2.—R. Fore Finger.
+   3.—R. Middle Finger.
+   4.—R. Ring Finger.
+   5.—R. Little Finger.
+
+  (Fold.)
+
+  (Fold.)
+
+  Impressions to be so taken that the flexure of the last joint shall
+  be immediately above the black line marked (Fold). If the impression
+  of any digit be defective a second print may be taken in the vacant
+  space above it.
+
+  When a finger is missing or so injured that the impression cannot be
+  obtained, or is deformed and yields a bad print, the fact should be
+  noted under Remarks.
+
+  LEFT HAND.
+   6.—L. Thumb.
+   7.—L. Fore Finger.
+   8.—L. Middle Finger.
+   9.—L. Ring Finger.
+  10.—L. Little Finger.
+
+  (Fold.)
+
+  (Fold.)
+
+  LEFT HAND.
+
+  Plain impressions of the four fingers taken simultaneously.
+
+  RIGHT HAND.
+
+  Plain impressions of the four fingers taken simultaneously.
+
+  Impressions taken by
+
+  Classified at H.C. Registry by
+
+  Tested at H.C. Registry by
+
+  13336
+
+  Rank
+
+  Police }
+  Force. }
+
+  Date
+
+  Date
+
+  (P.T.O.)]
+
+[Illustration: COMBS OF HONEY AS WE RECEIVE SAME]
+
+
+
+
+The Story in a Honey Bee[8]
+
+  [8] Pictures by Courtesy of E. R. Root Co.
+
+
+Of all the insect associations there are none that have more excited
+the admiration of men of every age or that have been more universally
+interesting than the colonies of the common honey-bee.
+
+The ancients held many absurd views concerning the generation and
+propagation of bees, believing that they arose from decaying animals,
+from the flowers of certain plants, and other views equally ridiculous
+from our present point of view.
+
+
+Where Does Honey Come From?
+
+Honey is a sticky fluid collected from flowers by several kinds of
+insects, particularly the honey bee; and the common honey bee from the
+earliest period has been kept by people in hives for the advantage
+and enjoyment which its honey and wax gives. It is found wild in
+North America in great numbers, storing its honey in hollow trees and
+other suitable locations, but not native to this country, having been
+introduced in North America by European colonists.
+
+The story of the honey bee is one of the most interesting of all
+stories of the living things found on the earth. The busy bee is the
+ideal example of hard and persistent work and has for a long time been
+the subject of interesting study for young and old. The bee is one of
+the busiest of all of the world’s workers, and it is from the honey bee
+that we get our expression “as busy as a bee”; such other expressions
+as “to have a bee in one’s bonnet”; also such others as “quilting
+bees” and “husking bees” are founded on the known activities of the
+honey bee. The first expression means “to be flighty or full of whims
+or uneasy motions” which comes from the restless habits of bees, and
+“quilting bee” or “husking bee” originated from the knowledge that
+bees work together for the queen. In a quilting bee or husking bee a
+number of people get together and work together for a time for the
+benefit of one individual.
+
+[Illustration: WORKER-BEE.]
+
+[Illustration: QUEEN-BEE, MAGNIFIED.]
+
+[Illustration: DRONE-BEE.]
+
+
+Honey Is Produced by Bees which Live in Colonies.
+
+~HOW A BEE MAKES HONEY~
+
+A colony of bees consists of one female, capable of laying eggs,
+called the queen; some thousands of undeveloped females that normally
+never lay eggs, the workers; and, at certain seasons of the year, many
+males, the drones, whose only duty is to mate with the young queens.
+These different kinds of individuals can readily be recognized by the
+difference in size of various parts of the body, so that even the
+novice at bee-keeping can soon recognize each with ease. This colony
+makes its home in nature in a hollow tree or cave; but it thrives
+perhaps even better in the hives provided for it by man. In a modern
+hive, sheets of comb are placed in wooden frames which are hung in the
+hive-box in such a way that they can be removed at the pleasure of the
+bee-keeper. A sheet of comb is made up of small cells in which honey is
+stored by the bees, and in which eggs are laid, and young bees develop.
+
+[Illustration: BEES LIVING ON COMBS BUILT IN THE OPEN AIR.]
+
+
+How Does a Bee Make Honey from Flower Nectar?
+
+In the spring of the year the colony consists of a queen and workers,
+there being no drones present at this time. During the winter the
+bees remain quiet, and the queen lays no eggs, so that there are no
+developing bees in the hive. The supply of honey is also low, for they
+have eaten honey all winter, and none has been collected and placed
+in the cells. As soon as the days are warm enough the bees begin to
+fly from the hive in search of the earliest spring flowers. From these
+flowers they collect the nectar, which is transformed into honey, and
+pollen, which they carry to the hive on the pollen-baskets on the third
+pair of legs.
+
+[Illustration: CUCUMBER-BLOSSOM WITH A BEE ON IT; CAUGHT IN THE ACT.]
+
+The nectar is taken by the bee into its mouth, and then passes to an
+enlargement of the alimentary canal known as the honey-stomach, where
+it is acted upon by certain juices secreted by the bee. The true
+stomach lies just behind the honey-stomach; and if the bee needs food
+for its own immediate use it passes on through the opening between the
+two stomachs. On its arrival in the hive the bee places its head in one
+of the cells of the comb and deposits there the nectar which it has
+carried in. By this time the nectar has been partly transformed into
+honey, and the process is completed by the bees by fanning the cells to
+evaporate the excess of moisture which still remains. When a cell has
+been filled with the thick honey the workers cover it with a thin sheet
+of wax unless it is to be eaten at once. The pollen is also deposited
+in cells, but is rarely mixed with honey. The little pellets which the
+bees carry in are packed tightly into cells until the cell is nearly
+full. If a cell of pollen be dug out of the comb, one can often see the
+layers made by the different pellets. This collecting of nectar and
+pollen continues throughout the summer whenever there are flowers in
+bloom, and ceases only with the death of the last flowers in the autumn.
+
+
+What Does the Queen Bee Do?
+
+Almost as soon as the honey and pollen begin to come in, the queen of
+the colony begins to lay eggs in the cells of the center combs. The
+title of queen has been given to the female bee which normally lays
+all the eggs of the colony, under the supposition that she governs the
+colony and directs its activities. This we now know to be an error, but
+the name still remains. Her one duty in life is that of egg-laying.
+She is most carefully watched over by the workers, and is constantly
+surrounded by a circle of attendants who feed her and touch her with
+their antennæ; but she in no way dictates what shall take place in the
+hive. The eggs are laid in the bottom of the hexagonal cells, being
+attached by one end to the center of the cell. The first eggs laid
+develop into workers, and are deposited in cells one-fifth of an inch
+across. As the colony increases in size by the hatching-out of these
+workers, and as the stores of honey and pollen increase, the queen
+begins to lay in larger cells measuring one-fourth of an inch, and
+from the eggs laid in these cells drones (or males) develop.
+
+[Illustration: HOW HONEY DEVELOPS IN A COMB
+
+THE DEVELOPMENT OF COMB HONEY.]
+
+[Illustration: QUEEN-CELLS.]
+
+[Illustration: THE QUEEN AND HER RETINUE.]
+
+The eggs do not develop directly into adult bees, as might be inferred
+from what has just been said; but after three days there hatches from
+the egg a small white worm-like larva. For several days the larvæ
+are fed by the workers, and the amount of food consumed is truly
+remarkable. The larva grows rapidly until it fills the entire cell in
+which it lives. The workers then cover the cell with a cap of wax, and
+at the same time the larva inside spins a delicate cocoon under the cap.
+
+[Illustration: HOW THE EGG OF THE QUEEN BEE LOOKS
+
+EGG OF QUEEN UNDER THE MICROSCOPE.]
+
+[Illustration: HOW HONEY DEVELOPS IN A COMB
+
+THE DEVELOPMENT OF COMB HONEY.]
+
+
+What Are Drone Bees Good for?
+
+The worker brood can at once be distinguished from the drone brood by
+the fact that the workers place a flat cap over worker brood and a high
+arched cap over drone brood; and this is often a great help to the
+bee-keeper in enabling him to determine at once what kind of brood any
+hive contains. Twenty-one days from the time the egg is laid the young
+worker-bee emerges from its cell, having gone through some wonderful
+transformations during the time it was sealed up, this stage being
+known as the pupa stage. For drones the time is twenty-four days.
+
+[Illustration: HOW A SWARM WILL SOMETIMES OCCUPY A SMALL TREE AND BEND
+IT OVER BY ITS WEIGHT.]
+
+About the time the drones begin to appear, the inmates of the hive
+begin to prepare for swarming, which, to any one watching the habits
+of bees, is one of the most interesting things which takes place in
+the colony. Several young worker larvæ are chosen as the material
+for queen-rearing, generally located near the margin of the comb.
+The workers now begin to feed these chosen larvæ an extra amount of
+food and at the same time the sides of the cells containing them are
+remodeled and enlarged by the destruction of surrounding cells. The
+queen (or royal) cell is nearly horizontal at the top, like the other
+cells of the comb, and projects beyond them; but then the workers
+construct another portion to the cell into which the queen larva moves.
+This is an acorn-shaped cell placed vertically on the comb, about as
+large as three ordinary cells. As the cell is being built, the queen
+larva continues to grow until the time comes for her to be sealed up
+and enter her pupa state. Although it takes the worker twenty-one days
+to complete its development, the queen passes through all the stages
+and reaches a considerably larger size in but sixteen days.
+
+[Illustration: THE DAILY GROWTH OF LARVÆ.]
+
+[Illustration: DRONE-COMB.
+
+WORKER-COMB.]
+
+[Illustration: HOW THE HONEY COMB IS MADE
+
+A STUDY IN CELL-MAKING.
+
+Note that the cells are made independent of each other, and that it is
+the refuse wax, like droppings of mortar in brick-laying, that seems to
+tumble into the interstices to fill up.]
+
+In the swarming season, at about the time the new queens are ready to
+leave their cells, the old queen leaves the hive and takes with her
+part of the workers, this being known as swarming.
+
+[Illustration: CLIPPING THE QUEEN BEE’S WINGS
+
+HOW TO BUMP THE BEES OFF A COMB.]
+
+[Illustration: MANNER OF USING GERMAN BEE-BRUSH]
+
+[Illustration: M. G. Dervishian’s method of catching queens, for caging
+or clipping their wings, by means of a jeweler’s tweezers.]
+
+[Illustration: “THE PROOF OF THE PUDDING IS IN THE EATING.”]
+
+[Illustration: WHAT AN APIARY LOOKS LIKE
+
+AN APIARY IN SUMMER.
+
+This photo shows the windbreak of evergreens surrounding the yard. The
+house-apiary is shown in the background, the upper story of which is
+used as a workshop. A trellis of grapevines is placed in front of each
+hive. In summer there is ample shade, and in the fall and early spring
+the leaves are shed, leaving plenty of sun to strike the hives when it
+is most needed.]
+
+[Illustration: HOW THE HONEY MAN HANDLES THE BEES
+
+A SWARM ENTERING A HIVE.]
+
+[Illustration: A LIVE BEE-HAT.]
+
+[Illustration: A FRAME OF BEES, SHOWING ONE WAY OF HOLDING AN UNSPACED
+FRAME.]
+
+
+How Do Bees Build the Honey Comb?
+
+In the hands of a bee-keeper the departing swarm will be put into
+another hive provided he wishes to increase the number of his colonies;
+but in a state of nature the swarm will find an old hollow tree or
+some similar place in which to establish itself. The bees, before
+leaving their old hive, fill themselves with honey until the abdomen
+is greatly distended, and for this reason it is not necessary for them
+to collect nectar for a day or two, for they have other work to do.
+Some of the bees begin to clean out the new quarters and get it fit for
+occupancy; but most of them begin the construction of new combs. To
+do this they suspend themselves in curtains from the top of the hive,
+and remain motionless for some time. The wax used in building comb is
+secreted by the workers in eight small pockets on the lower side of the
+abdomen while they thus hang in curtains. Finally, after enough wax has
+been formed, they begin to build. The small flakes of wax are passed
+forward to the mouth, there mixed with a salivary secretion to make the
+wax pliable, and then are placed on the top of the hive by the first
+comb-builders. Other workers then come and place their small burdens of
+wax on those first deposited, and this continues until the combs are
+finished. There is more to comb-building than the mere sticking on of
+wax plates, however, and nothing in all bee instincts is more wonderful
+than the beautiful plan on which they build the comb. The cells are
+hexagonal in shape, so that each cell in the center of the comb is
+surrounded by six others. Nor is this the only remarkable thing in
+their architecture, for each comb is composed of a double row of cells,
+the base of each cell being formed of three parts, each one of which is
+likewise a part of a separate cell of the other side of the comb. By
+this method the bees obtain the greatest possible capacity for their
+cells, with the least expenditure of wax. The accuracy of the cells of
+the comb has in all ages been an object of admiration of naturalists
+and bee-keepers.
+
+As soon as there are some cells constructed, and even before the cells
+are entirely completed, the queen begins to lay eggs, and the workers
+begin to collect the stores of honey and pollen. They also collect in
+considerable quantity a waxy substance from various trees, commonly
+called propolis, with which they seal the inside of the hive, closing
+up all openings except the one which serves as the entrance.
+
+[Illustration: HOW THE HONEY BEE DEFENDS HIMSELF
+
+EFFECT OF A STING NEAR THE EYE.]
+
+The cells which are used for the storage of honey generally slant
+upward slightly to help keep the honey from running out. Queen-cells
+are made only when a new queen is to be reared.
+
+
+Can a Bee Sting?
+
+It is true that bees cannot bite and kick like horses, nor can they
+hook like cattle; but most people, after having had an experience with
+bee-stings for the first time, are inclined to think they would rather
+be bitten, kicked, and hooked, all together, than risk a repetition of
+that keen and exquisite anguish which one feels as he receives the full
+contents of the poison-bag.
+
+
+What Happens When a Bee Stings?
+
+After the bee has penetrated the flesh on your hand, and worked the
+sting so deeply into the flesh as to be satisfied, it begins to find
+that it is a prisoner, and to consider means of escape. It usually
+gets smashed at about this stage of proceedings, unless it succeeds
+in tearing the sting--poison-bag and all--from the body; however, if
+allowed to do the work quietly it seldom does this, knowing that such a
+proceeding seriously maims it for life, if it does not kill it. After
+pulling at the sting to see that it will not come out, it seems to
+consider the matter a little, and then commences to walk around it,
+in a circle, just as if it were a screw it was going to turn out of a
+board. If you will be patient and let it alone, it will get it out by
+this very process, and fly off unharmed. I need not tell you that it
+takes some heroism to submit patiently to all this maneuvering. The
+temptation is almost ungovernable, while experiencing the intense pain,
+to say, while you give it a clip, “There, you little beggar, take that,
+and learn better manners in future.”
+
+Well, how does every bee know that it can extricate its sting by
+walking around it? Some would say it is instinct. Well, I guess it is;
+but it seems to me, after all, that it “sort o’ remembers” how its
+ancestors have behaved in similar predicaments for ages and ages past.
+
+
+Odor of the Bee-sting Poison.
+
+After one bee has stung you, if you remain where you were stung, the
+smell of the poison, or something else, will be pretty sure to get more
+stings for you, unless you are very careful. It has been suggested that
+this is owing to the smell of the poison, and that the use of smoke
+will neutralize this scent. This probably is so.
+
+
+What Should I Do If I Am Stung by a Bee?
+
+The blade of a knife, if one is handy, may be slid under the
+poison-bag, and the sting lifted out, without pressing a particle more
+of the poison into the wound. When a knife-blade is not handy, push
+the sting out with the thumb or finger nail in much the same way. It
+is quite desirable that the sting should be taken out as quickly as
+possible, for if the barbs once get a hold in the flesh, the muscular
+contractions will rapidly work the sting deeper and deeper. Sometimes
+the sting separates, and a part of it (one of the splinters, so to
+speak) is left in the wound; it has been suggested that we should be
+very careful to remove every one of these tiny points; but after trying
+many times to see what the effect would be, I have concluded that they
+do but little harm, and that the main thing is, to remove the part
+containing the poison-bag before it has emptied itself completely into
+the wound.
+
+
+Why Are Some Races White, and Others Black, Yellow and Brown?
+
+What you eat determines your color, according to Bergfield, a German
+investigator. Not necessarily that you yourself could effect any change
+in color, but your ancestors for thousands of years have unconsciously
+been influenced by the food they have eaten and the drinks they have
+drunk.
+
+For instance, the original men were black, says Bergfield. Their chief
+diet was of vegetables and fruits, he explains, and these same food
+contains manganates that are not unlike iron. Dark browns and blacks
+result from this combination. It is a scientific fact that negroes who
+drink milk and eat meat are never as dark as those who eat vegetables.
+
+Again, Mongols are yellow because they have descended from races that
+were fruit-eating, and who, making their way into the deepest nooks
+and widest plains of Asia, developed into shepherds and lived largely
+on milk. Of course it is now known that milk contains a certain
+percentage of chlorine, and has a decidedly bleaching effect. In the
+case of Caucasians, they are said to have become white by adding salt
+to their foods, which common salt is a strong chloride, and powerful in
+bleaching the skin.
+
+[Illustration: A HIDE HOUSE]
+
+
+
+
+The Story in a Piece of Leather[9]
+
+  [9] Pictures by courtesy of Endicott, Johnson & Co.
+
+
+Where Does Leather Come From?
+
+Leather is made by treating the hides of various animals such as the
+calf, cow and horse. These are the principal animals from which we
+obtain hides for making leather to make shoes. Before the hides are
+fit for making shoes, they must be taken to a tannery where they are
+prepared and tanned.
+
+In viewing a tannery, we enter first the enormous hide house. It is
+long, damp and dark. Here the hides are collected from all over the
+world and stored, awaiting their turn for tanning. We follow a small
+car of these hides into the beamhouse. We see the hides loaded into a
+vat. They are soaked, resoaked, softened and split into sides. This
+operation, while simple, holds your attention longer perhaps than any
+of the others. Several hides after being softened are thrown over
+a sort of saw-horse, the lot number is stamped on the hide in such
+a manner that it appears on each side after being split. With an
+unusually long bladed knife the workman quickly cuts down through the
+center and the hides which are now called sides, fall to the floor.
+They are next hooked together and pass on through vat after vat of lime
+solution which loosens the hair and superfluous flesh. At the end of
+this long chain of vats, we see the sides awaiting their turn at the
+first unhairing machine, where all the hair is removed and then to the
+fleshing machine, where the flesh is taken off and the sides are again
+loaded in a car and pass on to the tanyard.
+
+[Illustration: HOW THE HIDES ARE TREATED
+
+THE TAN YARD
+
+We resume our travels, following a car of sides from the beamhouse to
+the sole leather tanyard. There are about 40 operations in the tanning
+of sole leather, requiring about 100 days to produce first quality
+leather. In the tanyard, we see more than 500 vats, each holding 300
+sides, weighing about 23 pounds apiece. Each vat contains about 3000
+gallons of liquor at an approximate cost of $100 a vat. Here we see
+the sides slipped over sticks and placed in vats six feet deep, where
+they receive the tanning, the real tanning process which preserves the
+fibers giving the leather its life and long wearing qualities.
+
+From the tanyard we go to the big wringers where the liquor is wrung
+out, the hides are milled, dried and loaded on cars for the drying
+loft, where they are allowed to dry or season preparatory to rolling.
+This long building is sectioned off every 50 feet into chambers, where
+the hides are hung in the same manner as in the vats. The temperature
+of each room is changed from the outside temperature to a heat of 115
+degrees, at which temperature the hides are dried and are ready for
+rolling.]
+
+[Illustration: In the rolling room, we see an operation requiring skill
+and quickness of eye. The rollers pass to and fro over the side, which
+is now hard and stiff, with a pressure of 300 tons. This rolling or
+finishing gives it a high polish and we see a beautiful side of sole
+leather, weighing from 18 to 25 pounds.]
+
+[Illustration: HOW UPPER SHOE LEATHER IS TANNED
+
+In the upper leather tannery we see the various operations preparatory
+to the actual operation of tanning the hide, about the same as in
+the sole leather tannery, with this difference: Upper leather in
+this tannery is generally chrome tanned, a process requiring 30 days
+and instead of vats sunken in the ground we see huge rolling drums
+revolving at a rapid rate. This process is the most up-to-date method
+and absolutely insures the wearing qualities of the leather. This
+leather is very tough, yet is just as soft and pliable as glove leather
+and as comfortable to the feet. It does not harden with age, nor does
+it stiffen after being wet.]
+
+[Illustration: UNHAIRING MACHINE
+
+One of the most interesting sight while going through the tanneries is
+the process of disposing of waste materials, such as hair, fleshings
+and the sediments from the lime and sulphur vats.
+
+The hair is separated into white, brown and black colors, each color
+taking its turn through the huge mill or gin where the hair is dried
+and afterwards baled. The brown and black are sold to plasterers. Those
+who purchase the white often mix it with wool and use it for making
+many useful articles.
+
+The fleshings and trimmings are sold to manufacturers of glue.]
+
+[Illustration: The Ancient Sandal Maker as pictured on the wall of the
+ruined temples at Thebes, Egypt.]
+
+
+
+
+The Story in a Pair of Shoes[10]
+
+  [10] Pictures by Courtesy of United Shoe Machinery Co.
+
+
+Who Made the First Shoes?
+
+~WHERE SHOES COME FROM~
+
+The making of shoes is one of the oldest arts of which there is any
+human knowledge. Long before primitive man devised any method of
+recording his exploits or thoughts, he contrived--through necessity--a
+method of protecting his feet from the rough way or hot sands over
+which he was obliged to travel in his search for food and shelter.
+
+That foot covering antedates clothing or ornaments is shown from the
+fact that the primitive savage to-day, devoid of clothing or ornament,
+is almost invariably found with a crude form of foot protection and
+there is scarcely a tribe or nation without it’s traditions of the
+shoe--its mysterious power for good or evil.
+
+
+What Was the First Foot Covering Like?
+
+The first foot covering devised was undoubtedly a simple form of
+sandal--a rough bit of hide, wood or plaited grass held to the foot by
+means of thongs, generally brought up between the toes and tied about
+the ankle. This form of foot covering is depicted in records of the
+greatest antiquity: in the ruined temples at Thebes Egypt, the ancient
+sandal maker is shown at his task; the Assyrian bricks show the ancient
+warriors and people of that time wearing the simple sandal.
+
+The dispersion of the human races and the wandering of tribes into
+colder climates brought the necessity for more thorough protection
+for the feet and body, and that this was accomplished was shown in
+the gradual increase in the number of straps or thongs which held the
+sandal in place and, in the colder climates, in the contrivance of
+a bag-like foot covering--traces of which are found even now in the
+Indian moccasin and the foot covering of the Eskimo. In all colder
+countries this type of footwear is still in evidence, the seam around
+the outline of the foot being a relic of the puckering string which
+held the bag-like covering to the foot.
+
+[Illustration: Ancient sandal showing puckering string and thongs for
+holding it on foot.]
+
+[Illustration: JAPANESE “ZORI”
+
+A flat sandal with felt sole. Also showing “Tabi” or glove-like sock
+worn by Japanese.]
+
+The sandal was developed and adorned by the Greeks, but it was not
+until the days of the Roman Empire that anything approaching the
+present form of shoes was designed. In this period a form of foot
+covering was developed--that was appropriated by the Emperor and worn
+by him only--which covered the entire foot with the exception of the
+toes.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  THE
+  EVOLUTION
+  OF THE
+  SANDAL
+  TO THE
+  SHOE]
+
+[Illustration: ANCIENT AND MODERN FORMS OF SANDALS
+
+Japanese Astrida or Rough Weather Clog.]
+
+[Illustration: Ancient Turkish Bath Slipper.]
+
+[Illustration: The Crakrow or Poulaine showing clearly traces of the
+oriental origin of this design.]
+
+[Illustration: Home made sandal of Siberian Peasant. Showing puckering
+string and key strap.]
+
+[Illustration: JAPANESE WARY
+
+A primitive form of foot covering very generally used by Japanese at
+the present time.]
+
+[Illustration: Modern sandal issued by the Mexican Government for wear
+of soldiers.]
+
+
+The Boot Developed from the Sandal.
+
+It was but a step from this form of foot covering to the boot which
+covered not only the foot but the lower leg as well and which came
+widely into use afterwards in the form of the Jack-boot.
+
+Up to the fourteenth century there had been little in the way of
+development of foot covering, but it is well established that in the
+year 1408 there were shoemakers’ guilds in Europe. Some of these
+were semi-religious in character, the members working in communities
+and sharing in the general product of their toil. Guilds of this
+period were very generally dedicated to either Saint Crispin or Saint
+Crispianus (the patron saint of shoemaking), and even to this day
+the birthday of Saint Crispin is celebrated in some of the English
+shoemaking guilds on October 25. The ceremonies attending the
+celebration in the olden days were of a very elaborate nature.
+
+~THE SHOE WHICH THE CHURCH AND LAW FORBADE~
+
+In the process of time the shoes began to lose the crude nature and
+design in which the Dark Ages had held them and developed a style the
+first of which was apparent in the gradual elongation of the toes,
+the custom said to have been introduced by Henry, Duke of Anjou,
+and these shoes were known as “Crakrows” or “Poulaines.” The style
+finally ran to such extremes that effort was made to stop it by the
+church and government, but with indifferent success until finally its
+end was accomplished by the imposing of summary fines and threat of
+excommunication by the church.
+
+[Illustration: THE CRAKROW OR PEAKED SHOE OF THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY]
+
+Immediately the style went to the other extreme and the toes became
+very broad, as evidenced in the period of Elizabeth, and in some
+instances the shoes were as broad as six inches at the toe. They were
+made of velvet and were slashed to show the satin lining.
+
+
+Who Made the First Shoes in America?
+
+The first shoemaking in America is recorded when Thomas Baird arrived
+on the second voyage of the Mayflower in 1628. Baird was under contract
+with the Plymouth Company to make shoes for the colonists and brought
+with him divers hides, etc., for this purpose. It was recorded that in
+1636 a planter in Virginia employed six shoemakers to make shoes for
+his slaves.
+
+That in the early history of the country the art of making shoes had
+become of considerable importance is shown by the very summary laws
+passed by the different colonies regulating the industry. Particularly
+was this so in the Province of Pennsylvania which, in 1721, placed upon
+its statute book most drastic laws regarding the making of shoes and
+regulating the prices to be charged therefor.
+
+Shoemaking in New England early received impetus from the arrival of
+one Phillip Kirtland, a Welshman, who came to Lynn, Mass., in 1636.
+He was an experienced shoemaker and taught his art to many of the
+colonists in his vicinity.
+
+Shoemaking in this locality was further advanced by the arrival of
+John Adams Dagyr, who settled in Lynn in the year 1750. Dagyr was a
+celebrated shoemaker and was enabled, from his own means, to secure the
+best examples of work from abroad. He possessed the peculiar quality
+of being able to teach the art to those who came under his charge.
+
+The fame of New England made shoes was due largely to the teachings
+of these men and the industry has continued to be one of the first in
+importance. In Massachusetts alone, according to the census of 1910,
+over 40 per cent of the entire value of shoes in the United States was
+produced.
+
+The young man of this period, who essayed to learn the shoemaking
+trade, was ordinarily apprenticed for a term of seven years under the
+most rigorous terms, as shown in some of the indentures of that period
+which are still in existence. He was instructed in every part of the
+trade and, upon completion of his term of service, it was the custom
+for the newly fledged shoemaker to start what was known as “whipping
+the cat”--which meant journeying from town to town, living with a
+family while making a year’s supply of shoes for each member thereof,
+and then leaving to fill other engagements previously made.
+
+It was soon found that the master workman could largely increase his
+income by employing other men to do certain portions of the work, while
+he directed their efforts, and this gradually lead to a division of
+the labor and was the beginning of a factory system--which has been in
+process of development from that time.
+
+In the year 1795 it is recorded that there were in the city of Lynn,
+Mass., over two hundred master workmen, employing over six hundred
+journeymen, and that they manufactured shoes at the rate of about one
+pair per day per man.
+
+Factory buildings, as the words would be known to-day, were practically
+unknown at that time. The small buildings, about ten feet square, were
+in the back yards of many homes and in these little shops were employed
+from three to eight men.
+
+Strange as it may seem, prior to the year 1845 there had been little
+change in the tools employed in making shoes. The workman of that
+period, seated at his low bench, used practically the same implements
+that were employed by his prototype, the ancient sandal-maker of
+Egypt. The lap stone, the hammer, the crude needle and the knife being
+practically the only tools used. Not that there had been no effort to
+perfect machinery for this purpose; Napoleon I, in his endeavor to
+secure better shoes for his soldiers, had offered great rewards for
+the perfecting of shoe machinery that would accomplish this purpose,
+but although great effort had been made there had been no successful
+machinery produced.
+
+In this year 1845 the first machine to be widely adopted by the
+industry was perfected. It was a simple form of rolling machine, which
+took the place of the lap stone and hammer used by the shoemakers for
+toughening the leather, and it is said that a man could, in half an
+hour, obtain the same results from this machine that would require a
+day’s labor on the part of the hand workman employing the old method of
+pounding.
+
+This was followed in 1848 by the very important invention by Elias Howe
+of the sewing machine--which was not adapted for use in connection with
+sewing leather until several years later. It started, however, an era
+of great activity among inventors and in 1857 there was perfected a
+machine for driving pegs, which came into successful operation.
+
+
+The First Machine for Making Shoes.
+
+This was shortly followed by a very important invention by Lyman E.
+Blake, of Abington, Mass., of a machine for sewing the soles of shoes
+and this afterwards became famous as the “McKay Sewing Machine.” This
+invention of Blake’s was purchased by Gordon McKay, who spent large
+sums of money in perfecting it, and the first machine was established
+in Lynn in 1861. The results obtained in the early stages of the
+machines were of an indifferent nature and it was only after large
+expenditures and the hiring of a number of different inventors to work
+upon it that a successful machine was produced.
+
+[Illustration: BOOTS OF THE CAVALIERS AND POSTILLIONS
+
+FRENCH POSTILLION BOOT OF THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY]
+
+[Illustration: THE CAVALIER BOOT OF THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY]
+
+[Illustration: MILITARY JACK BOOT OF CROMWELL’S TIME]
+
+[Illustration: MILITARY JACK BOOT OF SIXTEENTH CENTURY.]
+
+~HOW SHOE MACHINERY WAS DEVELOPED~
+
+While the quality of work was pronounced by manufacturers to be a
+success, few had any faith in the possibility of manufacturing shoes
+by machinery and McKay met with constant rebuffs in his endeavor
+to introduce his machine. It is recorded that in his desperation
+he finally offered to sell all the patent rights in machines which
+he owned to a syndicate of Lynn manufacturers for the sum of
+$250,000.00--the amount he had expended--but the offer was refused.
+
+In his dilemma McKay at last offered to shoe manufacturers the use of
+his machines on a basis, which afterwards became famous and an inherent
+part of the shoe industry known as “royalty,” whereby McKay placed his
+machines with manufacturers and participated to a small extent in the
+amount of money saved. Owing to the fact that shoemakers were leaving
+rapidly for the front and that there was a great scarcity of footwear,
+the manufacturers gladly accepted this proposition and the machines
+were very rapidly introduced.
+
+The success of his early machines accomplished, McKay set about the
+perfecting of others that would do different parts of the work and
+there was accordingly great activity on the part of inventors in
+their endeavor to perfect machines for the wide variety of uses made
+necessary in the preparation of leather for shoemaking. There were soon
+machines on the market for a wide variety of purposes--including the
+lasting of the shoe, cutting the leather and for many other processes
+necessary in making a complete shoe.
+
+Contemporary with the early success of the McKay machines, a French
+inventor, August Destoney, conceived the idea of making a machine
+which would sew turned shoes--then a popular type of footwear for
+women. After several years of endeavor he finally secured the interest
+of John Hanan, a famous shoemaker of that time in New York City, and
+through him the interest of Charles Goodyear--nephew of Goodyear of
+India-rubber fame.
+
+No sooner had the machine become perfected for the sewing of turned
+shoes, however, than he set to work to make changes which would fit
+it to sew welt shoes. (The welt shoe has always been considered the
+highest type of shoemaking, as, by a very ingenious process, a shoe
+is made which is perfectly smooth inside; all the other types having
+a seam of thread or tacks inside which make them of considerable
+disadvantage. He was able to accomplish this a few years later,
+although the machines were not in extended use until about 1893, when
+auxiliary machines for performing important parts of the work were
+perfected; and from that time headway was made in the manufacture of
+this high grade type of footwear.
+
+The development of the industry--which has been very rapid with the
+introduction of machinery--suffered materially in the latter part of
+the last century through the bitter rivalry of machinery manufacturers,
+a common process being the enjoining of manufacturers from the use of
+machines on which it was claimed the patents were infringed and this
+created a state of great uncertainty in the minds of many of those
+manufacturing shoes.
+
+This condition finally found its solution in the formation of one large
+corporation, known in the shoe industry as the “United Shoe Machinery
+Company,” which purchased the patents for a sufficient number of
+machines to form a complete system for the “bottoming”--or fastening
+the soles and heels of shoes--and finishing them.
+
+These machines have been the subject of constant improvement and
+others have been perfected to take care of operations which, prior to
+their introduction, were purely hand operations. Each machine has been
+standardized and so adapted to meet the requirements of those used in
+connection with it that they collectively form the most remarkable and
+efficient system of machines used at the present time.
+
+Mention is made of this company owing to the important position it
+has taken in the organization and advancement of the industry, the
+American-made shoe being the one commodity of world-wide consumption
+whose supremacy is not contested.
+
+[Illustration: MY LADY’S SLIPPERS OF EARLY TIMES
+
+EMBROIDERED RIDING BOOT WORN BY NOBLES DURING LAST DAYS OF POLISH
+INDEPENDENCE]
+
+[Illustration: EMBROIDERED RIDING BOOT FROM PERSIA OF ABOUT 1850]
+
+[Illustration: FRENCH CALF BOOT MADE IN NEW YORK CITY, 1835]
+
+[Illustration: LADY’S SHOE--PERIOD OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION]
+
+[Illustration: LADY’S SHOE--PERIOD OF LOUIS XVI.
+
+Has wooden heel.]
+
+[Illustration: LADY’S ADELAID OR SIDE LACED SHOE--PERIOD 1830 TO 1870]
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  CHANNEL LIP
+
+  CROSS-SECTION OF INSOLE
+
+  WOODEN LAST—DETERMINES SIZE AND SHAPE OF SHOE
+
+  AN INSOLE
+
+  AN INSOLE TACKED TO BOTTOM OF LAST
+
+THE BEGINNING OF A SHOE]
+
+
+
+
+How Shoes Are Made by Machinery
+
+
+At the present time the types of shoes ordinarily made are but five:
+the “peg” shoe, which is the cheapest type of shoe made; the “standard
+screw,” which is used in the soles of the heaviest types of boots;
+the “McKay sewed,” which is made after the fashion established by
+Gordon McKay; the “turn” shoe, a light type of shoe which was invented
+centuries ago and which is still worn at this time to a limited extent;
+and the “Goodyear welt,” which has been universally adopted as the
+highest type of footwear.
+
+For this reason, this type of shoe has been selected to show the
+methods employed in making shoes.
+
+THE GOODYEAR WELT SHOE.--A Goodyear Welt shoe in its evolution from
+the embryonic state in which it is “mere leather and thread” to the
+completed product, passes through one hundred and six different pairs
+of hands and is obliged to conform to the requirements of fifty-eight
+different machines, each performing with unyielding accuracy the
+various operations for which they were designed.
+
+It might seem that in all this multiplicity of operations confusion
+would occur, and that the many details and specifications regarding
+material and design of any given lot of shoes in process of manufacture
+would become hopelessly entangled with those of similar lots undergoing
+the same operations. But such is not the case; for, when an order
+is received in any modern and well-organized factory, the factory
+management promptly take the precaution to see that all the details
+regarding the samples to which the finished product is to conform are
+set down in the order book. Each lot is given an order number and this
+number, together with the details affecting the preparation of the
+shoe upper, are written on tags--one for each two dozen shoes--which
+are sent to the foreman of the cutting room. Others containing details
+regarding the sole leather are sent to the sole leather room, while a
+third lot is made out for the guidance of the foreman of the making or
+bottoming room, when the different parts which have received attention
+and been prepared according to specifications in the cutting and sole
+leather rooms are ready to be assembled for the making or bottoming
+process. If the tags which were sent to the cutting room were followed,
+it would be found that on their receipt the foreman of this department
+figured out the amount and kind of leather required, the kind of
+linings, stays, etc., and that the leather, together with the tags
+which gave directions regarding the size, etc., was sent to one of the
+operators of the Ideal Clicking Machine.
+
+~SHOEMAKING MACHINERY IS ALL BUT HUMAN~
+
+This machine has been pronounced one of the most important innovations
+that have been made in the shoe manufacturing industry during recent
+years, as it performs an operation which has heretofore successfully
+withstood every attempt at mechanical aid. Prior to its introduction,
+the cutting of upper leather was accomplished by the use of patterns
+made with metal edges, which were laid upon the leather by cutter, who
+then ran a small sharp knife along the edges of the pattern, cutting
+the leather to conform to it. This was a slow and laborious process,
+and if great care was not taken, there was a tendency to cut away from
+the pattern; and in many cases, through some slip of the knife, the
+leather was cut beyond the required limits.
+
+This machine has a cutting board very similar to those which were used
+by the hand workman and over it is a beam which can be swung either
+to the right or to the left, as desired, and over any portion of the
+board. Any kind of skin to be cut is placed on the board, and the
+operator places a die of unusual design on it. Grasping the handle,
+which is a part of the swinging beam, he swings the beam over the die,
+and on downward pressure of the handle a clutch is engaged which brings
+the beam downward, pressing the die through the leather. As soon as
+this is accomplished, the beam automatically returns to its full height
+and remains there until the handle is again pressed.
+
+The dies used are but three-quarters of an inch in height and are so
+light that they do not mar the most delicate leather when placed upon
+it. They enable the operator to see clearly the entire surface of the
+leather he is cutting out, and it is obvious that the pieces cut by the
+use of any given die must be identically the same.
+
+After the different parts required by the tag have been cut out by the
+operator of the Clicking Machine, some of the edges which show in the
+finished shoe must be skived or thinned down to a beveled edge. This
+work is performed by the Amazeen Skiving Machine--a wonderful little
+machine in which the edge to be skived is fed to a sharp revolving
+disk that cuts it down to the desired bevel. The machine does the
+work in a very efficient manner, conforming to all the curves and
+angles. This skiving is done in order that the edges may be folded,
+to give the particular edge on which it is performed a more finished
+appearance. The skived edges are then given a little coating of cement
+and afterwards folded on a machine which turns back the edge and
+incidentally pounds it down, so that it presents a very smooth and
+finished appearance.
+
+Aside from the work of skiving toe caps and folding them, there is
+generally a series of ornamental perforations cut along the edge of
+the cap. This is done very often by the Power Tip Press, by means of
+which the piece to be perforated is placed under a series of dies which
+cuts the perforations in the leather according to a predetermined
+design, doing the work all at one time. The number of designs used
+for this purpose are many and varied, combinations of different sized
+perforations being worked out in innumerable designs.
+
+On one of the top linings of each shoe there has been stamped the
+order number, together with the size of the shoe for which the linings
+were intended. After all the linings have been prepared in accordance
+with the instructions on the tag, they, in connection with the various
+parts of the shoe, receive attention from the Stitchers, where all the
+different parts of the upper are united. The work is performed on a
+range of wonderful machines, which perform all the different operations
+with great rapidity and accuracy.
+
+At the completion of these operations the shoe is ready to receive the
+eyelets, which are placed with remarkable speed and accuracy by the
+Duplex Eyeletting Machine. This machine eyelets both sides of the shoe
+at one time with bewildering rapidity. The eyelets are securely placed
+and accurately spaced; and as both sides of the upper are eyeletted at
+one time, the eyelets are placed directly opposite each other, which
+greatly helps the fitting of the shoe, as thereby the wrinkling of the
+shoe upper is avoided.
+
+With the completion of this operation, the preparation of the shoe
+upper is finished, and the different lots with their tags are sent to
+the bottoming room to await the coming of the different sole leather
+portions of the shoe. These have been undergoing preparation in the
+sole leather room, where on receipt of tag the foreman has given
+directions for the preparation of outsoles, insoles, counters, toe
+boxes and heels, to conform with the requirements of the order.
+
+The soles are roughly died out from sides of sole leather on large
+Dieing-out Machines, which press heavy dies down through the leather;
+but to make them conform exactly to the required shape, they are
+generally rounded out on a machine known as the “Planet Rounding
+Machine,” in which the roughly died-out piece of leather is held
+between clamps, one of which is the exact pattern of the sole. On
+starting the machine, a little knife darts around this pattern, cutting
+the sole exactly to conform with it.
+
+The outsole is now passed to a heavy Rolling Machine, where it is
+subjected to tons of pressure between heavy rolls. This takes the place
+of the hammering which the old-time shoemaker gave his leather and
+brings the fibres very closely together, greatly increasing its wear.
+
+This sole is next fed to a machine called the “Summit Splitting
+Machine--Model M,” which reduces it to an exactly even thickness. The
+insole--which is made of very much lighter leather--is prepared in
+much the same manner, and in this way it will be noticed that both the
+insole and outsole are reduced to an absolutely uniform thickness.
+
+The insole also receives further preparation; it is channeled on the
+Goodyear Channeling Machine. This machine cuts a little slit along the
+edge of the insole, extending about one-half inch towards its center.
+It also cuts a small channel along the surface.
+
+The lip which has been formed by the Goodyear Channeling Machine is now
+turned up on the Goodyear Lip Turning Machine, so that it extends out
+at a right angle from the insole, forming a lip or shoulder against
+which the welt is sewed. The cut which has been made on the surface
+inside this lip serves as a guide for the operator of the Welt Sewing
+Machine, when the shoe reaches that stage.
+
+The heels to be used on these shoes have also been formed from
+different lifts of leather which are cemented together. The heel is
+then placed under great pressure, giving it exact form and greatly
+increasing its wear.
+
+~THE DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE SHOE COME TOGETHER~
+
+The counters are also prepared in this room, as well as the toe boxes
+or stiffening, which is placed between the toe cap and the vamp of
+the shoe. When these are all completed, they are sent to the making
+or bottoming room, where the completed shoe upper is awaiting them.
+Here a wonderfully ingenious little machine called the “Ensign Lacing
+Machine,” passes strong twine through the eyelets and in a twinkling
+ties it automatically. This is done so that all parts of the shoe will
+be held in their normal position while the shoe is being made. The
+knot tied by this machine is perfect and is performed with mechanical
+exactness. On high-grade shoes this work was formerly performed by
+hand and it will be readily recognized how difficult it was to obtain
+uniformity. The spread of the upper at the throat can be regulated
+perfectly when this machine is used. The different parts of the shoe
+now commence to come together. The workman places the toe box, or
+stiffening, in the proper location as well as the counter at the
+heel, and draws the upper over the last. To the bottom of this last
+has already been tacked by means of the U. S. M. Co. Insole Tacking
+Machine--which drives tacks automatically--the insole, which, it will
+be noticed, conforms exactly to the shape of the bottom of the last.
+This last, made of wood, is of the utmost importance, for upon the last
+depends the shape of the shoe.
+
+[Illustration: EACH SHOE MACHINE DOES SOMETHING DIFFERENT
+
+ASSEMBLING MACHINE
+
+Operator locates back seam of upper on last. Machine drives two tacks
+which hold it in place.]
+
+The shoe as completed up to this point with the parts mentioned
+fastened together as shown, is now ready for assembling. The workman,
+after placing the last inside the shoe upper, puts it on the spindle of
+the Rex Assembling Machine, where he takes care that the seam at the
+heel is properly located. He presses a foot lever and a small tack is
+driven part way in, to hold the upper in place. He then hands it over
+to the operator of the Rex Pulling-Over Machine.
+
+[Illustration: PULLING-OVER MACHINE
+
+Draws shoe upper smoothly down to last. Operator adjusts it so that
+each seam occupies correct position on last. Machine automatically
+drives back to hold it in place.]
+
+This machine is a very important one; for as the parts of the shoe
+upper have been cut to exactly conform to the shape of the last, it is
+necessary that they should be correctly placed on the last to secure
+the desired results. The pincers of this machine grasp the leather at
+different points on each side of the toe; and the operator, standing
+in a position from which he can see when the upper is exactly centered,
+presses a foot lever, the pincers close and draw the leather securely
+against the wood of the last. At this point the operation of the
+machine halts. By moving different levers, the workman is able to
+adjust the shoe upper accurately, so that each part of it lies in the
+exact position it was intended when the shoe was designed. When this
+important operation has been completed, the operator again presses a
+foot lever, the pincers move toward each other, drawing the leather
+securely around the last, and at the same time there are driven
+automatically two tacks on each side and one at the toe, which hold the
+upper securely in position. These tacks are driven but part way in, so
+that they may be afterward removed.
+
+[Illustration: THE LASTING MACHINE ONE OF THE MOST IMPORTANT
+
+HAND METHOD LASTING MACHINE
+
+Last sides of shoe.]
+
+[Illustration: LASTING MACHINE
+
+Last toe and heel of shoe.]
+
+The shoe is now ready for lasting. This is one of the most difficult
+and important parts of the shoemaking process, for upon the success of
+this operation depends in a great measure the beauty and comfort of the
+shoe. The Consolidated Hand Method Welt Lasting Machine, which is used
+for this purpose, takes its name from the almost human way in which it
+performs this part of the work. It is wonderful to observe how evenly
+and tightly it draws the leather around the last. At each pull of the
+pincers a small tack driven automatically part way in holds the edge
+of the upper exactly in place, so that in the finished shoe every part
+of the upper has been stretched in all directions equally. The toe and
+heel of the shoe are considered particularly difficult portions to last
+properly. This important part of the work is now being very generally
+performed on the U. S. M. Co. Lasting Machine--No. 5, a machine of
+what is known as the “bed type.” It is provided with a series of
+wipers for toe and heel, which draw the leather simultaneously from
+all directions. There can be no wrinkles at the toe or heel of shoe on
+which it is properly used and the quality of work produced by it has
+been very generally recognized as a distinct advance in this important
+part of shoemaking. After the leather has been brought smoothly around
+the toe it is held there by a little tape fastened on each side of the
+toe and which is held securely in place by the surplus leather crimpled
+in at this point. The surplus leather crimpled in at the heel is
+forced smoothly down against the insole and held there by tacks driven
+by a very ingenious hand tool in which there is a constantly renewed
+supply of tacks.
+
+[Illustration: A MACHINE THAT FORMS AND DRIVES TACKS
+
+UPPER STAPLING MACHINE
+
+Forms small staples from wire.
+
+Holds shoe upper to lip of insole.]
+
+[Illustration: UPPER TRIMMING MACHINE.
+
+Trims off surplus part of shoe upper and lining.]
+
+In all of the lasting operations the tacks are driven but part way in,
+except at the heel portion of the shoe, where they are driven through
+the insole and clinched on the iron heel of the last. The tacks are
+driven only part way in, in order that they may be afterward withdrawn
+so as to leave the inside of the shoe perfectly smooth. In making
+shoes other than Goodyear Welts, with the exception of the Goodyear
+Turn Shoe, it is necessary to drive the tacks through the insole and
+clinch them inside the shoe, so that the different portions of the sole
+inside the shoe have clinched tacks. These are left even after the shoe
+is finished. This smooth interior of the shoe is one of the essential
+features of the Goodyear Welt Process.
+
+In the lasting operation there is naturally a surplus amount of leather
+left at the toe and sometimes around the sides of the shoe, and this is
+removed on the Rex Upper Trimming Machine in which a little knife cuts
+away the surplus portion of the leather very smoothly and evenly, and
+simultaneously a small hammer operating in connection with the knife
+pounds the leather smooth along the sides and the toe of the shoe. The
+shoe then passes to the Rex Pounding Machine, in which a hammer pounds
+the leather and counter around the heel so that the stiff portion of
+the shoe conforms exactly to the shape of the last.
+
+The shoe is now ready to receive the welt, which is a narrow strip of
+leather that is sewed along the edge of the shoe, beginning where the
+heel is placed and ending at the same spot on the opposite edge. This
+welt is sewed from the inside lip of the insole, so that the needle
+passes through the lip, upper and welt, uniting all three securely
+and allowing the welt to protrude evenly along the edge. The needle
+in making this stitch does not go inside the shoe, but passes through
+only a portion of the insole, leaving the inside perfectly smooth. This
+part of the work was formerly one of the most difficult and laborious
+tasks in shoemaking. As it was performed entirely by hand, the drawing
+of each stitch depended upon the strength and mood of the workman.
+It is of course obvious that with different operators stitches were
+oftentimes of different lengths and drawn at different tensions; for
+human nature is much the same everywhere, and it is impossible for a
+workman who has labored hard all day to draw a stitch with the same
+tension at night as might have been possible in the morning.
+
+[Illustration: AN AUTOMATIC SEWING MACHINE WHICH NEVER TIRES
+
+WELT AND TURNED SHOE SEWING MACHINE
+
+Upper portion shows operator at machine. The lower shows formation and
+location of stitch formed by this machine.
+
+  Welt Stitch
+
+  Welt]
+
+It is surprising how quickly and easily the work is done on the
+Goodyear Welt Sewing Machine. This famous machine has been the
+leading factor in the great revolution that has taken place in shoe
+manufacturing. Its work should be carefully noted--all stitches of
+equal length and measured automatically, the strong linen thread
+thoroughly waxed and drawn evenly and tightly; for the machine never
+tires, and it draws the thread as strongly in the evening as in the
+morning. Every completed movement of the needle forms a stitch of great
+strength, which holds the welt, upper and insole securely together.
+
+As the lasting tacks as well as the tacks which hold the insole in
+place on the last were withdrawn just prior to this operation, it will
+be seen that the inside of the shoe is left perfectly smooth. After
+this process the surplus portions of the lip, upper and welt which
+protrude beyond the stitches made by the Goodyear Welt Machine are
+trimmed off by the Goodyear Inseam Trimming Machine--a most efficient
+machine, in which a revolving cup-shaped knife comes in contact with
+the surplus portions of the leather and trims them off very smoothly
+down to the stitches.
+
+[Illustration: PUTTING THE GROUND CORK AND RUBBER CEMENT IN SHOES
+
+INSEAM TRIMMING MACHINE.
+
+Trims shoe upper lining and lip of insole smooth down to stitches.]
+
+[Illustration: WELT BEATING AND SLASHING MACHINE
+
+Beats welt so that it stands out evenly round edge of shoe.]
+
+[Illustration: PLACING SHANK AND FILLING BOTTOM.
+
+Workman tacks shank in place and fills bottom with ground cork and
+rubber cement.]
+
+At this stage the shoe is passed to the Universal Welt Beater, in which
+a little hammer vibrating very rapidly beats the welt so that it stands
+out evenly from the side of the shoe. As the leather is bent around
+the toe, it is the natural tendency of the welt to draw more tightly
+at that place, and this is taken care of by a little knife which the
+operator forces into operation, in the beating process, the toe is
+being taken care of, and it makes a series of little cuts diagonally
+along the edge of it. The insole and welt now receive a coating of
+rubber cement. This cement is contained in an air-tight tank and is
+applied by means of a revolving brush, which takes its supply of
+cement, as required, from a can.
+
+In this way, an even coating of any desired thickness is given to the
+insole and welt. This machine has many advantages; the cement being
+closely confined in the tank, there is almost no waste in its use.
+Formerly, when this was done by hand, the waste through evaporation or
+lack of care on the part of the workman was very material.
+
+The heavy outsole of the shoe also receives at this time proper
+attention. The flesh side of this sole, or the side next to the animal,
+receives a coating of rubber cement, and after it has dried slightly
+the operator of the Goodyear Improved Twin Sole Laying Machine takes
+the work in hand. In this machine there is a rubber pad, or mould,
+which has been made to conform to the curve in the sole of the shoe.
+After placing the last on the spindle, which is suspended from the
+machine and hangs over the rubber mould, the outsole having been
+previously pressed against the bottom of the shoe, the operator by
+pressing the foot lever causes this arm to descend, forcing the shoe
+down into the mould, so that every portion of the sole is pressed
+against the bottom of the shoe and welt. Here they are allowed to
+remain for a sufficient length of time for the cement to properly set,
+the operation being repeated on a duplicate part of the machine, the
+operator leaving one shoe under pressure while he is preparing another.
+
+[Illustration: MACHINES WHICH PUT THE SOLES ON SHOES
+
+SOLE LAYING MACHINE.
+
+Presses outsole to bottom of shoe where it is held by rubber cement.]
+
+[Illustration: ROUNDING AND CHANNELLING MACHINE.
+
+Roughly rounds outsole and welt to conform to shape of last. Cuts small
+channel along edge for stitches.]
+
+The next operation is that of trimming the sole and welt so that they
+will protrude a uniform distance from the edge of the shoe. This work
+is performed on the Goodyear Universal Rough Rounding Machine, which
+gauges the distance exactly from the edge of the last. It is often
+desired to have the edge extended further on the outside of the shoe
+than it does on the inside and also that the width of the edge should
+be considerably reduced in the shank of the shoe. This is taken care of
+with great accuracy by the use of this machine. The operator is able
+to change the width at will. By the use of this remarkable machine the
+operator is also enabled to make the sole of the shoe conform exactly
+to all others of similar size and design.
+
+[Illustration: CHANNEL OPENING MACHINE.
+
+Turns back lip of channel preparatory to stitching.]
+
+[Illustration: CHANNEL CEMENTING MACHINE.
+
+Coats surface of channel so it may be laid to cover stitches.]
+
+The surplus portion of the leather is now trimmed off on the Heel-Seat
+Rounding Machine, and the channel cut by the knife on the Rough
+Rounding Machine is turned up so that it leaves the channel open. This
+is done by the Goodyear Universal Channel Opening Machine, in which a
+little wheel, turning very rapidly, lays the lip smoothly back.
+
+~SEWING THE SOLE TO THE SHOE~
+
+The outsole is now sewed to the welt. This operation is performed on
+the Goodyear Outsole Rapid Lockstitch Machine, which is very similar in
+operation to the Goodyear Welt Sewing Machine used in sewing the welt
+to the shoe. The stitch, however, is finer and extends from the channel
+which was cut for it to the upper side of the welt, where it shows
+after the shoe has been finished. The lockstitch formed by this machine
+is a most durable one. Using a thoroughly waxed thread, it holds the
+outsole securely in place, even after the connecting stitches have been
+worn off. This is one of the most important machines in the shoemaking
+process. It is able to sew even in the narrow shank, where a machine
+using a straight needle could not possibly place its stitch.
+
+The “Star Channel Cementing Machine--Model A” is again called into
+operation for the purpose of coating with cement the inside of the
+channel in which this stitch has been made. A special brush with guard
+is used for this purpose, and the operation is very quickly performed
+by the skilled operator.
+
+After this cement has been allowed to set a sufficient length of time,
+the channel lip, which has previously been laid back against the sole,
+is again forced into its former position and held securely in place
+by rubber cement. This work is done by the Goodyear Channel Laying
+Machine, in which a rapidly revolving wheel provided with a peculiar
+arrangement of flanges forces back into place, securely hiding the
+stitches from observation on this portion of the shoe.
+
+[Illustration: MACHINES WHICH PUNCH THE SOLES OF SHOES
+
+CHANNEL LAYING MACHINE.
+
+Rubs channel lip down to cover stitches.]
+
+[Illustration: LOOSE NAILING MACHINE
+
+Drives small nails which hold outsole in place at heel.]
+
+The next operation is that of leveling, which is performed on the
+Automatic Sole Levelling Machine--one of the most interesting used
+in the shoemaking process. This is a double machine provided with
+two spindles, on one of which the operator places a shoe to be
+levelled. It is securely held by the spindle and a toe rest, and on
+the operator’s pressing a foot lever, the shoe passes automatically
+beneath a vibrating roll under heavy pressure. This roll moves forward
+with a vibrating motion over the sole of the shoe down into the shank,
+passes back again to the toe, then cants to the right, and repeats the
+operation on that side of the shoe, returning to the toe and canting to
+the left, repeating the operation on that side; after which the shoe
+automatically drops forward and is relieved from pressure. This rolling
+motion removes every possibility of there being any unevenness in the
+bottom of the shoe, and while one shoe is under pressure the operator
+is preparing a second one for the operation.
+
+[Illustration: AUTOMATIC LEVELLING MACHINE.
+
+Rolls out any unevenness in soles.]
+
+[Illustration: HOW THE HEEL OF A SHOE IS PUT ON
+
+  TOP LIFT
+
+  COMPRESSED HEEL
+
+  BEFORE OPERATION
+  AFTER OPERATION
+
+  Heel Attaching
+
+WORK PERFORMED BY HEELING MACHINES.]
+
+[Illustration: AUTOMATIC HEEL LOADING AND ATTACHING MACHINE.]
+
+[Illustration: SLUGGING MACHINE.
+
+Drives small pieces of ornamental metal which protect the heel.]
+
+[Illustration: HEEL TRIMMING MACHINE.
+
+Trims rough lifts of heel to desired shape.]
+
+[Illustration: HEEL BREASTING MACHINE.
+
+Cuts the breast of the heel to correct angle and curve.]
+
+[Illustration: EDGE TRIMMING MACHINE.
+
+Trims edge of outsole smoothly.]
+
+[Illustration: A LUMP OF PULP.
+
+Paper such as found in this book is made from trunks and limbs of trees.
+
+The use of good fibers in book paper is a guarantee of quality and
+durability. The above illustration represents a lump of this pulp
+prepared for the beaters.]
+
+
+
+
+How the Paper in this Book is Made
+
+
+Where Does Paper Come From?
+
+Egyptians were the first people to make what would today be called
+paper. They made it from a plant called papyrus and that is where the
+name comes from.
+
+This plant is a species of reed. The Egyptians took stalks of reed cut
+into as thin slices as they could, laid them side by side; then they
+arranged another layer on top with the slices the other way and put
+this in a press. When dried and rubbed until smooth, it made a kind of
+paper, which could be written upon.
+
+One of the first substances used for making the kind of paper we have
+today was cotton. Paper was made from cotton about 1100 A. D. From this
+thin cotton paper our present papers are a development, i.e., paper
+today is largely made of vegetable fibers. Vegetable fibers consist
+mostly of cellulose surrounded by other things which hold the short
+vegetable fibers together.
+
+The fibers best adapted for making paper are those of the cotton and
+flax plants, and while the uses of paper were few, no other material
+was needed when it was once learned that cotton and linen fibers would
+do for making paper. All we had to do was to save all the old rags and
+sell them to the paper man.
+
+In making paper from rags, the rags were allowed to rot to remove the
+substances that incrust the cellulose, and then beaten into a pulp,
+to which a large quantity of water was added. This pulp was put into
+a sieve, until the greater part of the water had been drained off by
+shaking, and the fibers remaining formed a thin layer on the bottom of
+the sieve. This layer of fiber was put into a pile with other similar
+layers, and the whole pile was placed under a press, where more of
+the water was removed. When they were dry, we had a very fair kind of
+paper which was, however, not much better than blotting paper and could
+not be written on with ink because it was loose in texture and very
+absorbent.
+
+To give it good writing surface it was necessary to fill the pores.
+This was done by sizing which gave the paper great firmness. Paper was
+sized by drawing the layers of paper through a solution of alum and
+glue, or some similar substances, and then drying them, then finally
+passed between highly polished rollers to iron it. This gave it the
+necessary smooth hard surface.
+
+In the modern method of making rag paper by machinery, the rags are
+boiled with caustic soda, which separates the cellulose fibers, and
+placed in a machine in which rollers set with knives tear the rags
+to pieces and mix them with water to form a pulp. This is called a
+breaker. The pulp is then bleached with chloride of lime, and is passed
+on to the sizing machine. This machine mixes the pulp with alum and
+with a kind of soap, made from suitable resins which serves the purpose
+better than glue.
+
+[Illustration: NOT A WOOD YARD BUT THE OUTSIDE OF A PAPER MILL.
+
+This shows the great piles of trunks and limbs of trees near a wood
+pulp paper mill used in making paper for newspapers, books, magazines,
+etc.]
+
+
+How Is the Water Mark Put Into Paper?
+
+The pulp, which is now ready to be made into paper, is poured out upon
+an endless cloth made of fine brass wire. This cloth travels constantly
+in one direction, by means of rollers, and is given at the same time
+a sort of vibratory motion, to cause the paper fibers to become more
+closely felted together. On the wire cloth web are usually woven words,
+or designs, in wire, that rise above the rest of the surface. These
+are transferred to the paper, and are called water marks. The machine
+then winds the finished paper into rolls, so that it may be handled
+conveniently.
+
+~HOW PAPER IS NOW MADE FROM WOOD~
+
+During the past few years the uses for paper have increased so greatly
+that there have not been enough rags available to meet the demand for
+material, and a successful effort was made to find other material from
+which paper could be made. Many fibers were tried before it was found
+that wood pulp could be used. Straw and esparto grass, a plant that
+grows wild in North America, were found to yield cellulose having the
+desired qualities and were used to some extent. But the problem was
+solved when it was learned that pulp made from trunks and limbs of
+trees would serve even then. At first the powder formed by grinding up
+logs was used, but the paper produced was not strong, and could be used
+for very few purposes.
+
+[Illustration: GREAT FORESTS TURNED INTO PAPER
+
+PAPER TREES.
+
+This picture shows the trees as they grow in the woods. These trees are
+good for making paper. Your morning paper, may some morning be printed
+on what is left of one of these trees.]
+
+It was discovered finally that if wood shavings were boiled in strong
+solutions of caustic soda, in receptacles that would withstand very
+high pressure, the wood fibers were separated, and a very good quality
+of cellulose for paper manufacture produced, provided it was bleached
+before being made into paper, and most of our paper to-day is,
+therefore, made of wood.
+
+Later on this process gave way to the sulphite process. In the sulphite
+process, a solution of sulphite of lime is used. Acid sulphite of lime
+results when the fumes from burning sulphur are passed through chimneys
+filled with lime. By this process the separation of the fibers and the
+bleaching are done at the same time and an even whiter paper making
+material is obtained.
+
+The sulphite process is now used almost exclusively in making paper
+from wood.
+
+[Illustration: GRINDING ROOM.
+
+In this picture we see how the trees are first cut into smaller chunks
+before being reduced to chips for making pulp.]
+
+The discovery of the process of making paper from wood has led to the
+use of paper for many purposes for which it could otherwise never have
+been used. The wood pulp is also used in the form of papier-mâché, a
+tough, plastic substance, which is made by mixing glue with it, or by
+pressing together a number of layers of paper having glue between.
+Papier-mâché can easily be molded into almost any form, and after
+drying forms a very tough substance and one that will stand rough
+usage. It has been employed for making dishes, water baskets and
+utensils of many other kinds, for making the matrices for and from
+electrotype plates, for car wheels, and many other purposes.
+
+[Illustration: WHERE THE INGREDIENTS FOR MAKING PAPER ARE MIXED
+
+MIXING ROOM.
+
+The wood fiber must be mixed with other ingredients when paper is made
+from it. This shows a corner of the large electro-chemical department
+for the production of bleach and soda used in the preparation of rag
+and wood fibres.]
+
+[Illustration: THE WATER SUPPLY.
+
+A good deal of water is needed in making paper. From twelve to fifteen
+million gallons daily are drawn from the river and filtered through
+this plant in Maine; clean paper of bright color being dependent upon
+the use of pure water.]
+
+[Illustration: BEATING THE INGREDIENTS FOR MAKING PULP
+
+BEATER ROOM.
+
+The ingredients for making paper are first mixed thoroughly in machines
+called “beaters” before going to the paper making machines. The
+operation of beating is one of the most important in paper making.]
+
+[Illustration: THE PAPER COMING OFF IN ROLLS.
+
+As the paper progresses through the machines, it passes over a long
+series of heated cylinders, drying and hardening the stock until it
+reaches the finished end. This illustration shows a web 135 inches
+wide being cut into two rolls. The air pressure in the machine room is
+slightly greater than the atmospheric pressure outside, preventing dust
+from entering.]
+
+[Illustration: GREAT PAPER-MAKING MACHINES IN OPERATION
+
+PAPER MAKING MACHINES.
+
+In the foreground is the so-called wet end showing the vats in which
+the liquid pulp, about 98 per cent water, is pumped. It is screened and
+then flows on to an endless wire web beyond, where the free water is
+taken out by drainage and by suction boxes.]
+
+[Illustration: PUTTING THE PRINTING SURFACE ON THE PAPER
+
+PAPER STOCK.
+
+A large amount of stock of paper mills. This paper is seasoned by
+holding it in stock and will be later given such surface as is called
+for.]
+
+[Illustration: COATING MACHINES.
+
+Where the paper passes through a bath of coating mixture to a long
+drying gallery at the end of which it is rewound preparatory to being
+given the highly finished surface on the calendaring machine.]
+
+[Illustration: A section of Finishing Room department where paper is
+passed through alternating compressed fiber and steel rolls giving
+it the surface required for different classes of printing. The paper
+on which the Book of Wonders is printed has a highly finished smooth
+surface so that the pictures will come out clear.]
+
+[Illustration: WHERE THE PAPER IS CUT IN SHEETS
+
+The finished rolls of stock pass through rotary cutters which produce
+the sheets of various required sizes. The paper in the Book of Wonders
+was cut in sheets 41x55 inches, thus making it possible to print 32
+pages on each side of each sheet.]
+
+[Illustration: Rotary Boiler for cooking rags or wood in making pulp
+for use in manufacture of paper.]
+
+  Illustrations showing manufacture of paper by courtesy of S. D.
+  Warren & Co.
+
+[Illustration: HOW THE PRINTED TYPE OF THIS BOOK WAS SET
+
+This picture shows the wonderful Linotype machine by which the type
+of this book was “set,” as the printers say. The men who operate the
+machine are compositors. Originally the type matter of books was set
+by hand and the compositor composed in type what the author of the
+book had written. By pressing down on the keys which you see in the
+picture, the compositor sets the words in lines of metal. This machine
+is almost human. By touching the proper keys, the operator assembles a
+line of matrices the details of which are explained in another picture,
+and after this is done the machine automatically casts a slug from
+them, turns and delivers a slug into a galley ready for use and finally
+distributes the matrices back into their respective channels in the
+magazine, where they are ready to be called down again, by the touch of
+the key button. The latest model linotype has four magazines and can be
+equipped with matrices which when assembled will cast lines in from six
+to twelve different sizes and styles of type.
+
+The assembling mechanism is the only part of the linotype where the
+human mind is applied to the working of the machine. It is necessary
+for the eye to read what is to be printed, and the mind, through the
+medium of the fingers, to translate this into assembled lines of
+matrices; after that the machine acts automatically.]
+
+[Illustration: THE LINOTYPE—FOUR MACHINES IN ONE
+
+The keyboard is made up of 90 keys, which act directly on the matrices
+in their channels in the magazine. The slightest touch on the
+keybuttons releases the matrix, which drops to the assembler belt and
+is carried swiftly to the assembler. When a word is assembled, the
+spaceband key is touched and a spaceband drops into the assembler.
+When the necessary matrices and spacebands to fill the line have been
+assembled, the operator raises the assembler by pressing a lever on the
+side of the keyboard. When the assembler reaches its highest point it
+automatically starts the machine and the matrices are transferred to
+the casting position.
+
+This illustration shows the manner in which matrices are constantly
+circulated in the Linotype. From the magazine they are carried to the
+assembler, then passed to the mold, where the line is cast, and from
+the mold after casting they are raised to the top of the machine and
+redistributed to their proper channels in the magazine.
+
+The Linotype is sometimes called a typesetting machine, but this is not
+correct: it does not set type. It is a substitute for typesetting. It
+is strictly speaking a composing machine, as it does composition but
+its product is not set type, but solid slugs in the form of lines of
+type with the printing face cast on the edge.
+
+It is in reality four machines so arranged that they work together in
+harmony--the magazine, the assembling mechanism, the casting mechanism
+and the distributing mechanism. The magazine is at the top of the
+machine sloping to the front at an angle of about 31 degrees, and
+consists of two brass plates placed together with a space of about
+five-eighths of an inch between. The two inner surfaces are cut with 92
+grooves or channels running the up and down way of the magazine, for
+carrying the matrices. The matrices slide down these channels on edge,
+with the face or punched edge down, and the V-end extending toward the
+upper part of the magazine. Each of these channels will hold twenty
+matrices.]
+
+[Illustration: LITTLE PIECES OF BRASS WHICH PRODUCE SOLID TYPE
+
+ONE-LETTER AND TWO-LETTER MATRICES.
+
+Linotype matrices are made of brass. In the edge of each matrix is
+either one or two letters or characters in intaglio. The thickness of
+the individual matrices is dependent on the width of the character.
+By an ingenious arrangement either one-letter or two-letter matrices
+can be used in the same machine, and either character on a two-letter
+matrix can be used at will.
+
+The two-letter matrix bears two characters, one above the other, one
+of which may be a Roman face and the other an italic, small capital,
+or black face. If a line is to be composed partly of the Roman face,
+which is in the upper position on the matrix, and partly of the other
+face, which is in the lower position, this is accomplished by means of
+a slide on the assembler operated by a small lever.
+
+When the lower characters on the matrices are required, the slide
+is shifted and the matrices are arrested at a higher level, so that
+the lower characters align with the upper characters of the other
+matrices in the assembler. When the slide is withdrawn the matrices are
+assembled at the lower level. By means of this simple contrivance, a
+line may be composed partly of one face, partly of the other face, or
+entirely of either face.]
+
+[Illustration: THIS SHOWS HOW THE HEADINGS ARE MADE IN CAPITALS OF
+DIFFERENT TYPE.
+
+Linotypes are guaranteed to be capable of setting above 5000 ems of
+6 point per hour, and this output is widely obtained in commercial
+printing offices with first class operators. When a compositor speaks
+of the amount of type he sets per hour or day he speaks of “ems.” A
+column of type matter is so many “ems” wide. The term “em” means the
+square of the particular size of type that is being set. Thus if a
+column is said to be 13 ems wide it means that an em quad or square,
+could be set 13 times in the width of the column. Type is graded
+according to size by points. Machine type for book work runs from 5
+points to 12 points. A point is one seventy-second of an inch, that is,
+there are 72 points to an inch. This guarantee, however, by no means
+indicates the limit of speed at which the machine can be operated, as
+evidenced by records of 10,000 to 11,000 ems per hour maintained for an
+entire day. The rapidity of the Linotype is limited only by the ability
+of the operator to manipulate the keys, and the extreme capacity of the
+machine has never yet been attained.]
+
+[Illustration: HOW THE LINOTYPE MAKES SOLID TYPE
+
+SECTIONAL VIEW OF MAGAZINE SHOWING CHANNEL FULL OF MATRICES.
+
+This picture shows the machine with part of the magazine top and
+side removed. We can thus see how the matrices are arranged in their
+respective grooves in the magazine. When one of the keys of the
+keyboard is pressed down the first matrix in the corresponding grove in
+the magazine escapes and drops upon a conveyor belt and is carried in
+its proper order to an assembler, which answers much the same purpose
+as a printer’s stick. The correct spacing or justification of the line
+of matrices is accomplished by means of spacebands, which are assembled
+automatically between the words in the line by the touch of a lever at
+the left of the keyboard.]
+
+[Illustration: LINOTYPE SLUGS.
+
+Instead of producing single type characters, the Linotype machine casts
+metal bars, or slugs, of any length desired up to 36 ems, each complete
+in one piece and having on the upper edge, properly justified, the
+characters to print a line. These slugs are automatically assembled
+in proper order as they are delivered from the machine, when they are
+immediately available either for printing from direct or for making
+electrotype or stereotype plates. They answer the same purpose and are
+used in the same manner as composed type matter.]
+
+[Illustration: CASTING THE SLUGS OF SOLID METAL
+
+LINE OF MATRICES BEING LIFTED TO DISTRIBUTOR
+
+After the slug has been cast, the matrices are carried up to the second
+transfer position, where they are pushed to the right, and the teeth in
+the V at the top of the matrices engage the grooves in the distributor
+bar of the second elevator, which descends from the distributor box at
+the same time that the matrices rise to the second transfer position.
+The second elevator then rises toward the distributor box, taking the
+matrices with it, but leaving the spacebands; these are then pushed to
+the right and slide into the spaceband box, to be used again.
+
+As the second elevator rises toward the distributor box with its load
+of matrices, the distributor shifter lever moves to the left until
+the elevator head has reached its place by the distributor box. It
+then moves back to the right and pushes the matrices off the second
+elevator distributor bar into the distributor box, where they meet the
+“matrix lift” and are lifted, one at a time, to the distributor screws
+and distributor bar proper. The teeth in the matrix and the grooves in
+the bar are so arranged that when a matrix arrives at a point directly
+over the channel in which it belongs, it “lets go” and drops into its
+channel.
+
+If, however, there is a matrix in the line which was not designed to
+drop into one of the channels operated from the keyboard, it will be
+carried clear across the distributor bar and dropped into the last
+channel, and from there it will find its way to the sorts box.]
+
+[Illustration: SECTIONAL VIEW OF METAL POT WITH LINE OF MATRICES IN
+POSITION BEFORE THE MOLD
+
+The casting mechanism consists of the metal pot, mold disk, mold,
+ejector, and trimming knives. The illustration shows a cross-section
+of the metal pot, mold disk, and mold, with a line of matrices in the
+casting position. When the line of matrices leaves the assembler,
+they pass to a position in front of the mold disk. The disk makes a
+one-quarter turn to the left, which brings the mold from the ejecting
+position, where it stands while the machine is at rest, to the casting
+position. It then advances until the face of the mold comes in contact
+with the matrices. The metal pot advances until the pot mouthpiece
+comes in contact with the back of the mold; at this point the pump
+plunger descends and forces the metal into the mold and against the
+matrices. The pot then recedes, the mold disk withdraws from the
+matrices and makes three-fourths of a revolution to the left, stopping
+in the ejecting position, from which it started. The slug is ejected
+and assembled in the galley.
+
+During the last revolution of the disk the bottom of the slug is
+trimmed off, and in the process of ejection the sides of the slug are
+trimmed, so that when it drops in the galley the slug is a perfect line
+of type, ready for the form.]
+
+[Illustration: HOW THE PRINTED PART OF A BOOK LOOKS AT FIRST
+
+As the slugs of type, each of which represents a line, come from the
+linotype machine, they are arranged in order in a brass holder the
+width of the line of type, called a “galley.” This holder is about
+twenty inches long. As soon as it is filled one of the men in the
+typesetting office takes it to a proof press where he makes a rough
+impression of it. He runs an ink covered roller over the top of the
+slugs, lays a piece of blank paper on it and then either runs another
+roller over it or puts it in a hand press and secures an impression of
+the type just as it is. This is called making a “galley proof.”
+
+The galley proof is then sent to the proof-reader who reads it
+carefully and indicates such errors in setting as appear and must be
+changed. Before correcting the actual type, however, the composing
+room sends the galley proof to the one who is publishing the book.
+The publisher also reads the proof over carefully and, if he does not
+wish to change any of the wording, he sends it back to the composing
+room with his “O. K.” attached in writing. If he wishes to change
+the wording, he does so and the galley proof is then returned to the
+composing room marked “O. K. after corrections and changes are made.”
+
+The linotype operator then makes whatever changes are desired or
+necessary by setting new lines where mistakes or changes occur. If
+there is only one wrong letter in a line, he must reset the whole line
+as the machine, as you remember, only turns out solid lines of type. A
+revised proof is then sent to the publishing office and, if no further
+changes are to be made, he gives instructions to have the “galley” made
+up into pages. How the pages are made up is shown in the next picture.]
+
+[Illustration: HOW THE PAGES OF A BOOK ARE MADE UP
+
+When the revised proofs come back from the publisher ready to be made
+into pages, the publisher has marked on same what pictures are to go on
+the pages of the “make up” as this is called. The compositor then picks
+out the pictures in the form of cuts which are to go on the different
+pages and puts them in the page first. He then arranges the type matter
+from the galley proof around, above or below the pictures, puts in the
+proper headings and takes a “final proof” of how the pages are arranged
+to look. If this is satisfactory the publisher puts a “final O. K.”
+on the proof in writing and the page is ready to be printed. Thus the
+book is made up page by page. No page is printed without the O. K. of
+the publisher and so, if there are any errors still in the page, the
+publisher is responsible.]
+
+[Illustration: HOW THIS BOOK IS PRINTED
+
+PRINTING THE BOOK OF WONDERS
+
+This picture shows the pages of the Book of Wonders being printed.
+Thirty-two pages are printed on each side of a sheet of paper at
+one time. A printing office is a busy place as can be seen from the
+picture. As soon as the ink is dry on the printed sheets they are taken
+to the bindery where they are folded and sewed ready to have the covers
+put on.]
+
+[Illustration: HOW THE BOOK OF WONDERS IS BOUND
+
+When the printed sheets are received in the bindery they are fed into
+a folding machine which is shown here. A sheet of 64 pages is folded
+and cut and delivered in four sections of 16 pages each ready to be
+gathered.]
+
+[Illustration: Here we see a machine which takes the folded sections of
+16 pages each, which are called “signatures,” and sorts them, dropping
+them into compartments in order, so that each compartment finally
+contains the printed matter for one book all arranged in the order
+which it will be bound.]
+
+  Courtesy of the J. F. Tapley Co. New York.
+
+[Illustration: SEWING THE PAGES OF THE BOOK OF WONDERS
+
+Here we see the girls at work operating the sewing machines which sew
+the sections together at the back side of the book.]
+
+[Illustration: The men in this picture are making the backs of the
+books round and preparing them for the putting on of covers.]
+
+  Courtesy of the J. F. Tapley Co., New York.
+
+[Illustration: THE BOOK OF WONDERS IS READY TO READ
+
+In this picture we see the “case makers” at work making the covers on
+which the actual book is bound.]
+
+[Illustration: The book is now “bound” by having the covers put on and
+is ready for distribution.]
+
+  Courtesy of the J. F. Tapley Co., New York.
+
+
+How Is Photo Engraving Done?
+
+[Illustration: This cut shows a section of a photo-engraving screen
+enlarged, illustrating the squares above-mentioned. In reality it would
+take from 100 to 400 of these dots to make an inch, according to the
+fineness of screen.]
+
+~HOW THE PICTURES IN THIS BOOK ARE MADE~
+
+The first step is the making of the halftone negative which differs
+from an ordinary negative in being made up of different sized dots
+instead of shades of gray. This result is obtained by photographing the
+picture through a halftone screen consisting of two pieces of glass,
+ruled with black lines and cemented together so the lines cross at
+right angles and leave small squares of clear glass.
+
+The effect of making the negative in this way is to represent the
+different shades from black to white by large or small dots. Wet plate
+photography is usually used in this process because the film is thinner
+and more intensely black besides being cheaper than dry plates.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  New Process Engraving Co.
+
+This cut shows a portion of a halftone cut enlarged so that the dots
+can be seen very plainly.]
+
+Having made the negative the next step is to make a printing plate
+from it. To do this, a piece of metal, copper if the work is fine, and
+zinc for coarser work, is coated with a solution which is sensative to
+light, fish glue is commonly used to which is added a small amount of
+ammonium bichromate. The metal being coated and dried, it is put in
+a very strong frame with the negative and squeezed together so that
+they are in perfect contact. A powerful light is now directed upon the
+negative with the metal behind it, the result being that wherever the
+light goes through the white spaces in the negative, the coating on the
+metal is rendered insoluble. Where the dots on the negative are, the
+light is unable to get at the coating so that when the metal is removed
+from the frame and thoroughly washed this part of the coating washes
+away, leaving the part which the light got at attached to the metal.
+This is now heated until the enamel, as the coating is called, turns
+dark brown and the picture can be easily seen.
+
+The picture is now on the metal but it must be made to stand out in
+relief before it can be used for printing from, so it is put in a bath
+of acid which eats away that part of the metal left uncovered by the
+washing away of the coating and this leaves the dots which make up
+the picture standing up in relief. A roller covered with very thick
+paste-like ink is now rolled over the picture, or cut as it is now
+called, and when a piece of paper is pressed against the ink covered
+cut each little dot leaves a mark of ink on the paper the total making
+up the picture as we see it.
+
+There are many more wonderful things connected with the making of cuts
+such as the routing machine which has a tool that revolves so fast
+that it turns around 300 times while the clock ticks once, and other
+machines which cut hard metal as easily as you can cut a potato with a
+knife.
+
+Colored pictures are also made by the process outlined above. The
+picture is photographed three times with a different colored piece of
+glass in front of the lens, the result being three negatives, one of
+which has all the blue, one all the red and the other all the yellow
+in the picture. By making cuts from each negative and printing them
+on top of one another in yellow, red, and blue, the original picture
+is reproduced in all its colors. This is how all our pretty magazine
+covers are made.
+
+
+
+
+ACKNOWLEDGMENT
+
+
+The Editors of the Book of Wonders make acknowledgment herewith to the
+following. All mentioned have been a great assistance in making the
+book not only possible but authentic:
+
+  Spencerian Pen Co.
+  Eastman Kodak Co.
+  American Telephone & Telegraph Co.
+  Remington Arms Co.
+  Bethlehem Steel Co.
+  American Portland Cement Manufacturers Assn.
+  Brainerd & Armstrong Silk Co.
+  Corticelli Silk Co.
+  Curtiss Aeroplane Co.
+  U. S. Beet Sugar Industry.
+  Hartford Carpet Co.
+  Haynes Automobile Co.
+  Jacobs & Davis, Engineers.
+  Pennsylvania Railroad Co.
+  Endicott, Johnson & Co.
+  United Shoe Machinery Co.
+  Sherwin-Williams Co.
+  Pittsburgh Plate Glass Co.
+  The Colliery Engineer.
+  Lake Torpedo Boat Co.
+  Western Union Telegraph Co.
+  New York Edison Co.
+  Westinghouse Lamp Co.
+  Consolidated Gas, Electric Light and Power Co. of Baltimore.
+  Browning Engineering Co.
+  The White Star Line.
+  Marconi Wireless Co.
+  Plymouth Cordage Co.
+  American Woolen Co.
+  The Vitagraph Co.
+  The B. F. Goodrich Co.
+  The Goodyear Rubber and Tire Co.
+  The Lexington Chocolate Co.
+  The Hecker-Jones Milling Co.
+  The White Oak Mills.
+  The H. C. White Company.
+  A. I. Root Company.
+  Kohler & Campbell.
+  Browne & Howell Co.
+  P. & F. Corbin.
+  Otis Elevator Co.
+  Scientific American.
+  Joseph Dixon Crucible Co.
+  Homer W. Laughlin Co.
+  S. D. Warren & Co.
+  C. B. Cottrell & Sons Co.
+  Mergenthaler Linotype Co.
+  J. F. Tapley & Co.
+  New Process Engraving Co.
+  Mutual Film Corporation.
+  Tobacco Trade Journal Co.
+  McClure’s Magazine.
+  James Arthur.
+  Seth Thomas.
+  American Locomotive Co.
+  New York Central Railroad Co.
+  Columbia Rope Co.
+  Carl Werner.
+  National Wool Growers Assn.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+  =Acid=, carbonic, what it is, 509
+
+  =Aerial=, on ship, (illus.), 455
+
+  =Aeroplanes=, English Channel crossing (illus.), 132
+    Curtiss biplane (illus.), 131
+    first demonstrations of, 130
+    first flight in Europe, 129
+    first man-carrying (illus.), 128
+    first successful (illus.), 126
+    gas motors used in, 130
+    gliding, 137
+    greatest present value of, 136
+    records of, 131
+    red wing (illus.), 131
+    what two brothers accomplished for, 130
+    Wright Bros.’ inventions, 130
+
+  =Age=, why do we, 196
+
+  =Air=, does it move with the earth? 400
+    does it weigh anything? 398
+    dust in, 38
+    extend, how far does, 243
+
+  =Airlocks=, description of in tunnel building, 213
+
+  =Ammunition=, first invention of, 40
+    fixed, 47
+    in prehistoric times, 40
+
+  =Animals=, can they think? 194
+    is man an, 180
+    that leap greatest distance, 122
+    which foretell weather, 240
+
+  =Anthracite seams= (illus.), 260
+
+  =Aqueduct= (illus.), 505
+
+  =Are= matches poisonous, 294
+
+  =Armor=, in the Middle Ages, 44
+
+  =Army=, wireless in the, 448-451
+
+  =Are= there two sides to the rainbow? 254
+
+  =Arrow=, what causes it to fly? 408
+
+  =At= what point does water boil? 220
+
+  =At= what rate does thought travel? 242
+
+  =Australian Ballot=, where first used, 122
+
+  =Automobile= (illus.), axle, location of, 186
+    beginning of, 183
+    carburetor, location of, 184
+    carburetor, use of, 184
+    chassis, complete, 188
+    cog-wheels, use of, 183
+    cog-wheels, location of (illus.), 183
+    crankcase, location of (illus.), 183
+    cylinder, location of (illus.), 184
+    drive shaft, location of (illus.), 187
+    electric generator, use of, 185
+    exhaust, 184
+    fenders, location of, 188
+    fenders, use of, 188
+    finished car (illus.), 189
+    first American (illus.), 189
+    fly-wheel, location of (illus.), 183
+    fly-wheel, use of, 183
+    frame (illus.), 186
+    gasoline, what it does, 183
+    gasoline tank, location of, 187
+    gears, location of (illus.), 183
+    gears, use of, 183
+    heart of (illus.), 184
+    how improved, 190
+    magneto, location of, 185
+    magneto, use of, 185
+    marvellous growth of twenty years, 189
+    modern power plant complete, 190
+    oil pan, use of, 184
+    oil pump, location of, 184
+    piston, location of (illus.), 183
+    piston, use of, 183
+    power plant, an (illus.), 185
+    radiator, location of (illus.), 188
+    radiator, use of, 188
+    ready for the wheels, 187
+    second stage of construction (illus.), 186
+    self-starter, location of, 185
+    self starter, use of, 185
+    Smithsonian exhibit of complete power plant, 190
+    springs, location of (illus.), 186
+    springs, use of, 186
+    steering gear, location of (illus.), 187
+    street scene 20 years ago, 189
+    transmission, location of, 186
+    tire pump, use of, 185
+    tires, how made, 382
+    transmission, use of, 186
+    water pump, location of, 185
+    water pump, use of, 185
+    what the completed chassis looks like (illus.), 188
+
+  =Bacon, Roger=, discoverer of gunpowder, 44
+
+  =Balance=, effect of sunlight on, 37
+
+  =Baldness=, chief course of, 143
+    why some people are, 143
+
+  =Ball=, why it bounces, 63
+    bearings, what they are, 180
+
+  =Balloon=, what keeps it up, 199
+    why it goes up, 199
+
+  =Ballot=, when first used, 122
+    Australian, where first used, 122
+
+  =Bearings, Ball=, what they are, 180
+
+  =Bee=, how it lives, 336
+    why it has a sting, 336
+
+  =Bell, Alexander Graham= (illus.), 70
+    first telephone, 72
+
+  =Bend=, why things, 62
+
+  =Biplanes=, Curtiss (illus.), 131
+    in flight, Curtiss (illus.), 136
+
+  =Birds=, how do they find the old home? 408
+    how they learn to fly, 178
+    how they find their way, 407
+    reproduction of life in, 179
+    why do they sing? 408
+
+  =Birds’ Eggs=, why different colors, 233
+
+  =Blasting= gelatin, definition of, 206
+
+  =Bleriot, M.=, first European flights, 129
+
+  =Blotter=, capillary attraction of, 18
+    how it takes up ink, 18
+
+  =Blush=, why do we, 194
+
+  =Boat=, how it can sail under water, 269
+    hydroplane of submarine, 270
+    inside of a submarine (illus.), 272
+
+  =Bodies=, swiftest moving, 25
+
+  =Boiling= point of water, 220
+    what makes water, 220
+
+  =Boring mill= (illus.), 56
+
+  =Bottles=, gurgle in, 63
+
+  =Bounce=, why a ball will, 63
+
+  =Bow=, long (illus.), 42
+
+  =Bow-and-Arrow=, invention of, 43
+
+  =Boxes=, match, how made, 294
+
+  =Brazil, Emperor of=, receives first words over telephone, 74
+
+  =Bread=, how flour is made, 462
+    difference in Graham and whole wheat, 461
+    grinding wheat (illus.), 464
+    harvesting wheat, 460
+    loaves of world (illus.), 459
+    origin and meaning of, 460
+    purifying machine (illus.), 463
+    separating fibre germs (illus.), 463
+    wheat conditioning (illus.), 462
+    when wheat was first used in making, 461
+    where it comes from, 460
+    why so important, 460
+
+  =Break=, why things, 62
+
+  =Breech=, of a big gun, 53
+
+  =Breech-loaders= in Civil War, 48
+    in rifle, 47
+
+  =Brush=, in writing, invention of, 13
+    in writing (illus.), 13
+
+  =Bullets=, cupro-nickel used in, 50
+    grading of, 51
+    weighing of (illus.), 49
+
+  =Buildings=, concrete, how made (illus.), 100
+
+  =Buttons=, on sleeves, 64
+
+  =Building=, tallest in the world (illus.), 395-508
+    what holds it up? 496
+
+  =Building foundations=, construction of, 496
+    compressed air, use of (illus.), 500
+    cutting piles with a hot flame (illus.), 498
+    driving steel piles, 496
+    piles filled with concrete (illus.), 499
+    piles, length of, 497
+    piles, sinking of (illus.), 497
+    use of oxyacetylene, 498
+
+  =Cable, laying= armoring machine (illus.), 437
+    arrived on other side, 433
+    bulge (illus.), 437
+    gear-paying-out (illus.), 431
+    Great Eastern, the, 434, 437
+    landing of (illus.), 433
+    machinery on cable ship (illus.), 431
+    paying-out machine (illus.), 431
+    shore end of (illus.), 429
+    storing of, aboard ship (illus.), 430
+    what they look like when cut in two (illus.), 428
+
+  =Cable, ocean=, Continental Morse Code, 438
+    how dropped (illus.), 432
+    how repaired (illus.), 435
+    inventor of, 434
+    laid, how, 429
+    man who made it possible, 434
+    pioneers of, 434
+    signals as received (illus.), 438
+    what is it made of, 429
+
+  =Cable, repairing=, grapnels (illus.), 435
+    how repaired, 435
+    on rocky shore, (illus.), 438
+    powerful engines used (illus.), 436
+    splicing of (illus.), 436
+
+  =Cable, service=, map of Trans-Atlantic, 439
+
+  =Cable, vault=, of telephone (illus.), 67
+
+  =Cabriolet=, 122
+
+  =Cacao, beans=, bags of (illus.), 388
+    how cured, 392
+    nibs, 392
+
+  =Cacao=, flaked, how made, 392
+    how gathered, 391
+    pods, how gathered, 391
+    free, discovery of, 388
+    and chocolate, difference between, 389
+
+  =Cackling=, why a hen, 233
+
+  =Calibre= of a gun, 53
+
+  =Calico=, name, where from, 123
+
+  =Camera=, 22
+    first moving picture, 375
+
+  =Can= a bee sting? 536
+
+  =Can= animals think? 194
+
+  =Candles=, did they come before lamps? 294
+    why it burns, 21
+    why it gives light, 21
+    why you can blow out, 21-36
+    when introduced, 296
+
+  =Candy=, why do children like? 409
+    why does eating candy make some people fat? 409
+
+  =Carbon=, 352
+
+  =Carbonate of Soda=, used in developing, 23
+
+  =Carburetor=, in gas engine, 184
+
+  =Carpets=, carding machine (illus.), 170
+    dyeing the yarn, (illus.), 170
+    examining and repairing (illus.), 173
+    how yarn is dyed, 170
+    manufacture of (illus.), 169
+    modern, how made, 169
+    packing for shipment (illus.), 173
+    processes, 169-170-171, 173
+    stamping designs, 173
+    view of factory (illus.), 172
+    weaving, by machine (illus.), 171
+    wool, packing machine (illus.), 169
+    wool sorting, 170
+
+  =Cartridges=, invention of, 48
+    types of (illus.), 49
+
+  =Cave=, man who invented ammunition, 40
+
+  =Cement=, alumina in, 95
+    amount used in United States, 95
+    arch, 95
+    bagging (illus.), 99
+    bridges, 95
+    bucket (illus.), 97
+    burned (illus.), 98
+    calcined (illus.), 98
+    clay in, 95
+    crusher (illus.), 97
+    dams, 95
+    fireproof, 95
+    grinders (illus.), 98
+    industry, 95
+    in water, 95
+    kiln (illus.), 98
+    lime in, 95
+    machine (illus.), 97
+    marl in, 95
+    mill (illus.), 96-98
+    mixing (illus.), 99
+    mortar, 99
+    on farms, 95
+    origin, 95
+    plastic, 95
+    Portland, 95
+    powder (illus.), 98
+    quarry (illus.), 96
+    reinforced, 95
+    rock (illus.), 95-97
+    sewers, 95
+    shale in, 95
+    shovel (illus.), 96
+    sidewalks, 95
+    silica in, 95
+    strength of, 95
+    subways, 95
+    tunnels, 95
+    walls, 95
+    what is it, 95
+    what made of, 95
+    what used for, 95
+    weighing (illus.), 99
+    where obtained (illus.), 97
+
+  =Chalk=, where it comes from, 18
+
+  =Chattering=, why do my teeth, 218
+
+  =China-making=, blungers, 404
+    clay, in making dishes, 405
+    decorating cups (illus.), 404-406
+    dishes, how shaped, 405
+    glazing plates (illus.), 404
+    grinders (illus.), 404
+    how the dishes are shaped, 405
+    molding (illus.), 405
+    pressing water from clay (illus.), 405
+    pulverizing materials, 404
+    pulverizing mill (illus.), 404
+    saggers (illus.), 406
+    taking the dishes from kiln (illus.), 406
+
+  =Chinese=, probable discovers of gun powder, 44
+
+  =Chocolate=, broma, what it is, 390
+    cacao beans (illus.), 388
+    cacao pods, (illus.), 391
+    cacao tree, discovery of, 388
+    cocoa butter, 390
+    cocoa mill (illus.), 390
+    cocoa roaster (illus.), 390
+    cocoa shells, 390
+    cracking mill, 389
+    cream mixing (illus.), 393
+    difference between and cacao, 394
+    dipping department, 394
+    finisher (illus.), 392
+    flaked cocoa, 392
+    heating machine (illus.), 393
+    how are chocolate candies made? 394
+    how made, 392
+    making, 393
+    milk, how made, 394
+    mill (illus.), 392
+    mixer (illus.), 393
+    shell separator (illus.), 389
+    what cocoa butter is, 390
+    wrapping individual, 394
+
+  =Cigars=, how they are made, 517
+
+  =Clay=, what is, 495
+
+  =Circles=, tendency to walk in, 91
+
+  =Clinking= glasses, how it originated? 232
+
+  =Clock=, age of, 319
+    largest in the world (illus.), 321
+    machinery which runs a big (illus.), 322
+    in Independence Hall (illus.), 323
+    in New York City Hall, 323
+
+  =Cloth=, beaming (illus.), 89
+    Burling (illus.), 88
+    Burr picker, 87
+    chloride of aluminum in making, 98
+    English cap spinning (illus.), 89
+    finished, ready for market (illus.), 90
+    finish perching (illus.), 90
+    fulling (illus.), 90
+    how made from wool, 85
+    how made perfect, 83
+    how woolen is dyed, 87
+    mending perching (illus.), 88
+    napping, 89
+    piece dyeing (illus.), 90
+    ring twisting (illus.), 89
+    sulphuric acid solution in making, 87
+    teasel, 89
+    weaving and scouring (illus.), 88
+    web, 86
+    woolen mule spinning (illus.), 89
+    worsted carding (illus.), 85
+    yarn inspecting (illus.), 89
+
+  =Clothes=, cost of wool in a suit of, 83
+    of wool, 80
+    wool in one suit of, 83
+
+  =Coal=, anthracite, 257, 258
+    anthracite seams (illus.), 260
+    breaker (illus.), 257
+    cars ready to go to surface (illus.), 260
+    dangers to the miners, 262
+    electric cap lamp (illus.), 264
+    firedamp, 262
+    gas illuminating from, 299
+    gases, 262
+    history of the safety lamp (illus.), 263
+    how the miners loosen the coal (illus.), 261
+    how the slate pickers work (illus.), 259
+    lamp which saves many lives, 263
+    man who invented the safety lamp, 264
+    mine workers that never see day light, 258
+    mules and their drivers (illus.), 258
+    peat, 262
+    safety lamp and firedamp, 262
+    seams (illus.), 260
+    shaft gate (illus.), 260
+    slate pickers (illus.), 259
+    soft, 259
+    spiral slate pickers (illus.), 259
+    stable underground (illus.), 258
+    undercutting with compressed air machines (illus.), 261
+    undercutting with pick (illus.), 261
+
+  =Cocoa=, see Cacao
+
+  =Cocoon=, description of, 115
+    completed (illus.), 116
+    from which moths have emerged (illus.), 117
+    how silk is reeled from, 118
+    moths emerging from (illus.), 117
+    number required to one pound of silk, 117
+    silkworm beginning of (illus.), 116
+    silkworm, preparing for making of (illus.), 116
+
+  =Coins=, gold, 266
+    in glass of water, 38
+    silver, 266
+
+  =Cohesion=, definition of, 219, 220
+
+  =Cold=, why some things are, 144
+
+  =Color=, exposed to light rays, 36
+    in paint, 229
+    what it is, 123
+
+  =Colors=, different in birds’ eggs, 233
+    in sunset, cause of, 253
+
+  =Color=, of rainbow, 253
+    red, why it makes a bull angry, 490
+
+  =Columbus=, brought first sheep to America, 80
+
+  =Comb honey=, development of (illus.), 529
+
+  =Compounds=, compared with elements, 349
+
+  =Compressed air=, method in building tunnels, 211
+
+  =Concrete=, buildings (illus.), 100
+    construction (illus.), 100
+    decay, 101
+    engineering, 102
+    forms (illus.), 100
+    houses (illus.), 101
+    loads (illus.), 100
+    mold, 101
+    ornamental (illus.), 100
+    practical uses of (illus.), 100
+    rusting, 100
+    Silo (illus.), 102
+    stable (illus.), 102
+    sun dial (illus.), 101
+    tensile strain, 104
+    tower (illus.), 102
+    walls (illus.), 100
+    water tower (illus.), 102
+    what it is, 95
+    wood, 102
+
+  =Confucius=, philosophy written with brush, 13
+
+  =Cooking=, when first used, 308
+
+  =Copper=, as a conductor of electricity, 267
+    wire, telegraph, 266
+
+  =Corn plant=, how pollen fertilizes, 170
+    why it has silk, 176
+
+  =Corn Silk=, what it is for, 176
+    baling presses (illus.), 476
+
+  =Cotton=, drawing frames (illus.), 472
+    slashers (illus.), 475
+    spinning frames (illus.), 473
+    warping machine (illus.), 474
+    what nation produces the most, 477
+    how much cloth will a pound of cotton make, 477
+    mill (illus.), 471
+    cloth, first steps in making, 472
+    putting fiber on bobbins (illus.), 473
+    cloth finished (illus.), 476
+    who discovered, 477
+    weave room, 475
+    where it comes from, 470
+    lapper machines, 471
+    card room (illus.), 472
+    bobbins (illus.), 473
+    dye-house (illus.), 474
+    beaming frames (illus.), 475
+    inspecting tables (illus.), 476
+    field a southern (illus.), 470
+    breaker machines (illus.), 471
+    slubber machines (illus.), 472
+    speeders (illus.), 473
+    spooling machine (illus.), 474
+    shipping (illus.), 476
+    what used for, 477
+    cloths, what are the principle, 477
+
+  =Counting=, man, himself, 19
+    in tens, 19
+    in twelves, 20
+
+  =Crying=, what makes us, 195
+    when hurt, why we, 93
+
+  =Cross-bow=, invention of, 44
+
+  =Crude rubber=, how treated, 378
+
+  =Culverins=, early type of, 45
+
+  =Cylinder in gas engine= (illus.), 184
+
+  =Darkness=, cats can see in, 91
+    some animals can see in, 91
+    why we cannot see in, 91
+    why we fear, 352
+
+  =Deep sea diving=, the telephone adjusting (illus.), 202
+    coming up (illus.), 204
+    cost of outfit, 203
+    helmet, putting on (illus.), 202
+    just before going down (illus.), 204
+    outfit, 202
+    shoes, putting on (illus.), 202
+    suit, putting on (illus.), 202
+    telephoning from bottom, 203
+    telephone, testing the (illus.), 203
+    testing, final (illus.), 203
+    water pressure at varying depths, 203
+    wealth recovered by diving, 204
+    weight of outfit, 203
+
+  =Deer-stalking with the cross-bow= (illus.), 42
+
+  =Detonators=, in firearms, 47
+
+  =Developer=, Pyro, in photography, 23
+
+  =Diamonds=, what made of, 351
+
+  =Did= candles come before lamps? 294
+
+  =Die=, why do we have to, 245
+
+  =Difference= in woolens and worsteds, 84
+
+  =Dimples=, what causes, 352
+
+  =Discovery= of gunpowder, 44
+
+  =Discovery= of stringed musical instruments, 479
+    telephone, 71
+
+  =Diver’s= task made easy (illus.), 284
+
+  =Diving, deep-sea=, the telephone adjusting, (illus.), 202
+    cost of outfit, 203
+    hats of divers, 204
+    just before going down (illus.), 204
+    helmet, putting on (illus.), 202
+    shoes, putting on (illus.), 202
+    suit, putting on the (illus.), 202
+    suit, what consists of, 202
+    telephone from bottom, 203
+    telephoning, testing the (illus.), 203
+    testing final (illus.), 203
+    water pressure at varying depths, 203
+    wealth recovered by diving, 204
+    weight of outfit, 203
+
+  =Dixie=, what name means, 124
+    where name originated, 123
+
+  =Does= air weigh anything, 398
+
+  =Does= the air surrounding the earth move with it? 400
+
+  =Does= thunder sour milk, 196
+
+  =Does= light weigh anything? 37
+
+  =Does= the sun revolve on its axis? 511
+
+  =Do= father and mother plants always live together? 176
+
+  =Do= the ends of the rainbow rest on land? 254
+
+  =Do= the stars really shoot down? 255
+
+  =Dog=, why he turns round before lying down, 229
+
+  =Dolls=, why girls like, 368
+
+  =Dom Pedro=, Emperor of Brazil, who saved the telephone, 73
+
+  =Do= plants breathe? 241
+
+  =Draft=, created by chimney, 37
+
+  =Dreams=, cause of, 366
+    nightmare, 367
+    what makes us? 366
+
+  =Drinking=, origin of clinking glasses, 232
+
+  =Driving shield=, airlock bulkhead (illus.), 210
+    erector (illus.), 210
+    in tunnel building (illus.), 208
+    inventor of, 209
+    tunnels, front view (illus.), 209
+
+  =Ducks=, why water runs off backs of, 233
+
+  =Dust=, in air, 38
+    what it is, 104
+
+  =Dyeing=, silk, 121
+
+  =Earache=, what causes, 410
+
+  =Earth=, how big it is, 124
+    light surrounding, 38
+
+  =Echo=, what makes an, 200
+    whispering gallery, 201
+
+  =Eggs=, birds why different colors, 233
+    silkworm, how imported, 111
+
+  =Egyptians=, how ancients wrote, 12
+
+  =Electric arc=, temperature of, 35
+
+  =Electric current=, what it is, 334
+
+  =Electricity=, conductors of, 331
+    current, 334
+    good conductors, 331
+    how discovered, 333
+    non-conductors, 331
+    what is, 329
+
+  =Electric lighting=, arc-light, 307
+    Edison’s first lamp (illus.), 306
+    incandescent carbon lamp (illus.), 306
+    Mazda lamp (illus.), 306
+    tantalum lamp (illus.), 306
+    Tungsten metal lamps, 305
+    when introduced, 305
+
+  =Elements=, carbon, 352
+    compared with compounds, 349
+    hydrogen, 349
+    nitrogen, 350
+    oxygen, 349
+    what an is, 349
+
+  =Elevator=, description of (illus.), 397
+    installation (illus.), 396
+    principal parts of, 396
+    why does not the car fall? 397
+
+  =Emperor=, saved the telephone, 73
+
+  =Emperor of Brazil=, receives first message over first telephone, 74
+
+  =Engine, gas= (illus.), 181-182
+    carburetor, 184
+    cylinder (illus.), 184
+    horse-power, of, 256
+
+  =Exchange=, first telephone, 75
+
+  =Exhibition=, of first telephone at Centennial, 74
+
+  =Experiments=, with mirror resultant in photograph, 22
+
+  =Exploding=, a submarine mine, 34
+
+  =Explosions=, how they break windows, 62
+    in gas engines (illus.), 182
+    of submarine mines (illus.), 34
+    what happens in, 205
+
+  =Explosives=, definition of, 205
+    blasting gelatin, 206
+    gun-cotton, 206
+    nitroglycerine, 206
+
+  =Eye=, of a submarine (illus.), 274
+
+  =Eyes=, closed, walking with, 91
+    hand quicker than, 376
+    help brain in walking, 91
+    in some pictures follow you, why, 36
+    keeping body balanced, 91
+    nature’s way of protecting, 38
+    protecting with tears, 38
+    sparkle when merry, why, 92
+    why we can’t sleep when open, 92
+    why we see stars when hit on, 268
+
+  =Eye-wash=, tears as an, 38
+
+  =Fabrics=, worsted, 85
+
+  =Fahrenheit=, what is meant by, 221
+    why so called, 221
+
+  =Fastest= camera in the world, 25
+
+  =Fathers and Mothers=, do plants have, 175
+
+  =Federal Government=, grazing fee paid to, 82
+
+  =Fertilization=, in birds, 179
+    how corn plant fertilizes, 176
+    of fishes, 177
+
+  =Fight=, of Merrimac and Monitor, 32
+
+  =Film=, before and after snapshot, 23
+    sensitive, 23
+
+  =Finger prints=, arch, (illus.), 520
+    composite (illus.), 521
+    of different people, 521
+    enlargements of, 524
+    how they identify us, 520
+    impressions of orang-outang (illus.), 522
+    loop (illus.), 520
+    palmary impressions (illus.), 522
+    specimen form of, record (illus.), 525
+    spike that caught a criminal (illus.), 524
+    thieves caught through their, 523
+    thumb imprint on bottle (illus.), 523
+    thumb impression on cash box (illus.), 523
+    thumb mark on a candle (illus.), 523
+    where first used, 522
+    whorl (illus.), 521
+
+  =Fingers=, why they hurt when cut, 143
+    why we have ten, 142
+
+  =Finger nails=, why we have, 142
+
+  =Fire=, alarms when first used, 308
+    first apparatus to fight, 308
+    first fire department, 308
+    first real, fire engine, 308
+    gases put out, 37
+    how man discovered, 289
+    how man learned to fight, 208
+    how man learned to make a, 289
+    mark, of civilization, 290
+    why it goes out, 37
+    why is it hot? 401
+    why put out by water, 222
+
+  =Fire making=, drilling (illus.), 289
+    drilling with bow string (illus.), 290
+    drilling, two persons (illus.), 290
+    first matches (illus.), 292
+    flint and pyrites (illus.), 290
+    flint, introduction of (illus.), 291
+    plowing (illus.), 290
+    pyrites (illus.), 290
+    rubbing sticks together, 42
+    sawing (illus.), 289
+    steel and flint (illus.), 291
+    tinder box (illus.), 291
+    tinder box, pistol (illus.), 291
+    with matches, 292
+
+  =Firedamp=, 262
+    explosion in safety lamp, 262
+
+  =Firearms=, first crude efforts of, 45
+    first real (illus.), 45
+    fuse of, 45
+    in early Chinese history, 44
+    first trigger of, 45
+
+  =Firing=, mortar, causes gas-rings, 27
+
+  =First= man-carrying aeroplane, 128
+    real telegraph, 421
+    stringed musical instrument, 480
+    telephone (illus.), 72
+    telephone line, 72
+    telephone switchboard (illus.), 74
+
+  =Fishes=, how they are born, 177
+    how they come to life, 177
+    motion in swimming, 233
+    what the eggs are, 177
+    why they cannot live in air, 232
+
+  =Flag=, made, how was American, 310
+    made, when was American? 310
+
+  =Flash pan=, early type, 45
+
+  =Flaxseed oil=, what it is, 227
+
+  =Flight=, of projectile, long, 30
+
+  =Flint-lock=, invented in seventeenth century, 46
+    invented by thieves, 46
+    still in use in Orient, 46
+
+  =Floor=, sounds through a, 79
+
+  =Flour=, bolters (illus.), 465
+    how made, 462
+    purifying machine (illus.), 463
+    sieves, 465
+
+  =Flowers=, why they have smells, 176
+
+  =Flying=, how birds learn, 178
+    boat, wonderful (illus.), 133
+    first Langley monoplane, 126
+    first successful aeroplane (illus.), 126
+    machine, first models, 127
+    some of the men who helped, 126
+    ten years of (illus.), 137
+
+  =Flying boat=, fun in (illus.), 135
+    gliding by, 137
+
+  =Flying boat=, interior arrangement (illus.), 134
+    monoplane type (illus.), 135
+    six-passenger hull (illus.), 134
+    speed of (illus.), 135
+    the wonderful, 133
+    views of (illus.), 133
+
+  =Flying machines=, 126
+    Bleriot flew in Europe (illus.), 129
+    Curtis biplane in flight (illus.), 136
+    Dr. Langley’s flying (illus.), 127
+    early types of, 127
+    first demonstrations, 130
+    first flight in Europe with, 129
+    first man-carrying aeroplane, 128
+    first models, 127
+    flying boat, 133
+    flying boat, exterior arrangement, 134
+    gliding experiments, 137
+    government interest in, 138
+    hull of flying boat, 134
+    interesting governments in, 138
+    Wright Bros., first flights, 130
+
+  =Focus=, in eye, 22
+
+  =Fog=, what it is, 105
+
+  =Food=, how we learned to cook, 308
+
+  =Foreign monoplanes=, some famous (illus.), 132
+
+  =Forsythe, LL.D. J.=, inventor of the primer, 47
+
+  =Freckles=, what makes them come, 125
+
+  =Fuse=, for firearms in early history, 45
+
+  =Funditor=, 42
+
+  =Gas=, acetylene, 305
+    definition, 348
+    first structure to be lighted by, 302
+    in coal mines, 262
+    water, 305
+
+  =Gas, illuminating=, Baltimore first city to use, 302
+    carbon in, 302
+    discovered, when, 302
+    first American house to use, 302
+    first practical demonstration of, 302
+    generator house (illus.), 299
+    holder (illus.), 298
+    how it gets into jet, 302
+    how it is purified, 303
+    how made, 303
+    how the meter works, 304
+    hydrogen in, 302
+    impurities removed from (illus.), 301
+    jet, the story in a, 303
+    made of, 302
+    meter, description, 304
+    purifying boxes (illus.), 301
+    removing tar from, 300
+    shaving scrubbers (illus.), 300
+
+  =Gasoline engine= (illus.), 181, 182
+
+  =Gases=, generated at gun muzzle, 27
+    how expelled in gun ingot, 55
+    hydrogen, 349
+    nitrogen, 350
+    oxygen, 349
+    tendency to put out fire, 37
+
+  =Gas-rings=, in firing motor, 27
+
+  =Gatling=, inventor of guns, 310
+
+  =Gelatine=, in photography, 23
+
+  =Gestures=, talking by, 18
+
+  =Ghosts=, what are they? 367
+
+  =Glad=, why do we laugh when, 92
+
+  =Glass=, why it cracks, 63
+    how long known, 247
+
+  =Glass, plate=, casting (illus.), 249
+    commercial, 246
+    plate and window glass compared (illus.), 252
+
+  =Glass, plate, making=, annealing, oven, 249
+    beveling, 247
+    blanketing, 252
+    clay mixing (illus.), 248
+    clay trampling (illus.), 248
+    clay used, 247
+    grinding table, 250
+    materials used in, 247
+    mercury, 253
+    nitrate of silver, 253
+    pots (illus.), 248
+    pots, drying of, 248
+    pots, length of usefulness, 248
+    silvering, 247
+    skimming the pot (illus.), 249
+    treading, 247
+
+  =Glow-worm=, why does it glow? 231
+
+  =Gold=, why is it called precious? 266
+
+  =Gong=, why does it stop when it has been sounded, 78
+
+  =Good luck=, why a horseshoe brings? 311
+
+  =Graphite= in lead pencils, 468
+
+  =Gravitation=, what is, 267
+
+  =Gravity=, center of, in gun, 61
+
+  =Gravity=, force of, 61
+
+  =Greek fire=, in early history, 44
+
+  =Growing=, why do we stop, 195
+
+  =Gun=, action at muzzle, 27
+    annealing a gun ingot, 57
+    assembling of, 48-54
+    arquebus of, 1537, 47
+    barrels, erosion of, 35
+    blow-holes, 56
+    bore searcher, 59
+    breech of a, 53
+    discharges, force of, 33
+    calibre of a, 53
+    elastic limit, 58
+    elongation, 58
+    forging a (illus.), 52
+    heat treatment, 58
+    hoops of a, 54
+    improvements in, 45
+    ingot, calibre of, 55
+    jacket of, 54
+    length of a, 53
+    liner of, 54
+    life of, 35
+    manufacture in America, 48
+    measuring inside diameter (illus.), 59
+    modern built-up (illus.), 54
+    mold for ingot, 55
+    muzzle of, 53
+    pressure generated in a big gun, 54
+    photography (illus.), 33
+    piping, 56
+    powder chamber of a, 53
+    rifling (illus.), 60
+    rifling of, 53
+    shrinking pit, 59
+    tensile strength of, 58
+    factory, testing materials, (illus.), 50
+    tube of, 54
+    tube, how it is tempered, 57
+    why called gatling, 310
+    wire-wound, 54
+
+  =Gun-barrels=, imported from England, 49
+    resisting pressure of, 34
+
+  =Gun-cotton=, in smokeless powder, 35, 206
+
+  =Gunpowder=, Chinese probable discovers of, 44
+    discoverer of, 44
+    experiments by Schwartz, 45
+    formula of Roger Bacon, 45
+    ingredients in, 205
+    manufactured in monasteries, 44
+    what causes the smoke? 206
+    smokeless, what made of, 206
+    why some is fine and others large grained, 206
+
+  =Gurgle=, in bottles, 63
+
+  =Hail=, what causes, 124
+
+  =Hair=, what causes baldness, 143
+    why it don’t hurt when cut, 143
+    why it keeps growing, 144
+
+  =Hand bombards=, early types, 45
+
+  =Hands=, shaking, why with the right, 231
+
+  =Hansom=, why so called, 122
+
+  =Have= plants fathers and mothers? 175
+
+  =Heart=, why beats during sleep, 191
+    why beats faster when scared, 191
+    why beats faster when running, 191
+
+  =Heat=, light wave changed into, 36
+    why a nail gets hot when hammered, 230
+    why some things are warm, 144
+    how we obtain, 231
+
+  =Hemp=, Manilla (illus.), 356
+
+  =Hobson’s choice=, how originated, 311
+
+  =Honey=, apiary in summer (illus.), 534
+    how produced, 527
+    worker comb (illus.), 532
+    manner of using German bee-brush, 533
+    finished product (illus.), 533
+    frame (illus.), 535
+    how to bump the bees off a comb (illus.), 533
+    bee-hat (illus.), 535
+    a study in cell-making (illus.), 532
+    bee sting, can a, 536
+    frame of bees (illus.), 535
+    comb, how bees build, 536
+
+  =Honey-bee=, poison-bag, 537
+    egg of queen, under microscope (illus.), 529
+    preparing for rearing, 531
+    living on combs in open air, (illus.), 527
+    the daily growth of larvæ (illus.), 532
+    effect of a sting (illus.), 536
+    worker-bee (illus.), 527
+    what the queen-bee does? 528
+    drone-comb (illus.), 532
+    clipping queen bees wings (illus.), 533
+    cucumber blossom with bee on it (illus.), 528
+    queen-bee (illus.), 527
+    the queen and her retinue (illus.), 529
+    queen-rearing, 531
+    queen-cells (illus.), 529
+
+  =Honeymoon=, why do they call it a? 311
+
+  =Horizon=, how far away is the, 245
+    what is it, 244
+    where is it, 244
+
+  =Horse-power=, a, what it is, 256
+
+  =Horseshoes=, why it is said to bring good luck? 311
+
+  =Hot box=, cause of, 368
+
+  =Houiller=, French gunsmith, 48
+
+  =Houses=, concrete (illus.), 101
+
+  =How= far does the air extend? 243
+    is ammunition made (illus.)? 49
+    does an arc light burn? 307
+    are automobile tires made? 382
+    does a honey bee live? 336
+    does a bee make honey? 527
+    do bees build the honey comb? 536
+    does the honey bee defend itself? 536
+    does honey develop in a comb (illus.)? 530
+    do birds learn to fly? 178
+    do birds find their way? 407
+    does the blotter take up the ink of a blot? 18
+    this book is bound, 578
+    this book is made, 561
+    the paper in this book is made, 561
+    the pictures in this book are made, 581
+    are bullets made? 51
+    is an ocean cable laid? 429
+    does a camera take a picture? 22
+    is a cable dropped into the ocean (illus.)? 432
+    are modern carpets made? 169
+    is a carpet woven by machinery? 171
+    is china decorated? 406
+    is china made? 404
+    is chocolate made? 392
+    did the custom of clinking glasses in drinking originate? 232
+    are cigars made? 517
+    is cloth made from wool? 86
+    did the coal get into the coal mines? 257
+    does a coal mine look inside? 260
+    do the cocoa beans grow (illus.)? 391
+    is the color put on the outside of the pencil? 469
+    is the honey comb made? 532
+    are concrete roads built (illus.)? 103
+    did man learn to cook his food? 308
+    are concrete buildings made (illus.)? 100
+    is woolen cloth dyed? 87
+    big is the earth? 124
+    much of the earth does the sun shine on at one time? 324
+    does an elevator go up and down (illus.)? 396
+    was electricity discovered? 333
+    does the light get into the electric bulb? 305
+    is the eraser put on a pencil? 469
+    can an explosion break windows? 62
+    explosions may occur on submarines, 278
+    does the farmer use concrete (illus.)? 102
+    do our finger prints identify us? 520
+    did man learn to fight fire? 308
+    did man learn to make a fire? 289
+    are fishes born? 177
+    was the flag made? 310
+    is flour made? 462
+    does a fly walk upside down? 454
+    did men learn to fly? 126
+    does the gas get into the gas jet? 302
+    is illuminating gas made? 303
+    is gas purified? 303
+    is plate glass made? 246
+    is plate glass ground? 250
+    a wire-wound gun is made? 54
+    was the first American gun made (illus.)? 47
+    is a gun ingot made? 55
+    do we find the length of a gun? 53
+    is a gun tube tempered? 57
+    do we obtain heat? 231
+    the heel of a shoe is put on (illus.), 560
+    did Hobson’s choice originate? 311
+    far away is the horizon? 245
+    does a key turn a lock (illus.)? 491
+    does a spring lock work (illus.)? 492
+    are lead pencils made? 467
+    do the miners loosen the coal? 261
+    is light produced, 230
+    are magnets made? 335
+    are matches made? 293
+    are match boxes made? 294
+    did man learn to send messages? 412
+    does the meter measure the gas? 304
+    can microbes spread through the body? 410
+    are mirrors silvered? 522
+    big is a molecule? 348
+    did money originate? 455
+    are moving pictures made? 369
+    does the music get into the piano? 478-482
+    did the word news originate? 312
+    did a nod come to mean yes? 19
+    did shaking the head come to mean no? 19
+    are paints mixed? 228
+    is a photograph developed? 23
+    was the piano discovered? 479
+    do plants breathe? 241
+    do plants reproduce life? 175
+    does the shield cut through the ground in tunnel building? 212
+    are shooting shells photographed? 24
+    shoes are made by machinery, 549
+    shoe machinery was developed, 457
+    is crude rubber secured? 377
+    is rope turned and twisted? 358
+    are rubber tires made? 378
+    are modern rugs made? 169
+    to splice a rope, 364
+    do men go down to the bottom of the sea? 202
+    did the sand get on the seashore? 108
+    far back does the silkworm date? 109
+    was silk introduced into Europe? 110
+    are the silkworms cared for? 113
+    do we know a thing is solid, liquid or gas? 348
+    are sounds produced? 485
+    fast does sound travel? 486
+    can sound come through a thick wall? 79
+    is the volume of sound measured? 242
+    far does space reach? 256
+    do the slate pickers work? 259
+    does a captain steer his ship across the ocean? 407
+    can a ship sail under water, 269
+    is a submarine submerged? 270
+    do sponges grow? 286
+    do sponges eat? 287
+    are sponges caught? 287
+    are the stars counted? 241
+    big is the sun? 141
+    hot is the sun? 141
+    is a steel pen made (illus.), 17
+    did man learn to shoot, 40
+    do we get wool off the sheep? 82
+    is a stone thrown with a sling? 41
+    are metallic and paper shells filled with powder? 50
+    did man learn to talk? 18
+    did the telephone come to be? 70
+    fast does thought travel? 242
+    does a telegram get there? 414
+    did man learn to tell time? 313
+    did man begin to measure time? 314
+    did men tell time when the sun cast no shadows? 317
+    is the time calculated at sea? 315
+    is tobacco cultivated? 516
+    is tobacco cured? 516
+    was tobacco discovered? 512
+    is tobacco harvested? 515
+    is tobacco planted? 514
+    is a tunnel dug under water? 208
+    does water put fire out? 222
+    is white lead made? 225
+    are wires put under ground? 76
+    did writing first come about? 11
+    did the Chinese write? 13
+    did the Monks do their writing? 14
+    does a pen write? 18
+    much does the wool in a suit of clothes cost? 83
+    much wool does America produce? 82
+    is wool taken from the sheep? 82
+    is the yarn for carpets dyed? 170
+    is oxide of zinc obtained? 226
+    does the water get into the faucet? 501
+    are the big water pipes laid? 504
+    did the name Uncle Sam originate? 458
+
+  =Human body=, wonders of the, 311
+
+  =Hunting=, with the bow-and-arrow, 43
+
+  =Hurt=, why we cry when, 93
+
+  =Hydrogen=, what it is, 349
+
+  =Hypo=, used in developing, 23
+
+  =Impact=, of projectile from guns, 28
+
+  =Ink=, how does a blotter take up? 18
+
+  =Instruments=, artillery, testing, 24
+    musical, 488
+    optical, based on refraction, 38
+
+  =Incandescent lamp=, development of, 306
+
+  =Inside= of a mine planting submarine (illus.), 277
+
+  =Iron=, cast, 265
+    melts at, 35
+    the most valuable metal, 265
+    wrought, 265
+
+  =Is= a moth attracted by a light? 288
+    man an animal? 180
+    the hand quicker than the eye? 376
+    there a reason for everything? 200
+    there a man in the moon? 400
+    yawning infectious? 192
+
+  =Jacket=, of a gun, 54
+
+  =Japan= the natural home of the silk worm (illus.), 112
+
+  =Kentucky rifles=, 45
+
+  =Key=, how it works in a lock (illus.), 491
+
+  =Knots=, different kinds of (illus.), 363
+    what makes, in boards, 223
+
+  =Lambs=, Siberian, in South Dakota (illus.), 80
+
+  =Lamps=, first street light in America, 296
+    the Clanny safety, 264
+    did candles come before? 294
+    earliest forms of, 295
+    Edison’s first (illus.), 306
+    incandescent carbon (illus.), 306
+    incandescent, development of, 306
+    incandescent, electric, when invented, 305
+    French watch tower (illus.), 295
+    Mazda (illus.), 306
+    from Nushagak hanging (illus.), 297
+    Pagan votive (illus.), 296
+    Tantalum (illus.), 306
+    street, when first used, 295
+    chimney protects flame, 37
+    coal miners and safety, 262
+
+  =Lamp chimney=, why it makes a better light, 37
+
+  =Langley, Dr. Samuel P.=, 1914 flight of aeroplane, 128
+
+  =Languages=, why so many, 197
+
+  =Lantern=, the first oil (illus.), 297
+    the “Réverbère” (illus.), 297
+
+  =Laugh=, when glad, why we, 92
+    nerves, 93
+    when tickled, why we, 93
+
+  =Laughter=, reflex action, 93
+
+  =Lead=, as used in making paint, 267
+    in a pencil, 468
+    why so heavy, 267
+    as used in pipes for plumbing, 267
+
+  =Leather=, how the hides are treated, 539
+    treatment of hides, 538
+    unhairing machine (illus.), 540
+    hide house (illus.), 538
+    tanning process, 539
+    rolling room (illus.), 539
+    tanning sole leather, 539
+    how upper leather is tanned (illus.), 540
+    disposing of waste material, 540
+    wringers, 539
+    tan yard (illus.), 539
+
+  =Legs=, not same length, 91
+
+  =Lens=, in the eye, 22
+
+  =Leyden jar=, what it is, 332
+
+  =Life=, beginning of, 174
+    beginning of man’s, 174
+    how plants reproduce, 175
+
+  =Light=, attracting moths, 288
+    glow-worms why they glow? 231
+    how produced, 230
+    lightning bugs, made by, 231
+    where it goes when it goes out, 36
+    what makes match, 198
+    in mirror, 22
+    in negative, 23
+    rays, 36, 495
+    broken rays of, 38
+    rays, heat from, 36
+    and refraction, 38
+    speed of, 36, 140
+    travels faster than anything in the world, 36
+    surrounding earth, 38
+    wave changed into heat, 36
+
+  =Lighting=, arc, how does it burn, 307
+    in America, first street (illus.), 296
+    first oil lantern, 297
+    electric, when introduced, 305
+    first street light in Paris, 297
+    gas tank, (illus.), 298
+
+  =Lightning=, why it follows thunder, 140
+
+  =Lightning bugs=, why they produce light, 231
+
+  =Lignite=, found in coal mines, 262
+
+  =Liner=, of a gun, 54
+
+  =Linseed oil=, extraction of, 228
+    what it is, 227
+    where it comes from, 227
+
+  =Liquid=, definition, 348
+
+  =Living=, why do some people live longer, 199
+    reproduction necessary why, 174
+    reproduction of, in birds, 179
+    reproduction of, in fishes, 177
+
+  =Loading= machines in powder factory, 50
+
+  =Lobsters=, red, what makes them, 245
+
+  =Lock=, cylinder (illus.), 492
+    how a key turns a (illus.), 491
+    how key changes are provided (illus.), 491
+    how a spring lock works (illus.), 492
+    master-keyed cylinder (illus.), 492
+    what happens when the key is turned? (illus.), 491
+    what happens when the knob is turned? (illus.), 491
+
+  =Locomotives=, boiler of articulate type (illus.), 440
+    boiler of (illus.), 442
+    cab of (illus.), 442
+    cylinders description of, 441
+    low pressure cylinders of (illus.), 441
+    electric, newest (illus.), 443
+    one of the largest (illus.), 440
+    signal tower, latest (illus.), 444
+    stoker, automatic (illus.), 443
+    water tank (illus.), 444
+
+  =Lodestone=, what it is, 327
+
+  “=Long Bow=,” in Sherwood Forest (illus.), 42
+
+  =Loom=, cloth making machine, 86
+
+  =Magnet=, breaking iron (illus.), 330
+    electro (illus.), 326, 328, 335
+    electric lift (illus.), 326
+    experiments with, 327
+    great lifting by (illus.), 330
+    how made, 335
+    what makes it lift things? 326
+    wonders performed by, 326
+    work it can do (illus.), 328
+
+  =Man=, writing, how man learned, 11
+    counting himself, 19
+    is he an animal? 180
+
+  =Matches=, are they poisonous? 294
+    first, 292
+    how made, 293
+    lucifer (illus.), 292
+    making by machinery, 293
+    modern safety (illus.), 292
+    oxymuriate (illus.), 292
+    promethean (illus.), 292
+    what we would do without, 292
+    when first used (illus.), 292
+
+  =Match-lock=, of early firearms, 45
+
+  =Melting= of iron, 35
+
+  =Men= who made the telephone, 70
+
+  =Mercury=, fulminate of, 49
+
+  =Merrimac and Monitor=, fight of, 32
+
+  =Merry=, why eyes sparkle when, 92
+
+  =Messages=, how men learned to send, 412
+    Indian smoke signals, 412
+    marathon runner by (illus.), 413
+    pony telegraph (illus.), 413
+
+  =Messenger boy=, how to call a (illus.), 414
+    the first (illus.), 413
+
+  =Metal=, what is a, 265
+    what is the most valuable? 265
+    why we use for coining, 456
+
+  =Meter=, description of gas, 304
+    how it measures gas, 304
+
+  =Milk=, does thunder sour? 196
+
+  =Milky way=, why is it called, 255
+    what is, 255
+
+  =Mine cars= (illus.), 260
+
+  =Mines=, clearing channel of buoyant, 283
+    exploding submarine, 34
+    planting submarine, inside of (illus.), 277
+    workers that never see daylight, 258
+
+  =Mirror=, collects rays of light, 22
+    reflection in, 22
+    reflects rays of light, 22
+
+  =Mirrors=, beveling (illus.), 251
+    how made, 251
+    how silvered, 252
+    polishing, 251
+    roughing, 251
+    silvered with mercury, 253
+    silvering mirror plates (illus.), 252
+
+  =Molecule=, how big is a, 348
+    what is a, 348
+
+  =Monasteries=, where gunpowder was manufactured, 44
+
+  =Money=, how originated, 455
+    metallic forms of, 456
+    who made the first cent, 458
+    who originated, 455
+    why do we need, 455
+    why gold and silver are best for coining, 457
+
+  =Monitor and Merrimac=, fight of, 32
+
+  =Monks=, making gunpowder, 44
+
+  =Monoplane=, flying boat (illus.), 135
+    German (illus.), 132
+    over Mediterranean (illus.), 132
+
+  =Moon=, why it travels with us, 399
+    the man in the, 400
+
+  =Morse, S. B.=, inventor of telegraph, 420
+
+  =Mortars= (illus.), 26
+
+  =Mothers and Fathers=, do plants have, 175
+
+  =Moths=, attracted by light, 288
+    emerging from cocoon (illus.), 117
+
+  =Motion= bodies, swiftest, 25
+
+  =Motion=, is train harder to stop than start? 223
+    of light, 140
+    of sound, 140
+    perpetual, 61
+    perpetual, in mechanics, 240
+
+  =Motors=, gas, used in aeroplanes, 130
+
+  =Mountains=, what made them, 401
+
+  =Moving pictures=, Board of Censors, 373
+    developing room (illus.), 372
+    drying room (illus.), 373
+    continuous movement of film, 376
+    exact size of film, 370
+    first camera, 375
+    first exhibited at studio, 372
+    how made, 369
+    how freak pictures are made, 376
+    negative, stock, 370
+    negative, perforated, 370
+    “Pigs is Pigs” (illus.), 374
+    rehearsing (illus.), 371
+    scenario (illus.), 374
+    staging, 371
+    taking a (illus.), 373
+
+  =Mulberry trees=, food for silk worms (illus.), 112
+
+  =Mules and drivers= (illus.), 258
+
+  =Multiple switchboard= of telephone, 69
+
+  =Music=, harp, 479
+    lyre, 479
+    note, what it is, 490
+    what pitch is, 489
+    what is, 478
+
+  =Musical talking machines=, 490
+
+  =Muzzle=, of a big gun, 53
+
+  =Muzzle-loaders=, in Civil War, 47
+
+  =Nails=, why they get hot when hammered, 230
+
+  =Names=, of people, 20
+
+  =Nature=, protecting eyes, ways of, 38
+
+  =Navigating= on bottom of sea, 283
+
+  =Negative= in photography, 23
+
+  =Nerves=, sensory, receive impression, 93
+    transmitting impression, 22
+
+  =News=, how did the word originate? 312
+
+  =Nightmare=, cause of, 367
+
+  =Nitrogen=, what it is, 350
+
+  =Ocean=, why is it blue? 219
+    what makes it green? 219
+    why don’t water sink in? 219
+    where did all the water in, come from? 218
+    where is water at low tide, 219
+
+  =Of= what use is my hair? 143
+
+  =Of= what use are pains and aches? 410
+
+  =Oil baths=, for gun (illus.), 57
+
+  =Oil cake=, from linseed, 228
+
+  =Oil=, palm olive, in soap, 411
+
+  =Omniscope=, of submarine boat, 271
+
+  =Onions=, make tears, 38
+    bad effect of on eyes, 38
+
+  =Operatives=, in powder factory, girls as, 49
+
+  =Optical instruments=, based on refraction, 38
+
+  =Organic matter=, what it is, 174
+
+  =Origin of cement=, 95
+    of counting in tens, 19
+    names of people, 20
+    of nodding to indicate yes, 19
+    of shaking head to indicate no, 19
+    of turnpike, 104
+
+  =Oxide of zinc smelter= (illus.), 227
+    how obtained, 226
+
+  =Oxygen=, what it is, 349
+    in air, 37
+
+  =Pain=, of what use is, 410
+    what it is, 244
+
+  =Paint=, care of, story in, 224
+    how mixed, 228
+    uses of, 224
+    what used for, 224
+
+  =Paint manufacturing=, colors, what makes different, 229
+    buckles before corrosion (illus.), 225
+    buckles after corrosion (illus.), 225
+    buckles placed in stacks (illus.), 225
+    buckles taken from stacks (illus.), 225
+    first step in making (illus.), 224
+    lead buckles making (illus.), 224
+    lead, white, how made, 224-225
+    lead white used in, 224
+    grinding lead in oil (illus.), 228
+    washing the lead (illus.), 226
+    mixing, 228
+    where paints are mixed (illus.), 228
+    linseed oil, where obtained, 227
+    pressing oil from flaxseed (illus.), 228
+    removing oil cake from press, 228
+    sulphur roasting furnace (illus.), 226
+    zinc smelter (illus.), 227
+    oxide of zinc, how made, 226
+
+  =Paper=, earliest forms of, 14
+    sensitive in photography, 23
+    shells, inspection of (illus), 49
+    papyrus, the first, 14
+
+  =Papyrus=, invention of, 14
+
+  =Patents=, of original telephone, 73
+
+  =Peat=, as a fuel, 262
+
+  =Pen=, first metallic (illus.), 15
+    first steel (illus.), 15
+    first metallic pen, how made, 15
+    how it writes, 18
+    invention of the, 15
+
+  =Pencils, “lead”= where from, 466
+    eraser is put on, 469
+    making description of (illus.), 467
+    who made the first? 466
+
+  =Periscope=, description of, 275
+    how we look through a (illus.), 276
+    mirror of, 275
+
+  =Perpetual motion=, nearest approach to, 240
+    is it possible? 61
+
+  =Persian rug=, antique (illus.), 167
+    how made, 167
+    imitation (illus.), 167
+    Kurdistan (illus.), 167
+    where best are made, 167
+
+  =Photographs=, of projectiles, 25
+
+  =Photography=, resultant from experiments with mirror, 22
+
+  =Piano=, pitch, 489
+    finishing (illus.), 484
+    why not more than seven octaves, 480
+    Dulcimer (illus.), 479
+    spinet (illus.), 480-481
+    note what it is, 490
+    sounding board, 488
+    tuning, (illus.), 484
+    building case around (illus.), 483
+    how the music gets into the, 482
+    clavichord (illus.), 480
+    instruments, musical, 488
+    strings, fastening on (illus.), 482
+    psaltery, 480
+    sound box, the first, 479
+    who made the first, 478
+    hammers (illus.), 483
+    action regulation (illus.), 484
+    virginal (illus.), 480-481
+    first (illus.), 478
+    tuning fork, 488
+    polishing (illus.), 484
+    sounding board, putting on the (illus.), 482
+    how discovered, 479
+    lyre, 479
+    octave, 480
+    harpsichord (illus.), 480-481
+
+  =Pickers=, boy, slate (illus.), 259
+
+  =Pictures=, with a fast camera, 39
+    moving, how made, 369
+    size of moving film, 370
+    never seen by the human eye, 31
+    taken in one five-thousandth of a second, 31
+
+  =Pin money=, why they call it? 231
+    how name originated, 231
+
+  =Pistols=, invented in Pistola, Italy, 46
+
+  =Plants=, corn, why it has silk? 176
+    do father and mother plants live together, 176
+    how they eat, 511
+    how they reproduce, 175
+    why do flowers have smells? 176
+    why they produce leaves, 175
+
+  =Plate glass=, (illus.), 246
+
+  =Portland Cement=, why called, 95
+
+  =Powder=, filling shells, 50
+    gun-cotton in smokeless, 35
+    secret of smokeless powder, 35
+    smokeless, 35
+    in submarine mines, amount of, 34
+
+  =Pressure=, generated in bore of a big gun, 54
+    inside of a gun at discharge, 33
+    in gun-barrel, resistance of, 34
+    of light, on scales, 37
+
+  =Primer=, invented by, 47
+
+  =Prof. Bell’s= vibrating reed (illus.), 71
+
+  =Projectiles=, photographs of, 25
+    arrival at target, 24
+    clear of smoke-zone (illus.), 30
+    smoke-zone, emerging from (illus.), 29
+    height in air from mortar, 30
+    impact of, from guns, 28
+    leaving gun muzzle (illus.), 27
+    travel faster than sound, 32
+    velocity of, 33
+    viewed in transit, 33
+    weight of, 53
+
+  =Proving grounds=, for big guns, (illus.), 53
+
+  =Pyro=, used in developing, 23
+
+  =Quarry=, cement (illus.), 96
+
+  =Quill the=, in writing (illus.), 14
+
+  =Quills=, raising geese for, 14
+
+  =Rails, steel making=, blast furnace (illus.), 234
+    blooming mill (illus.), 237
+    crane, carrying ingot, (illus.), 236
+    length of, 238
+    mixer (illus.), 234
+    molten steel, pouring (illus.), 236
+    open hearth furnace (illus.), 235
+    pouring side of open hearth furnace, 235
+    shrinkage of, 238
+    soaking pit (illus.), 236
+    temperature in furnace, 235
+
+  =Rain=, where it goes, 222
+    why it freshens the air, 222
+
+  =Rainbow=, cause of, 253
+    colors in, what makes? 254
+    ends of, 254
+
+  =Rays=, change their course, 38
+    heat from light, 36
+    of light, 36
+    Roentgen, 307
+
+  =Rays-X=, what are they? 307
+
+  =Reason=, is there one for everything? 200
+
+  =Reed=, the (illus.), 12
+
+  =Reflection=, in mirror, 22, 91
+
+  =Refraction=, changing light rays called, 38
+    of light, 38
+
+  =Reproduction=, of life, in birds, 179
+    in fishes, 177
+    in plants, 175
+    why we must have, 174
+
+  =Rifle=, Kentucky, 45
+    kick of, 47
+    modern automatic, 47
+    over-loading, 47
+    wheel-lock (illus.), 46
+
+  =Rifling=, causes rotation of projectile, 32
+    a big gun (illus.), 60
+    of a gun, 53
+    invented in Austria, 46
+
+  =Roads=, concrete (illus.), 103
+
+  =Roentgen Rays=, 307
+
+  =Rope=, breaker (illus.), 360
+    compound laying machine (illus.), 361
+    cross-section, 362
+    draw frame (illus.), 360
+    drying fiber, 354
+    Egyptian kitchen (illus.), 354
+    Egyptians making (illus.), 353
+    preparing the fiber in (illus.), 359
+    four-strand (illus.), 362
+    hackling, 354
+    hemp (illus.), 356
+    hemp in warehouse (illus.), 356
+    knots, 363
+    lengths, standard, 362
+    oiling in manufacture, 356
+    long made by hand, 354
+    machine (illus.), 358
+    opening bales of fiber (illus.), 359
+    preparation room (illus.), 359
+    scraping fiber (illus.), 354
+    sliver formation of (illus.), 360
+    spindles, 355
+    spinning after turn, 355
+
+  =Rope spinning=, after turn, 355
+    foreturn, 355
+    splicing (illus.), 364
+    spreader (illus.), 360
+    stakes, 355
+
+  =Rope walk=, modern (illus.), 357-358
+    old-fashioned (illus.), 355
+
+  =Routine=, of a telephone call (illus.), 68
+
+  =Rubber=, automobile tires, 382
+    biscuit, 377
+    blisters, 379
+    blow holes, 379
+    breaker-strip, 384
+    calendering, 381
+    castilloa, 387
+    cement, 381
+    crude, 377-378
+    curing room, 382-383
+    dryer, 379
+    fabric, 384
+    furnishing pneumatic tires (illus.), 386
+    gathering (illus.), 377
+    how secured, 377
+    how are inner tubes made, 385
+    marketing balls of, 377
+    mixing, 379
+    Para, 387
+    pneumatic tires, 383
+    pure, why not used, 380
+    spreading, 381
+    spreader room (illus.), 383
+    tapping (illus.), 377
+    tire building machines (illus.), 385
+    tires, how made, 378-379-380
+    tread laying room, 384
+    tubes, inner, how made, 385
+    vulcanizing, 384
+    washing, 378
+    wild, what is, 387
+    why not used pure, 380
+    wrapping room, 386
+
+  =Rugs=, designs imitated by machinery, 168
+    Persian (illus.), 167
+    Persian, how made, 167
+    Persian, imitation, 167
+    Persian Kurdistan (illus.), 167
+    Persian, where best are made, 167
+    Tabriz, reproduction (illus.), 168
+    weaving by machine (illus.), 171
+
+  =Rug manufacturing=, carding machine (illus.), 170
+    examining and repairing (illus.), 173
+    packing for shipment (illus.), 173
+    processes, 169-170
+    weaving by machinery (illus.), 171
+    wool sorting, 170
+
+  =Sadness=, cause of tears, 38
+
+  =Salt=, beds, 493
+    chemical name of, 493
+    in water, 351
+    mines, 493
+    Salt Lake, 493
+    soda, 493
+    supply for United States, 493
+    wells, 493
+    where it comes from, 493
+
+  =Scales=, pressure of light on, 37
+
+  =School slates=, where they come from, 495
+
+  =Score=, origin of, 26
+
+  =Scouring=, wool (illus.), 85
+
+  =Scouring and weaving=, in making woolen cloth (illus.), 88
+
+  =Screens=, in shot tower, 51
+
+  =Sea=, diver, 202
+    how men go down to the bottom of, 202
+    navigating on bottom of, 283
+    time calculated on the, 315
+    what the bottom looks like, 202
+    what makes it roar, 401
+
+  =Second=, reckoning in millionths of a, 25
+    pictures taken in one five-thousandth of a, 31
+
+  =Seeds=, why plants produce, 175
+
+  =Seeing=, why we cannot see in dark, 91
+
+  =Sensation=, of sight, 22
+
+  =Sensitive=, paper, 23
+
+  =Service=, military, U. S., 24
+
+  =Shadows=, cause of, 495
+
+  =Shell=, sounds in a, 79
+
+  =Shells=, filling with powder, 50
+    inspection of metallic (illus.), 49
+    putting metal heads on paper, 50
+    wad-paper in making, 50
+
+  =Sheep=, coming out of forest (illus.), 82
+    first in America, 80
+    fleece packing, 82
+    how much wool does a sheep produce? 83
+    how wool is taken from the, 82
+    how taken care of, 82
+    how we get wool off of, 82
+    industry in America, 80
+    industry in the colonies, 81
+    industry in the west, 81
+    number in the west, 81
+    shearing, 82
+    shearing machines, 82
+    wool-producing, 83
+    why sheep precede the plow in civilizing a
+    country, 81
+
+  =Shield driving=, air lock bulkhead (illus.), 210
+    caulking the joints (illus.), 214
+    description of airlocks, 213
+    erector at work (illus.), 214
+    erector (illus.), 210
+    at end of journey (illus.), 216
+    grommetting the bolts (illus.), 214
+    grouting (illus.), 214
+    how it cuts in tunnel building, 212
+    how they meet exactly (illus.), 215
+    in tunnel building (illus.), 208
+    key plate (illus.), 214
+    curves around (illus.), 216
+    models of Penna. R.R. tunnel shields (illus.), 212
+    rear end in tunnel building (illus.), 210
+    tunnels, front view (illus.), 209
+
+  =Ship=, how does a captain steer his, 407
+    how can it sail under water? 269
+
+  =Shoes=, Amazeen skiving machine, 550
+    assembling machine (illus.), 552
+    automatic heel loading and attaching
+    machine (illus.), 560
+    automatic leveling machine (illus.), 559
+    automatic sewing machine, 555
+    American made, 547
+    ancient and modern forms of sandals, (illus.), 543
+    ancient sandal maker (illus.), 541
+    beginning of a shoe (illus.), 549
+    boot developed from the sandal, 544
+    boots (illus.), 546
+    channel cementing machine (illus.), 558
+    channel laying machine (illus.), 559
+    channel opening machine (illus.), 558
+    Crakrow or peaked (illus.), 544
+    which church and law forbade (illus.), 544
+    description of ancient sandal (illus.), 542
+    dyeing out machine, 551
+    different parts come together, 551
+    duplex eyeletting machine, 550
+    edge trimming machine (illus.), 560
+    Ensign lacing machine, 551
+    evolution cf the sandal to the shoe (illus.), 542
+    first machine for making shoes, 545
+    hand method lasting machine (illus.), 553
+    heel breasting machine (illus.), 560
+    heel trimming machine (illus.), 560
+    ideal clicking machine, 550
+    Inseam trimming machine (illus.), 556
+    insole tacking, 551
+    lasting machine (illus.), 553
+    loose nailing machine (illus.), 559
+    success of McKay machine, 547
+    machine that forms and drives tacks, 554
+    machines which punch the soles of, 559
+    my lady’s slippers (illus.), 548
+    placing shank and filling bottom, 556
+    planet rounding machine, 551
+    power tip press, 550
+    pulling over machine (illus.), 552
+    putting the ground cork and rubber cement in, 556
+    rolling machine, 551
+    rounding and channelling machine (illus.), 557
+    sewing the sole on, 558
+    slugging machine (illus.), 560
+    sole laying machine (illus.), 557
+    Summit splitting machine, 551
+    upper stapling machine (illus.), 554
+    upper trimming machine (illus.), 554
+    welt and turned shoe machine (illus.), 555
+    welt beating and washing machine, 556
+    welt sewing machine, 551
+    what was the first foot covering like? 541
+    “whipping the cat,” 545
+    who made the first shoe in America? 545
+    work performed by heeling machine (illus.), 560
+
+  =Shooting tests= (illus.), 48
+
+  =Shotguns=, assembling of, (illus.), 48
+
+  =Shot pellets=, 51
+
+  =Shrinking=, pit for big gun, 59
+
+  =Shuttle=, In weaving wool, 86
+
+  =Siberian lambs=, in South Dakota (illus.), 80
+
+  =Signs=, talking by, 18
+
+  =Silica=, mine (illus.), 247
+
+  =Silk=, 109
+    called “bomby-kia,” 110
+    caring for young worms, 113
+    culture, 110
+    drying skeins of, 119
+    dyeing, 121
+    first step in manufacture, 119
+    first used, 109
+    hatching eggs, 113
+    introduction of into Europe (illus.), 110
+    number of cocoons in pound of, 117
+    manufacture of, 119
+    method of reeling, 113
+    moths depositing eggs (illus.), 112
+    preparing cocooning beds, 112
+    reeling silk from cocoon (illus.), 118
+    spinning (illus.), 120
+    thread made uniform (illus.), 120
+    threads ready for the weaver, 121
+    twisting (illus.), 120
+    use of, 109
+    water-stretcher (illus.), 121
+    winding (illus.), 119
+
+  =Silk manufacture=, doubling frames, 120
+    spinning, 120
+    twisting, 120
+
+  =Silk moth=, description of 114
+
+  =Silkworm=, age, 115
+    first breeder of, 109
+    chrysalis (illus.), 114
+    cocoon, 115
+    cocoon, beginning of (illus.), 116
+    cocooning bed (illus.), 112
+    description of, 114
+    domestication of, 111
+    eating (illus.), 115
+    female moth (illus.), 114
+    how cared for, 113
+    how it eats, 115
+    home of, 112
+    eggs, how imported, 111
+    hatching the eggs (illus.), 113
+    how he does his work, 114
+    larvæ of, (illus.), 114
+    motions of head in spinning, 115
+    molting season, 115
+    moths emerging from cocoon (illus.), 117
+    male moth (illus.), 114
+    mulberry branches for (illus.), 112
+    one of the world’s greatest wonders, 116
+    preparing for making cocoon (illus.), 116
+    reared, how they (illus.), 115
+    shedding old skin, 115
+    spinneret of the, 115
+    spinning cocoon, 115
+    wild, 109
+
+  =Silver=, definition of, 207
+    use, history of, 207
+    why does it tarnish, 266
+
+  =Silver bromide=, in photography, 23
+
+  =Skins=, used for clothing, 80
+
+  =Sky=, will it ever fall? 255
+    why is it blue? 253
+
+  =Soap=, lye in, 411
+    palm olive oil in, 411
+    what made of, 411
+
+  =Soda=, Leblanc process, 494
+    Solvay process, 494
+    where we get, 494
+
+  =Solids=, definition, 348
+
+  =Some= wonders of the human body, 311
+
+  =Sound=, deadening of, 79
+    first over a wire, 71
+    how measured, 242
+    how produced, 485
+    speed of, 140-486
+    travels through air slowly, 31
+    in a sea shell, 79
+    what is, 78-485
+    waves, 79
+    waves, length of, 487
+    where comes from, 78
+
+  =Slate pencil=, why cannot write on paper with, 18
+
+  =Sleep=, where are we when, 365
+    with eyes open, why we cannot, 92
+    ghosts, 367
+    why heart beats during, 191
+    why we go to, 365
+    restless, 92
+
+  =Sling=, man in action (illus.), 41
+    how first made, 41
+
+  =Slings=, and their drawbacks, 42
+
+  =Slow match=, of early firearms, 45
+
+  =Smells=, why do flowers have, 176
+
+  =Smoke-cone=, in gun-firing (illus.), 28
+
+  =Smokeless powder=, 35
+
+  =Smoke-rings=, hard as steel, 27
+
+  =Smoke signals=, of Indians, 412
+
+  =Smoke-zone=, in gun firing, 111
+
+  =Sneezing=, what makes us, 194
+    why do we, 194
+
+  =Snowflakes=, what makes them white? 409
+
+  =Space=, extends, how far, 256
+
+  =Sparkle=, when merry, why eyes, 92
+
+  =Spear=, as a weapon, 42
+
+  =Specific gravity=, meaning of, 268
+
+  =Speed=, of light, 36
+
+  =Spinneret=, of the silkworm, 115
+
+  =Spinning wheel=, in making cloth from wool, 81
+
+  =Sponge=, capillary attraction of, 18
+
+  =Sponges=, breeding time of, 286
+    how do they grow? 286
+    how they eat, 287
+    how they are caught, 287
+    where they come from? 286
+
+  =Stable=, underground (illus.), 158
+
+  =Stars=, counted in photograph, 223
+    do they shoot down? 255
+    how counted, 241
+    how many there are, 223
+    photographed, 223
+    what makes them twinkle, 38
+
+  =Steamship=, beginning of (illus.), 337
+    cross-section, 346
+    building of a (illus.), 337
+    cradle of a, 338
+    double bottom, 339
+    end to end section, 346-347
+    funnel (illus.), 345
+    gantry (illus.), 338
+    hull (illus.), 341
+    hull before launching (illus.), 340
+    inside of (illus.), 346-347
+    launching of a (illus.), 340
+    launching machinery (illus.), 341
+    ready to launch (illus.), 340
+    plates (illus.), 339
+    ribs (illus.), 338
+    skeleton (illus.), 339
+    turbine, weight of, 344
+    turbine (illus.), 344
+
+  =Steel pen=, how made, 16
+
+  =Steel rail making=, blast furnace (illus.), 234
+    Blooming mill and engine (illus.), 237
+    dump buggy, 237
+    crane, carrying ingot (illus.), 236
+    ingot, 237
+    ingot becomes a rail (illus.), 238
+    mixer (illus.), 234
+    molten steel being poured into ladle (illus.), 236
+    open-hearth furnace (illus.), 235
+    furnace, pouring sides of an open hearth (illus.), 235
+    iron, purification of, 235
+    soaking pit (illus.), 236
+    furnace, temperature in, 235
+
+  =Stick=, why it bends in water, 38
+    making a fire with, 42
+
+  =Stockings=, where it goes when the hole comes, 64
+
+  =Stone-throwing=, 41
+
+  =Stones=, where they come from, 494
+
+  =Story= in an automobile, 181
+    in a loaf of bread, 460
+    in a book, 561
+    in a building foundation, 496
+    in a cablegram, 428
+    in a barrel of cement, 95
+    in a stick of chocolate, 388
+    in a suit of clothes, 80
+    in a lump of coal, 257
+    in a bale of cotton, 470
+    of a cup and saucer, 404
+    of the deep sea diver, 203
+    in an electric light, 305
+    in an elevator, 395
+    in a finger print, 520
+    in a flying machine, 126
+    in a gas jet, 303
+    in a gun, 40
+    in a honey bee, 526
+    in a magnet (illus.), 326
+    in a lead pencil, 466
+    in lighting a fire, 289
+    in a lock, 491
+    in a can of paint, 224
+    in a pen, 11
+    in a piano, 478
+    in a photograph, 22
+    in “Pigs is Pigs” (illus.), 374
+    in a pipe and cigar, 512
+    in a railroad engine, 440
+    in a coil of rope, 353
+    in a ball of rubber (illus.), 378
+    in a rug, 167
+    in a pair of shoes, 541
+    in a steel rail (illus.), 234
+    in a submarine boat (illus.), 269
+    in a lump of sugar, 145
+    in a telegram, 412
+    in the telephone, 65
+    in a time piece, 313
+    in a tunnel, 208
+    in a drink of water, 501
+    in a window pane, 246
+    in the wireless, 455
+    in a yard of silk, 109
+    in a piece of leather, 538
+
+  =Stringed instruments=, the first, 480
+    discovery of, 479
+
+  =Stretching=, why do we, 192
+    what happens when we, 193
+
+  =Stylus=, iron, 13
+    the in writing (illus.), 11
+
+  =Submarine=, accidents and their causes, 278
+    air and how it may become poisonous, 278
+    buoyancy of, 270
+    “Bushnell’s Turtle,” 280
+    cargo, recovering of, 285
+    clearing a channel of buoyant mines (illus.), 283
+    development of, 280-281
+    divers’ compartment, 270
+    equilibrium, 270
+    explosions, 278
+    first practical (illus.), 271
+    gas, explosion of, 278
+    “G-1” (illus.), 272
+    Holland, 282
+    how we look through a periscope (illus.), 276
+    hydroplanes on, 270
+    hydroplane, 282
+    ice, under (illus.), 279
+    inside of a (illus.), 272
+    lens, of periscope (illus.), 276
+    living quarters (illus.), 285
+    mice on, 278
+    mine planting inside of (illus.), 277
+    Omniscope, 271
+    one of the first practical, 271
+    “Proctor,” first practical, 271
+    “Proctor” submerged (illus.), 271
+    periscope top of (illus.), 276
+    rudder, horizontal, 270
+    sailing close to surface (illus.), 273
+    seeing in all directions at once, 276
+    Simon Lake, American inventor of, 282
+    steadiness of (illus.), 273
+    under the ice (illus.), 279
+    submergence, 270
+    water pressure on, 270
+    who made the first, 280
+
+  =Submarine boat=, “Argonaut the First” (illus.), 269-282
+    “Argonaut Junior” (illus.), 269-282
+    who made the first, 280
+
+  =Submarine mines=, amount of powder used, 34
+
+  =Sugar=, carbonatation station (illus.), 150
+    chemical laboratory in factory (illus.), 149
+    circular diffusion battery in factory (illus.) 149
+    filter presses (illus.), 150
+    how taken from beets, 150
+    sulphur station (illus.), 150
+    washing the beets, 149
+
+  =Sugar factory=, carbonatation station (illus.), 150
+    chemical laboratory in (illus.), 149
+    circular diffusion battery (illus.), 149
+    filter presses (illus.), 150
+    sulphur station (illus.), 150
+
+  =Suit=, cost of wool in a, 83
+
+  =Sulphite of soda=, used in developing, 23
+
+  =Sun=, distance from earth, 141
+    revolving on its axis, 511
+
+  =Sun-dial= (illus.), 315
+    in determining noon (illus.), 316
+    concrete (illus.), 101
+
+  =Sunlight=, effect on balance, 37
+
+  =Sunset=, cause of colors in, 253
+
+  =Swallowing=, what happens when we, 195
+
+  =Swimming=, why man must learn, 125
+
+  =Switchboard=, telephone, 69
+    back of a, telephone (illus.), 69
+    telephone, the first (illus.), 74
+
+  =Talking=, how man learned talking, 18
+    signs and gestures, 18
+
+  =Talking machines=, 490
+
+  =Target=, floating, 31
+    Never seen by men firing mortar, 29
+    projectile, arrival at, 24
+
+  =Tears=, caused by onions, 38
+    as an eye-wash, 38
+    run along channel, 38
+    where they come from, 94
+    where they go, 94
+
+  =Teeth=, why they are called wisdom, 125
+    why they chatter, 218
+
+  =Telegram=, how it gets there, 414
+    story in a, 412
+
+  =Telegraph=, cables (illus.), 424
+    code, 419
+    calling a messenger, 414
+    waiting calls (illus.), 414
+    arrival at destination (illus.), 417
+    duplex, 417
+    electric, 420
+    electric, first suggestion of, 420
+    inventor of, 420
+    two men inventors of, 421
+    instruments, 425
+    instruments, first sending (illus.), 426
+    instrument, sending, 418
+    key, modern (illus.), 427
+    key, a later, 427
+    key, sending (illus.), 418
+    line, first, 422
+    messenger receives message (illus.), 415
+    messages, number sent in a day, 417
+    multiplex, 417
+    operating room (illus.), 423
+    the pony (illus.), 413
+    quadruple, 417
+    Wheatstone, receiver (illus.), 425
+    Wheatstone sender (illus.), 425
+    receiving operator (illus.), 416
+    relay, the first (illus.), 426
+    relay, modern (illus.), 427
+    recording apparatus first (illus.), 426
+    recording instrument improved, (illus.), 427
+    repeater room (illus.), 424
+    sending operator (illus.), 416
+    sounder, modern (illus.), 427
+    main switchboard (illus.), 423
+    automatic typewriter (illus.), 425
+
+  =Telephone=, apparatus, 65
+    birthplace of (illus.), 70
+    cost of number in use (illus.), 77
+    display board (illus.), 65
+    discovery of, 71
+    feeding cable into duct (illus.), 76
+    first outdoor demonstration, 75
+    how an emperor saved the, 73
+    forces behind your, 77
+    modern distributing frame (illus.), 75
+    line, the first, 72
+    line lamp, 66
+    pilot lamp, 66
+    from bottom of ocean, 203
+    operator, 67
+    breaking up the asphalt pavement (illus.), 76
+    a cable trouble (illus.), 76
+    call routine of (illus.), 68
+    beginning of service, 75
+    the first switchboard, 72
+    laying multiple duct subway (illus.), 76
+    first practical commercial test of telephone, 75
+    how wires are put underground (illus.), 76
+    nine million in use, 75
+    the first words over, 74
+
+  =Tens=, counting in, 19
+
+  =Test=, of big gun (illus.), 53
+
+  =Testing=, materials and products in gun factory (illus.), 50
+    artillery instruments, 24
+
+  =Tests=, shooting (illus.), 48
+
+  =Things=, to know about a big gun, 53
+
+  =Throats=, making sounds with our, 78
+
+  =Thread=, silk, made uniform (illus.), 120
+
+  =Thunder=, why it precedes lighting, 140
+    does it sour milk? 196
+
+  =Tickled=, why we laugh when, 93
+
+  =Tides=, where does water go at, low, 219
+
+  =Time=, age of clocks, 391
+    blacksmith’s clock (illus.), 320
+    first modern clock, 319
+    hour-glass (illus.), 317
+    time-boy of India (illus.), 317
+    where the day changes, 325
+    where is the hour changed? 325
+    clock in Independence Hall (illus.), 323
+    clock in New York City Hall (illus.), 323
+    largest clock in the world, 321
+    machinery which runs a big clock (illus.), 322
+    how man measured, 314
+    modern clock, description of (illus.), 319
+    primitive twelve-hour clock, 318
+    water clocks for, 317
+    water-clock (illus.), 318
+    man’s first divisions of, 314
+    what it is, 313
+    three great steps in measuring, 316
+    first methods of telling (illus.), 313
+    in New Testament, 314
+    sun-dial (illus.), 315
+    sun-dial in determining noon, 316
+    calculated at sea, 315
+    tower of the winds (illus.), 318
+    how told when sun casts no shadows, 317
+
+  =Tin=, why used for cooking utensils, 267
+
+  =Tobacco=, barn, 515
+    growing crop, care of, 514
+    growing under cheesecloth (illus.), 512
+    grown in Cuba, 513
+    cultivation of, 516
+    curing of, 515
+    cigars, how made, 517
+    how discovered, 512
+    field (illus.), 515
+    figures about, 519
+    filler, 518
+    fertilization, 514
+    where it comes from, 512
+    shade growing, 517
+    where does it grow, 512
+    harvesting, 515
+    Havana, where grown, 513
+    origin of name, 512
+    planting, 514
+    seed beds, 514
+    first care in selection, 518
+    strippers, 518
+    bulk sweating, 516
+    wrappers, 518
+    butter worm, 514
+
+  =Toes=, why we have ten, 142
+
+  =Toothache=, what good can come from? 410
+    cause of, 410
+
+  =Torches=, used in battles, 44
+
+  =Tow-line=, of floating target, 31
+
+  =Trains=, why harder to stop than start, 223
+
+  =Transparent=, why some things are, 350
+
+  =Trees=, found in coal, 261
+
+  =Tube=, of a gun, 54
+
+  =Tunnels=, accidents in, 218
+    causes of accidents, 218
+    accuracy of engineering, 215
+    airlocks, description of, 213
+    operation of airlocks, 213
+    compressed air method, 211
+    the bends, 213
+    bends, the danger of, 213
+    bends, the symptoms of, 213
+    dangers in building, 218
+    grommetting the bolts, (illus.), 214
+    borings in ground (illus.), 216
+    airlock bulkhead (illus.), 210
+    how built, 209
+    driving shield rear end of in tunnel building (illus.), 210
+    caissons in Hudson tunnels (illus.), 217
+    curves, how made (illus.), 216
+    how shield cuts through, 212
+    how dug under water, 208
+    erector (illus.), 210
+    erector at work (illus.), 214
+    grouting (illus.), 214
+    inventor of shield method, 209
+    inventor of compressed air method, 211
+    caulking the joints (illus.), 214
+    making joints water tight, 214
+    at end of journey (illus.), 216
+    land end of Hudson tunnels (illus.), 217
+    danger of leaks, 213
+    result of leaks (illus.), 213
+    concrete lining (illus.), 216
+    key plate (illus.), 214
+    diagrams of driving shield (illus.), 208
+    biggest ever built by shield method, 209
+    rear end of driving shield (illus.), 210
+    driving shield front view (illus.), 209
+    how the shields meet exactly (illus.), 215
+    models of Penna RR. tunnel shield (illus.), 212
+
+  =Turbine=, how it works (illus.), 344
+
+  =Twinkle=, what makes stars, 38
+
+  =Twinkling stars=, due to interference, 38
+
+  =Types= of cartridges (illus.), 49
+
+  =Umbrella=, who made the first, 312
+    who carried the first, 312
+
+  =Uncle Sam=, how name originated, 458
+
+  =Undercutting= with compressed air machine (illus.), 261
+
+  =Vault= of telephone cables (illus.), 67
+
+  =Velocity= of a projectile, 53
+
+  =Waking=, why we wake up, 365
+
+  =Walking=, difficult to, straight with eyes closed, 91
+    why cannot babies walk as soon as born, 180
+
+  =Wall=, sounds through a thick, 79
+
+  =Water=, aqueduct (illus.), 505
+    Ashokan Reservoir (illus.), 502
+    boiling-point of, 35-220
+    drinking, where does it come from, 501
+    hard, 221
+    how is a big dam built, 502
+    Hudson River siphon (illus.), 507
+    in ocean where it came from, 218
+    pumping station (illus.), 503
+    real source of the (illus.), 506
+    regulating chamber (illus.), 506
+    reservoir, 503
+    soft, 221
+    as standard in measuring specific gravity
+    solids, 268
+    what made of, 348
+    what makes it boil, 220
+    what makes water shoot in air, 198
+    what hard is, 221
+    what soft is, 221
+    why don’t water in ocean sink in, 219
+    why does it run, 219
+    why it puts fire out, 222
+    why runs off a duck’s back, 233
+    why sea water is salty, 351
+
+  =Watson, Thomas A.=, (illus.), 70
+
+  =Wave=, of light changed into heat, 36
+
+  =Waves=, of sound, 79
+
+  =Weight=, of light, 37
+    of projectiles, 53
+
+  =What= does the air weigh? 398
+    animal can leap the greatest distance? 122
+    causes an arrow to fly? 408
+    makes some people bald? 143
+    keeps a balloon up? 199
+    makes a ball stop bouncing, 63
+    are ball bearings? 180
+    happens when a bee stings? 537
+    makes the hills look blue sometimes? 255
+    makes me blush? 194
+    was the origin and meaning of bread? 460
+    is the hottest spot on earth? 239
+    holds a building up? 496
+    makes a bubble explode, 108
+    is carbonic acid? 509
+    is a cable made of? 429
+    is the eye of the camera? 22
+    do ocean cables look like when cut in two? (illus.), 428
+    do we mean by 18-carat fine? 266
+    is clay? 495
+    is color? 123
+    produces the colors we see? 123
+    makes the colors in the rainbow? 254
+    makes the colors of the sunset? 253
+    are cocoa shells? 390
+    is cement? 95
+    is cement used for? 95
+    a cement mill looks like (illus.), 96
+    is cement made of? 95
+    is cement used for, 95
+    is concrete? 95
+    makes some things in the same room colder than others? 144
+    does woolen cloth come from? 80
+    was the cross-bow? 44
+    are diamonds made of? 351
+    causes dimples? 352
+    makes us dream? 366
+    were man’s first divisions of time? 314
+    makes things whirl around when I am dizzy? 402
+    is dust? 104
+    becomes of the dust? 104
+    are drone bees good for? 531
+    is meant by deadening a floor or a wall? 79
+    causes earache? 410
+    makes an echo? 200
+    are the principal parts of an elevator? 396
+    causes the explosion in a gas engine? (illus.), 182
+    happens when anything explodes? 205
+    is an element? 349
+    makes the hollow place in a boiled egg? 179
+    is electricity? 329
+    is an electric current? 334
+    makes an electric magnet lift things? 326
+    do we mean by Fahrenheit? 221
+    makes a fish move in swimming? 233
+    is fog? 105
+    makes the water from a fountain shoot into the air? 198
+    makes freckles come? 125
+    makes a gasoline engine go? 181
+    is gravitation? 267
+    does specific gravity mean? 268
+    makes a cold glass crack if we put hot water in it? 63
+    are ghosts? 367
+    causes the gurgle when I pour water from a bottle? 63
+    causes hail? 124
+    is the horizon? 244
+    causes a hot box? 368
+    good are the lines on the palms of our hands? 402
+    does horse-power mean? 256
+    is hydrogen gas? 349
+    makes us feel hungry? 243
+    makes knots in boards? 223
+    were the earliest lamps? 295
+    were the lamps of the wise and foolish maidens? 295
+    happens when we laugh? 93
+    makes us laugh when glad? 92
+    is a leyden jar? 332
+    is a lodestone? 327
+    makes lobsters turn red? 245
+    makes the lump come in my throat when I cry? 195
+    makes a match light when we strike it? 198
+    would we do without matches? 292
+    is a metal? 265
+    is the most valuable metal? 265
+    is the milky way? 255
+    is a molecule? 348
+    is money? 455
+    is motion? 61
+    made the mountains? 401
+    is music? 478
+    does a note in music consist of? 490
+    is organic matter? 174
+    is oxygen? 349
+    is nitrogen? 350
+    makes nitroglycerin explode so readily? 206
+    causes nightmare? 367
+    is pain and why does it hurt? 244
+    makes the different colors in paint? 229
+    is pitch in music? 489
+    is the principle of the wireless? 455
+    makes some pencils hard and others soft? 467
+    makes rays of light? 230
+    makes us red in the face? 192
+    makes the rings in the water when I throw
+    a stone into it? 197
+    is rubber? 386
+    is wild rubber? 387
+    should I do if stung by a bee? 537
+    is the cause of shadows? 495
+    makes the sea roar? 401
+    does the bottom of the sea look like? 220
+    becomes of the smoke? 106
+    and why is smoke? 105
+    causes the smoke when a gun goes off? 206
+    is smokeless powder made of? 206
+    makes snowflakes white? 409
+    depth of snow is equivalent to an inch of rain? 241
+    is soap made of? 411
+    makes a soap bubble? 108
+    shot tower looks like? 51
+    makes us sneeze? 194
+    is silver? 207
+    happens when we stretch? 193
+    makes me want to stretch? 192
+    happens when I swallow? 195
+    is sound? 485
+    are the properties of sound? 486
+    are the sounds we hear in a sea shell? 79
+    makes the sounds like waves in a sea shell? 79
+    does a sounding board do? 488
+    is meant by the length of sound waves? 487
+    makes us thirsty? 243
+    makes me tired? 403
+    a great steamship looks like inside (illus.), 346
+    did the first telephone look like? (illus.), 72
+    occurs when we think? 194
+    are the big tanks near the gas works for? 298
+    makes the stars twinkle? 38
+    a ship’s turbine looks like (illus.), 344
+    is the largest tree in the world? 242
+    happens when we telephone? 65
+    makes water boil? 220
+    is the boiling-point of water? 220
+    causes a whispering gallery? 201
+    makes a wireless message go? 455
+    makes the works of a watch go? 368
+    makes the white caps on the waves white? 410
+    is worry? 207
+    causes the wind’s whistle? 139
+    makes the kettle whistle? 198
+    causes wrinkles? 196
+    are X-rays? 307
+    is yeast? 288
+
+  =When= did man first try to fly? 126
+    did man begin to live? 174
+    were candles introduced? 296
+    was illuminating gas discovered? 302
+    was wheat first used in making bread? 461
+    I throw a ball into the air, while walking why does it follow me?
+    401
+    was silk culture introduced in America? 111
+    were street lamps first used? 295
+
+  =Where= does bread come from? 460
+    does water in the ocean go at low tide? 219
+    does silk come from? 109
+    are we when asleep? 365
+    did the name calico come from? 123
+    cement is obtained (illus.), 97
+    does chalk come from? 18
+    does chocolate come from? 388
+    our coal comes from? 257
+    does cotton come from? 470
+    does the day begin? 324
+    does the day change? 325
+    did the term Dixie originate? 123
+    does honey come from? 526
+    is the horizon? 244
+    does the hour change? 325
+    the gas is taken from the coal (illus.), 299
+    did all the names of people come from? 20
+    did the expression “kick the bucket” originate? 321
+    does leather come from? 538
+    do living things come from? 174
+    did life begin on earth? 174
+    do we get ivory? 239
+    do lead pencils come from? 466
+    does the wooden part of a lead pencil come from? 469
+    does a light go when it goes out? 36
+    does linseed oil come from? 227
+    does paint come from? 224
+    does the rain go? 222
+    are the best Persian rugs made? 167
+    does rope come from? 353
+    does salt come from? 493
+    do we get soda? 494
+    do all the little round stones come from? 494
+    does the part of a stocking go that was where the hole comes? 64
+    does sound come from? 78
+    do school slates come from? 495
+    do shoes come from? 541
+    do sponges come from? 286
+    do tears come from? 94
+    do the tears go? 94
+    did the name tobacco originate? 512
+    is Havana tobacco grown? 513
+    does tobacco come from? 512
+    does tobacco grow? 512
+    did all the water in the ocean come from? 218
+    does our drinking water come from? 501
+    does most of our wool come from? 81
+    does the wind begin? 139
+    is the wind when it is not blowing? 139
+    does wool come from? 80
+    did the term Yankee originate? 243
+
+  =Wheat=, bread loaves of the world, 459
+    grinding (illus.), 464
+    harvesting (illus.), 460
+    scouring of, 463
+    tempering of, 463
+    when first used in making bread, 461
+    will it grow wild? 461
+
+  =Wheel-lock= rifle (illus.), 46
+
+  =Whispering gallery=, accidental, 201
+    cause of, 201
+    what it is, 201
+
+  =Whistle=, what makes the kettle? 198
+
+  =White Lead=, making (illus.), 225
+    buckles, before corrosion (illus.), 225
+    buckles after corrosion (illus.), 225
+    buckles, making, 225
+
+  =Who= started to make clothing from wool in America? 81
+    discovered electricity? 333
+    invented electric telegraph? 420
+    made the first felt hat? 239
+    made the first cent? 458
+    made the first submarine boat? 280
+    first discovered the silkworm? 109
+    first discovered the power of gunpowder? 44
+    invented flying? 126
+    made the first piano? 478
+    brought the first sheep to America? 80
+    first wove silk thread into cloth? 109
+    make the first shoes? 541
+    made the first umbrella? 312
+
+  =Why= don’t the air ever get used up? 140
+    can’t we see air? 140
+    do we grow aged? 196
+    does an apple turn brown when cut? 106
+    do coats have buttons on the sleeves? 64
+    has a long coat buttons on the back? 64
+    cannot babies walk as soon as born? 180
+    are some people bald? 144
+    don’t the birds stay South? 408
+    does a ball bounce? 63
+    does a balloon go up? 199
+    do we call voting balloting? 122
+    does a barber pole have stripes? 310
+    do some things bend and others break? 62
+    do the birds come back in the Spring? 407
+    do birds sing? 408
+    do birds go South in the Winter? 407
+    are birds’ eggs of different colors? 233
+    has a bee a sting? 336
+    can you blow out a candle? 21, 36
+    are bubbles round? 108
+    does red make a bull angry? 490
+    do we get a bump instead of a dent when we knock our heads? 201
+    can’t we burn stones? 105
+    has a long coat buttons? 64
+    is bread so important? 460
+    do I get out of breath when running? 191
+    do we call a cab a hansom? 122
+    does a hen cackle after laying an egg? 233
+    do children like candy? 409
+    is cement called Portland cement? 95
+    do I get cold in a warm room? 125
+    is it cold in winter? 141
+    does cold make our hands blue? 192
+    does an ear of corn have silk? 170
+    do we count in tens? 10
+    we cannot see in the dark, 91
+    does the dark cause fear? 352
+    do we have to die? 245
+    does a dog turn round and round before he lies down, 229
+    do we know we have dreamed when we wake up? 367
+    does eating candy make some people fat? 409
+    doesn’t an elevator fall? 397
+    do our eyes sparkle when we are merry? 92
+    do the eyes of some pictures follow us? 35
+    is it difficult to walk straight with my eyes closed? 91
+    do I get red in the face? 192
+    are some faculties stronger than others? 403
+    is a fire hot? 401
+    does a fire go out? 37
+    we fear the dark? 352
+    cannot fishes live in air? 232
+    do we have finger nails? 142
+    are our fingers of different lengths? 142
+    have we five fingers on each hand and five toes on each foot? 142
+    do we have finger nails? 142
+    does a gasoline engine go? 181
+    do girls like dolls? 368
+    is gold called precious? 266
+    are gold and silver best for coining? 457
+    is some gun-powder fine and others coarse grained? 206
+    are some guns called gatling guns? 310
+    does a glow-worm glow? 231
+    do we stop growing? 195
+    do we have hair? 143
+    does the hair grow after the body stops growing? 144
+    don’t my hair hurt when it is being cut? 143
+    does my hair stand on end when I am frightened? 143
+    is the right hand stronger than the left? 309
+    does my heart beat faster when I am scared? 191
+    does the heart beat when the brain is asleep? 191
+    do our hearts beat faster when we are running? 191
+    do they call it a honeymoon? 31
+    is a horseshoe said to bring good luck? 311
+    does it hurt when I cut my finger? 143
+    we cry when hurt, 93
+    does iron turn red when red hot? 107
+    does iron sink in water? 106
+    doesn’t an iron ship sink? 106
+    do we have twelve men on a jury? 239
+    does a lamp give a better light with the chimney on? 37
+    are there many languages? 197
+    do we laugh when glad? 92
+    is lead so heavy? 267
+    do they call them lead pencils? 466
+    must life be reproduced? 174
+    are some people light and others dark? 402
+    did people of long ago live longer than we do now? 199
+    do we use metal for coining? 456
+    do they call it the milky way? 255
+    do we need money? 455
+    does the moon travel with us when we walk or ride? 399
+    should we not sleep with the moon shining on us? 366
+    do my muscles get sore when I play ball in the spring? 310
+    does a nail get hot when hammered? 230
+    do we have only seven octaves on a piano? 480
+    does the ocean look blue at times? 219
+    does oiling the axle make the wheel turn more easily? 400
+    does an onion make the tears come? 38
+    can’t I write on paper with a slate pencil? 18
+    does a pencil write? 18
+    are some races white and others black, yellow and brown? 537
+    do they call it pin money? 231
+    do we call them pistols? 46
+    do plants produce seeds? 175
+    does a poker get hot at both ends if left in the fire? 107
+    does rain make the air fresh? 222
+    are most people right-handed? 403
+    don’t we make roads perfectly level? 104
+    don’t we use pure rubber? 380
+    does salt make us thirsty? 351
+    don’t the scenery appear to move when I am in a street car? 399
+    does the scenery appear to move when we are riding in a train? 399
+    can cats and some other animals see in the dark? 91
+    can we see farther when we are up high? 245
+    do I turn white when scared? 193
+    does silver tarnish? 266
+    does the sheep precede the plow in civilizing a country? 81
+    is the sky blue? 253
+    do I sneeze? 194
+    do we see stars when hit on eye? 268
+    many stars are there? 223
+    does a stick in water bend? 38
+    does a sound stop when we touch a gong that has been sounded? 78
+    can we make sounds with our throats? 78
+    do people shake with the right hand? 231
+    do we go to sleep? 365
+    does it seem when we have slept all night that we have been asleep
+    only a minute? 366
+    can’t we sleep with our eye open? 92
+    we can hear through speaking tubes, 487
+    does a human being have to learn to swim? 125
+    are cooking utensils made of tin? 267
+    do we use copper telegraph wires? 266
+    do my teeth chatter? 218
+    are some things transparent and others are not? 350
+    do I laugh when tickled? 93
+    can we think of only one thing at a time? 193
+    does thunder always come after the lightning? 140
+    do we call them wisdom teeth? 125
+    are some roads called turnpikes? 104
+    is the sea water salt? 351
+    will water run off a duck’s back? 233
+    do we worry? 207
+    don’t the water in the ocean sink in? 219
+    is it warm in summer? 141
+    does water run? 219
+    do we say water is soft or hard? 221
+    does a piece of wood float in water? 106
+    do we wake up in the morning? 365
+    do I yawn? 173
+    does yeast make bread rise? 288
+
+  =Will= people all be bald sometime? 144
+    the sky ever fall down? 255
+
+  =Windows=, how an explosion breaks them, 62
+
+  =Wireless=, accidents, prevention of, 449
+    aerial on R. R. stations (illus.), 451
+    aerial on ship (illus.), 455
+    antennæ, 447
+    antennæ on trains (illus.), 450
+    battery, 447
+    coil, 447
+    compass, 454
+    development of, 454
+    direction finder, 454
+    distance of sending, 448
+    equipment, 446
+    first Marconi station, 452
+    how it reaches ships at sea, 446
+    icebergs (illus.), 449
+    in the army (illus.), 447-448
+    inventor of, 452
+    key, 447
+    masts, height of, 448
+    G. Marconi, portrait, 452
+    on trains (illus.), 450
+    prevents accidents, 449
+    principles of, 455
+    receiving station in U. S. Army (illus.), 451
+    spark gap, 447
+    stations, shore (illus.), 446
+    stations on trains (illus.), 450
+    transmission automatic (illus.), 453
+    transmission of messages (illus.), 453
+    what kind of signs are used in? 446
+    why don’t the message go to the wrong stations, 455
+    world-wide use, 454
+
+  =Wires=, copper telegraph, 266
+    how put underground (illus.), 76
+    wire-wound gun, 54
+
+  =Wonders= performed by electric lift magnet (illus.), 326
+
+  =Wool= beaming (illus.), 89
+    bobbin in weaving machine, 86
+    Burling (illus.), 88
+    burr picker, 87
+    carding, 85
+    carding, finisher in cloth making (illus.), 89
+    chloride of aluminum in making cloth, 87
+    cleaning, 85
+    made clothing from, 81
+    combing (illus.), 86
+    cost of in a suit of clothes, 83
+    crop of the United States, 82
+    dyeing, 85-87
+    fabrics, 85
+    fiber description, 83
+    finishing, box (illus.), 87
+    finish, perching (illus.), 90
+    fulling cloth (illus.), 90
+    gilling after carding (illus.), 86
+    gilling and making top after combing (illus.), 86
+    gilling (illus.), 87
+    greasy matter in, 84
+    how we get it off the sheep, 82
+    how much does a sheep produce, 83
+    how much does America produce, 82
+    how made into cloth, 85
+    how woolen cloth is made perfect, 88
+    how shipped, 82
+    loom, 86
+    mending, perching (illus.), 88
+    mending room (illus.), 88
+    woolen mule spinning (illus.), 89
+    napping, 89
+    next to food as a vital necessity, 81
+    piece dyeing (illus.), 90
+    quality of a hundred years ago, 83
+    raised to sell to manufacturers, 81
+    reducer machine in wool making (illus.), 87
+    ring twisting (illus.), 89
+    shipped to manufacturers, 82
+    shuttle in weaving, 86
+    scouring (illus.), 85
+    sorting (illus.), 84
+    spinning process, 86
+    spinning, 89
+    English cap spinning, 89
+    in one suit of clothes, 83
+    sulphuric acid solution in making cloth, 87
+    teasel, 89
+    tramper, 82
+    in United States, bulk of, 82
+    warp thread, 86
+    web, 86
+    weaving (illus.), 88
+    where does most of our wool come from? 81
+    woof of, 86
+    made into yarn, 86
+    yarn inspecting (illus.), 89
+    yolk of, 84
+
+  =Woolen cloth=, ready for market (illus.), 90
+
+  =Woolens and worsteds=, difference between, 84
+
+  =Woolworth building= (illus.), 395
+
+  =Words=, formation of, 19
+    the first over a telephone, 74
+
+  =World’s= bread loaves (illus.), 459
+
+  =Worry=, definition of, 207
+    what it is, 207
+    Why we, 207
+
+  =Worsted= carding (illus.), 85
+    fabrics, 85
+
+  =Worsteds and woolens=, difference of, 84
+
+  =Wright Brothers=, first successful flights, 130
+
+  =Wrinkles=, what causes, 196
+
+  =Writing=, brush, the (illus.), 13
+    earliest ways of, 12
+    first done upon rocks, 11
+    first imitation of, 12
+    first metallic pen introduced, 15
+    fluids for developing, 13
+    how man learned to, 11
+    how the monks did their, 14
+    how a pen writes, 18
+    modern way of, 16
+    paper for, earliest, 14
+    pen, invention of, 11
+    pen, first steel (illus.), 15
+    quill, the (illus.), 14
+    Reed, the, in (illus.), 12
+    steel tube pen in (illus.), 15
+    steel pen, modern (illus.), 16
+    Stylus, the (illus.), 11
+    with chalk, 18
+    why a pencil writes, 18
+
+  =X-rays=, what are they? 307
+
+  =Yankee=, where word originated, 243
+
+  =Yarn=, made from wool, 86
+
+  =Yawning=, why do, 173
+    is it infectious, 192
+
+  =Yeast=, what it is, 288
+    why it makes bread rise, 288
+
+  =Yes=, meaning of nod, 19
+
+  =Zollner, Casper=, inventor of rifling, 46
+
+
+
+
+  Transcriber’s Notes
+
+
+  The language used in this ebook is that of the source document,
+  including unusual or archaic spelling. The book was partly written
+  by representatives of the industries concerned; inconsistencies in
+  grammar, spelling, punctuation (including the use of decimal points
+  and commas), style, lay-out, etc. have been retained. Contradictions
+  and repetitions have not been addressed. Alphabetical sorting
+  inconsistencies in the index have not been corrected.
+
+  Page 218, ... and have them meet as shown in Fig. 13 ...: The
+  illustrations in this chapter are not numbered. The illustration on
+  page 215 shows the described meeting of the shields.
+
+  Page 305, ... (as shown in Fig. 4): the illustrations with this
+  article are not numbered.
+
+  Page 307, The X-rays are discharged in straight lines as shown in the
+  figure: there is no such figure in the book.
+
+  Pages 328 and 330: page headings WHAT A LODESTONE IS and WHAT
+  ELECTRICITY IS do not relate to the contents of the pages.
+
+  Page 336, The pictures shown on the following pages ...: as printed;
+  the illustrations are given on previous pages.
+
+  Page 364, reference to figure 6: presumably the four illustrations on
+  this page together form figure 6.
+
+  Page 368, When you put oil on the axle, however, ...: some text may
+  be missing.
+
+  Page 376, ... or three-sixty-fourths of a second, and: as printed in
+  the source document; some text is obviously missing.
+
+  Page 489, ... of much importance. The two classes, only two of which
+  are of much importance. The two classes ...: the redundant text is as
+  printed in the source document.
+
+  Page 491: There is no Fig. 4 in the source document; the unnumbered
+  figure in the bottom right of the page is assumed to be Fig. 4.
+
+  Page 502, captions with bottom illustration: at least one of the
+  lengths given (4650 and 4560 feet) is likely to be a typographical
+  error.
+
+  Page 547, (The welt shoe has always been considered ...: the closing
+  bracket is lacking.
+
+
+  Changes made:
+
+  Some minor obvious punctuation and typographical errors and
+  unnecessarily repeated words have been corrected silently.
+
+  Illustrations have been moved out of text paragraphs. Page
+  headers have been transcribed as illustration captions (on top
+  of illustrations) or as side notes at a suitable location on the
+  page concerned, so that their reference in the index is (at least
+  approximately) correct.
+
+  Text that was not present as such in the source document but that
+  was transcribed from within illustrations is given as part of the
+  illustration caption.
+
+  Page 29: ... never see the distance target or vessel ... changed to
+  ... never see the distant target or vessel ....
+
+  Page 46: Lock á là Miquelet changed to Lock à la Miquelet.
+
+  Pages 74-75: closing double quotes inserted after ... went that very
+  night.; ... had to look after it themselves.; ... speech had really
+  been electrically reproduced. Opening double quotes inserted before
+  Now, it so happened there, ...; My friend, Mr. William Hubbard, ....
+
+  Page 114: ... the white mulberry or osage orange are fed the young
+  worms ... changed to ... the white mulberry or osage orange are fed
+  the young worm ....
+
+  Page 124: ... called an ablate spheroid ... changed to ... called an
+  oblate spheroid ....
+
+  Page 126: Dr. Samuel Pierrpont Langley changed to Dr. Samuel Pierpont
+  Langley.
+
+  Page 167: ... against the loose row of cross threads to lighten it
+  ... changed to ... against the loose row of cross threads to tighten
+  it ....
+
+  Page 205: ... than the heat will cause the air to expand suddenly ...
+  changed to ... that the heat will cause the air to expand suddenly
+  ...; ... a mixture of potassium, nitrate, or saltpeter, with powdered
+  charcoal and phur ... changed to ... a mixture of potassium nitrate,
+  or saltpeter, with powdered charcoal and sulphur ....
+
+  Page 229: ... other machines called Mills,” ... changed to ... other
+  machines called “Mills,” ....; ... which also adds in the drying and
+  the working ... changed to ... which also aids in the drying and the
+  working ....
+
+  Page 265: ... there is another, solium, which is solid ... changed to
+  ... there is another, sodium, which is solid ...; ... what is called
+  a reverbratory furnace ... changed to what is called a reverberatory
+  furnace ....
+
+  Page 292: PROMOTHEAN MATCH changed to PROMETHEAN MATCH.
+
+  Page 375: This toy we speak of was called a zoctrope changed to This
+  toy we speak of was called a zoetrope.
+
+  Page 376: ... projected at the rate of fourteen or sixteen to the
+  minute ... changed to ... projected at the rate of fourteen or
+  sixteen to the second ....
+
+  Page 377: Footnote anchor [4] inserted.
+
+  Page 414 ff.: Ellipses (...) have been added surrounding the
+  continuing page headings and illustration captions.
+
+  Pages 419 and 438, Morse codes: for the sake of clarity, the spacing
+  between individual dashes and dots has been increased slightly.
+
+  Page 490: ... if a red flag really makes a bull more exited ...
+  changed to ... if a red flag really makes a bull more excited ....
+
+  Page 493: The chemical name for salt is sodium which is derived ...
+  changed to The chemical name for salt is sodium chloride which is
+  derived ...; ... substances around us are composed of these elements
+  along, or ... changed to ... substances around us are composed of
+  these elements alone, or ....
+
+  Page 550: ... for which the lingings were intended. After all the
+  lingings have been prepared ... changed to ... for which the linings
+  were intended. After all the linings have been prepared ....
+
+  Index: several missing punctuation marks inserted for consistency.
+
+  Page 583: Curtis biplane changed to Curtiss biplane.
+
+  Page 585: Burline (illus.) changed to Burling (illus.)
+
+  Page 586: Culverines, early type of changed to Culverins, early type
+  of.
+
+  Page 587: steal and flint changed to steel and flint.
+
+  Page 588: Flying boot, interior arrangement changed to Flying boat,
+  interior arrangement.
+
+  Page 589: (How) the pictures in this both are made changed to (How)
+  the pictures in this book are made.
+
+  Page 590: (How) did shaking the head come to come no? changed to
+  (How) did shaking the head come to mean no?; (How) does does the wool
+  in a suit of clothes cost? changed to (How) much does the wool in a
+  suit of clothes cost?; Hurt, why we cry changed to Hurt, why we cry
+  when, 93.
+
+  Page 591: the “Reverbere” changed to the “Réverbère”; (Lamp) from
+  Nashagak hanging changed to (Lamp) from Nushagak hanging.
+
+  Page 592: promothean changed to promethean.
+
+  Page 593: Kurdestan (illus.) changed to Kurdistan (illus.).
+
+  Page 595: Crakron or peaked changed to Crakrow or peaked.
+
+  Page 597: omniscope changed to Omniscope; cucular diffusion battery
+  in factory changed to circular diffusion battery in factory.
+
+  Page 601: (Who) who make the first felt hat? changed to (Who) made
+  the first felt hat?; (Why) don’t an elevator fall? changed to (Why)
+  doesn’t an elevator fall?
+
+  Page 603: (Writing) pen invention of, 00 changed to (Writing) pen,
+  invention of, 11.
+
+
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 75948 ***
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+</head>
+<body>
+<div style='text-align:center'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 75948 ***</div>
+
+<div class="tnbox">
+
+<p class="noindent">Please see the <a href="#TN">Transcriber’s Notes</a> at the end of this text.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent blankbefore75">Most illustrations may be enlarged by clicking them
+or opening them in a new tab or window.</p>
+
+</div><!--tnbox-->
+
+<div class="container w30emmax">
+
+<img src="images/cover.jpg" alt="Cover image">
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<h1><span class="fsize80">THE</span><br>
+BOOK OF WONDERS</h1>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">HOW MAN BURROWS UNDER THE WATER</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo000.jpg" alt="" id="Fig000">
+
+<p class="caption long">This is a picture of a section of one of the world’s greatest tunnels, showing how man has learned to construct great
+tubes of steel beneath the surface of the water and land, in which to run the swiftly moving
+trains which carry him rapidly from place to place.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p class="fauxh1"><span class="fsize80">THE</span><br>
+BOOK OF WONDERS</p>
+
+<p class="center">GIVES PLAIN AND SIMPLE ANSWERS TO THE<br>
+<span class="gesp075">THOUSANDS OF EVERYDAY QUESTIONS</span><br>
+THAT ARE ASKED AND WHICH ALL SHOULD<br>
+<span class="gesp13">BE ABLE TO, BUT CANNOT ANSWER</span></p>
+
+<p class="center blankbefore2">FULLY ILLUSTRATED WITH HUNDREDS OF EDUCATIONAL PICTURES<br>
+WHICH STIMULATE THE MIND AND GIVE A<br>
+BIRD’S EYE VIEW OF THE</p>
+
+<p class="center blankbefore2 highline2"><b><span class="fsize125">WONDERS OF NATURE</span></b><br>
+and the<br>
+<b><span class="fsize125">WONDERS PRODUCED BY MAN</span></b></p>
+
+<p class="center fsize125 blankbefore2">Edited and Arranged by<br>
+RUDOLPH J. BODMER</p>
+
+<p class="center highline6">Fully Indexed</p>
+
+<p class="center highline2"><span class="fsize125">1915<br>
+<b>PRESBREY SYNDICATE, <span class="smcap">Inc.</span></b></span><br>
+456 Fourth Avenue<br>
+NEW YORK</p>
+
+</div><!--chapter-->
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p class="center highline2 fsize80 blankbefore4 blankafter4">Copyright, 1914<br>
+BY<br>
+PRESBREY SYNDICATE, Inc.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+</div><!--chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page9">[9]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="Introduction">Introduction</h2>
+
+</div><!--chapter-->
+
+<p>No truly great book needs an explanation of its aim and purpose. A great
+book just grows, as has this Book of Wonders.</p>
+
+<p>It began with the attempt of a father to answer the natural questions of
+the active mind of a growing boy. It developed into a nightly search for
+plain, understandable answers to such questions as “What makes it night?”
+“Where does the wind begin?” “Why is the sky blue?” “Why does it hurt when
+I cut my finger?” “Why doesn’t it hurt when I cut my hair?” “Why does wood
+float?” “Why does iron sink?” “Why doesn’t an iron ship sink?” on through the
+maze of thousands of puzzling questions which occur to the child’s mind. It
+has grown until the answers to the mere questions cover practically the entire
+range of every-day knowledge, and has been arranged in such a form that any
+child may now find the answer to his own inquiries.</p>
+
+<p>As the mind of the child matures, the questions naturally drift toward
+the things which the genius of man has provided for his comfort and pleasure.
+We have become so accustomed to the use and benefits of these wonders produced
+by man that we generally leave out of our books the stories of our great
+industries, and yet the mind of the child wonders and inquires about them.
+We have so long worn clothes made of wool or cotton, that we have forgotten
+the wonder there is in making a bolt of cloth. Every industry has a fascinating
+story equal to that of the silkworm, which moves its head sixty-five times a
+minute while spinning his thousand yards of silk.</p>
+
+<p>Can you tell What happens when we telephone? How a telegram gets
+there? What makes an automobile go? How man learned to tell time?
+How a moving-picture is made? How a camera takes a picture? How rope
+is made? How the light gets into the electric bulb? How glass is made?
+How the music gets into the piano? and hundreds of others that embrace the
+captivating tales of how man has made use of the wonders of nature and
+turned them to his advantage and comfort? The Book of Wonders does this
+with illuminating pictures which stimulate the mind and give a bird’s-eye view
+of each subject step by step.</p>
+
+<p>Where shall such a book begin? Shall it begin with the Story of How<span class="pagenum" id="Page10">[10]</span>
+Man Learned to Light a Fire—he could not cook his food, see at night, or
+keep warm without a fire; or should it begin with How Man Learned to
+Shoot—he could not protect himself against the beasts of the forest, and, therefore,
+could not move about, till the soil or obtain food to cook until he knew
+how to shoot or destroy.</p>
+
+<p>What was the vital thing for man to know before he could really become
+civilized? Some means, of course, by which the things he learned—the knowledge
+he had acquired—could be handed down to those who came after him so
+that they might go on with the intelligence handed down to them. This
+required some means of recording his knowledge. Man had to learn to write.
+Without writing there could be no Book of Wonders, and the book, then,
+begins naturally with the Story of Mow Man Learned to Write.</p>
+
+<p class="right padr4 highline2"><span class="smcap">The Editor.</span></p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page11">[11]</span></p>
+
+<div class="container w50emmax" id="Fig011a">
+
+<img src="images/illo011a.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">WRITING BY MEXICAN INDIANS THOUGHT TO BE
+MORE THAN TEN THOUSAND YEARS OLD.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<h2 class="nobreak">How Man Learned to Write</h2>
+
+</div><!--chapter-->
+
+<p>It is a long time between the day of
+the cave-dwellers, with their instruments
+of chipped stone, and the present
+day of the pen. Yet wide apart as are
+these points of time, the trend of development
+can with but few obstacles
+be traced.</p>
+
+<p>The story of the pen is a natural
+sequence of ideas between the first piece
+of rock scratched upon rock by prehistoric
+man, and the bit of metal
+which now so smoothly records our
+thoughts.</p>
+
+<p>There was a time in the unwritten
+history of man when necessity
+prompted the invention of weapons,
+and the minds of these primitive men
+were concentrated upon this point. But
+the arts of war did not take up their
+entire time; some time must have been
+given to other pursuits. As the mind
+developed, and as an aid to memory,
+we find them carving, engraving, incising
+upon the rocks their hieroglyphics,
+which took the form of figures of men,
+habitations, weapons, and the animals
+of their period.</p>
+
+<div class="container w50emmax" id="Fig011b">
+
+<img src="images/illo011b.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">THE STYLUS</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<h3>How Did Writing First Come About?</h3>
+
+<p>An apparently difficult question to
+answer, since without writing there can
+be no record of its origin, and without<span class="pagenum" id="Page12">[12]</span>
+records no facts; yet the deduction is
+so clear that the answer is simple.
+Somewhere far, far back in the dawn
+of the world, back in the beginning of
+human history, in the epoch which we
+have now named the Quaternary Period,
+man lived in a dense wilderness
+surrounded by the wildest and most
+ferocious beasts. His home was a cave,
+exposed to the dangers incidental to
+that time and his surroundings, and he
+was of necessity compelled to look
+about for means of defense. With this
+idea in mind, he found that by striking
+one stone against another he knocked
+off chips, which chips could be used as
+arrow-heads, spears and axes. Following
+along these lines he discovered that
+by rubbing one of these chips against
+another there was left a mark, which
+was the first imitation of writing; that
+the sharper the edge of the chip, the
+deeper was the scratch, and consequently
+the more distinct the mark.</p>
+
+<div class="container w50emmax" id="Fig012">
+
+<p class="caption">EARLIEST WAYS OF WRITING</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo012.jpg" alt="Caveman drawing mammoth">
+
+<p class="caption">THE FIRST IMITATION OF WRITING</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>Next it was discovered that certain
+stones, such as flint, serpentine and
+chalcedony, marked more readily than
+others; that the elongated chip was
+handled with more facility; that by rubbing
+one stone against another the
+finest possible points and edges might
+be obtained. Thus in the Age of Stone
+was the long, tapering instrument of
+stone, the first pen, the Stylus, originated.</p>
+
+<p>Then came the time, known as the
+Bronze Age, when men learned to
+hammer metal into shapes, and metal
+having many advantages over stone, the
+stylus of stone gave way to one of iron.
+So we find that in the time of the
+Egyptians, about fourteen or fifteen<span class="pagenum" id="Page13">[13]</span>
+centuries B.C., an iron stylus was in use
+for marking on soapstone, limestone
+and waxed surfaces. An improvement
+in this metal stylus was that the blunt
+end was convex and smooth, the purpose
+of which was to erase and smooth
+over irregularities. In some cases it was
+pointed with diamonds, which gave it
+greater cutting properties. The iron
+stylus was also used by the Egyptians
+of that period, as well as in later times,
+with a mallet, after the manner of the
+modern chisel (which indeed it resembled)
+for cutting out inscriptions on
+their monuments.</p>
+
+<div class="container w40emmax" id="Fig013a">
+
+<img src="images/illo013a.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">THE BRUSH</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>WRITING FLUIDS<br>
+HELPED DEVELOPMENT</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>In course of time a marking fluid
+was discovered, and this made necessary
+a writing instrument which could
+spread characters on parchment, tree-bark,
+etc. Thus it was found that by
+putting together a small bunch of hairs,
+arranging them in the shape of an acute
+cone, and fastening them together in
+some manner, an instrument could be
+made which would carry fluid in its
+path, and thus make a mark of the
+desired shape. The hair best adapted
+for the purpose was found to be camel’s
+hair, while that of the badger and sable
+was also used. A tube cut from a stalk
+of grass answered for a holder. The
+hairs were held together by a piece of
+thread which was then drawn through
+the tube, thus making the first writing
+instrument to be used in conjunction
+with ink, the Brush.</p>
+
+<div class="container w50emmax" id="Fig013b">
+
+<img src="images/illo013b.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">HOW THE CHINESE IMPROVED METHODS</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>Just when the Brush came into existence
+is not definitely known, but with
+this instrument the great Chinese philosopher
+Confucius wrote his marvelous
+philosophy. The Brush as a writing
+instrument is generally associated with<span class="pagenum" id="Page14">[14]</span>
+the Chinese, because the Chinese use
+this instrument even to the present day,
+it being especially adapted to their letters
+and mode of writing. We have
+now a pen (brush), as well as an ink,
+but the material upon which the people
+of that age wrote, in lieu of paper, was
+still very crude, parchment and tree-bark
+being most commonly used.</p>
+
+<div class="container w40emmax" id="Fig014a">
+
+<img src="images/illo014a.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">THE QUILL</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>THE EARLIEST<br>
+FORMS OF PAPER</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>Just as the discovery of an ink
+wrought a change from the Stylus to
+the Brush, so the advent of papyrus,
+a paper made from the papyrus plant,
+which was much finer and more economical
+than parchment, brought with
+it a pen better adapted for this material.
+It was found that the Reed, or Calamo,
+as it was called, which grew on the
+marshes on the shores of Egypt, Armenia
+and the Persian Gulf, if cut into
+short lengths and trimmed down to a
+point, made an admirable pen for this
+newly discovered paper. This was the
+true ancient representative and precursor
+of the modern pen. The use of
+the Reed can be traced to a remote
+antiquity among the civilized nations of
+the East, where Reeds are in use now
+as instruments for writing.</p>
+
+<div class="container w50emmax" id="Fig014b">
+
+<img src="images/illo014b.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">HOW THE MONKS DID THEIR WRITING</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>The introduction of a finer paper
+rendered necessary a finer instrument
+of writing, and the quill of the goose,
+swan, and, for very fine writing, of the
+crow, was found to be well adapted.
+Immense flocks of geese were raised,
+chiefly for their quills. The earliest
+specific allusion to the quill occurs in
+the writings of St. Isadore de Seville,
+seventh century, although it is believed
+to have been in use at an earlier period.
+The quill was used for many centuries.
+Most of the writing during its reign
+was done in the monasteries by the
+monks, and in the eighteenth century,<span class="pagenum" id="Page15">[15]</span>
+when quill-making became quite an art,
+every monk and every teacher was expected
+to be proficient in the art of
+making a pen from a quill. The preliminary
+process of preparing the quills
+was first to sort them according to their
+quality, dry in the hot sand, then clean
+them of the outer skin, and harden by
+dipping in a boiling solution of alum
+and diluted nitric acid. During the last
+century many efforts were made to improve
+the quill, its great defect being
+speedy injury from use. Ruby points
+were fitted to the nib, but this was
+found impracticable on account of the
+delicacy of the work. Joseph Bramah
+devised, in 1809, a machine for cutting
+the quill into separate nibs for use in
+holders, thus making several pens from
+one quill and anticipating the form of
+the modern pen.</p>
+
+<div class="container w40emmax" id="Fig015a">
+
+<img src="images/illo015a.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">THE STEEL TUBE PEN</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<div class="container w50emmax">
+
+<img src="images/illo015b.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">THE FIRST STEEL PEN</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>The quill held sway as writing instrument
+for many years, and with it
+the greatest masterpieces in literature
+have been written. Many attempts,
+however, had been made to supersede
+the quill by a pen not so easily injured
+by use, but it was not until about 1780
+that, after much experimenting and
+numerous failures, Mr. Samuel Harrison
+introduced the first metallic pen.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>THE INVENTION<br>
+OF THE PEN</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>This pen was made as follows:</p>
+
+<p>A sheet of steel was rolled in the
+form of a tube. One end was cut and
+trimmed to a point after the manner
+of the quill, the seam where both edges
+of the tube met forming the slit of the
+pen. This was soon after improved
+upon by cutting a rough blank out of
+a thin sheet of steel, which blank was
+filed into form about the nib, rounded,
+and with a sharp chisel marked inside
+where the slit was to be in the finished
+pen. After tempering, the nib was<span class="pagenum" id="Page16">[16]</span>
+ground and shaped to a point suitable
+for fine or broad writing, as required.</p>
+
+<div class="container w40emmax" id="Fig016a">
+
+<img src="images/illo016a.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">THE MODERN STEEL PEN</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<div class="container w50emmax" id="Fig016b">
+
+<img src="images/illo016b.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">THE MODERN WRITING PEN</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>Once started, the steel pen made
+rapid strides in improvement. Mr.
+James Perry, in 1824, started in England
+the manufacture of pens on a large
+scale, and to him as well as Gillott is
+due the many improvements which
+followed.</p>
+
+<p>Perry was the first to manufacture
+“slip” steel pens, up to this time the
+pen and holder being one piece.</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+
+<div class="poetry">
+
+<div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent00">“In times of yore, when each man cut his quill</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">With little Perryian skill;</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">What horrid, awkward, bungling tools of trade</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">Appeared the writing instruments, home made!”</div>
+</div><!--stanza-->
+
+</div><!--poetry-->
+
+</div><!--poetry-container-->
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>THE MODERN WAY<br>OF WRITING</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>The steel pen of the present day
+has reached the pinnacle of perfection,
+and the method of manufacture
+of this little but mighty instrument of
+writing, though of extreme interest, is
+practically unknown by the general public.
+To explain in detail the development
+from the rough steel to the finished
+pen would needs make a book in
+itself. And as it has been our intention
+to dwell, not upon the manufacture of
+the pen, but to trace its history and
+development from its most crude form,
+the Stylus, to the perfect and smooth-writing
+steel pen of to-day, we will
+close our story with the well-worn epigram
+of old, grim Cardinal Richelieu:</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+
+<div class="poetry">
+
+<div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent00">“Beneath the rule of men entirely great,</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">The Pen is mightier than the Sword!”</div>
+</div><!--stanza-->
+
+</div><!--poetry-->
+
+</div><!--poetry-container-->
+
+<h3>How a Steel Pen is Made</h3>
+
+<p class="fsize90">In the picture on the following page, we
+see the various processes required in making
+a steel pen, together with a description of
+each process:</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page17">[17]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">HOW A STEEL PEN IS MADE</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo017.jpg" alt="Stages of steel pen prduction">
+
+<div class="illotext w35emmax">
+
+<table class="standard nomargins fsize90">
+
+<colgroup>
+<col span="2" style="width: 50%;">
+</colgroup>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="text noindent mid">N<sup>o</sup>. 1. ROLLED STEEL.<br>
+N<sup>o</sup>. 2. SCRAP.</td>
+<td class="text noindent mid">N<sup>o</sup>. 7. RAISING.<br>
+N<sup>o</sup>. 8. HARDENING.<br>
+N<sup>o</sup>. 9. TEMPERING.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="text noindent">N<sup>o</sup>. 3. BLANKS.</td>
+<td class="text noindent">N<sup>o</sup>. 10. SCOURING.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="text noindent">N<sup>o</sup>. 4. MARKING.</td>
+<td class="text noindent">N<sup>o</sup>. 11. GRINDING.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="text noindent">N<sup>o</sup>. 5. PIERCING.</td>
+<td class="text noindent">N<sup>o</sup>. 12. SLITTING.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="text noindent">N<sup>o</sup>. 6. ANNEALING.</td>
+<td class="text noindent">N<sup>o</sup>. 1. COLLEGE PEN
+N<sup>o</sup>. 5. SCHOOL PEN.<br>
+N<sup>o</sup>. 13.
+(FINISHED PENS.)
+COLORING AND VARNISHING.</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+</div><!--illotext-->
+
+<p class="center highline2 fsize90">The pictures herewith printed are by the courtesy of the Spencerian Pen Company</p>
+
+<p class="caption long"><i>Raw Material.</i>—The sheet steel is cut into strips
+of a convenient length and width, and then rolled
+cold to the exact gauge necessary, according to the
+pen to be manufactured.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long"><i>Cutting the Blank.</i>—This is a mechanical operation,
+and is effected with the aid of a screw press,
+in which a pair of tools corresponding with the
+shape of the pen has been fixed. On pulling a
+lever the screw descends, driving the punch into
+the bed, which cuts a blank with a scissors-like
+action, from the strip of steel.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long"><i>Marking the Name.</i>—This is done by means of
+a punch fixed in the hammer of a stamp, worked
+by the foot. The blanks are rapidly introduced
+between guides fixed on the bed of the stamp, and
+as soon as the hammer has fallen the blank is
+thrown out and a new one introduced.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long"><i>Piercing.</i>—The tools for this operation are of a
+delicate character. The blanks are fed by hand,
+as above explained, and the hole punched by a
+screw press. This is a most important process;
+the pierce hole and slide slits determine the elasticity
+and regulate the flow of the ink on the pen.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long"><i>Annealing or Softening.</i>—The blanks are still moderately
+hard and before raising, it is necessary
+to soften them by heating to a dull red, and
+allowing them to gradually cool.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long"><i>Raising.</i>—The operator places one of the soft
+blanks on a die to which guides are affixed to
+keep it in position; then by moving the handle of
+the press, the screw descends, forcing a die which
+rounds the blank into the form of a pen.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long"><i>Hardening.</i>—The pen is now too soft, and is
+hardened by heating and the immersing in oil
+while hot, after which it is thoroughly cleansed
+from all grease.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long"><i>Tempering.</i>—The pens are now hard but very
+brittle, and in order to correct this defect they
+are placed in an iron cylinder, and kept revolving
+over a gas or charcoal fire until they acquire a
+proper temper.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long"><i>Scouring.</i>—After soaking in diluted sulphuric
+acid, the pens are placed in iron cylinders containing
+fine stone and water, or fine sand, and revolved
+for several hours. When taken from these cylinders
+they are bright and smooth.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long"><i>Grinding.</i>—This is a process performed by hand
+on a “bob,” or wooden wheel covered with leather
+and dressed with emory, revolving at high speed.
+A light touch on the emory wheel grinds off the
+surface between the pierce hole and the point, to
+obtain proper action and to assist the flow of ink.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long"><i>Slitting.</i>—This is a hand process performed with
+a press, the cutters being as sharp as razors. The
+pen is placed in position by means of guides, and
+must be cut with utmost precision from the pierce
+hole to the point, the point must be divided exactly
+in the middle, the least variation making the pen
+defective.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long"><i>Coloring and Varnishing.</i>—The pens having been
+polished to a bright silver color are placed in an
+iron cylinder and kept revolving over a gas or
+charcoal fire until the tint required is produced.
+They are then immersed in a bath of shellac varnish,
+and afterwards dried in an oven.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long"><i>Examination.</i>—Every steel pen passing through
+the factory is most carefully examined before being
+boxed, and should the least fault be found, it is
+at once rejected.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page18">[18]</span></p>
+
+<h3>Why Does a Pencil Write?</h3>
+
+<p>You can use a pencil to write with
+or to make marks, because the pencil
+wears off if you are scratching it on
+a surface that is rough enough to make
+it do so. Writing, you know, is only
+a way of making marks in such a manner
+as to make them mean something.
+You cannot write with a pencil on a
+pane of glass, because the glass is so
+smooth that when you move the pencil
+over its surface, the pencil will not wear
+off. To prove to yourself that the tip
+of the pencil constantly wears off when
+you write, you have only to recall that
+when you write with it a pencil keeps
+getting shorter and shorter. A slate-pencil
+will wear down short by merely
+writing with it, but a lead-pencil must
+be sharpened—that is, you must keep
+cutting away the wood in order to get
+at the lead inside.</p>
+
+<h3>Why Can’t I Write on Paper With a
+Slate-pencil?</h3>
+
+<p>You cannot do so, because it takes
+something with a rougher surface than
+paper to wear off the point of a slate-pencil.
+A slate is used to write on with
+slate-pencils, because slate wears off the
+end of the pencil easily, and also because
+you can rub out the writing on a
+slate with water. Lead-pencils are used
+for writing on paper, but you must have
+a rough surface on the paper to write
+on even with a lead-pencil. Some kinds
+of papers have such a smooth surface
+that you cannot write on them with a
+lead-pencil.</p>
+
+<h3>How Does a Pen Write?</h3>
+
+<p>Writing with a pen, however, is quite
+different from writing with any kind
+of pencil, because in writing with ink
+we do not wear off the end of the pen,
+but have the ink flow from the pen.
+For this purpose we must have a surface
+that will absorb the ink from the
+pen, and draw the ink down off the
+pen and make it flow. A slate has no
+power of absorption and therefore cannot
+draw the ink. A piece of blotting
+paper is the best kind of paper for absorbing
+ink, but it is too much so for
+writing purposes. For writing with ink
+we need a comparatively hard surfaced
+paper that has absorbent qualities, but
+not too absorbent.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">How Does a Blotter Take Up the Ink
+of a Blot?</h2>
+
+<p>It is because the blotter has a very
+excellent ability to absorb some liquids.
+The thinner the liquid the more easily
+the blotter will absorb it. Ink is thin—being
+mostly water—the blotter is of
+a loose texture and has a rough surface.
+This gives the blotter the ability to pick
+up the ink, just as a sponge would do.
+A sponge has what is called the power
+of capillary attraction and so has the
+blotter.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Where Does Chalk Come From?</h2>
+
+<p>Deposits of chalk are found on some
+shores of the sea. A piece of chalk
+such as the teacher uses to illustrate
+something on the blackboard at school
+consists of the remains of thousands
+of tiny creatures that at one time lived
+in the sea. All of their bodies excepting
+the chalk—called carbonate of lime
+in scientific language—has disappeared
+and the chalk that was left was piled
+up where it fell at the bottom of the
+ocean, each particle pressing against
+the other with the water pressing over
+it all until it became almost solid. It
+took thousands of years to make these
+chalk deposits of the thickness in which
+they are found. Later on, through
+changes in the earth’s surface, the
+mountain of chalk was raised until it
+stood out of the water and thus became
+accessible to man and school teachers.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">How Did Men Learn to Talk?</h2>
+
+<p>Talking and the words used came
+into being through the desire of men to
+communicate with each other. Before
+words became known and used man
+talked to those about him by the use
+of signs, gestures and other movements
+of the body. Even to-day when men
+meet who cannot talk the same language
+they will be seen trying to come to an
+understanding by the use of signs and
+gestures and generally with fair results.<span class="pagenum" id="Page19">[19]</span>
+The need of more signs and gestures
+to express a constantly increasing number
+of objects and thoughts led to the
+introduction of sounds or combination
+of sounds made with the vocal cords
+to accompany certain signs and gestures.
+In this way man eventually developed
+a very considerable faculty for
+expressing himself. Sign by sign, gesture
+by gesture and sound by sound
+language was slowly developed. A man
+would be trying to explain something
+to another by sign or gesture and to
+make it more clear would make a sound
+or combination of sounds to put more
+expression into his efforts. Finally the
+other man would understand what was
+meant and he would tell some one else,
+using the same signs, gestures and
+sounds. Later on it would develop that
+to express thus any certain thought,
+act or the name of a thing, all of the
+people in the community would make
+this same combination of sounds, signs
+and gestures to express the same thing.
+Finally the gestures and signs would
+be dropped and it was found that people
+understood perfectly what was
+meant when only the sound or combination
+of sounds was produced. That
+made a word. All the other words were
+made in the same way, one at a time,
+until we had enough words to express
+all the ordinary things and the combination
+of words became a language.
+The children learned the language by
+hearing their parents talk it, and that
+is how men learned to talk.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">How Did Shaking the Head Come to
+Mean “No”?</h2>
+
+<p>The origin of this method of indicating
+“No” is found in the result of
+the mother’s efforts in the animal kingdom
+of trying to feed her young. A
+mother animal would be trying to get
+her young to accept the food she
+brought them and tried to put it in
+their mouths. Perhaps, however, the
+young animal had had sufficient food
+or did not fancy the kind of food offered.
+The natural thing to do under
+the circumstances would be to close the
+mouth tight and shake the head from
+side to side to prevent the mother from
+forcing the food into the mouth. Thus
+we get the closed lips and the shaking
+the head from side to side to mean
+“No.” In other words, that kind of a
+way of saying “No” came from an
+effort to say “I don’t want any.”</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">How Did a Nod Come to Mean “Yes”?</h2>
+
+<p>The idea of nodding to mean “Yes”
+comes from the opposite of the action
+which, as just described, indicates a
+“No.”</p>
+
+<p>When the young animal was anxious
+to accept the offered food, it made an
+effort to get at the food quickly.
+Hence, the pushing forward of the
+head and the open mouth (always more
+or less opened when you nod to indicate
+“Yes”) and an expression of gladness.
+You will notice if you see anyone
+nod the head to indicate “Yes”
+that the lips are open rather than closed,
+and that there is always a smile or an
+indication of a smile to accompany it.
+In other words, the nod to mean “Yes”
+is only another way of saying “I shall
+be pleased.”</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Do We Count in Tens?</h2>
+
+<p>When man even in his uncivilized
+state found it necessary to count, the
+only implements at hand were his fingers
+and toes, and as he had ten toes
+and ten fingers, he naturally began
+counting in tens, and has been doing
+so ever since.</p>
+
+<p>When we to-day count on our fingers
+we confine ourselves to our fingers
+leaving our toes stay in our shoes,
+where they naturally belong. But the
+first men who counted used both fingers
+and toes, and so he was able to count
+twenty before he had to begin over
+again, while little children to-day, when
+they count with their fingers, must
+begin where they started after they
+reach ten.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Does Man Mean by Counting
+Himself?</h2>
+
+<p>The expression “counting himself”
+was originated by the first man who
+counted. Such a man would count all
+of his fingers and toes and the result<span class="pagenum" id="Page20">[20]</span>
+would be twenty. Then, so that he
+would remember the number of times
+he had counted himself, he made a
+mark some place each time he reached
+twenty. The mark he made was a mere
+scratch in the dirt or on a hoe or something
+else. To make a scratch you
+merely, of course, score the surface of
+whatever you happen to be scratching
+on, and that is how it happened that
+the word “score” in our language to-day
+means as a term in counting,
+twenty.</p>
+
+<p>There has been a great effort made
+to change our system of counting in
+tens to one where you count in twelves.
+That would fit in very well with our
+system of measuring which is based on
+the foot of twelve inches, and of our
+calendar for recording the passage of
+time which has twelve months. There
+are many arguments in favor of this
+change, among the principal of which
+is the fact that it would make our problems
+of division much easier, for our
+ten can be evenly divided by but two
+of our single figures, two and five,
+whereas twelve can be evenly divided
+by four of our single figures, viz., two,
+three, four and six. It is believed that
+sooner or later the system of counting
+by twelve instead of ten will be
+adopted by the entire world for counting
+everything. As it is now we do part
+of our counting by one system and part
+of it by another.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Where Did All the Names of People
+Originate?</h2>
+
+<p>There is no scientific plan by which
+people get their names. There is not
+much except curious interest to be
+gleaned from the study of how people
+got their names.</p>
+
+<p>In the earliest days of the world, or
+at least as soon as men had learned
+to speak by sounds, all known persons,
+places and groups of human beings
+must have had names by which they
+could be spoken of or to, and by which
+they were recognized. The study of
+these names and of their survival in
+civilization enables us in certain instances
+to tell what tribes inhabited
+certain parts of the earth now peopled
+by descendants of an entirely different
+race and of another speech altogether.
+We learn such things from the names
+of mountains and other things, for instance,
+which still cling to them.</p>
+
+<p>The story of personal names is very
+complex, but comes from very simple
+beginnings. The oldest personal names
+were those which indicated a group
+of people rather than individuals who
+may have been actually related to
+each other or even bound together for
+reasons of protection or other convenience.
+In the races of Asia, Africa, Australia
+and America examination shows
+that groups of people who considered
+themselves to be of the same relationship,
+attached to themselves the name
+of some animal or other object,
+whether animate or inanimate, from
+which they claimed to be descended.
+This animal or object was called the
+“totem,” and thus the earliest and most
+widely spread class and family names
+are totemistic. Such groups called
+themselves by names from wolves, turtles,
+bears, suns, moons, birds, and
+other objects, and these people wore
+badges with pictures of the animal or
+object from which they took their
+names to identify them to other
+people.</p>
+
+<p>When, then, we come to investigate
+the giving of personal names among
+the tribes, we see that most uncivilized
+races gave a name to each new-born
+infant derived from some object or incident.
+So a new-born member of the
+“Sun” tribe would be named “Dawn,”
+and would be known as “Dawn” of
+the “Sun” tribe; or perhaps a new-born
+son of the tribe of “Wolf” would be
+called “Hungry,” and be known as
+“Hungry Wolf.” A member of the
+“Cloud” tribe would be named “Morning,”
+because he was born in the morning.
+He would always be known as
+“Morning Cloud.”</p>
+
+<p>Later, as society became more established
+and paternity became recognized,
+we find the totem name give way to a
+gentile name. Among the Greeks and
+Romans the system was early adopted
+and proved satisfactory. Thus we have
+Caius Julius Caesar. Caius indicates<span class="pagenum" id="Page21">[21]</span>
+that he is Roman; Julius is the gentile
+name given him and the Caesar a sort
+of hereditary nickname. On the other
+hand, the early Greeks began the system
+of introducing a local name instead of
+the gentile name. Thus Thucydides
+(obtained from the grandfather), the
+son of Olorus, of the Deme (township)
+of Halimusia.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>HOW DIFFERENT NAMES<br>ORIGINATED</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>This was all right and suited the purposes
+of the Greeks and Romans, who
+had plenty of time to give full explanations
+in this way. But in Europe, for
+instance, civilization demanded more
+speed, and the increase of population
+demanded more names, so that nicknames
+and names indicating personal
+descriptions and peculiarities came into
+use. Such names as Long, Short,
+Small, Brown, White, Green and
+others of the same kind came from this
+source, and as families grew these surnames
+stuck to the family and parents
+gave their children Christian names to
+further distinguish them as individuals.
+Other surnames such as Fowler, Sadler,
+Smith, Farmer, etc., became attached
+to people because of the occupations
+in which they were engaged, and
+yet other names were derived from
+places. The owner of an extensive estate
+would be designated by a Christian
+name which might be George (after
+his King) and then to indicate his
+landownership, von (meaning of)
+Wood, making the combination of
+George von Wood, meaning George,
+the owner of the place called Wood.
+On the other hand, he might have working
+for him a laborer who lived at the
+place and, if his name was Hiram, they
+would, to indicate where he belonged,
+put the Wood after the Hiram; but,
+lest there be confusion as to his class,
+they would put an At before the Wood
+and make him Hiram Atwood, indicating
+his Christian name, where he
+worked and the fact that he was not a
+landowner.</p>
+
+<p>Many other names were invented in
+similar manner. When Adams became
+so common that there would likely be
+confusion on account of there being
+so many of them, a son of one of the
+Adams family would add to the name
+the fact that he was a son by writing
+his name Adamson, and thus start a
+new family name. Thus, in the same
+way also came Willson, Clarkson, and
+other names of that kind.</p>
+
+<p>For a long time the Jews had only
+one word for a name, such as Isaac,
+Jacob, Moses, etc. They became so
+numerous that it was impossible to distinguish
+them, and so a commission was
+named to give surnames to all the Jews
+in addition to their other names. As
+the race was then, as now, held in derision
+by the rulers of many nations
+into which the tribe had become scattered,
+the people who had charge of
+the naming of the Jews took advantage
+of the opportunity to make sport of
+them, and gave them such names as</p>
+
+<p>Rosenstock (Rose bush),</p>
+
+<p>Rosenszweig (Rose twig),</p>
+
+<p>Rosenbaum (Rose tree),</p>
+
+<p>Blumenstock (Flower bush),</p>
+
+<p>Blumenthal (Flower valley),</p>
+
+<p>etc., etc.</p>
+
+<p>Our Christian names are from similar
+sources, and while many of them
+are well selected because of their beautiful
+meanings, there are many of them
+which mean nothing as words as they
+were only invented for the purpose of
+giving a new name to a new child.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Can You Blow Out a Candle?</h2>
+
+<p>When you light a candle it burns, because
+the lighted wick heats the wax
+sufficiently to turn it into gases, which
+mix with the oxygen in the air and produce
+fire in the form of light. You
+know it is not easy to light a candle
+quickly. You must hold the lighted
+match to the wick until the wax begins
+to melt and change to gases. As long
+as the wax continues hot enough
+to melt and turn to gas the candle
+will burn until all burned up; but if
+there is a break in the continuous
+process of changing the wax to gas,
+the light will go out. Now, when you
+blow at the lighted candle, you blow
+the gases which feed the flame away
+from the lighted wick, and this makes
+a break in the continuous flow of gas
+from the wax to taper, and the light
+goes out.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page22">[22]</span></p>
+
+<div class="container w60emmax" id="Fig022">
+
+<img src="images/illo022.jpg" alt="Working of a photo camera explained">
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<h2 class="nobreak">The Story in a Photograph</h2>
+
+</div><!--chapter-->
+
+<h3>How Does a Camera Take a Picture?</h3>
+
+<p>When we look upon the surface of
+a mirror we see the image of ourself
+and our surroundings. The extent of
+the view depends upon the size of the
+mirror and the distance we are standing
+from it.</p>
+
+<p>If we hold the mirror close to our
+face we see only the face, or perhaps
+but a portion of it, and the farther
+away we are the more the mirror will
+reflect, only, of course, the various
+images will be smaller. The mirror
+reflecting exactly what the eye sees,
+without doubt had a great influence in
+inducing the experiments that resulted
+in the process we call photography.</p>
+
+<p>The taking of a photograph with a
+camera may in a way be compared with
+the action of your eyes, when you gaze
+upon your reflection in a mirror, or
+look at any object or view. Any object
+in a light strong enough to render
+it visible will reflect rays of light from
+every point.</p>
+
+<p>Now, the eye contains a lens very
+similar in form to that used in a camera.
+This lens collects the rays of light
+reflected from the object looked at
+and brings them to a focus in the back
+of the eye, forming an image or picture
+of whatever we see, just as the mirror
+collects the rays of light and reflects
+them back through the lens of the eye.</p>
+
+<p>Certain nerves transmit the impression
+of the image so focused in the back
+of the eye to the brain and we experience
+the sensation of sight.</p>
+
+<h3>What Is the Eye of the Camera?</h3>
+
+<p>The lens is the eye of the camera,
+and the process we call photography
+is the method employed to make permanent
+the image the eye or lens of the
+camera presents to a sensitive surface
+within the camera.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig022">Fig. 1</a> shows a simple form of camera,
+it being merely a light tight box
+with a lens fitted to the front, and a
+means for holding a sensitive plate at
+the back, the plate being placed at just
+the right distance to focus the rays of
+light admitted through the lens in
+exactly the same manner as the rays of
+light pass through the lens of the eye
+and come to a focus in the back part
+of the eye.</p>
+
+<p>Now, if we could look inside the
+camera we would note that the image
+was inverted, or upside down.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig022">Fig. 2</a> will explain this.</p>
+
+<p>The rays of light from “A” pass in
+a straight line through the lens “B”
+until they are interrupted by “C,”
+upon which they strike, forming an
+upside down image of the object “A.”
+But, you exclaim, “we do not see things
+upside down.” No, we do not, because
+some mental process readjusts this
+during the passing of the impression
+from the eye to our brain.</p>
+
+<p>Let us suppose we have our camera
+loaded with its sensitive plate or film.<span class="pagenum" id="Page23">[23]</span>
+We select some object or view we wish
+to photograph, uncover the lens for an
+instant, and let the light impress the
+image upon the sensitive surface of the
+plate or film. Now, how are we going
+to make this image permanent?</p>
+
+<p>If we were to examine the creamy
+yellow strip of film upon which the
+picture was taken there would seemingly
+be no difference between its present
+appearance and before the snapshot
+was made.</p>
+
+<p>Now let us suppose that this strip
+of film is a little trundle bed, and in it
+tucked securely away from the light
+are many hundreds of little chaps
+called silver bromides, little roly-poly
+fellows lying just as close together as
+possible, and protected by a coverlet
+of pure white gelatine.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>HOW A PHOTOGRAPH<br>IS DEVELOPED</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>Until the sudden flash of light in
+their faces when the picture was taken,
+they have been content to lie still and
+sleep soundly. Now they are seized
+with a strange unrest, and each little
+atom is eager to do his part in showing
+your picture to the world. Alone
+they are powerless, but they have, all
+unbeknown to them, some powerful
+chemical friends, who, organized and
+aided by the photographer, will bring
+about their transformation. These
+chemicals, with the help of the photographer,
+form themselves into a society
+called the developer.</p>
+
+<p>The photographer takes just so many
+of the tiny feathery crystals of pyro,
+just so many of the clear little atoms
+of sulphite of soda, and just so many
+little crystals of carbonate of soda, and
+tumbles them all into a beaker of clear
+cold water. Unaided by each other,
+any one of these chemicals would be
+powerless to help their little bromide
+of silver friends. The first of these
+chemicals to go to work is the carbonate
+of soda.</p>
+
+<p>He tiptoes softly over to the trundle
+bed and gently begins turning back the
+gelatine covers over the little bromide
+of silver chaps, so that Pyro can find
+them in the dark.</p>
+
+<p>It is Pyro’s mission to transform
+the little silver bromides into silver
+metal, but he is rather an impulsive
+chap, so he is accompanied by sulphite
+of soda, who warns him not to be too
+rough, and whose sole mission is to
+strain his eagerness to help his friends.</p>
+
+<p>“Go slow now,” says Sulphite, “don’t
+frighten the little silver bromides, or
+else you’ll make them cuddle up in
+heaps, and the picture won’t be as nice
+as if you wake them up gently and
+each little bromide stayed just where
+he belonged.”</p>
+
+<p>After all the little silver bromides
+that the light shone on have been transformed
+into metallic silver by the developer,
+another chemical friend has
+to step in and carry away all the little
+bromides that were not awakened by
+the flash of light.</p>
+
+<p>This friend’s name is “Hypo,” and
+in a few minutes he has carried away
+all the little bromides that are still
+sleeping, so that the trundle bed with
+the now awakened and transformed
+silver bromides will, after washing and
+drying, be called a negative, and ready
+to print your pictures from.</p>
+
+<p>If we take this negative, as it is
+called, and hold it up to the light, we
+will see that everything is reversed,
+not only from right to left, but also
+that whatever is white or light in color
+is dark in the negative, and that what
+would correspond to the darker parts
+of our picture are the lightest in the
+negative, and it is from these facts
+that we give it the name negative.</p>
+
+<p>Now, to get our picture as it should
+be, we must place this negative in
+contact with a sheet of coated paper
+that is also sensitive to light.</p>
+
+<p>So we place the negative and the
+sheet of sensitive paper in what is called
+a printing frame, with the negative
+uppermost, so that the light may shine
+through the negative, and impress the
+image upon the sheet of sensitive paper.
+Now, it stands to reason that if the
+lightest parts of our picture are the
+darkest in the negative that less light
+can pass through such portions of the
+negative in a given time, so that with
+the proper exposure to light the image
+upon the sheet of sensitive paper will
+be a correct picture of whatever the
+lens saw.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page24">[24]</span></p>
+
+<div class="container w40emmax" id="Fig024">
+
+<img src="images/illo024.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption long">The swiftest thing that the human race has ever put into motion is the steel projectile
+of a twelve-inch gun. No human eye can follow its flight. Released at a pressure of
+forty thousand pounds to the square inch—in a heat at which diamonds melt and carbon
+boils—it hurls through the air at the rate of twenty-five miles a minute, and reaches the
+mark <i>ahead of its own sound</i>! (Pictures and story by courtesy of McClure’s Magazine.)</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<h3 class="cntr"><span class="firstline">TWENTY-FIVE MILES A MINUTE</span><br>
+<span class="smcap">An Exclusive Story, Illustrated with a Series of Remarkable Photographs Taken
+with the Fastest Camera in the World</span><br>
+<span class="smcap">By Cleveland Moffett</span></h3>
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>HOW SHOOTING SHELLS<br>
+ARE PHOTOGRAPHED</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>One of the most progressive
+branches of our military service is the
+Department of Coast Defenses, which,
+under the far-seeing guidance of General
+E. M. Weaver, holds our shores
+and harbors in a state of alert preparedness
+against foreign aggression. At
+Hampton Roads sits the Coast Artillery
+Board, composed of officers and
+consulting engineers to whom are referred
+all problems relating to coast
+artillery, and who have the responsibility
+of testing all new instruments
+proposed for artillery use. The purpose
+of this article is to describe one
+among several notable achievements of
+the Hampton Roads Coast Artillery
+School, this particular work having
+been done by Captain F. J. Behr of
+the Coast Artillery Corps, who, after
+years of effort, has recently developed
+a system that makes it possible to take<span class="pagenum" id="Page25">[25]</span>
+pictures of the swiftest moving bodies,
+the great steel projectiles of our biggest
+guns—to seize them with the camera’s
+eye as they hurl through the air
+at enormous velocities or at the very
+moment of their emergence from the
+gun muzzles, and to preserve these
+images, never seen before, for military
+study and comparison. Captain Behr
+was ably assisted in this work by Engineer
+J. A. Wilson.</p>
+
+<div class="container w40emmax" id="Fig025">
+
+<p class="caption">THE FASTEST CAMERA IN THE WORLD</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo025.jpg" alt="">
+
+<div class="illotext w20emmax">
+
+<p class="fsize90">The big gun, equipped with the fastest
+camera shutter in the world, about to be fired
+and the shell photographed.</p>
+
+</div><!--illotext-->
+
+<p class="caption long">For years a young officer of the Coast Artillery has been trying to devise a camera
+so incredibly swift that it will record every stage of this lightning flight from the gun-barrel
+to the target. At last he has succeeded. His photographs—some of them taken
+one hundred thousandth of a second apart—have revealed remarkable and unsuspected
+facts to the military world. The story of his invention had never before been told.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<h4>Reckoning in Millionths of a Second.</h4>
+
+<p>Some of the increments and decrements
+of time involved in the series of
+photographs herewith published (several
+of them for the first time) are as
+small as one ten-thousandth part of a
+second. And Captain Behr has devised
+a method of taking photographs of
+projectiles as they arrive at a
+steel target and penetrate the target,
+inch by inch, that involves increments
+or decrements of time
+as small as the one hundred-thousandth
+part of a second. To
+the uninitiated it seems incredible that
+such infinitesimal divisions of time can<span class="pagenum" id="Page26">[26]</span>
+be used in practical calculations; but
+every trained physicist knows that in
+wireless work scientists of to-day speak
+casually of experiments that take account
+of <i>two-tenths or one-tenth of a
+millionth part of a second</i>!</p>
+
+<div class="container w40emmax" id="Fig026">
+
+<p class="caption">THE PROJECTILE EMERGING FROM MORTAR</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo026.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption long">In this photograph—the first of a remarkable series showing five stages of a moving
+projectile—the half-ton projectile seems to be standing still, but really it is traveling at the
+rate of 900 miles an hour. The gunners here work in concrete pits 34 feet high. Underneath
+the mounts are the powder magazines. Each pit has four mortars usually served by
+an entire Coast Artillery Company. The projectiles are the same as those used in the
+twelve-inch guns, but less powder is required because mortar projectiles are hurled high in
+the air, not straight at a vessel, and deliver their destructive blows downward from a great
+height.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page27">[27]</span></p>
+
+<div class="container w40emmax" id="Fig027">
+
+<p class="caption">THE SMOKE RINGS WHICH APPEAR</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo027.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption long">This second photograph shows the projectile almost entirely out of the mortar. Its
+sharp nose may be seen above the “gas-ring” forming at its upper end. These “gas-rings,”
+or “smoke-rings,” come without warning, and only occasionally, perhaps once in eight or
+ten shots. They rise swiftly to the height of fifty or a hundred feet, growing larger and
+larger, and giving forth a weird, shrieking sound like a second projectile. Some insist that
+these “smoke-rings” are as hard as steel, owing to the enormous compression of their composing
+gases, and the story is told of a bird caught in the path of one of them and torn to
+pieces.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>What happened to the projectile after
+it leaves the gun, or after the discharge
+of the gun, and before the projectile has
+had time to issue from the gun-barrel?
+What is the action at the muzzle of
+gases generated? What shape do these
+gases assume as they leave the gun?
+What causes the much-discussed “gas-rings” that sometimes form when a
+mortar is fired, and oftener do not
+form? What phenomena attend the
+arrival of the projectile at a solid steel
+target? Is the steel actually fused by
+the heat of impact? Is it vaporized?
+Or what? These are some of the questions
+that Captain Behr set himself to
+solve, or to help in solving, as he
+worked out his methods of rapid photography.
+His aims were strictly military,
+but his results make fascinating
+appeal to the general imagination.
+Fancy doing anything in the one hundred-thousandth
+part of a second!</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page28">[28]</span></p>
+
+<div class="container w40emmax" id="Fig028">
+
+<p class="caption">THE PROJECTILE HIDDEN BY THE SMOKE CONE</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo028.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption long">In the third photograph the smoke-cone is almost perfect and gives the famous “powder-puff”
+effect. It still hides the projectile, although the latter is traveling at a velocity that
+would take it from New York to Chicago in one hour. At night the “gas-rings” present
+a startling and fascinating appearance, burning with a reddish orange glow, and whirling
+with a complicated double motion, strange opalescent balls, like rings of Saturn. A study
+of these photographs—the first record ever made of the “gas-rings”—has led some experts
+to the conclusion that the cause of the rings is defective ramming of the projectile.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page29">[29]</span></p>
+
+<div class="container w40emmax" id="Fig029">
+
+<p class="caption">THE PROJECTILE EMERGING FROM SMOKE CONE</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo029.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption long">The fourth photograph shows the projectile emerging from the smoke-cone about
+thirty feet above the muzzle of the mortar. The men who fire these mortars from the mortar-pits
+never see the distant target or vessel they are firing at, but point their mortars
+according to directions transmitted to them (usually by telephone) from observers at
+distant stations. And so great a degree of precision has been attained that, on certain
+practice occasions at Hampton Roads, a record of nine hits out of ten shots has been
+scored on a moving target five miles out in the ocean. This picture shows the smoke-cone
+as first seen by the human eye.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>Captain Behr’s general idea was to
+utilize some phenomena connected with
+the discharge to actuate, by electrical
+connections, a mechanism that would
+work a rapid shutter in a properly
+placed camera. The phenomenon of
+concussion was tried first—the smash
+of air against a little swinging door;
+but this was much too slow. The projectile
+was hundreds of yards away before
+the camera had registered its picture.
+And that chance was gone!</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page30">[30]</span></p>
+
+<div class="container w40emmax" id="Fig030">
+
+<p class="caption">THE PROJECTILE HIGH IN THE AIR</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo030.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption long">In the fifth photograph the projectile is seen entirely clear of the smoke-cone and
+well started on its long flight. Climbing into the sky at this steep angle, it will reach a height
+of from three to six miles before it begins to descend. There are harbors on our coasts
+guarded by so many guns and mortars that if these were fired simultaneously they could
+hurl against a given small area a converging rain of projectiles aggregating more than
+fifty tons in their combined mass. A minute later they could hurl another fifty tons against
+the same small area; and so on as long as the ammunition lasted.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page31">[31]</span></p>
+
+<p>In the next trial, several months
+later, Captain Behr arranged to have
+the electrical connections made or
+broken by the movement of the gun-carriage
+itself in recoiling; but the result
+was unsatisfactory. Nor was he
+more fortunate at the succeeding target
+practice, when, having placed the apparatus
+farther forward on the parapet,
+he had the camera demolished by the
+force of the concussion and several
+blades of the rapid shutter broken. He
+was satisfied, now, that his effort to
+actuate the camera mechanism from the
+gun-carriage would never give the
+requisite precision in results, and he
+saw that he must work with a device
+functioning more reliably.</p>
+
+<p>In the months that followed before
+the next target practice, the Captain did
+some experimenting, and finally determined
+making the projectile itself displace
+a length of piano-wire fixed
+across the muzzle of the gun, and thus
+actuate the electrical system and operate
+the shutter. In this way he eliminated
+troublesome variables of recoil,
+elasticity of the carriage, etc., leaving
+to determine only the time element of
+the electrical system to function. This
+result was admirable, and, after taking
+several similar pictures, the captain
+found that he could now operate with
+great precision—that is, he could get
+the same phase of the discharge with
+almost identical shapes of gas-cone and
+smoke-cloud, and he could get these
+every time.</p>
+
+<p>In the fall of 1912 Captain Behr
+succeeded in obtaining a series of extremely
+rapid photographs showing a
+twelve-inch mortar battery in action.
+In taking these pictures the camera was
+placed on an elevation about ten feet
+above the concrete floor and about sixty
+feet back of the mortars. The electrical
+device for working the shutter was
+actuated by the mortar itself in its recoil.
+These pictures were taken in
+about one five-thousandth of a second—which
+is the more remarkable as the
+last two were taken in the shade after
+4.30 <span class="allsmcap">A.M.</span> The first three were taken
+about noon, in the sunshine, as the
+shadows show.</p>
+
+<p>So great was the precision of the
+electrical device as to render possible
+the photographic recording of these
+mortar projectiles, moving at great velocities,
+in almost any desired position
+after the discharge, say two feet away
+from the muzzle, or six feet away, or
+twenty feet away, or right at the muzzle,
+as shown in the first mortar <a href="#Fig026">picture</a>,
+where the great projectile has
+been caught in its flight half way out
+of the mortar.</p>
+
+<h4>Pictures Never Seen By the Human Eye.</h4>
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>A CAMERA THAT IS<br>FASTER THAN THE EYE</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>It is interesting to note that of these
+five mortar pictures, representing five
+phases of the firing, only the last two
+are ever seen by the human eye. The
+far swifter camera, acting in about one
+five-thousandth of a second, has caught
+all these phases as reproduced here;
+but, to the ordinary observer standing
+by, the first visible impression after
+firing is that of the smoke-cone as
+developed in <a href="#Fig029">Number Four</a>. The
+strange “powder-puff” effect shown in
+<a href="#Fig028">Number Three</a> is never seen; nor the
+earlier effects in <a href="#Fig026">Numbers One</a> and
+<a href="#Fig027">Two</a>. Nor is any sound heard by an
+observer or by the gun crew until the
+third or fourth phase has been reached.
+This is a matter of simple calculation.</p>
+
+<p>Sound travels through the air very
+slowly as compared with light, and in
+<a href="#Fig026">Numbers One</a>, <a href="#Fig027">Two</a>, and <a href="#Fig028">Three</a>, although
+the crashing explosion has taken
+place and the projectile is already
+started on its long journey, the men
+(even the lanyard man, who is nearest),
+have heard nothing, since the
+sound-waves have not yet had time to
+reach their ears. Nor has the mortar
+itself had time to recoil, as it does presently,
+down into the well in the floor of
+the pit.</p>
+
+<p>The men aboard the towing vessels
+that drag the floating targets during
+gun and mortar practice would seem to
+be in a dangerous position, since the
+tow-line is not more than two hundred
+yards long for guns and five hundred
+yards long for mortars, and a very<span class="pagenum" id="Page32">[32]</span>
+slight error in aim or adjustment might
+cause a deviation of several hundred
+yards when the range is eight or ten
+thousand yards. As a matter of fact,
+such errors do not occur, and a gun-pointer
+who would make a right or left
+deviation from the target of ten yards,
+or at the most fifteen yards at a distance
+of five miles, would be considered
+unfit for his job. In one or two
+rare instances a towing vessel has been
+struck when a projectile has fallen
+short and then ricochetted to the right,
+as it invariably does owing to its rotation
+in that direction. The rifling of
+the gun-barrel causes this rotation.</p>
+
+<div class="container w40emmax" id="Fig032">
+
+<img src="images/illo032.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption long">This shows one of Captain Behr’s earliest efforts to photograph the projectile from a
+twelve-inch gun. The man on the platform has been adjusting the electrical connections
+that actuate the camera mechanism. The halo effect at the muzzle of the gun is due to
+compressed air caused by the forward rush of the projectile. The projectile has not yet
+emerged from the muzzle of the gun. On the right is the place where the “Merrimac” and
+the “Monitor” had their famous fight.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>Sometimes these great projectiles
+ricochet several times, and go bounding
+over the water as a pebble skips along
+the surface of a mill-pond, only there
+may be the distance of a mile or more
+between these giant leaps.</p>
+
+<h4>The Projectile Travels Faster Than the
+Sound It Makes.</h4>
+
+<p>A strange phenomenon is witnessed
+by the observer on a towing vessel as
+he looks, rather uneasily perhaps, toward
+the distant shore battery, that
+seems to be firing straight at him.
+First there is a flash and a puff
+of smoke; then nothing for a period
+of seconds, while the projectile
+is on its way; then suddenly<span class="pagenum" id="Page33">[33]</span>
+a great splash as the mass of iron
+strikes the water. Up to this moment
+there has been no sound of the discharge,
+no sound of the projectile, since
+it travels faster than the sound-waves;
+but now, <i>after</i> it has buried itself in
+the ocean, is heard its own unmistakable
+voice, a low, buzzing <i>um-m-m-m</i>
+approaching from the shore. The projectile
+itself has arrived <i>before</i> the
+sound that it makes in transit, and the
+sound arrives afterward. Last of all
+is heard the boom of the discharge.</p>
+
+<div class="container w40emmax" id="Fig033">
+
+<p class="caption">A GUN THAT PHOTOGRAPHED ITS OWN SHOT</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo033.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption long">In this beautiful picture the hurling projectile was itself the photographer: that is,
+in passing out of the gun-barrel, it broke a length of piano-wire stretched across the muzzle
+and thus automatically closed an electrical circuit that actuated the camera mechanism. And
+so rapid was the shutter that the great shot hurled forth in the discharge photographed
+here has not yet had time to issue from the smoke-cone, where it is still hidden.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>Owing to the great velocity of gun
+projectiles, it is almost impossible for
+an observer near the target to see them
+as they approach; but a trained eye can
+discern the slower moving mortar projectiles
+as they drop out of the sky,
+shrieking as they come, curving downward
+from a height of four or five
+miles, half a ton falling from a height
+of four or five miles.</p>
+
+<div class="container w40emmax" id="Fig034">
+
+<p class="caption">EXPLODING A SUBMARINE MINE</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo034.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption long">This photograph illustrates another important form of coast defense—the submarine
+mine. A target about 5 by 5 feet, with a red flag at its apex, is towed across the mine-field,
+the mines being exploded electrically from a shore station several miles away. The
+methods of laying and exploding these mines are carefully kept secrets. In this case a
+charge of five hundred pounds of the newest explosive was used. Fragments of the
+shattered target and mine-buoy are seen at the right of the picture. Tons of water are
+hurled into the air by these explosions, and hundreds of fish are killed or stunned.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>It is difficult to realize what an enormous
+force is released when one of
+these twelve-inch guns is discharged.
+The pressure inside of the gun behind
+the projectile is between thirty-five and
+forty thousand pounds to the square
+inch. No engine or machine made by
+man produces anything like this pressure.
+The boiler pressure in steam-engines,
+or in big turbines driven by superheated
+steam, does not exceed two<span class="pagenum" id="Page34">[34]</span>
+hundred or three hundred pounds to
+the square inch. The huge hydraulic
+presses that would crumple up a steel
+girder do not exert a pressure of more
+than one thousand pounds to the square
+inch. The only reason a gun-barrel
+can resist this pressure (forty thousand
+pounds to the square inch) is that it is
+built up in a series of concentric steel
+hoops or tubes shrunk one over the
+other until there is a resistance capacity
+of from seventy thousand to ninety<span class="pagenum" id="Page35">[35]</span>
+thousand pounds to the square inch.
+Even at rest, the barrels of these great
+guns are under such enormous compression,
+from being thus squeezed within
+these outer steel coverings, that, if the
+retaining steel jackets were suddenly
+cut, the tubes would blow themselves
+into pieces from the violent reaction of
+release.</p>
+
+<p>Not only does this smokeless powder,
+burning inside these guns, produce
+enormous pressure, but it generates inconceivably
+great heat. Water boils at
+100° Centigrade; iron melts at 1400°;
+platinum and the most resistant metals
+at 2900°; while the hottest thing on
+earth is the temperature of the electric
+arc, in which carbon boils. This temperature
+is between 3000° and 4000°
+Centigrade, and is believed to be the
+same as that of these great powder
+chambers when the gun is fired. Thus
+a diamond, the hardest substance
+known, would melt in the barrel of a
+twelve-inch gun at the moment of discharge.
+The consequence is that at
+each discharge of a big gun a thin skin
+of metal inside the barrel is literally
+fused, and this leads to rapid erosion
+of the softened surfaces under the tearing
+pressure of gases generated. The
+rifling is worn away; the band over the
+projectile becomes loose-fitting; and
+soon the huge gun, that has cost such
+a great sum, is rendered unfit for service.
+The life of a twelve-inch gun is
+only 450 rounds, that is, the gun would
+be worn out if fired every three minutes
+for a single day. After that a new
+life may be given it by boring out the
+inner tube and putting in a new steel
+lining.</p>
+
+<h4>A Secret for Which Foreign Governments
+Would Pay Millions.</h4>
+
+<p>A few words may be added about the
+formidable smokeless powder used in
+these great guns. This powder, in spite
+of its terrible power, is of innocent appearance,
+and a small stick of it may
+be held safely in the hand while it
+burns with a vivid yellowish flame.
+There is no danger of its exploding or
+detonating like gun-cotton, and yet it
+is made from gun-cotton, treated by a
+colloiding process that is one of our
+jealously guarded military secrets.
+There are foreign governments that
+would give millions to know exactly
+how this powder is made and how it is
+preserved for years without deterioration.
+The recent destruction of two
+ships of the French navy was due, it
+is believed, to deterioration of their
+smokeless powder.</p>
+
+<div class="container w60emmax" id="Fig035">
+
+<img src="images/illo035.jpg" alt="Man standing on horse-back with lasso; Low-flying biplane">
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Do Some Eyes In a Picture Seem
+to Follow Us?</h2>
+
+<p>If a person’s picture is taken with
+the eyes of the person looking directly
+into the lens or opening of the camera,
+then the eyes in the picture will always<span class="pagenum" id="Page36">[36]</span>
+be directly on and appear to follow
+whoever is looking at it. This is also
+true of paintings. If a subject being
+painted is posed so as to look directly
+at the painter, and the artist paints the
+picture with the eyes so pointed, then
+the eyes of the picture will follow you.
+When you are looking at a picture of a
+person and the eyes do not follow you,
+you will know at once that he was not
+looking at the camera or artist when
+the picture was being taken or painted.</p>
+
+<div class="container w30emmax" id="Fig036">
+
+<img src="images/illo036.jpg" alt="Drawing of boy looking straight at and pointing at the reader">
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<h2 class="minor">Where Does a Light Go When It Goes
+Out?</h2>
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>WHY YOU CAN BLOW<br>OUT A CANDLE</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>To understand the answer to this
+question fully you will first have to
+learn what light is, and particularly
+that it is not the flame from the gas
+jet or of the lamp or candle that is
+actually the light, but that light consists
+of rays or waves in the ether,
+which is constantly in all space and
+even in our bodies, coming from the
+something that is burning. This in the
+instance above mentioned would be the
+gas burning as it comes out of the gas
+jet, the oil in the lamp as it comes up
+through the wick or the flame of the
+candle. We are apt to call a lighted
+gas jet a lamp, or a candle, light, because
+it is steady. Really, however,
+there is no such thing as keeping light
+in a room in an actual sense, for rays
+of light travel from the substance
+which produces them faster than anything
+else we know of in the world.
+The first thing a light wave does when
+it is once created is to go some place,
+and it does this at the rate of 186,000
+miles per second. If it cannot penetrate
+the walls of the room it is either
+reflected back in the direction from
+which it came or transformed by the
+objects which it strikes into some other
+kind of energy.</p>
+
+<p>When you look at the rays coming
+from a gas jet, you do not see one ray
+for more than, say the millionth part
+of a second, but because these rays of
+light come so fast one after the other
+from the burning jet and spread in all
+directions, they seem to be continuous.</p>
+
+<p>So you see that the rays of light are
+going away as fast as they are coming
+from the gas jet. They either go on as
+light or, as said above, are changed into
+other forms of energy when they strike
+things they cannot penetrate in the
+form of light, or rather one thing,
+which is heat. A large part of it goes
+into the air in the room in the form
+of heat, as you well know, now that
+it is called to your attention. Some of
+it goes into the furniture and some of
+it is changed into another form of heat,
+which, combining with the chemicals in
+other things it mixes with, changes
+their appearance and usefulness. As,
+for instance, the carpets and hangings
+in the room, the colors of which become
+faded when exposed to light rays
+too much. The heat from the light
+rays is responsible for the fading of
+colors in our garments as well.</p>
+
+<p>When you “put out the light,” as we
+say, or turn off the gas, you cut off the
+source of light. Really, then, our expression
+that “the light goes out” is
+only true while the gas is lighted, for
+from the flaming gas jet the light is
+going out all the time, whereas when
+the gas is turned off no light is being
+produced, and when you turn off the
+gas you do not turn out the light, but
+only that which makes light.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page37">[37]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Does a Fire Go Out?</h2>
+
+<p>Fire will go out naturally when there
+is nothing left to burn, or it will go
+out if it cannot secure enough oxygen
+out of the air to keep it going. In the
+first case it dies what we might call a
+“natural death,” and in the latter case
+the fire practically suffocates. The fire
+in the open fireplace, if it has plenty
+of air, will burn up everything burnable
+that it can reach. The stones of
+the fireplace or other parts of a stove
+will not burn, because they have already
+been burned, and you cannot burn anything
+a second time, if all of the oxygen
+in it was burned out of it the first time.</p>
+
+<p>Now, then, to burn up a thing, you
+must first start a fire under it, and then
+keep a constant draft of air playing
+on it from beneath, or the fire will die
+out. The more difficult a thing is to
+burn, the more important it is that you
+have plenty of draft. If the ashes accumulate
+under the fire the air cannot
+go through them in sufficient quantity
+and the fire will go out. Other things
+which prevent the current of air from
+going up through the fire will cause it
+to go out. That is why we close the
+lower door of the furnace, to keep the
+fire from burning out. When we shut
+off the draft of air from below, the fire
+in the furnace burns slowly, i. e., it
+just hangs on, so to speak.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Does a Lamp Give a Better Light
+With the Chimney On?</h2>
+
+<p>When a lamp is burning without a
+chimney it generally smokes. That is
+because the oil which is coming up
+through the wick is being only partially
+burned. The carbon, which is
+about one-half of what the oil contains,
+is not being burned at all, and
+goes off into the air in little black
+specks with the gases which are thrown
+off. The reason the carbon is not
+burned when the chimney is off is that
+there is not sufficient oxygen from the
+air combining with it, as it is separated
+from the oil in the partial combustion
+that is going on. To make the carbon
+in the oil burn you must mix it with
+plenty of oxygen at a certain temperature,
+and this can only be done by forcing
+sufficient oxygen through the flame
+to bring the heat of the flame to the
+point where the carbon will combine
+with it and burn. When you put the
+chimney on the lamp you create a draft
+which forces more oxygen through the
+flame, brings the heat up to the proper
+temperature and enables the carbon to
+combine with it and burn. When you
+take the chimney off again the heat
+goes down, when the draft is shut off
+and the lamp smokes again.</p>
+
+<p>The chimney also protects the flame
+of the lamp from drafts from the sides
+and above, and helps to make a brighter
+light, because a steady light is brighter
+than a flickering one.</p>
+
+<p>The draft created by the chimney
+also forces the gases produced by the
+burning oil up and away from the
+flame. Some of these gases have a
+tendency to put out a light or a fire.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Does Light Weigh Anything?</h2>
+
+<p>To get at the answer to this question
+we must go back to the definition of
+light. Light is a wave in the ether and
+contains no particles of matter. It,
+therefore, does not weigh anything at
+all.</p>
+
+<p>When men had studied light thoroughly,
+however, they came to the conclusion
+that it must have the power of
+pressure, which, from the standpoint of
+results, would amount to the same thing
+as having weight. They reasoned that
+if you had a perfect balance and let
+sunlight shine down on one of the sides
+of the balance, that side should go
+down under the pressure of light. In
+their first experiments along this line
+men failed to show that under such
+conditions the side of the balance on
+which the light shone did go down,
+but by continuous experiments it was
+proved finally that the light did exert
+a sufficient pressure to cause the scales
+to go down, and in effect this is the
+same as having weight; but this has
+been found to be a common property
+of rays of various kinds, including heat,<span class="pagenum" id="Page38">[38]</span>
+and we, therefore, do not speak of this
+quality as weight, but as the power of
+radiating pressure.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Does a Stick Seem to Bend When
+Put in Water?</h2>
+
+<p>When light passes from one medium
+to another, as for example from glass
+or water to air, or from air or glass
+to water, the rays of light change their
+course, thus making them seem to be
+bent or broken. The rays of light from
+the part of the stick in the water take
+a different direction from the rays
+from the part which is out of the water,
+giving the appearance of breaking or
+bending at the place where the air and
+water meet. It is, of course, the light
+rays which are bent and not the object
+itself.</p>
+
+<p>This bending or changing of the path
+of light rays is called refraction. If
+you place a coin in a glass of water so
+that it may be viewed obliquely, you
+can apparently see two coins, a small
+one through the surface of the water
+and another apparently magnified
+through the side of the glass.</p>
+
+<p>This is due only to the absolute principle
+that rays of light change their
+direction in passing from one thing to
+another, and on this principle of the
+rays of light our optical instruments,
+including the microscope, the telescope,
+the camera and eyeglasses are based.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Makes the Stars Twinkle?</h2>
+
+<p>I might tell you, just to show how
+clever I am, that stars do not twinkle
+at all, and leave you with that for an
+answer. But since they really do seem
+to twinkle, and that is what causes
+your question, I will tell you. As we
+have already learned in our talks
+about the stars and the sky in general,
+the stars are suns which are constantly
+throwing off light, just as our sun gives
+us light, and when this light strikes
+the air which surrounds the earth it
+meets many objects—little particles of
+dust and other things always floating
+about in it. The light comes to us in
+the form of rays from the stars and
+some of these rays strike particles of
+various kinds in the air and are thus
+interfered with. If you are looking at
+a lighted window some distance away
+and there are a lot of boys and girls
+or men and women running past the
+window, one after the other, rapidly,
+it will make the light in the window
+appear to twinkle. The twinkling is
+due to the interference which the rays
+of light encounter while traveling toward
+the eye.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Does an Onion Make the Tears
+Come?</h2>
+
+<p>That is nature’s way of protecting
+the eyes from the smarting which the
+onion would cause in your eyes if the
+tears did not come quickly and overcome
+the bad effect so produced. Tears
+are provided for washing the ball of
+your eyes. Every time you wink a
+little tear is released from under the
+eyelid, and the wink spreads it all over
+the eyeball. This washes down the
+front of the eyeball and cleanses it of
+all dust and other things that fly at
+the eye from the air. Then the tear
+runs along a little channel, much like
+a trough, at the lower part of the eye,
+and out through a little hole in the eye,
+and in this case the tear is really only
+an eye-wash. Many things, but more
+often sadness or injured feelings, start
+the tears coming so fast from under
+the eyelid that the little trough at the
+bottom and the hole in the corner of
+the eye are too small to hold them or
+carry them off, so they roll over the
+edge of the lower eyelid and down the
+face. These are what we call tears.
+Among other things that will cause
+tear-glands to cause an over-supply
+of eye-wash to come down, are onions.
+What they give off is very trying to
+the eyes, and so, just as soon as the
+something which an onion throws off
+hits the eyeball, the nerves of the eye
+telegraph the brain to turn on the tears
+quickly, and they come in a little deluge
+and counteract the bad effect of the
+onion.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page39">[39]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage landscape">
+
+<p class="paghead">SOME REMARKABLE PICTURES WITH A FAST CAMERA</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo039.jpg" alt="Somersault in the air -- Racing car jumping on dirt road -- Surfer standing on board --
+Rower doing handstand in boat -- Divers holding each other's hands and feet">
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page40">[40]</span></p>
+
+<div class="container w45emmax" id="Fig040">
+
+<img src="images/illo040.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">THE CAVE MAN OF PREHISTORIC TIMES WHO UNCONSCIOUSLY INVENTED AMMUNITION</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<h2 class="nobreak">The First Missile</h2>
+
+</div><!--chapter-->
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>HOW MAN LEARNED<br>
+TO SHOOT</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>A naked savage found himself in
+the greatest danger. A wild beast,
+hungry and fierce was about to attack
+him. Escape was impossible. Retreat
+was cut off. He must fight for
+his life—but how?</p>
+
+<p>Should he bite, scratch or kick?
+Should he strike with his fist? These
+were the natural defences of his body,
+but what were they against the teeth,
+the claws and the tremendous muscles
+of his enemy? Should he wrench a
+dead branch from a tree and use it for
+a club? That would bring him within
+striking distance to be torn to pieces
+before he could deal a second blow.</p>
+
+<p>There was but a moment in which
+to act. Swiftly he seized a jagged
+fragment of rock from the ground and
+hurled it with all his force at the blazing
+eyes before him; then another, and
+another, until the beast, dazed and
+bleeding from the unexpected blows,
+fell back and gave him a chance to
+escape. He knew that he had saved his
+life, but there was something else
+which his dull brain failed to realize.</p>
+
+<p>He had invented arms and ammunition!</p>
+
+<p>In other words, he had needed to
+strike a harder blow than the blow of
+his fist, at a greater distance than the<span class="pagenum" id="Page41">[41]</span>
+length of his arm, and his brain showed
+him how to do it. After all, what is
+a modern rifle but a device which man
+has made with his brain permitting him
+to strike an enormously hard blow at
+a wonderful distance? Firearms are
+really but a more perfect form of
+stone-throwing, and this early Cave
+Man took the first step that has led
+down the ages.</p>
+
+<p>This strange story of a development
+has been taking place slowly through
+thousands and thousands of years, so
+that today you are able to take a swift
+shot at distant game instead of merely
+throwing stones.</p>
+
+<div class="container w45emmax" id="Fig041">
+
+<p class="caption">THE SLING MAN IN ACTION</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo041.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">PRACTICE DEVELOPED SOME WONDERFUL MARKSMEN AMONG THE USERS OF THIS PRIMITIVE WEAPON</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>We do not know the name of the
+man who invented the sling. Possibly
+he did not even have a name, but
+in some way he hit upon a scheme for
+throwing stones farther, harder, and
+straighter than any of his ancestors.</p>
+
+<p>The men and women in the Cave
+Colony suddenly found that one bright-eyed
+young fellow, with a little
+straighter forehead than the others,
+was beating them all at hunting. During
+weeks he had been going away
+mysteriously, for hours each day. Now,
+whenever he left the camp he was sure
+to bring home game, while the other
+men would straggle back for the most
+part empty-handed.</p>
+
+<p>Was it witchcraft? They decided to
+investigate.</p>
+
+<p>Accordingly, one morning several of
+them followed at a careful distance as
+he sought the shore of a stream where
+water-fowl might be found. Parting
+the leaves, they saw him pick up a pebble
+from the bank and then to their
+surprise, take off his girdle of skin and
+place the stone in its center, holding
+both ends with his right hand.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page42">[42]</span></p>
+
+<p>Stranger still, he whirled the girdle
+twice around his head, then released
+one end so that the leather strip flew
+out and the stone shot straight at a bird
+in the water.</p>
+
+<p>The mystery was solved. They had
+seen the first slingman in action.</p>
+
+<p>The new plan worked with great success,
+and a little practice made expert
+marksmen. We know that most of the
+early races used it for hunting and in
+war. We find it shown in pictures
+made many thousands of years ago in
+ancient Egypt and Assyria. We find
+it in the Roman Army where the slingman
+was called a “funditor.”</p>
+
+<p>Surely, too, you remember the story
+of David and Goliath when the young
+shepherd “prevailed over the Philistine
+with a sling and with a stone.”</p>
+
+<p>Yet slings had their drawbacks. A
+stone slung might kill a bird or even a
+man, but it was not very effective
+against big game.</p>
+
+<p>What was wanted was a missile to
+pierce a thick hide.</p>
+
+<p>Man had begun to make spears for
+use in a pinch, but would you like to
+tackle a husky bear or a well-horned
+stag with only a spear for a weapon?</p>
+
+<p>No more did our undressed ancestors.
+The invention of the greatly desired
+arm probably came about in a
+most curious way.</p>
+
+<p>Long ages ago man had learned to
+make fire by patiently rubbing two
+sticks together, or by twirling a round
+one between his hands with its point
+resting upon a flat piece of wood.</p>
+
+<div class="container w45emmax" id="Fig042">
+
+<p class="caption">THE “LONG BOW” IN SHERWOOD FOREST</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo042.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">ONE OF ROBIN HOOD’S FAMOUS BAND ENCOUNTERS A SAVAGE TUSKER AT CLOSE RANGE</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>In this way it could be made to
+smoke, and finally set fire to a tuft of
+dried moss, from which he might get a
+flame for cooking. This was such hard
+work that he bethought him to twist
+a string of sinew about the upright
+spindle and cause it to twirl by pulling
+alternately at the two string ends,
+as some savage races still do. From<span class="pagenum" id="Page43">[43]</span>
+this it was a simple step to fasten the
+ends of the two strings to a bent piece
+of wood, another great advantage
+since now but one hand was needed to
+twirl the spindle, and the other could
+hold it in place. This was the “bow-drill”
+which also is used to this day.</p>
+
+<p>But bent wood is apt to be springy.
+Suppose that while one were bearing
+on pretty hard with a well-tightened
+string, in order to bring fire quickly, the
+point of the spindle should slip from
+its block. Naturally, it would fly away
+with some force if the position were
+just right.</p>
+
+<div class="container w45emmax" id="Fig043">
+
+<p class="caption">DEER STALKING WITH THE CROSSBOW</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo043.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">THIS COMPACT ARM WITH ITS SMALL BOLT AND GREAT POWER WAS POPULAR WITH MANY SPORTSMEN</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>There was one man who stopped
+short when he lost his spindle, for a
+red-hot idea shot suddenly through his
+brain.</p>
+
+<p>Once or twice he chuckled to himself
+softly. Thereupon he arose and
+began to experiment. He chose a longer,
+springier piece of wood, bent it into a
+bow, and strung it with a longer thong.
+He placed the end of a straight stick
+against the thong, drew it strongly
+back, and released it.</p>
+
+<p>The shaft whizzed away with force
+enough to delight him, and lo, there
+was the first Bow-and-Arrow!</p>
+
+<p>Armed with his bow-and-arrow, man
+now was lord of creation. No longer
+was it necessary for him to huddle
+with his fellows in some cave to avoid
+being eaten by prowling beasts. Instead
+he went where he would and
+boldly hunted the fiercest of them. In
+other words, his brain was beginning to
+tell, for though his body was still no
+match for the lion and the bear, he had
+thought out a way to conquer them.</p>
+
+<p>Also he was better fed with a greater
+variety of game. And now, free to
+come and go wherever he might find it,<span class="pagenum" id="Page44">[44]</span>
+he was able to spread into various lands
+and so to organize the tribes and nations
+which at last gave us civilization
+and history.</p>
+
+<p>A new weapon now came about
+through warfare. Man has been a savage
+fighting animal through pretty
+much all his history, but while he tried
+to kill the other fellow, he objected to
+being killed himself.</p>
+
+<p>Therefore he took to wearing armor.
+During the Middle Ages he piled on
+more and more, until at last one of the
+knights could hardly walk, and it took
+a strong horse to carry him. When
+such a one fell, he went over with a
+crash like a tin-peddler’s wagon, and
+had to be picked up again by some of
+his men. Such armor would turn most
+of the arrows. Hence invention got at
+work again and produced the Crossbow
+and its bolt. We have already
+learned how the tough skin of animals
+brought about the bow; now we see
+that man’s artificial iron skin caused
+the invention of the crossbow.</p>
+
+<p>What was the Crossbow? It was
+the first real hand-shooting machine.
+It was another big step toward the day
+of the rifle. The idea was simple
+enough. Wooden bows had already
+been made as strong as the strongest
+man could pull, and they wished for
+still stronger ones—steel ones. How
+could they pull them? At first they
+mounted them upon a wooden frame
+and rested one end on the shoulder for
+a brace. Then they took to pressing
+the other end against the ground, and
+using both hands. Next, it was a
+bright idea to put a stirrup on this end,
+in order to hold it with the foot.</p>
+
+<p>Still they were not satisfied. “Stronger,
+stronger!” they clamored; “give us
+bows which will kill the enemy farther
+away than he can shoot at us! If we
+cannot set such bows with both arms
+let us try our backs!” So they fastened
+“belt-claws” to their stout girdles and
+tugged the bow strings into place with
+their back and leg muscles.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Who First Discovered the Power of
+Gunpowder?</h2>
+
+<p>Probably the Chinese, although all
+authorities do not agree. Strange,
+is it not, that a race still using
+crossbows in its army should have
+known of explosives long before the
+Christian Era, and perhaps as far back
+as the time of Moses? Here is a passage
+from their ancient Gentoo Code
+of Laws: “The magistrate shall not
+make war with any deceitful machine,
+or with poisoned weapons, or with cannons
+or guns, or any kind of firearms.”
+But China might as well have been
+Mars before the age of travel. Our
+civilization had to work out the problem
+for itself.</p>
+
+<p>It all began through playing with
+fire. It was desired to throw fire on
+an enemy’s buildings, or his ships, and
+so destroy them.</p>
+
+<p>Burning torches were thrown by machines,
+made of cords and springs, over
+a city wall, and it became a great study
+to find the best burning compound with
+which to cover these torches. One was
+needed which would blaze with a great
+flame and was hard to put out.</p>
+
+<p>Hence the early chemists made all
+possible mixtures of pitch, resin,
+naphtha, sulphur, saltpeter, etc.;
+“Greek fire” was one of the most
+famous.</p>
+
+<p>Many of these were made in the
+monasteries. The monks were pretty
+much the only people in those days
+with time for study, and two of these
+shaven-headed scientists now had a
+chance to enter history. Roger Bacon
+was the first. One night he was working
+his diabolical mixture in the stone-walled
+laboratory, and watched, by the
+flickering lights, the progress of a certain
+interesting combination for which
+he had used pure instead of impure
+saltpeter.</p>
+
+<p>Suddenly there was an explosion,
+shattering the chemical apparatus and
+probably alarming the whole building.
+That explosion proved the new combination
+was not fitted for use as a
+thrown fire; it also showed the existence
+of terrible forces far beyond the
+power of all bow-springs, even those
+made of steel.</p>
+
+<p>Roger Bacon thus discovered what
+was practically gunpowder, as far back<span class="pagenum" id="Page45">[45]</span>
+as the thirteenth century, and left writings
+in which he recorded mixing 11.2
+parts of the saltpeter, 29.4 of charcoal,
+and 29 of sulphur. This was the formula
+developed as the result of his investigations.</p>
+
+<p>Berthold Schwartz, a monk of Freiburg,
+studied Bacon’s works and carried
+on dangerous experiments of his
+own, so that he is ranked with Bacon
+for the honor. He was also the first
+one to rouse the interest of Europe in
+the great discovery.</p>
+
+<div class="container w45emmax" id="Fig045">
+
+<img src="images/illo045.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">THE “KENTUCKY RIFLE” WITH ITS FLINT-LOCK WAS ACCURATE BUT MUST BE MUZZLE-CHARGED</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>THE FIRST<br>
+REAL FIRE ARMS</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>And then began the first crude,
+clumsy efforts at gunmaking. Firearms
+were born.</p>
+
+<p>Hand bombards and culverins were
+among the early types. Some of these
+were so heavy that a forked support
+had to be driven into the ground, and
+two men were needed, one to hold and
+aim, the other to prime and fire.</p>
+
+<p>Improvements kept coming, however.
+Guns were lightened and bettered in
+shape. Somebody thought of putting
+a flash pan, for the powder, by the
+side of the touch-hole, and now it was
+decided to fasten the slow-match in
+a movable cock upon the barrel, and
+ignite it with a trigger. These matches
+were fuses of some slow-burning fiber,
+like tow, which would keep a spark for
+a considerable time. Formerly they
+had to be carried separately, but the
+new arrangement was a great convenience
+and made the match-lock. The
+cock, being curved like a snake, was
+called the “serpentine.”</p>
+
+<p>About the time sportsmen were
+through wondering at the convenience
+of the match-lock, they began to realize
+its inconvenience. They found that
+they burned up a great deal of fuse,
+and were hard to keep lighted. Both
+statements were true, so inventors
+racked their brains again for something<span class="pagenum" id="Page46">[46]</span>
+better. They all knew you could
+bring sparks with flint and steel, and
+that seemed an idea worth working on.
+A Nuremberg inventor, in 1515, hit on
+the wheel-lock. In this a notched steel
+wheel was wound up with a key like a
+clock. Flint or pyrite was held against
+the jagged edge of the wheel by the
+pressure of the serpentine. You pulled
+the trigger, then “whirr,” the wheel
+revolved, a stream of sparks flew off
+into the flash-pan, and the gun was
+discharged.</p>
+
+<div class="container" id="Fig046">
+
+<img src="images/illo046.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">WHEEL-LOCK RIFLE</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>This gun worked beautifully, but it
+was expensive. Wealthy sportsmen
+could afford them, and so for the first
+time firearms began to be used for
+hunting. Some of these sixteenth and
+seventeenth century nabobs had such
+guns of beautiful workmanship, so
+wrought and carved and inlaid, that
+they must have cost a small fortune.
+You will find them in many large
+museums to this day.</p>
+
+<p>But now the robbers had their turn.
+There are two stories of the invention
+of the flint-lock. Both deal with
+robbers, both have good authority, and
+both may be true, for inventions sometimes
+are made independently in different
+places.</p>
+
+<p>One story runs that the flint-lock
+which was often styled “Lock à la
+Miquelet,” from the Spanish word,
+“Miquelitos”—marauders—told its
+origin in its name. The other is, that
+the flint-lock was invented in Holland
+by gangs of thieves, whose principal
+business was to steal poultry.</p>
+
+<p>In either case the explanation is
+easy. The match-lock showed its fire
+at night and wouldn’t do for thieves,
+the wheel-lock was too expensive, so
+again necessity became the mother of
+a far-reaching invention.</p>
+
+<p>Everybody knows what the flint-lock
+was like. You simply fastened a
+flake of flint in the cock and snapped
+it against a steel plate. This struck off
+sparks which fell into the flash-pan and
+fired the charge.</p>
+
+<p>It was so practical that it became
+the form of gun for all uses; thus gunmaking
+began to be a big industry.
+Invented early in the seventeenth century,
+it was used by the hunters and
+soldiers of the next two hundred years.
+Old people remember when flint-locks
+were plentiful everywhere. In fact,
+they are still being manufactured and
+are sold in some parts of Africa and
+the Orient. One factory in Birmingham,
+England, is said to produce about
+twelve hundred weekly, and Belgium
+shares in their manufacture. Some of
+the Arabs use them to this day in the
+form of strange-looking guns with
+long, slender muzzles and very light,
+curved stocks.</p>
+
+<p>There were freak inventors in the
+flint-lock period just as there are to-day.
+Some of them wrestled with the
+problem of repeating guns, and put together
+a number of barrels, even seven
+in the case of one carbine. Others tried
+revolving chambers, like our revolvers,
+and still others, magazine stocks. Pistols
+came into use in many interesting
+shapes, but these were too practical to
+be considered freaks.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>WHY WE CALL THEM<br>
+PISTOLS</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>Pistols, by the way, are named from
+the town of Pistola, Italy, where they
+are said to have been invented and
+first used.</p>
+
+<p>We must not forget that rifling was
+invented about the time that the wheel-lock
+appeared, and had a great deal
+to do with the improvement of shooting.
+Austrians claim its invention for
+Casper Zollner, of Vienna, who cut
+straight grooves in the barrel’s bore.
+His gun is said to have been used for<span class="pagenum" id="Page47">[47]</span>
+the first time in 1498, but the Italians
+seem to have still better warrant as
+these significant words appear in old
+Latin Italian, under date of July 28th,
+1476, in the inventory of the fortress
+of Guastalla: “Also one iron gun made
+with a twist like a snail shell.” The
+rifling made the bullet spin like a top
+as it flew through the air, thus greatly
+improving its precision.</p>
+
+<p>In the year 1807 the Rev. Alexander
+John Forsythe, LL.D., got his patent
+papers for something far better than
+even the steady old flint. He had invented
+the percussion system. In some
+form this has been used ever since.
+Which is to say that when the hammer
+of your gun falls, it doesn’t explode
+the powder, although it seems
+to. Instead it sets off a tiny portion
+of a very sensitive chemical compound
+called the “primer,” and the explosion
+of this “primer” makes the powder go
+off. Of course, the two explosions
+come so swiftly that your ear hears
+only a single bang.</p>
+
+<p>Primers were tried in different forms
+called “detonators,” but the familiar
+little copper cap was the most popular.
+No need to describe them. Millions are
+still made to be used on old-fashioned
+nipple guns, even in this day of fixed
+ammunition.</p>
+
+<p>But now we come to another great
+development, the Breech-loader.</p>
+
+<div class="container w45emmax" id="Fig047">
+
+<p class="caption">THE MODERN AUTOMATIC RIFLE</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo047.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">THE MODERN SPORTSMAN WITH HIS AUTOMATIC RIFLE IS PREPARED FOR ALL EMERGENCIES</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>Perhaps you have had to handle an
+old muzzle-loader. It was all right so
+long as you knew of nothing better,
+but think of it now that you have
+your beautiful breech-loader. Do you
+remember how sometimes you overloaded,
+and the kick made your
+shoulder lame for a week? Or how,
+when you were excited you shot away
+your ramrod? The gun fouled too,
+and was hard to clean, the nipples
+broke off, the caps split, and the
+breeches rusted so that you had to take<span class="pagenum" id="Page48">[48]</span>
+them to a gunsmith. Yes, in spite of
+the game it got, it was a lot of trouble,
+now you come to think of it. How different
+it all is now!</p>
+
+<div class="container w45emmax" id="Fig048a">
+
+<img src="images/illo048a.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">ASSEMBLING REPEATING SHOTGUNS AND RIFLES</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>Breech-loaders were hardly new.
+King Henry VIII of England, he of
+the many wives, had a match-lock
+arquebus of this type dated 1537.
+Henry IV of France even invented
+one for his army, and others worked
+a little on the idea from time to time.
+But it wasn’t until fixed ammunition
+came into use that the breech-loader
+really came to stay—and that was only
+the other day. You remember that the
+Civil War began with muzzle-loaders
+and ended with breech-loaders.</p>
+
+<div class="container w40emmax" id="Fig048b">
+
+<img src="images/illo048b.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">ASSEMBLING AUTO SHOTGUNS</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<div class="container w40emmax" id="Fig048c">
+
+<img src="images/illo048c.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">SOME OF THE SHOOTING TESTS</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>Houiller, the French gunsmith, hit
+on the great idea of the cartridge. If
+you were going to use powder, ball and
+percussion primer to get your game,
+why not put them all into a neat,
+handy, gas-tight case?</p>
+
+<h3 class="cntr"><span class="firstline">THE FIRST AMERICAN MADE GUNS</span></h3>
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>HOW THE FIRST<br>
+AMERICAN GUN WAS MADE</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>Two men, a smith and his son, both
+named Eliphalet Remington, in 1816,
+were working busily one day at their
+forge in beautiful Ilion Gorge, when,
+so tradition says, the son asked his
+father for money to buy a rifle, and
+met with a refusal. The request was
+natural for the surrounding hills were
+full of game. The father must have
+had his own reasons for refusing, but
+it started the manufacture of guns in
+America.</p>
+
+<p>Eliphalet, Jr., closed his firm jaws
+tightly, and began collecting scrap iron
+on his own account. This he welded
+skillfully into a gun-barrel, walked
+fifteen miles to Utica to have it rifled,<span class="pagenum" id="Page49">[49]</span>
+and finally had a weapon of which he
+might well be proud.</p>
+
+<div class="container w60emmax" id="Fig049a">
+
+<img src="images/illo049a.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">TYPES OF CARTRIDGES</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>In reality, it was such a very good
+gun that soon the neighbors ordered
+others like it, and before long the Remington
+forge found itself hard at work
+to meet the increasing demand. Several
+times each week the stalwart
+young manufacturer packed a load of
+gun-barrels upon his back, and tramped
+all the way to Utica where a gunsmith
+rifled and finished them. At this time
+there were no real gun-factories in
+America, although gunsmiths were located
+in most of the larger towns. All
+gun-barrels were imported from England
+or Europe.</p>
+
+<h3 class="cntr"><span class="firstline">A VISIT TO A CARTRIDGE FACTORY</span></h3>
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>HOW AMMUNITION<br>IS MADE</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>One of the first shocks you get when
+you start your visit through a cartridge
+factory is the matter-of-fact way
+in which the operatives, girls in many
+cases, handle the most terrible compounds.
+We stop, for example, where
+they are making primers to go in the
+head of your loaded shell, in order
+that it may not miss fire when the
+bunch of quail whirrs suddenly into the
+air from the sheltering grasses. That
+grayish pasty mass is wet fulminate
+of mercury. Suppose it should dry a
+trifle too rapidly. It would be the last
+thing you ever did suppose, for there
+is force enough in that double handful
+to blow its surroundings into fragments.
+You edge away a little, and
+no wonder, but the girl who handles it
+shows no fear as she deftly but carefully
+presses it into moulds which separate
+it into the proper sizes for primers.
+She knows that in its present
+moist condition it cannot explode.</p>
+
+<div class="container w40emmax" id="Fig049b">
+
+<img src="images/illo049b.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">INSPECTING METALLIC SHELLS</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<div class="container w40emmax" id="Fig049c">
+
+<img src="images/illo049c.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">EXAMINING PAPER SHELLS</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<div class="container w40emmax" id="Fig049d">
+
+<img src="images/illo049d.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">WEIGHING BULLETS</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>Or, perhaps, we may be watching
+one of the many loading machines.<span class="pagenum" id="Page50">[50]</span>
+There is a certain suggestiveness in
+the way the machines are separated by
+partitions. The man in charge takes
+a small carrier of powder from a case
+in the outside wall and shuts the door,
+then carefully empties it into the reservoir
+of his machine, and watches alertly
+while it packs the proper portions
+into the waiting shells. He looks like
+a careful man, and needs to be. You
+do not stand too close.</p>
+
+<div class="container w40emmax" id="Fig050a">
+
+<img src="images/illo050a.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">SHOOTING ROOM OF BALLISTICS DEPARTMENT</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<div class="container w40emmax" id="Fig050b">
+
+<img src="images/illo050b.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">CHRONOGRAPH FOR MEASURING</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>The empty carrier then passes
+through a little door at the side of
+the building, and drops into the yawning
+mouth of an automatic tube. In
+the twinkling of an eye it appears
+in front of the operator in one of the
+distributing stations, where it is refilled,
+and returned to its proper loading
+machine, in order to keep the machine
+going at a perfectly uniform
+rate; while at the same time it allows
+but a minimum amount of powder to
+remain in the building at any moment.
+Each machine has but just sufficient
+powder in its hopper to run until a
+new supply can reach it. Greater
+precaution than this cannot be imagined,
+illustrating as it does that no
+effort has been spared to protect the
+lives of the operators.</p>
+
+<div class="container w50emmax" id="Fig050c">
+
+<img src="images/illo050c.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">PUTTING METAL HEADS ON PAPER SHOT SHELLS</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>It is remarkable that, in an output
+of something like four million per day,
+every cartridge is perfect.</p>
+
+<p>Such things are not accidental. The
+secret is, inspection.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>TESTING MATERIALS<br>
+AND PRODUCTS</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>Let us see what that means. It
+means laboratory tests to start with.
+Here are brought many samples of the
+body paper, wad paper, metals, waterproofing
+mixture, fulminate of mercury,
+sulphur, chlorate of potash, antimony
+sulphide, powder, wax, and
+other ingredients, and even the operating
+materials such as coal, grease,
+oil, and soaps. In the laboratory we
+see expert chemists and metallurgists
+with their test-tubes, scales, Bunsen
+burners, retorts, tensile machines,
+microscopes, and other scientific looking<span class="pagenum" id="Page51">[51]</span>
+apparatus, busily hunting for
+defects.</p>
+
+<p>For example, one marker is examining
+a supply of cupro-nickel, such as
+is used in jacketing certain bullets.
+A corner of each strip is first bent
+over at right angles, then back in the
+other direction until it is doubled, then
+straightened. It does not show the
+slightest sign of breaking or cracking,
+in spite of the severe treatment, therefore
+it is perfect. Let but the least
+flaw appear, and the shipment is rejected.</p>
+
+<div class="container w40emmax" id="Fig051a">
+
+<p class="caption">WHAT A SHOT TOWER LOOKS LIKE</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo051a.jpg" alt="">
+
+<div class="illotext w30emmax">
+
+<p class="center">SHOT TOWER—TALLEST BUILDING IN CONNECTICUT</p>
+
+</div><!--illotext-->
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<div class="container w25emmax" id="Fig051b">
+
+<img src="images/illo051b.jpg" alt="">
+
+<div class="illotext w20emmax">
+
+<p class="center">LARGEST CARTRIDGE EQUALS MORE<br>
+THAN 1,000,000 OF SMALLEST<br>
+(HELD ON HAND)</p>
+
+</div><!--illotext-->
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>Two large iron cylinders descend in
+the center, coming down through the
+ceiling from above; we are invited to
+look through an open port in one of
+these.</p>
+
+<p>We see nothing but the whitened
+opposite wall, against which a light
+burns.</p>
+
+<p>It appears absolutely empty, though
+within it is raining such a swift
+shower of invisible metal that if we
+were to stretch our hands into the
+apparently vacant space they would
+be torn from our arms.</p>
+
+<p>A large water tank below is churned
+into foam with the impact of the falling
+shot, and as we look downward
+we make out finally the haze of motion.
+It is so interesting that we take
+the elevator and rise ten stories to
+the source of the shower.</p>
+
+<p>Here high in the air are the large
+caldrons where many pigs of lead,
+with the proper alloy, are melted into
+a sort of metallic soup. This is fed
+into small compartments containing
+sieves or screens, through the meshes
+of which the shining drops appear and
+then plunge swiftly downward.</p>
+
+<p>But this only begins the process.
+Taken from the water tanks and
+hoisted up again, the shot pellets, in
+a second journey down, through complicated
+devices, are sorted, tumbled,
+polished, graded, coated with graphite,
+and finally stored.</p>
+
+<p class="fsize90 blankbefore75">The pictures shown in this story were prepared especially to illustrate this story of “How Man
+Learned to Shoot” by the Searchlight Library for the Remington Arms Company.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page52">[52]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">FORGING A MONSTER GUN</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo052a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig052a">
+
+<p class="illocredit">Photo by Bethlehem Steel Co.</p>
+
+<p class="caption">This photograph shows gun ingots after being “stripped” and “cored.”</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo052b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig052b" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="illocredit">Photo by Bethlehem Steel Co.</p>
+
+<p class="caption">This photograph shows a gun ingot in the process of being forged under forging press.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+</div><!--chapter-->
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page53">[53]</span></p>
+
+<div class="container w45emmax" id="Fig053">
+
+<img src="images/illo053.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="illocredit">Photo by Bethlehem Steel Co.</p>
+
+<p class="caption">This photograph shows a gun being fired at the Proving Grounds for test.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<h2 class="nobreak">The Parts of a Big Gun</h2>
+
+</div><!--chapter-->
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>THINGS TO KNOW<br>
+ABOUT A BIG GUN</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>Before going into a description of
+the manufacture of a big gun it would
+be well to understand the following
+definitions:</p>
+
+<p>The “breech” of a gun is its rear-end,
+or that end into which the projectile
+and powder charge are loaded.</p>
+
+<p>The “muzzle” of a gun is its forward
+end.</p>
+
+<p>By “calibre” is meant the inside
+diameter of the gun in inches. A
+5-inch gun is one of “minor calibre,”
+and one of 14-inches a gun of “major
+calibre.”</p>
+
+<p>The length of a gun is never expressed
+in inches or feet, but in the
+<i>number of times</i> that its calibre is
+divisible into its length; thus, when
+we say a 12-inch 50-calibre gun, we
+mean a gun of 12 inches in diameter,
+and 12 times 50, or 600 inches long.</p>
+
+<p>The “bore” is the hole extending
+through the center of the gun, from
+the rear face of the liner to its forward
+end.</p>
+
+<p>The “powder chamber” is the rear
+part of the bore, and extends from the
+face of the breech plug when closed
+to the point where the “rifling” begins.
+The powder chamber is slightly larger
+in diameter than the rest of the bore.</p>
+
+<p>The “rifling” is the name given to
+the spiral grooves which are cut into
+the surface of the bore of the gun,
+and give to the projectile its rotary
+motion when the gun is fired.</p>
+
+<p>With the advent of “iron-clads”
+and heavily armored fortresses, it
+became necessary to increase the
+power of the guns in use, until to-day
+a 14-inch gun of 45 calibres fires
+a projectile weighing 1400 pounds,
+with an initial velocity of 2600 feet
+per second. An idea of this initial velocity
+may be better obtained by comparison
+when you realize that a train<span class="pagenum" id="Page54">[54]</span>
+going sixty miles an hour is only
+traveling at the rate of 88 feet per
+second. Now, in order to produce
+such wonderful power in a gun, great
+pressure must be generated in the
+bore, and it was soon found that a
+one-piece gun, whether cast or forged,
+could not withstand such pressures.</p>
+
+<p>To begin with, we may consider
+this one-piece gun, or any gun, as a
+tube which must withstand a great
+pressure from within, so that when a
+gun is designed care must be taken
+to see that the material from which it
+is constructed is strong enough to
+withstand this pressure. And not
+only must the gun be sufficiently
+strong, but it must not be too heavy,
+so that you see you cannot go on forever
+increasing the thickness of the
+walls of this tube. Besides, it is generally
+acknowledged that a simple tube
+or cylinder cannot be made with walls
+of sufficient thickness to withstand
+from within a <i>continued</i> pressure per
+square inch greater than the tenacity
+of a square-inch bar of the same material;
+in other words, if the tensile
+strength of a metal is only twelve
+tons per square inch, no gun of that
+metal, however thick its walls, could
+withstand a pressure of twenty tons
+per square inch, and the modern big
+guns are tested at that great a pressure.
+And if we look further into this
+matter of pressures we find that when
+a gun is fired the pressure exerts itself
+in two ways; it tends to burst the gun
+longitudinally or down the middle, and
+it tends to pull the gun apart in the
+direction of its length. Of course,
+some method of strengthening this
+one-piece gun was sought after, with
+the result that to-day guns are either
+“<i>built-up</i>” or “<i>wire-wound</i>.”</p>
+
+<p>A “built-up” gun is one made of
+several layers, each layer being separately
+constructed and then assembled
+together. The order of assemblage
+differs somewhat with the different
+calibres, but the method of assemblage
+is essentially the same, that is, the outside
+layers are heated and shrunk on
+the inner ones. This question will be
+treated at greater length later on.</p>
+
+<p>A “wire-wound” gun is one in
+which the necessary additional
+strength is obtained by winding wire
+around an inner tube of steel, each
+layer being wound with a different
+tension of the wire; this type of gun
+has found great favor with foreign
+manufacturers. In this country, however,
+the “built-up” system is used almost
+exclusively, and so this description
+will deal with the manufacture of
+a “built-up” gun.</p>
+
+<div class="container" id="Fig054">
+
+<p class="caption">HOW A BIG GUN WOULD LOOK
+IF YOU WERE TO CUT IT IN TWO</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo054.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">Sketch Showing Construction of a Modern “Built-up” Gun.</p>
+
+<p class="caption"><i>A</i>, <span class="allsmcap">HOOP</span>; <i>B</i>, <span class="allsmcap">HOOP</span>; <i>C</i>, <span class="allsmcap">JACKET</span>;
+<i>D</i>, <span class="allsmcap">TUBE</span>; <i>E</i>,
+<span class="allsmcap">LINER</span>; <i>F</i>, <span class="allsmcap">HOOP</span>.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>A modern “built-up” gun is composed
+of a <i>liner</i>, a <i>tube</i>, a <i>jacket</i> and
+<i>hoops</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>liner</i> is in one piece and extends
+the entire length of the bore and carries
+the “rifling” and the powder
+chamber.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>tube</i> is in one piece and envelops
+the liner for its entire length.
+Formerly the <i>tube</i> carried the “rifling”
+and powder chamber, but due to the
+wearing out of the “rifling” with constant
+firing, a liner was decided on, so
+that now when the “rifling” becomes
+worn, the liner can be removed and
+a new one substituted.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>jacket</i> is usually in two pieces
+and is shrunk on the tube; it extends
+the entire length, and its rear end is
+threaded in the inside for the attachment
+of the “breech bushing.”</p>
+
+<p><i>Hoops</i> are shrunk on over the
+jacket and in a big gun are sometimes
+as many as six or seven in number.</p>
+
+<p>The liner, tube, jacket and hoops
+are made of the finest quality of open
+hearth steel, and the steel must conform<span class="pagenum" id="Page55">[55]</span>
+to specifications set by the government.</p>
+
+<div class="container w40emmax" id="Fig055">
+
+<img src="images/illo055.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="illocredit">Photo by Bethlehem Steel Co.</p>
+
+<p class="caption">This photograph shows a mould for a gun ingot under hydraulic press for fluid compression.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>The chemical composition having
+been determined, the necessary elements
+are weighed out and the whole
+charged into an open hearth furnace.
+When the furnace is ready to be
+tapped the molten metal is run into a
+large ladle, which in turn is taken by
+a crane to the casting pit, where the
+mould is filled. The ingots for the
+large calibre guns run from 42-inch
+to 48-inch in diameter, and after
+being poured they are immediately run
+under a hydraulic press, where they
+are subjected to a pressure of about
+six tons per square inch to drive out
+the gases, and then lowered to about
+1500 pounds pressure per square inch
+for a certain length of time during
+the cooling. This pressure tends to
+make the ingot solid, by expelling the<span class="pagenum" id="Page56">[56]</span>
+gases, which would cause blow-holes,
+and by preventing “piping” and “segregation.”
+When a metal cools, the
+top and sides cool first, and this outer
+layer shrinks and pulls away from the
+centre, with the result that a cavity or
+“pipe” would be formed, but the hydraulic
+pressure forces fluid metal into
+this cavity and so prevents the “pipe.”
+The cooling also causes the various
+elements to solidify separately, and
+they tend to break away from the
+mass and collect at the centre; this is
+called “segregation,” and is also partially
+prevented by fluid compression.
+A solid ingot, however, is obtained,
+and this is absolutely necessary.</p>
+
+<p>After the ingot has cooled sufficiently
+it is “<i>stripped</i>,” that is, it is
+removed from the mould, and then it
+is sent to the shop to have the “discard,”
+or extra length, cut off. When
+the ingot is cast, an extra amount of
+metal is poured into the mould to permit
+this discard, the theory being that
+the poorer metal, together with gases
+and other impurities, rise to the top.
+The government specifications require
+that there shall be a 20% discard
+from the upper end and a 3%
+discard from the lower end. The discard
+having been cut off, the ingot is
+“cored,” that is, its centre is bored
+out, the diameter of the hole depending
+on the size of the ingot.</p>
+
+<div class="container w45emmax" id="Fig056">
+
+<p class="caption">TAKING THE BORE OF A BIG GUN</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo056.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="">Photo by Bethlehem Steel Co.</p>
+
+<p class="caption">This photograph shows gun ingot in boring mill being cored.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>The ingot is now ready for the
+“forge,” and on its receipt in the forge
+shop it is placed in a furnace to be
+heated; and here great care must be
+exercised to prevent setting up any
+additional strains in the ingot. When
+the ingot was cooling just after casting
+the metal tended to flow from the
+centre; the interior is still in a condition
+of strain, and if the cold ingot
+is now placed in a hot furnace, cracks
+are apt to form in the centre, causing
+the forging to later break in service.</p>
+
+<p>However, the ingot having been
+properly heated, it is ready for either
+the forging hammer or the press. The
+present-day practice, though, is to<span class="pagenum" id="Page57">[57]</span>
+forge the ingot under a press forge,
+as the working of the metal causes a
+certain flow, and as a certain amount
+of time is necessary for this flow, the
+continued pressure and slow motion
+of the press allows the molecules of
+the metal to adjust themselves more
+easily, and a better and more homogeneous
+forged ingot is produced
+than if the forging had been done
+with a hammer.</p>
+
+<p>When forging a hollow ingot, a
+mandrel, merely a cylindrical steel
+shaft, is placed through the hole in
+the ingot and the ingot forged on the
+mandrel, thereby not only is the outside
+diameter of the ingot decreased,
+but the length of the ingot is increased.
+The usual practice is to continue
+the forging until the original
+thickness of the walls of the ingot is
+decreased one-half and until the ingot
+is within two inches of the required
+finished diameters. The ingot is now
+known as a “forging,” and the lower
+end of each ingot as cast will be the
+breech end of the forging that is made
+from it.</p>
+
+<p>The next process is that of “annealing.”
+This consists in heating the
+forging to a red heat and then allowing
+it to cool very slowly, and is
+usually done by hauling the fires in
+the furnace after the correct temperature
+has been attained and permitting
+both to cool off together. This
+process is to relieve the strains set up
+in the metal during forging, and further,
+it alters the molecular condition
+of the steel, making a finer and more
+homogeneous forging.</p>
+
+<div class="container w45emmax" id="Fig057">
+
+<p class="caption">HOW THE GUN TUBE IS TEMPERED</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo057.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="illocredit">Photo by Bethlehem Steel Co.</p>
+
+<p class="caption">This photograph shows a gun tube ready to be lowered into oil bath for “oil tempering.”</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>After annealing, the forging is
+ready to go to the machine shop to be
+rough bored and turned. The forging
+is set in a lathe, the breech end being
+held by jaws on the face-plate and
+the muzzle end by a “pot-centre,” a
+large iron ring having several radial<span class="pagenum" id="Page58">[58]</span>
+arms screwed through it. The lathe
+can now be turned and the forging
+centered by screwing in or out on the
+jaws of the face-plate or the radial
+arms of the “pot-centre.” When centered,
+several surfaces are turned on
+the forging for “steady rests” and
+then all is in readiness for the turning
+and boring.</p>
+
+<p>In both operations of “turning” and
+“boring,” the work revolves while the
+cutting tools are fed along. Turning
+is very simple and usually several
+tools are cutting at the same time, but
+boring is a more delicate operation, because
+the workman cannot see what
+he is doing. And in boring, either a
+“hog bit” or a “packed bit” is used; a
+“hog bit” is a half cylinder of cast iron
+fitted with one cutting tool and used
+for rough cuts, while a “packed bit” is
+a full cylinder of wood with metal
+framing and carrying two tools 180°
+apart and used for finishing cuts.</p>
+
+<p>The forging, having been rough machined,
+is now ready to receive its heat
+treatment in order to give to the steel
+its required physical characteristics.
+Every piece of steel used in gun manufacture
+must conform to certain specifications
+as regard both its physical
+and chemical characteristics. The
+chemical analysis was made at the
+time the ingot was cast; now for the
+treatment of the forging, prior to the
+physical test as to its tensile strength,
+elastic limit, elongation and contraction.</p>
+
+<p>The “tensile strength” of a metal is
+the unit-stress required to break that
+metal into parts. If a round bar ten
+inches in cross-section area will fracture
+under a strain of 120 tons, its tensile
+strength is 120 ÷ 10 or 12 tons
+per square inch. Tensile strength is
+usually expressed in pounds per
+square inch.</p>
+
+<p>The “elastic limit” of a metal is the
+unit-stress required to first produce a
+permanent deformation of the metal.
+If a bar of metal be subjected to an increasing
+strain, up to a certain point
+that metal will be perfectly elastic,
+resuming its normal shape when the
+strain is removed; at the first permanent
+set or deformation, however, the
+elastic limit of that metal has been
+reached. Elastic limit is expressed in
+pounds per square inch.</p>
+
+<p>By “elongation” is meant the increase
+in length in a bar when its tensile
+strength is reached. If a bar 10
+inches long after rupture measures
+11.8 inches, its elongation is 18%.</p>
+
+<p>By “contraction” is meant the decrease
+in cross-section area in a bar
+when its tensile strength is reached.
+If a bar 1 square inch in area after
+rupture is only .75 of a square inch
+in area, its contraction is 25%.</p>
+
+<p>These definitions being understood,
+a brief description of the heat treatment
+can be taken up, because it is
+after this treatment that standard bars
+are taken from the forgings to undergo
+the physical tests. The first step
+consists in “tempering” or hardening
+the metal. The piece to be tempered
+is placed in an upright position in a
+high furnace and uniformly heated to
+the required temperature. It is then
+lifted from the furnace through an
+opening in the top and carried by a
+crane to an oil tank of suitable depth
+and plunged into the oil. This rapid
+cooling or “tempering in oil” is facilitated
+by having the oil tank surrounded
+by a water bath, so arranged
+that a supply of cold water is constantly
+in circulation to carry the heat
+from the mass as quickly as possible.
+This operation produces exceeding
+toughness, increases the tensile strength
+and raises the elastic limit of the metal.</p>
+
+<p>Now the forging is again annealed,
+so as to relieve any strains set up by
+tempering and to soften up the metal
+to the degree required by the specifications.
+It also increases materially the
+elongation and contraction. Great care
+must be exercised in the heat treatment,
+as the acceptance or rejection
+of the forging depends upon whether
+or not the test bars pass the required
+specifications.</p>
+
+<p>The forging is now submitted for
+test and the test bars taken. In the
+manufacture of a big gun, four test
+bars are taken from the breech end
+and four from the muzzle end of each<span class="pagenum" id="Page59">[59]</span>
+forging and these bars sent to the
+physical laboratory. Quite an elaborate
+testing machine is provided, and
+if the bars pass the required tests the
+forging is accepted and is sent to the
+machine shop for finish-boring and
+turning.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>SEARCHING FOR<br>
+POSSIBLE DEFECTS</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>Frequently during finish-boring the
+work is examined to see that the bit
+is running true, and great care must
+be exercised to prevent its running out
+of alignment.</p>
+
+<p>After finish-boring every forging is
+“bore-searched,” that is, the bore is
+carefully examined for any cracks,
+flaws, streaks or discoloration. A
+special instrument called a “bore-searcher”
+is used and consists of a
+long wooden handle which has a mirror
+inclined at 45° at one end, together
+with a light to illuminate the bore, and
+so shielded as to obscure the light
+from the observer. (See <a href="#Fig059a">sketch</a>.)</p>
+
+<div class="container w50emmax" id="Fig059a">
+
+<img src="images/illo059a.jpg" alt="Explanation of working of bore-searcher">
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>The bore is also inspected by the
+foreman after each boring, but the
+final “bore-searching” is done by an
+inspector.</p>
+
+<p>Now to measure accurately the inside
+diameters of long cylinders, such
+as are used in gun work, a special
+measuring device called a “star-gauge”
+is used. Its name is derived from the
+fact that it has three measuring points
+set at 120° apart and two measurements
+are taken, one <img src="images/illo059b.png" alt="Star gauge" class="gauge"> and the
+other <img src="images/illo059c.png" alt="Star gauge" class="gauge">, making
+a star <img src="images/illo059d.png" alt="Star gauge" class="gauge">. Every forging is
+“star-gauged” after being finish-bored
+and also the liner of the <i>gun</i> after
+each assemblage operation.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>PUTTING THE PARTS OF A<br>
+“BUILT-UP” GUN TOGETHER</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>In preparation for the assembling
+of the different parts, the tube is the
+forging to be finished. It is bored and
+turned to exact dimensions and carefully
+“bore-searched” and “star-gauged.”
+With the data at hand a
+sketch is made showing the external
+diameters of the liner under the tube,
+due allowance being made for the
+shrinkage when assembling.</p>
+
+<p>The liner is next bored to within
+.35 of an inch of the finished diameter,
+and turned to the dimensions required
+by the sketch above. This extra
+metal in the bore is left until the gun
+is completely assembled and is removed
+in the finish-boring. The liner
+is then carefully “bore-searched” and
+“star-gauged” and liner and tube are
+ready for assembling.</p>
+
+<p>The liner is now taken to the
+shrinking pit and carefully aligned in
+an upright position with the breech
+end down.</p>
+
+<p>The shrinking pit is merely a well
+of square section with room enough to
+permit workmen to move freely about
+the gun when it is in position, and
+equipped with a movable table at its
+bottom upon which the gun rests. In
+the meantime the tube, with breech
+end down, is being heated in a hot-air
+furnace. This furnace is a vertical
+cylinder built of fire-brick and asbestos
+and so constructed that air
+which has been passed in pipes over
+petroleum burners can enter at the
+bottom, pass around and through the<span class="pagenum" id="Page60">[60]</span>
+tube and out through the top to be
+reheated. This service permits a uniform
+heat to be transmitted to the
+tube and when the desired temperature
+has been attained the tube is
+lifted from the furnace by a crane,
+carried to the shrinking pit and carefully
+lowered over the liner. Great
+care must be exercised in this operation
+to prevent the tube from sticking
+while being lowered into place.
+Should it happen, the tube should be
+hoisted off at once, allowed to cool,
+any roughing of the liner be smoothed
+off, the tube reheated and a second
+trial made. When the tube is properly
+in place a cold spray may be turned
+upon any particular section where it
+is desired the tube should first grip
+the liner. The tube is then left to cool
+by itself, but cold water is constantly
+circulating through the liner.</p>
+
+<p>When the gun is sufficiently cool for
+handling purposes, it is hoisted out of
+the shrinking pit and taken to the shop
+for careful measurement, the liner being
+“star-gauged” to note the compression
+due to the shrinking on of the
+tube.</p>
+
+<p>The same procedure is followed in
+the case of the jackets and hoops, until
+the entire gun is assembled. The
+gun is considered completely “built-up”
+when the last hoop has been
+shrunk on and is now ready to be
+finished.</p>
+
+<p>The gun is now finish-bored, as .35
+of an inch of metal was left in the
+liner in the first boring. “Packed bits”
+are used and the greatest care is exercised
+to keep the bit properly centered
+and running true. After this
+step the gun is finish-turned and
+the powder chamber is bored.</p>
+
+<p>Following this operation the gun
+is “bore-searched” for any defects
+that may have shown up in the finish-boring
+and chambering, and then carefully
+“star-gauged.” The gun is then
+ready to be “rifled.”</p>
+
+<div class="container w45emmax" id="Fig060">
+
+<p class="caption">RIFLING A BIG GUN</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo060.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="illocredit">Photo by Bethlehem Steel Co.</p>
+
+<p class="caption">This photograph shows a gun in the Rifling Machine in the process of being rifled.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page61">[61]</span></p>
+
+<p>The “rifling” of a gun consists in
+cutting spiral grooves in the surface
+of the bore from the powder chamber
+to the muzzle end, and is done from
+the muzzle end. Rifling is a very difficult
+operation, and great care must be
+exercised that the cutting is uniform.
+The grooves are separated by raised
+portions called “lands,” and after
+“rifling,” these grooves and “lands”
+are carefully smoothed up to remove
+the rough edges or burrs caused by the
+cutting tools of the “rifling” machine.</p>
+
+<p>The necessary holes are now drilled
+for fitting the breech mechanism and
+the breech block fitted. This operation
+usually takes some little time, as
+quite a bit of hand work is necessary
+to insure a perfect fit. The “yoke,”
+really another “hoop,” is now put on
+at the breech end and the gun is complete.</p>
+
+<p>The centre of gravity of gun and
+breech mechanism is now determined
+by balancing on knife edges and the
+whole then weighed. The breech
+mechanism is also weighed and the
+two weights marked on the rear faces
+of the gun and breech mechanism.</p>
+
+<p>The gun is now fitted in its “slide,”
+that part of the mount which carries
+the trunnions and through which the
+gun recoils when it is fired, and after
+it is adjusted, all is in readiness for
+the “proof-firing” or testing of the gun.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Is Motion?</h2>
+
+<p>There are practically but two things
+we see when we use our eyes. One of
+them is matter, which is a term we
+apply to the things we see, speaking
+of them as objects only, and the other
+is motion which we observe some of the
+matter to possess. Some of the things
+we see confuse us, if we bear in mind
+that everything is either matter or motion.
+For instance, we see light and
+know it is not matter and are confused
+until we understand that light
+is a movement of the ether which surrounds
+us and is in and outside of
+everything. In the same way we feel
+heat and may think it is matter thrown
+off by the fire, when it is only another
+kind of motion of this same ether.
+When we understand these things we
+see that motion is a very important
+and real part of the world.</p>
+
+<p>When a motion is started it will
+keep on going forever unless some
+other force which is able to overcome
+the motion stops it. When a ball is
+thrown in the air it would go on forever
+were it not for the law of gravitation
+which pulls it to the earth and
+the friction of the air on the ball as it
+goes through the air. When you stop
+a thrown ball you sometimes realize
+that motion is a real thing because it
+stings your hands. We do wonderful
+things with motion. Many things
+when you add motion to them acquire
+qualities which they did not possess
+before. For instance, an ordinary
+icicle thrown against a wooden door
+will break, but if you put it into a
+gun and give it sufficient motion, it
+will go right through the door. There
+is a story of how a man killed another
+by using an icicle as a bullet. The
+icicle entered the man’s body and
+killed him. Then, of course, the ice
+melted and no one could tell how the
+man received his wound, for no trace
+of anything like a bullet could be
+found. A piece of paper has no cutting
+qualities, but if you arrange a circular
+or square piece of paper with a
+rod or stick through the center and revolve
+it fast enough, you can cut many
+things while it is whirling. The motion
+gives it the cutting qualities. You
+can take a piece of strong rope and,
+by tying the ends together, making a
+circle of it, you can make it roll down
+the street like a steel hoop if you catch
+it just the right way and set it spinning
+fast enough before starting it on
+its way. A steam engine has no power
+to pull the train of cars until the
+wheels are set in motion. So we see
+that motion is a very important thing
+in the world.</p>
+
+<p>Motion is the cause of movements
+of all kinds, the power which takes
+things from one place to another.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Is Perpetual Motion Possible?</h2>
+
+<p>Perpetual motion will never be possible
+unless some one discovers a way<span class="pagenum" id="Page62">[62]</span>
+to overcome the law of gravitation and
+also the certainty that materials will
+eventually wear out. Many men have
+tried to make a machine that would
+keep on moving forever without the
+application of any power, the consumption
+of fuel within itself, the fall
+of weights or the unwinding of a
+spring; such a machine would be absolutely
+impossible, although many
+people have been fooled into investing
+money in machines that appeared
+to have this power within themselves.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">How Can an Explosion Break Windows
+That Are at a Distance?</h2>
+
+<p>An explosion is a sudden expansion
+of a substance like gunpowder or some
+elastic fluid or other substance that
+has the power to explode under certain
+conditions with force, and usually
+a loud report. Some explosions are
+comparatively mild and accompanied
+by a very mild noise, while others are
+very powerful and accompanied by a
+very loud noise. When an explosion
+occurs, the air and everything surrounding
+the thing that explodes is
+very much disturbed. The air surrounding
+the thing that explodes is
+thrown back in air waves which are
+powerful in the exact proportion in
+which the explosion is powerful.
+These air waves can be so suddenly
+thrown back against the objects in the
+vicinity that not only the windows in
+the buildings are broken, but often the
+entire building blown away. The explosion
+acts in all directions at once
+with equal force. A great hole may
+be torn in the earth beneath the explosion.
+If there is anything over the
+explosion, that is blown away unless
+its power of resistance is sufficient to
+withstand the power of the explosion.
+Then, also, the air surrounding on all
+sides is forced back against everything
+in its path.</p>
+
+<p>Very often this air which is suddenly
+forced back by the power of the
+explosion is thrown against houses at
+a distance. These houses may be so
+strongly built as to be able to withstand
+the effect of the explosion, but
+still certain parts of them, such as the
+windows and the bricks of the chimney,
+may not be able to withstand this
+sudden pressure of air against them
+and they are forced in. The wind
+from such an explosion acts on the
+outside of the windows just the same
+as though you stood on the outside
+with your hands against the windows
+and pushed them in. Anything that is
+thrown against a window with more
+force than the window glass can resist
+will break the window, and even
+slight explosions may be so powerful
+as to throw the air back and away
+from them with such force as to break
+windows at a great distance—even a
+mile or more away.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Do Some Things Bend and Others
+Break?</h2>
+
+<p>When an outside force is applied to
+some objects, some of them will bend
+and others break. It is due to the fact
+that in some things the particles have
+the faculty of sticking together or
+hanging on to each other, and it is
+very difficult to break them away from
+each other. In such instances, as in
+the case of a wire, the article will bend
+when we apply the power to it and it
+will not break, because the particles
+which make up the wire have the
+faculty of hanging on to each other.
+A piece of glass, however, can be
+broken right in two by the application
+of no more force than was used to
+bend the wire, because the particles
+which make up the glass haven’t the
+faculty to hang on to each other. If
+you continue to bend a wire back and
+forth, however, at the same point, it
+will finally break apart, because you
+eventually overcome the ability of the
+particles in the wire to hang on to
+each other.</p>
+
+<p>It all depends upon the hanging-on
+ability. Sometimes in undergoing different
+processes an article which will
+ordinarily only bend will become very
+brittle or breakable. A steel wire may
+bend but if you make a steel wire very
+hard it becomes brittle. On the other
+hand, glass is very brittle ordinarily,
+but if you make it very hot, you can
+bend it into any shape you wish, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page63">[63]</span>
+thus the glass-worker makes different
+shapes to various dishes; lamp chimneys,
+bottles, etc., by heating glass and
+then bending it. When it becomes cool
+again, it also becomes brittle or breakable
+as before.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Does a Ball Bounce?</h2>
+
+<p>When you throw a ball against the
+floor in order to make it bounce the
+ball gets out of shape as soon as it
+comes in contact with the floor. As
+much of it as strikes the floor becomes
+perfectly flat, and because the ball has
+a quality known as elasticity, which
+means the ability to return to its
+proper shape, it returns to its shape
+immediately and in doing so forces itself
+back into the air and that is the
+bounce.</p>
+
+<p>Of course, the first thing we think
+of when we consider something that
+bounces is a ball, and in most cases
+a rubber ball. We are more familiar
+with the bouncing qualities of a rubber
+ball. Other balls, like standard
+baseballs, are not so elastic as a rubber
+ball filled with air, but a solid-rubber
+ball is more elastic and some golf
+balls are much more elastic than a
+solid-rubber ball. The principle is the
+same, when you drive a golf ball, excepting
+that when you bounce a ball
+on the floor the floor does the flattening
+and when you drive a golf ball, the
+golf club does the flattening. A baseball
+flies away from the bat for the
+same reason. When you meet a fast-pitched
+ball squarely on the nose with
+a good swing, it goes farther and
+faster than when you hit a slow-pitched
+ball with an equal swing, because
+in the case of the fast-pitched
+ball you flatten the ball out more, and
+it has so much more to do to recover
+its proper shape that it bounces away
+from the bat at much greater speed
+and goes much further unless caught
+than a slow-pitched ball under the
+same circumstances.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Makes a Ball Stop Bouncing?</h2>
+
+<p>A bouncing ball, when you first
+throw it against the wall bounces back
+at you about as fast as you throw it,
+but if you do not catch it on the rebound,
+it goes to the floor again, because
+the law of gravitation which is
+the pulling power of the earth, pulls
+it down again. When it strikes the
+floor it is again flattened to a certain
+extent and bounces up again, but does
+not come back so high. It goes on
+striking the floor and bouncing back
+into the air again each time a shorter
+distance, until the force of gravity has
+actually overcome its tendency to
+bounce back.</p>
+
+<p>When you bounce a ball on the floor
+and it bounces up again, the motion
+of the ball through the air is affected
+by the friction that the contact with
+the air produces and this friction of
+the air overcomes part of the bouncing
+ability in the ball also.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Makes a Cold Glass Crack if We
+Put Hot Water Into It?</h2>
+
+<p>Hot water will not always cause a
+cold glass to crack, but is very apt to,
+especially a thick glass. The very thin
+glasses will not crack. The test tubes
+used by chemists are made of very thin
+glass, and will not crack when hot
+liquids are poured into them.</p>
+
+<p>When a glass cracks after you have
+poured a hot liquid into it, it does so
+because, as soon as the hot liquid is
+put in, the particles of glass which form
+the inside of the glass become heated
+and expand. They begin to do this
+before the particles which form the
+outside of the glass become heated,
+and in their efforts to expand the inside
+particles of glass literally break away
+from the particles which form the outside,
+causing the crack. The same
+thing happens if you put cold water
+into a hot glass, excepting in this instance
+the inside particles of the glass
+contract before the particles which
+form the outside of the glass have had
+time to become cool and do likewise.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Causes the Gurgle When I Pour
+Water from a Bottle?</h2>
+
+<p>The air trying to get in causes the
+gurgle. Air has one strong characteristic
+which stands out above everything
+else. It wants to go some place<span class="pagenum" id="Page64">[64]</span>
+else all the time. When it learns of a
+place where there is no air it wants
+to go there above all things, and goes
+at it with a rush.</p>
+
+<p>Now, when you turn a bottle full of
+water upside down, the water comes
+out if the cork is out, of course, and
+as soon as the water starts out the air
+strives to get in, and every time you
+hear a gurgle you know the air is getting
+in. Every gurgle is a battle between
+the water and the air. Sometimes
+the air comes and pushes the
+water back enough to let it slide into
+the bottle; sometimes the water pushes
+the air back, and thus they fight back
+and forth. The water always gets out
+and the air always gets in. In doing
+so they make the gurgle.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Where Does the Part of a Stocking Go
+That Was Where the Hole Comes?</h2>
+
+<p>Perhaps this is a foolish question,
+but many boys and girls have been
+puzzled for an answer to it. When
+you put your stockings on they have no
+holes in the feet, and at night, when
+you take them off, there are often quite
+large holes in them. The answer is the
+same as in the case of the lead in the
+lead-pencil. The lead in the pencil wears
+away. You can see it wear away because
+that is what makes the marks.</p>
+
+<p>When a hole is coming into your
+stocking, the stocking on your foot is
+being rubbed between your foot and
+something else (probably some part of
+your shoe) and this constant rubbing
+will wear through the yarns with which
+the stocking is knitted. Of course,
+the yarns in the stocking are stretched
+somewhat when it is on your foot and
+the rubbing finally cuts through the
+threads and releases the tension of the
+threads of yarn, so that not always is
+as much stocking lost as the size of
+the hole. But, if you were to look carefully
+at your foot and inside your
+shoe, when you first take the stocking
+off and see the hole, you would find
+little particles of yarn all about.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Do Coats Have Buttons On the
+Sleeves?</h2>
+
+<p>The practice of putting buttons on
+coat sleeves, which serve no useful purpose
+at all and do not add to the beauty
+of the coat, is a relic of very old days.</p>
+
+<p>There was a time when people did
+not use handkerchiefs, and it was common
+practice for men to wipe their
+noses on their sleeves. They had coats
+also in those days, but they did not
+have buttons on the sleeves. One of
+the old kings finally developed the idea
+of dressing his soldiers in fancy uniforms
+and, as he sat in his palace and
+reviewed his troops, he noticed many
+of them using the sleeves of their coats
+as handkerchiefs. He immediately issued
+a decree that all sleeves should
+have a row of buttons sewed on them,
+but at a point directly opposite to
+where they are now on the sleeves.
+This was done to remind the soldiers
+that the sleeves of their beautiful uniforms
+were not to be used as handkerchiefs,
+and those who attempted to
+draw their sleeves in front of the nose
+were quickly reminded of the decree
+by the buttons which scratched them.
+And so the buttons really had a quite
+useful purpose at one time, and so also
+all sleeves had buttons sewed on to
+them at this place. Later on, however,
+when the unsightly practice had been
+cured and people had learned to use
+handkerchiefs, the buttons remained as
+a decoration, but their former purpose
+was lost sight of. Then some tailor
+or leader of fashion had the buttons set
+on the under side of the sleeves for a
+change, and it became the fashion to
+have them there, and the tailors have
+been sewing them there ever since.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Has a Long Coat Buttons on the
+Back?</h2>
+
+<p>The buttons on the back of a long
+coat, i. e., one with skirts, had a more
+sensible reason originally. At one time
+the skirts of such coats were made
+very long, and when the wearer moved
+quickly the tails of the coat flapped
+about the legs and interfered with progress.
+So an ingenious gentleman had
+buttons sewed on to the back and buttonholes
+made in the corner of his coat-tails.
+Then when he was in a hurry
+he simply buttoned up his skirts and
+went his way comfortably.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page65">[65]</span></p>
+
+<div class="container w50emmax" id="Fig065">
+
+<img src="images/illo065.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">TELEPHONE DISPLAY BOARD</p>
+
+<p class="caption">Showing in outline the apparatus necessary to complete the simplest kind of a telephone call—to a number in
+the same exchange</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<h2 class="nobreak">The Story in the Telephone</h2>
+
+</div><!--chapter-->
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>WHAT HAPPENS WHEN<br>
+WE TELEPHONE</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>Mrs. Smith, at “Subscriber’s Station
+No. 1,” desires to telephone to Mrs.
+Jones at “Subscriber’s Station No. 2.”
+When she lifts her receiver, the movement
+causes a tiny white light to appear
+instantly on the switchboard at
+the Central Office. Directly beneath
+this light is another and larger lamp,
+which glows in a way to attract the operator’s
+attention immediately.</p>
+
+<p>The operator inserts a “plug” in a
+little hole on the switchboard called a
+“jack,” directly above the tiny light
+which appeared when Mrs. Smith
+lifted the receiver. This connects her
+to Mrs. Smith’s line. Then she pushes
+a listening key on the board, connecting
+her telephone set to the line. “Number,
+please?” she calls.</p>
+
+<p>Mrs. Smith gives the number; the
+operator repeats it to be sure there is
+no mistake, places another “plug” in
+a “jack” corresponding to the number
+of Mrs. Jones’ telephone and makes the
+connection.</p>
+
+<p>Each subscriber’s telephone has a
+particular signal on the switchboard to
+which it is connected by a pair of wires.
+Mrs. Smith’s wires run from her instrument
+to the nearest “cable terminal,”
+a gathering point for the wires
+of various telephones in her neighborhood.
+Here they form part of a group
+of wires going to the Central Office.
+These groups, called cables, are made
+up of from 50 to 600 pairs of wires, according
+to the telephone needs of the
+district the “terminal” serves.</p>
+
+<p>When the wires reach the Central
+Office they pass through the “cable
+vault” to the “main distributing frame,”
+which is the Central Office terminal of
+the cable.</p>
+
+<p>When the wires come to this frame
+they are in numbered order in the cable.
+Subscribers living next door to Mrs.
+Smith may have entirely different call
+numbers and yet use consecutive wires.
+It is the task of the main frame to redistribute
+these wires, so that they will
+be arranged according to their call
+numbers and to make it possible to connect
+Mrs. Smith’s line with the line
+of any other subscriber with the least<span class="pagenum" id="Page66">[66]</span>
+possible delay. This frame has two
+parts: the “vertical side” and the “horizontal
+side.” Before the wires are redistributed
+they are taken to pairs of
+springs equipped with devices for protecting
+the lines against outside currents.</p>
+
+<div class="container w30emmax" id="Fig066a">
+
+<img src="images/illo066a.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">ASKING FOR A NUMBER</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>After leaving the main frame they
+are taken to the “intermediate distributing
+frame,” the central connecting
+point for various branches of the
+lines going to the switchboard, signaling
+and other apparatus. From the
+“horizontal side” of this frame, wires
+go to the switchboard, where they
+terminate in little holes known as
+“multiple jacks.” They also connect
+with the line and position message
+registers, where the calls from each Line
+and the calls handled at each operator’s
+position at the switchboard are recorded.
+The “multiple jacks” are additional
+terminals placed at necessary
+intervals throughout the switchboard,
+where they can be used by operators to
+make connections with any other line
+on the board.</p>
+
+<p>From the “vertical side” of the intermediate
+frame Mrs. Smith’s wires
+reach the “line and cut-off relay,” an
+electrically controlled switch which
+turns on the light signal that appears on
+the switchboard when she lifts the receiver
+from the hook. This “line relay”
+also extinguishes the light when the
+operator makes the connection, or when
+Mrs. Smith returns the receiver to the
+hook.</p>
+
+<div class="container w45emmax" id="Fig066b">
+
+<img src="images/illo066b.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">A TYPICAL POLE LINE, WITH CROSS ARMS, IN THE COUNTRY</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>The swift moving electric current
+that was set in motion when Mrs. Smith
+began the call, instantaneously passes
+through all these devices for safeguarding
+and protecting the subscriber’s telephone
+service. The light announcing
+Mrs. Smith’s desire to make a call is
+called the “line lamp,” and is flashing
+on the switchboard. Directly beneath
+it is the “pilot lamp,” which glows
+whenever any “line lamp” lights.
+With the “line lamp” is a “jack”
+or terminal, where connection
+can be made with Mrs.
+Smith’s line. This is the
+“answering jack.”</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page67">[67]</span></p>
+
+<div class="container w40emmax" id="Fig067">
+
+<img src="images/illo067.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">THE CABLE VAULT
+INTO WHICH THE
+CABLES PASS WHEN
+THEY ENTER THE
+EXCHANGE AND FROM
+WHICH THEY ARE
+LED UPWARD TO THE
+MAIN DISTRIBUTING
+FRAME</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>When the operator sees the flashing
+signal of Mrs. Smith’s “line lamp,” she
+inserts one end of a pair of “connecting
+cords,” which are on the board before
+her, in the “answering jack” for Mrs.
+Smith’s line. These “connecting cords”
+are flexible conductors that put the
+wires of subscribers in electrical connection.
+Then she pushes forward the
+“operator’s key” directly in front of her
+and is connected with Mrs. Smith’s
+line.</p>
+
+<p>The operator ascertains the number
+wanted and places the other “connecting
+cord” in the “jack” corresponding
+to Mrs. Jones’ line. If she finds she
+cannot herself connect with Mrs. Jones’
+“jack,” because it is on another part of
+the board out of her reach, she makes
+a connection with another operator who
+can reach Mrs. Jones’ line. The second
+operator then makes the connection
+with Mrs. Jones’ “multiple jack” and
+places her line in connection with Mrs.
+Smith’s line at the first operator’s position.
+At the same time the first operator
+pushes the operator’s key back,
+thus ringing Mrs. Jones’ bell.</p>
+
+<p>“Supervisory lamps” on the board
+before her, connected with the “connecting
+cords,” tell the operator when
+Mrs. Jones answers the summons.
+They flash when the connection is
+made and one goes out just as soon
+as Mrs. Jones takes the receiver
+from the hook to answer. If one
+of these lamps flashes and dies out
+alternately it tells the operator that
+either Mrs. Smith or Mrs. Jones
+is trying to attract her attention and
+she connects herself and ascertains the
+party’s wishes. When both subscribers
+“hang up,” both lights flash to indicate
+the end of the conversation. The operator
+then disconnects the cords from
+the subscribers’ “jacks” and presses the
+“message register” button recording
+the call against Mrs. Smith.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page68">[68]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">ROUTINE OF A TELEPHONE CALL</p>
+
+<div class="split5050">
+
+<div class="left5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo068a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig068a">
+
+<p class="caption long">The subscriber, after looking up in the directory
+the desired number, takes the telephone off the
+hook, which causes a tiny electric light to glow
+in front of the operator assigned to answer his
+calls. (In some exchanges equipped with a magneto
+system, a drop is released by the turning
+of a crank.)</p>
+
+</div><!--leftsplit-->
+
+<div class="right5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo068b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig068b">
+
+<p class="caption long">The arrow indicates the light as it appears on
+the switchboard. Each operator can connect a
+caller with any subscriber in that exchange, but
+she is assigned to answer the calls of only a
+limited number of subscribers whose signals are
+these lights showing at her particular position.</p>
+
+</div><!--rightsplit-->
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--split-->
+
+<div class="split5050">
+
+<div class="left5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo068c.jpg" alt="" id="Fig068c" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption long">She takes up a brass-tipped cord, inserts the
+tip, or “plug,” into the hole, or “jack,” just
+above the light, at the same time throwing a
+key with the other hand in order to switch her
+transmitter line into direct communication with
+the caller, and says: “Number?”</p>
+
+</div><!--leftsplit-->
+
+<div class="right5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo068d.jpg" alt="" id="Fig068d" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption long">The caller replies by giving the name of the
+exchange and the number he wants, as for example,
+“Main 1268.” The operator repeats the
+number, “One-two-six-eight,” pronouncing each
+digit with clear articulation, to insure its correctness,
+and, if it be from a subscriber in the
+Main Exchange, she—</p>
+
+</div><!--rightsplit-->
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--split-->
+
+<div class="split5050">
+
+<div class="left5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo068e.jpg" alt="" id="Fig068e" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption long">Takes up the cord which is the team mate,
+or “pair,” of the one with which she answered
+the caller, locates the jack numbered 1268, and
+“tests” the line by tapping the tip of the plug
+for a moment on the sleeve of the “jack” to
+ascertain if the line is “busy.” If no click
+sounds in her ear she—</p>
+
+</div><!--leftsplit-->
+
+<div class="right5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo068f.jpg" alt="" id="Fig068f" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption long">Pushes in the plug and with her other hand
+operates a key on the desk. The first action
+connects the line of the subscriber called; the
+second rings his bell. When either party hangs
+up his receiver, a light glows on the switchboard
+desk, showing the operator that the conversation
+is ended.</p>
+
+</div><!--rightsplit-->
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--split-->
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page69">[69]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">THE CENTRAL TERMINAL OF YOUR TELEPHONE</p>
+
+<div class="container w40emmax" id="Fig069a">
+
+<img src="images/illo069a.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">A MULTIPLE SWITCHBOARD</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<div class="container w40emmax" id="Fig069b">
+
+<img src="images/illo069b.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">THE BACK OF A MULTIPLE SWITCHBOARD</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+</div><!--pageillo-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page70">[70]</span></p>
+
+<div class="container w30emmax" id="Fig070a">
+
+<img src="images/illo070a.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">THE BIRTHPLACE OF THE TELEPHONE, 109 COURT
+STREET, BOSTON</p>
+
+<p class="caption">On the top floor of this building, in 1875, Prof. Bell
+carried on his experiments and first succeeded in
+transmitting speech by electricity</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<h3>How the Telephone Came to Be.</h3>
+
+<p>It is hard to realize that there was
+once a time, not so very many years
+ago, when the telephone was regarded
+as a scientific toy and hardly anyone
+could be found willing to invest any
+money in the development of the telephone
+business.</p>
+
+<div class="container w25emmax" id="Fig070b">
+
+<img src="images/illo070b.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL IN 1876</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<div class="container w25emmax" id="Fig070c">
+
+<img src="images/illo070c.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">THOMAS A. WATSON IN 1874</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>The story of Professor Alexander
+Graham Bell’s wonderful invention is
+full of romantic interest and the early
+days of its exploitation were replete
+with dramatic incidents.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>THE MEN WHO MADE<br>
+THE TELEPHONE</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>Young Bell had come to America in
+1870 in search of health, the family
+settling at Brantford, Canada. He
+numbered among his forebears many
+distinguished professional men. For
+three generations the Bells had taught
+the laws of speech in the universities
+of Edinburgh, Dublin and London. He
+himself was an accomplished elocutionist
+and an expert in vocal physiology.</p>
+
+<p>During the year spent in Canada in
+regaining his health, Bell taught his
+father’s method of visible speech to a
+tribe of Mohawk Indians and began
+to think about the “harmonic telegraph.”</p>
+
+<p>In 1871 young Alexander Bell accepted
+an offer from the Boston Board
+of Education to teach the “visible
+speech” method in a school for deaf
+mutes in that city.</p>
+
+<p>For two years he devoted himself to
+the work with great success. He was
+appointed a professor in the Boston
+University and opened a school of
+“Vocal Physiology” which was at once
+successful.</p>
+
+<p>He might have continued his career
+as a teacher had it not been that his<span class="pagenum" id="Page71">[71]</span>
+active brain still clung to the “harmonic
+telegraph” idea and his inventive genius
+demanded an outlet.</p>
+
+<div class="container w45emmax" id="Fig071">
+
+<img src="images/illo071.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">PROF. BELL’S VIBRATING REED</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>So we find him in 1874 working out
+his idea of the “harmonic telegraph,”
+the perfection of which meant a fortune
+to the young inventor. That he
+never realized his goal was due to the
+fact that while experimenting, he made
+a discovery which led to a far greater
+invention and one that was fraught
+with more benefit to mankind than the
+“harmonic telegraph” could ever have
+been.</p>
+
+<p>It was while working with his faithful
+man Friday, Thomas A. Watson, in
+the dingy little workrooms on Court
+Street, Boston, that Bell got the inspiration
+which made him turn from the
+“harmonic telegraph” to devote himself
+to the invention which was destined
+to make his name famous—the speaking
+telephone.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>THE FIRST SOUND<br>OVER A WIRE</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>Mr. Watson has dramatically described
+the incident as follows:</p>
+
+<p>“On the afternoon of June 2, 1875,
+we were hard at work on the same old
+job, testing some modification of the
+instruments. Things were badly out
+of tune that afternoon in that hot garret,
+not only the instruments, but, I
+fancy, my enthusiasm and my temper,
+though Bell was as energetic as ever.
+I had charge of the transmitters, as
+usual, setting them squealing one after
+the other, while Bell was retuning the
+receiver springs one by one, pressing
+them against his ear as I have described.
+One of the transmitter springs
+I was attending to stopped vibrating
+and I plucked it to start it again. It
+didn’t start and I kept on plucking it,
+when suddenly I heard a shout from
+Bell in the next room, and then out he
+came with a rush, demanding, ‘What
+did you do then? Don’t change anything.
+Let me see!’ I showed him. It
+was very simple. The make-and-break
+points of the transmitter spring I was
+trying to start had become welded together,
+so that when I snapped the
+spring the circuit had remained unbroken
+while that strip of magnetized
+steel by its vibration over the pole of
+its magnet, was generating that marvelous
+conception of Bell’s—a current of
+electricity that varied in intensity precisely
+as the air was varying in density
+within hearing distance of that spring.
+That undulatory current had passed
+through the connecting wire to the distant
+receiver which, fortunately, was a
+mechanism that could transform that
+current back into an extremely faint
+echo of the sound of the vibrating
+spring that had generated it, but what
+was still more fortunate, the right man
+had that mechanism at his ear during
+that fleeting moment, and instantly
+recognized the transcendent importance<span class="pagenum" id="Page72">[72]</span>
+of that faint sound thus electrically
+transmitted. The shout I heard and
+his excited rush into my room were the
+result of that recognition. The speaking
+telephone was born at that moment.
+Bell knew perfectly well that the mechanism
+that could transmit all the complex
+vibrations of one sound could do
+the same for any sound, even that of
+speech. That experiment showed him
+that the complex apparatus he had
+thought would be needed to accomplish
+that long-dreamed result was not at all
+necessary, for here was an extremely
+simple mechanism operating in a perfectly
+obvious way, that could do it
+perfectly. All the experimenting that
+followed that discovery, up to the time
+the telephone was put into practical use,
+was largely a matter of working out
+the details. We spent a few hours
+verifying the discovery, repeating it
+with all the differently tuned springs
+we had, and before we parted that night
+Bell gave me directions for making the
+first electric speaking telephone. I was
+to mount a small drumhead of gold-beater’s
+skin over one of the receivers,
+join the center of the drumhead to the
+free end of the receiving spring and
+arrange a mouthpiece over the drumhead
+to talk into. His idea was to force
+the steel spring to follow the vocal vibrations
+and generate a current of electricity
+that would vary in intensity as
+the air varies in density during the utterance
+of speech sounds. I followed
+these directions and had the instrument
+ready for its trial the very next day. I
+rushed it, for Bell’s excitement and
+enthusiasm over the discovery had
+aroused mine again, which had been
+sadly dampened during those last few
+weeks by the meagre results of the
+harmonic experiments. I made every
+part of that first telephone myself, but
+I didn’t realize while I was working on
+it what a tremendously important piece
+of work I was doing.</p>
+
+<div class="container w45emmax">
+
+<p class="caption">WHAT THE FIRST TELEPHONE LOOKED LIKE</p>
+
+<div class="split5050">
+
+<div class="left5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo072a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig072a">
+
+</div><!--leftsplit-->
+
+<div class="right5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo072b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig072b">
+
+</div><!--leftsplit-->
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--split-->
+
+<p class="caption">ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL’S FIRST TELEPHONE</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<h3>The First Telephone Line.</h3>
+
+<p>“The two rooms in the attic were
+too near together for the test, as our
+voices would be heard through the air,
+so I ran a wire especially for the trial
+from one of the rooms in the attic down
+two flights to the third floor where
+Williams’ main shop was, ending it
+near my work bench at the back of the
+building. That was the first telephone
+line. You can well imagine that both
+our hearts were beating above the normal
+rate while we were getting ready
+for the trial of the new instrument that
+evening. I got more satisfaction from
+the experiment than Mr. Bell did, for
+shout my best I could not make him
+hear me, but I could hear his voice and
+almost catch the words. I rushed upstairs
+and told him what I had heard.
+It was enough to show him that he was
+on the right track, and before he left
+that night he gave me directions for
+several improvements in the telephones
+I was to have ready for the next trial.”</p>
+
+<p>Then followed many heart-breaking
+months of experimenting and it was
+not until the following March that the<span class="pagenum" id="Page73">[73]</span>
+telephone was able to transmit a complete,
+intelligible sentence.</p>
+
+<div class="container w45emmax" id="Fig073">
+
+<img src="images/illo073.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">TELEPHONE APPARATUS PATENTED IN 1876 BY PROF. BELL, PHOTOGRAPHED
+FROM THE ORIGINAL INSTRUMENTS IN THE PATENT OFFICE AT WASHINGTON</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>On February 14, 1876, Professor
+Bell filed at Washington his application
+for patents covering the telephone
+which he described as “an improvement
+in telegraphy” and on March 3, of the
+same year, the patent was allowed.</p>
+
+<p>That was the year of the Centennial
+Exposition at Philadelphia and Professor
+Bell had a working model of the
+telephone on exhibition. Tucked away
+in an obscure corner it had attracted
+but little attention, until on June 25th
+an incident occurred which had a tremendous
+effect in giving to the new
+invention just the sort of publicity it
+needed.</p>
+
+<p>Professor Bell himself describes the
+incident in the following interesting
+manner:</p>
+
+<p>“Mr. Hubbard and Mr. Saunders,
+who were financially interested in the
+telephone, wanted this instrument to
+be exhibited at the Centennial Exhibition.
+In those days—and I must say
+even up to the present time I am afraid
+to say it is true—I was not very much
+alive to commercial matters, not being
+a business man myself. I had a school
+for vocal physiology in Boston. I was
+right in the midst of examinations.</p>
+
+<p>“I went down to Philadelphia,
+growling all the time at this interruption
+to my professional work, and I appeared
+in Philadelphia on Sunday, the
+25th. I was an unknown man and
+looked around upon the celebrities who
+were judges there, and trotted around
+after the judges at the exhibition while
+they examined this exhibit and that exhibit.
+My exhibit came last. Before
+they got to that it was announced that
+the judges were too tired to make any
+further examinations that day and that
+the exhibit could be examined another
+day. That meant that the telephone
+would not be seen, for I was not going
+to come back another day. I was going
+right back to Boston.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>HOW AN EMPEROR<br>
+SAVED THE TELEPHONE</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>“And that was the way the matter
+stood—when suddenly there was one
+man among the judges who happened
+to remember me by sight. That was
+no less a person than His Majesty Dom
+Pedro, the Emperor of Brazil. I had
+shown him what we had been doing in
+teaching speech to the deaf in Boston,
+had taken him around to the City
+School for the Deaf and shown him
+the means of teaching speech, and when
+he saw me there he remembered me
+and came over and shook hands and
+said: ‘Mr. Bell, how are the deaf mutes
+of Boston?’ I said they were very
+well and told him that the next exhibit
+on the program was my exhibit. ‘Come
+along,’ he said, and he took my arm
+and walked off with me—and, of
+course, where an Emperor led the way
+the other judges followed. And the
+telephone exhibit was saved.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page74">[74]</span></p>
+
+<div class="container w45emmax" id="Fig074">
+
+<img src="images/illo074.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">THE FIRST TELEPHONE SWITCHBOARD USED. EIGHT SUBSCRIBERS.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<h3>An Emperor Wonders.</h3>
+
+<p>“Well, I cannot tell very much about
+that exhibit, although it was the pivotal
+point on which the whole telephone
+turned in those days. If I had not had
+that exhibition there it is very doubtful
+what the condition of the telephone
+would be today. But the Emperor of
+Brazil was the first one to bring that
+situation about at that time. I went off
+to my transmitting instrument in another
+part of the building, and a little
+iron box receiver was placed at the ear
+of the Emperor. I told him to hold it
+to his ear, and then I heard afterward
+what happened. I was not present at
+that end of the line. I went to the
+other end and was reciting, ‘To be or
+not to be, that is the question,’ and so
+on, keeping up a continuous talk.”</p>
+
+<p>“I heard afterward from my friend,
+Mr. William Hubbard, that the Emperor
+held it up in a very indifferent
+way to his ear, and then suddenly
+started and said, ‘My God! it speaks!’
+And he put it down; and then Sir
+William Thomson took it up and one
+after another in the crowd took it up
+and listened. I was in another part
+of the building shouting away to the
+membrane telephone that was the transmitter.
+Suddenly I heard a noise of
+people stamping along very heavily,
+approaching, and there was Dom Pedro,
+rushing along at a very un-Emperor-like
+gait, followed by Sir William
+Thomson and a number of others, to
+see what I was doing at the other end.
+They were very much interested. But
+I had to go back to Boston and couldn’t
+wait any longer. I went that very
+night.”</p>
+
+<p>“Now, it so happened there, that, although
+the judges had heard speech
+emitted by the steel disc armature of
+this receiving instrument, they were not
+quite convinced that it was electrically
+produced. Some one had whispered a
+suspicion that it was simply the case of
+the thread telegraph, the lovers’ telegraph,
+as it was known in those days,
+and that the sound had been mechanically
+transmitted along the line from
+one instrument to the other. Of course,
+I did not know about it at that time;
+but when the judges asked permission
+to remove the apparatus from that location
+I said, ‘Certainly, do anything
+you like with it.’ But I could not remain
+to look after it; they had to look
+after it themselves.”</p>
+
+<p>“My friend, Mr. William Hubbard,
+who had kindly come up from Boston
+to help me on this celebrated Sunday,
+June 25, said he would do his best to
+help them out, although he was not an
+electrician. He knew nothing whatever
+about the apparatus, beyond being in<span class="pagenum" id="Page75">[75]</span>
+my laboratory occasionally, knowing me
+well. But he undertook to remove this
+apparatus and set up the line under the
+direction of the judges themselves. So
+they had an opportunity finally of satisfying
+themselves that speech had really
+been electrically reproduced.”</p>
+
+<p>“Sir William Thomson’s announcement
+was made to the world in England,
+before the British Association,
+and the world believed—and from that
+time dates the popular interest in the
+telephone.”</p>
+
+<p>In October, 1876, the first outdoor
+demonstration, in which conversation
+was carried on over a private telegraph
+wire, borrowed for the occasion, took
+place between Boston and Cambridge,
+a distance of two miles.</p>
+
+<p>In April, 1877, the first telephone
+line was installed between Boston and
+Somerville.</p>
+
+<p>A month later an enterprising Boston
+man put up a crude switchboard in
+his office and connected up five banks,
+using the system for telephoning in
+the day-time and as a protection against
+burglars at night. This was the beginning
+of the exchange system, all
+previous telephoning having been between
+two parties on the same circuit.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>NINE MILLION<br>
+TELEPHONES IN U. S.</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>Soon after exchanges sprang up in
+several cities, and by August of that
+year there were 778 Bell telephones in
+use. From this modest beginning the
+telephone has grown until on January
+1, 1914, there were 13,500,000 telephones
+in the world, nearly 9,000,000,
+or over 64 per cent being in the United
+States.</p>
+
+<div class="container w45emmax" id="Fig075">
+
+<img src="images/illo075.jpg" alt="" class="w30emmax">
+
+<p class="caption">MODERN DISTRIBUTING FRAME</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">When the wires come to this
+frame they are in numbered order
+in the cable. The main frame redistributes
+these wires so that
+they are arranged according to
+their call numbers, making it possible
+to connect any wire with
+any other wire anywhere that
+telephone service is installed.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page76">[76]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">HOW THE WIRES ARE PUT UNDERGROUND</p>
+
+<div class="split5050">
+
+<div class="left5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo076a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig076a">
+
+<p class="caption">Breaking Up the Asphalt Pavement. First
+Step in Laying an Underground Cable.</p>
+
+</div><!--leftsplit-->
+
+<div class="right5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo076b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig076b">
+
+<p class="caption">Laying Multiple Duct Tile Subway Through
+Which the Cables Will Run.</p>
+
+</div><!--rightsplit-->
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--split5050-->
+
+<div class="split5050">
+
+<div class="left5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo076c.jpg" alt="" id="Fig076c" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption">Feeding Cable Into Duct as It is Being
+Pulled Through Subway from the Other
+End.</p>
+
+</div><!--leftsplit-->
+
+<div class="right5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo076d.jpg" alt="" id="Fig076d" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption">A CABLE TROUBLE</p>
+
+</div><!--rightsplit-->
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--split5050-->
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page77">[77]</span></p>
+
+<p>The use of the telephone instrument is common, but it affords no idea of the
+magnitude of the mechanical equipment by which it is made effective.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>UNSEEN FORCES BEHIND<br>
+YOUR TELEPHONE</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>To give you some conception of the great number of persons and the enormous
+quantity of materials required to maintain an always-efficient service,
+various comparisons are here presented.</p>
+
+<div class="split5050">
+
+<div class="left5050">
+
+<div class="container w20emmax" id="Fig077a">
+
+<img src="images/illo077a.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption long fig77"><span class="allsmcap">TELEPHONES.</span> Enough
+to string around Lake
+Erie—8,000,000, which,
+with equipment, cost
+at the factory $45,000,000.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+</div><!--leftsplit-->
+
+<div class="right5050">
+
+<div class="container w20emmax" id="Fig077b">
+
+<img src="images/illo077b.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption long fig77"><span class="allsmcap">WIRE.</span> Enough to
+coil around the earth
+621 times—15,460,000
+miles of it, worth
+about $100,000,000, including
+260,000 tons
+of copper, worth $88,000,000.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+</div><!--rightsplit-->
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--split-->
+
+<div class="split5050">
+
+<div class="left5050">
+
+<div class="container w20emmax" id="Fig077c">
+
+<img src="images/illo077c.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption long fig77"><span class="allsmcap">LEAD AND TIN.</span>
+Enough to load 6,600
+coal cars—being 659,960,000
+pounds, worth
+more than $37,000,000.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+</div><!--leftsplit-->
+
+<div class="right5050">
+
+<div class="container w20emmax" id="Fig077d">
+
+<img src="images/illo077d.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption long fig77"><span class="allsmcap">CONDUITS.</span> Enough
+to go five times
+through the earth
+from pole to pole—225,778,000
+feet, worth
+in the warehouse $9,000,000.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+</div><!--rightsplit-->
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--split-->
+
+<div class="split5050">
+
+<div class="left5050">
+
+<div class="container w20emmax" id="Fig077e">
+
+<img src="images/illo077e.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption long fig77"><span class="allsmcap">POLES.</span> Enough to
+build a stockade
+around California—12,480,000
+of them,
+worth in the lumber
+yard about $40,000,000.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+</div><!--leftsplit-->
+
+<div class="right5050">
+
+<div class="container w20emmax" id="Fig077f">
+
+<img src="images/illo077f.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption long fig77"><span class="allsmcap">SWITCHBOARDS.</span> In a
+line would extend
+thirty-six miles—55,000
+of them, which
+cost, unassembled,
+$90,000,000.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+</div><!--rightsplit-->
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--split-->
+
+<div class="split5050">
+
+<div class="left5050">
+
+<div class="container w20emmax" id="Fig077g">
+
+<img src="images/illo077g.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption long fig77"><span class="allsmcap">BUILDINGS.</span> Sufficient
+to house a city of
+150,000—more than a
+thousand buildings,
+which, unfurnished,
+and without land, cost
+$44,000,000.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+</div><!--leftsplit-->
+
+<div class="right5050">
+
+<div class="container w20emmax" id="Fig077h">
+
+<img src="images/illo077h.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption long fig77"><span class="allsmcap">PEOPLE.</span> Equal in
+numbers to the entire
+population of Wyoming—150,000
+employes,
+not including
+those of connecting
+companies.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+</div><!--rightsplit-->
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--split-->
+
+<p>The poles are set all over this country, and strung with wires and cables;
+the conduits are buried under the great cities; the telephones are installed in
+separate homes and offices; the switchboards housed, connected and supplemented
+with other machinery, and the whole system kept in running order so that each
+subscriber may talk at any time, anywhere.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page78">[78]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Where Does Sound Come From?</h2>
+
+<p>Somebody or something causes every
+sound we hear. Sounds are the result
+of disturbances in the air. Sound is
+produced by waves in the air. The
+buzz of the bumble-bee is caused by
+the quick movement of his wings in the
+air. The wings themselves do not make
+the sound, but their motion causes
+waves or vibrations in the air which
+produce the sound of buzzing. Every
+motion made by anybody or anything
+produces waves in the air just like the
+waves you see in the water—a big
+movement makes a big wave and a tiny
+movement a tiny wave. When you
+clap your hands you make a disturbance
+in the air which causes a sound—the
+harder you clap the louder the
+sound. You can hear this sound and
+anybody else near can hear it. If there
+were no air about us, however, we
+would hear no sound, even if we could
+live in such a condition of things, for
+it is the air waves produced striking
+against the drum of our ears that enable
+us to discern sounds. When we
+talk we make air waves also and thus
+produce sound. If you were deaf, and
+talked, you could not hear any sound,
+because even when there are air waves
+they must still strike against a sounding
+board in order to be recognized as
+sound—and the drum of our ear is our
+sounding board for hearing sounds.</p>
+
+<p>When the air waves produced are
+regular we call the sound musical, and
+when they are irregular we call it noise.
+Some people can make musical sounds
+when they sing, while others cannot.</p>
+
+<p>If you take a piece of thin wire and
+stretch it tightly, fastening it at both
+ends, and then pull it with your finger
+and let go, you will hear a musical
+sound, because the vibrations produced
+will be regular and will continue for
+some time. If you shorten the distance
+on the wire where it is fastened at both
+ends and pull it as before, the sound
+produced will be in a higher key. If
+you take a guitar and snap the big G
+string you will produce the bass note
+of G. If the other G string (the smaller
+one) is in tune (if you watch the
+smaller one closely while you strike
+the larger one) you will notice the
+smaller one vibrate also. Sound waves
+of the same tone, although in different
+octaves, produce the same sounds, although
+in different keys.</p>
+
+<p>This is the principle on which the
+piano is made to produce music. Inside
+the piano are wires of different
+lengths and the keys of the piano are
+arranged to operate certain little hammers,
+each of which strikes a certain
+wire. Every time you strike a piano
+key you cause one of the little hammers
+to hit its wire—the wire then
+makes vibrations which cause air
+waves. The air waves strike against
+the sounding board which is located
+behind the wires, and being thrown
+back into the air, strike against the
+drum of our ears, and we can hear the
+note.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Can We Make Sounds With Our
+Throats?</h2>
+
+<p>The sounds we make when we talk
+are produced in exactly the same way
+with the exception of the little hammers.
+In our throats are two cords
+which we call our vocal cords. When
+we talk we cause these cords to vibrate
+and thus we make the sounds of
+our voices. The most wonderful part
+of this voice of ours is that with only
+two vocal cords or wires, we can produce
+practically all the notes that can
+be made with a piano, which has a wire
+or cord for every note, excepting that
+we cannot make so many at one time.
+The human throat is so wonderfully
+constructed that we can lengthen or
+shorten our vocal cords at will and
+produce, with two strings, in our
+throats as many notes as it takes the
+piano many more strings to produce.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Does the Sound Stop When We
+Touch a Gong that Has Been Sounded?</h2>
+
+<p>When we touch the gong we stop
+the sound waves which the gong gives
+off when it is struck. These sound
+waves continue after the gong has been
+struck in continuous vibrations until
+something stops them. When you touch
+the vibrating gong, you stop its vibrating.
+If you only touch your finger to<span class="pagenum" id="Page79">[79]</span>
+the vibrating gong you can feel the
+vibrations which cause a little tickling
+sensation. Naturally when you stop
+these vibrations you stop the air waves
+which the vibrations cause, and thus
+also the sound of these air waves striking
+your ear are stopped and the sound
+ceases.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">How Can Sound Come Through a Thick
+Wall?</h2>
+
+<p>A sound will come through a thick
+or thin wall only if the wall is a good
+conductor of sound. Some things are
+good conductors of sound and others
+are not, just as some things are good
+conductors of electricity and others
+are not. If a wall is built of materials
+all of which are good conductors of
+sound, the sound will come through
+it no matter how thick. Wood is an
+especially good conductor of sound. It
+is even better than air. You can stand
+at one end of a long log and have another
+person at the other end hold up
+his watch in the air, and you cannot
+hear the watch tick, but if the watch is
+“going” as we say, and you ask the
+person holding it to put the watch
+against his end of the log, and you
+then put your ear to the other end, you
+can hear the watch ticking almost
+as well as if you had it to your
+own ear. In like manner you can
+hear the scratching of a pin at the
+other end of the log. When you put
+your ear against a telegraph pole you
+can hear the hum of the wires while
+you cannot hear it through the air.
+All sound is produced by sound waves
+and many solids are better conductors
+of sound waves than the air.</p>
+
+<p>Sound waves, however, will sometimes
+not be heard as plainly through
+a wall, because of the fact that the wall
+may be made of materials which are
+not equally good conductors of sound.
+When a sound wave strikes a poor
+conductor it loses some of its power
+and the sound, although it may be heard
+through the wall, will be fainter.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Is Meant by Deadening a Floor
+or a Wall?</h2>
+
+<p>By deadening a floor, for instance,
+we mean inserting between the ceiling
+of the room below and the floor above,
+or in the instance of a deadened wall,
+between the two sides of the wall, some
+substance like felt, paper or other non-conductor
+of sound, which will prevent
+the sound waves from passing through.
+This deadens them to the passing of
+sound or makes them sound-proof.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Makes the Sounds Like Waves in
+a Sea Shell?</h2>
+
+<p>The sounds we hear when we hold
+a sea shell to the ear are not really the
+sound of the sea waves. We have come
+to imagine that they are because they
+sound like the waves of the sea, and
+knowledge that the shell originally
+came from the sea helps us to this conclusion
+very easily.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Are the Sounds We Hear in a
+Shell?</h2>
+
+<p>The sounds we hear in the sea shell
+are really air waves or sounds made by
+air waves, because all sounds are produced
+by air waves.</p>
+
+<p>The reason you can hear these
+sounds in a sea shell is because the
+shell is so constructed that it forms a
+natural sounding box. The wooden
+part of a guitar, zither or violin is a
+sounding box. They have the faculty
+of picking up sounds and making them
+stronger. We call them “resonators,”
+because they make sounds resound.
+The construction of a sea shell makes
+an almost perfect resonator. A perfect
+resonator will pick up sounds which
+the human ear cannot hear at all and
+magnify them so that if you hold a resonator
+to the ear you can hear sounds
+you could not otherwise hear. Ear
+trumpets for the deaf are built upon
+this principle.</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes when you, with your ear
+alone, think something is absolutely
+quiet, you can pick up a sea shell and
+hear sounds in it. But the sea shell
+will magnify any sound that reaches it.</p>
+
+<p>It would be possible, of course, to
+take a sea shell to a place where it
+would be absolutely quiet and then
+there would be no sounds.</p>
+
+<p>There are such places, but very few
+of them. A room can be built which
+is absolutely sound proof.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page80">[80]</span></p>
+
+<div class="container w45emmax" id="Fig080">
+
+<img src="images/illo080.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">SIBERIAN LAMBS IN SOUTH DAKOTA</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<h2 class="nobreak">The Story in a Suit of Clothes</h2>
+
+</div><!--chapter-->
+
+<h3>Where Does Wool Come From?</h3>
+
+<p>We could not write the story of a
+suit of clothes without dealing largely
+with the sheep, for it is only from the
+wool of the sheep that the best, warmest
+and most lasting garment can be
+made. In order that we may properly
+understand the development of the
+great wool and clothing industry in
+America we must supply a brief history
+of our sheep industry, for the sheep
+must always come before the clothing.</p>
+
+<h3>Who Brought the First Sheep to America?</h3>
+
+<p>The sheep is not a native of America,
+but it came here with the first white
+men. History records that Columbus
+on his way to this country stopped at
+the Canary Islands to take on stores.
+Among other things he loaded a number
+of sheep, some of which were later
+landed on the new continent. What
+became of this early importation history
+does not record, but it is probable
+that most, if not all, of them perished
+from the attack of wild animals or at
+the hands of the natives. However,
+when settlers began pouring into the
+new world many of them brought along
+their sheep, so that from the earliest
+colonial days the sheep constituted our
+most numerous domestic animals. This,
+indeed, was necessary, for if the colonist
+was to survive the rigor of our climate
+he must have an abundant supply
+of woolen clothing. In those days
+clothing materials were limited to wool,
+flax and the skins of animals, and, as
+may be supposed, wools were in very
+great demand. England and most
+European countries prohibited the exportation
+of wool, in order to increase
+the demand for the clothing which she
+manufactured. However, as our new
+colonist had ample time and but little
+money, he desired to make his own
+clothing rather than send such funds
+as he had to the mother country.
+Therefore, the new settler, as a matter
+of necessity, was forced to increase the
+domestic supply of wools.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page81">[81]</span></p>
+
+<h3>Who Started to Make Clothing from
+Wool in America?</h3>
+
+<p>Early records reveal that shortly
+after the year 1600 many of the colonies
+passed laws for the purpose of
+encouraging the sheep industry. In
+fact, some of them went so far as to
+prohibit the transportation of sheep or
+wool from one colony to another.
+However, our new sheep industry prospered,
+and well it should, for it had
+the backing of every prominent patriot
+of the early days. Washington, Jefferson,
+Madison, and Franklin all were
+enthusiastic advocates of sheep husbandry,
+for they knew that unless a
+people had a large domestic supply of
+wool they could not long remain independent
+or hope to gain independence
+from foreign countries. In fact, at one
+time Washington owned as many as one
+thousand sheep, and if he lived in the
+present day he would be regarded as a
+sheep baron. Wool, next to food, is
+the most vital necessity of a people, for
+when wars come wool becomes a contraband,
+and all foreign supplies are
+shut off. Thus, in stimulating a domestic
+wool supply the great wisdom of
+our early patriots was vindicated with
+the coming of the Revolutionary War.
+When that great struggle came our foreign
+wool supply was shut off, but on
+account of the foresight of these patriots
+in encouraging home production,
+our colonists had a supply ample for
+most of their needs.</p>
+
+<p>We not only had the wool, but the
+housewife had learned the art of manufacturing
+wool into clothing by means
+of the spinning wheel, so that when our
+soldiers went forth in that great
+struggle, which was to bring to us independence,
+they were clad in garments
+made of American grown wool and
+manufactured by the good housewife
+during her hours of leisure.</p>
+
+<p>When affairs became tranquil, following
+the close of the Revolution, settlement,
+which had largely been confined
+to the Atlantic coast, pushed
+westward farther and farther into the
+wilderness. Each of these settlers took
+with him his supply of sheep, for the
+purpose of furnishing wool for clothing
+and meat for food. In the early
+days wool was not grown for the purpose
+of sale, but to be used entirely by
+the family of the producer. However,
+when settlement reached the Mississippi
+River, conditions changed. Wool
+manufacturing had then been established
+in the land, and it became customary
+to raise wool to sell to these
+manufacturers, who had located along
+the Atlantic seaboard.</p>
+
+<h3>Why Does the Sheep Precede the Plow
+in Civilizing a Country?</h3>
+
+<p>In all countries the sheep has been
+the pioneer of civilization. They have
+settled and developed practically all
+new lands. In fact, so firmly established
+has been this rule that it seems
+almost necessary that the sheep should
+precede the plow, and thus prepare land
+for agriculture. The reason for this is
+that the sheep is a tractable animal and
+depends on man to guide its every step.
+It can endure hardships that would destroy
+other forms of animal life. However,
+the maintenance of a sheep industry
+requires an abundance of labor, and
+in this way settlement always follows
+the sheep. So has it been in foreign
+countries, and so was it in this country.</p>
+
+<h3>Where Does Most of Our Wool Come
+From?</h3>
+
+<p>Sheep came into our western states
+early in the seventies, at a time when
+these states were thinly settled, but
+following the sheep came the labor incident
+to its care, and thus the railroads,
+stores, cities and schoolhouses
+found their way into the land. Originally
+all of our sheep industry was east
+of the Mississippi River. Then for a
+time it was east of the Missouri
+River. To-day west of the Missouri
+River we have about 23,000,000 aged
+sheep, or more than one-half of the
+total in the United States. In the pioneer
+days the western sheep skirmished
+on the range for most of the food that
+it obtained. To-day conditions are different,
+and, while the sheep is on the
+range for a short time each year, it
+spends its summer in the National Forest,
+for which grazing a fee is paid to<span class="pagenum" id="Page82">[82]</span>
+the Federal Government. Its winters
+are spent largely around the hay-stack
+of the farmer, and about fifty to sixty
+cents’ worth of hay is fed to each sheep
+in the West each winter. With the
+coming of spring the western sheep are
+divided into bands of about 1500, and
+each two bands are placed in care of
+three caretakers, who care for and protect
+the sheep either on the deeded land
+of the owner or on the land rented from
+the Federal Government.</p>
+
+<div class="container w45emmax" id="Fig082">
+
+<img src="images/illo082.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">SHEEP COMING OUT OF FOREST</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<h3>How Much Wool Does America Produce
+Yearly?</h3>
+
+<p>So much for the history of our sheep.
+A few words now about wool. The
+total wool crop of the United States is
+approximately 300,000,000 pounds per
+year. The value of this crop is around
+$60,000,000 annually.</p>
+
+<h3>How Do We Get the Wool Off the Sheep?</h3>
+
+<p>With the coming of spring our sheep
+are driven to large central plants,
+where they are shorn by the use of machines
+driven by electricity or steam
+power. One man shears about one hundred
+and fifty sheep per day. For this
+he receives eight cents per head. When
+the wool is taken off the sheep it is
+gathered up and carefully tied with
+string made of paper. The tied fleece
+is then dropped into an elevator, and is
+carried up about ten feet, where it is
+dropped into a large sack about three
+feet in diameter and seven feet long.
+In this sack there is always a wool
+tramper, who keeps tramping the fleeces
+down, so that about forty fleeces are
+finally put into each sack, making the
+weight of the sack approximately three
+hundred pounds. As these sacks are
+filled they are carefully stored in a dry
+shed, and, when shearing is completed,
+are hauled to the railroad station and
+shipped to the great wool centers of
+Boston or Philadelphia. While the bulk
+of the wool in the United States is produced
+west of the Missouri River, that
+territory manufactures very little wool.
+So the western sheepman, who is thus
+forced to grow his wool in the western
+states, pays about two cents a pound
+freight on it back to the eastern market,
+where it is sold and later manufactured
+into cloth. A part of this same clothing
+is then shipped west, to be sold to the
+very man, in some instances, who produced
+the wool out of which it is made.</p>
+
+<p>American wool, taken as a whole, is
+the best wool grown in the world. It<span class="pagenum" id="Page83">[83]</span>
+is not as soft as some Australian wool,
+but all of it possesses a greater strength
+than foreign wools, and it has long
+since been determined that clothing
+made of American wool will give better
+service than that made of foreign
+wool. Of the wool used in the United
+States for the manufacturing of clothing
+we produce about 70 per cent and
+import about 30 per cent.</p>
+
+<h3>How Much Does the Wool In a Suit
+of Clothes Cost?</h3>
+
+<p>It is customary for the person who
+buys clothing made of wool to believe
+that the value of the wool in the cloth
+is what makes the clothing seem
+expensive. However, if we take a
+man’s suit made of medium-weight
+cloth, such as is worn in November,
+we find that it requires about nine
+pounds of average wool to make the
+suit. For this wool the sheepman receives
+an average of seventeen cents
+per pound, so that out of the entire
+suit the man who produces the material
+out of which the suit is made receives
+a total of $1.53. A suit such as is here
+described would be of all wool and free
+from shoddy or any wool substitute.
+It would be a suit that would be sold
+by the storekeeper at $25.00, and if you
+had it made by the tailor he would
+charge you $35.00. Yet the wool-grower
+furnished all the material out
+of which the suit was made, and received
+as his share but $1.53. Thus
+it will be clear to the person who buys
+clothing and reads these lines that no
+longer can the blame for the high cost
+of clothing be laid at the door of the
+wool-grower.</p>
+
+<p>While the wool-using population of
+the world is increasing very rapidly,
+the number of wool-producing sheep in
+the world is decreasing. Ordinarily
+this would mean that a point would be
+reached where the supply of wool
+would be totally inadequate to meet the
+needs of the public. However, this
+unfortunate possibility is being averted
+by the energy and thrift of the sheepmen
+in breeding sheep that produce
+more and better wool than was the case
+in the past. The sheep which Columbus
+brought to this country, and, in
+fact, all the sheep of the world in that
+day, produced wool of very coarse, inferior
+quality, and but very little of it.
+One hundred years ago our sheep did
+not average three pounds of wool per
+head, but by careful breeding and better
+feeding we have brought the average
+fleece up to slightly more than seven
+pounds. Of course, some sheep produce
+decidedly more wool than this,
+but the fact that in one hundred years
+we have more than doubled the amount
+of wool that a sheep produces and increased
+its quality very materially
+speaks well for the ingenuity and determination
+of our sheep producers.
+Probably as time goes on the average
+fleece may be still further increased,
+so that in the next twenty-five years
+it is not too much to hope that our
+sheep will produce on an average of
+one pound more wool than they now do.</p>
+
+<p>Of course, as wool comes from the
+sheep, it naturally contains much dirt.
+The sheep have run on the range or
+in the open pasture during much of the
+year, and dust and dirt has settled into
+the wool. Then, besides producing
+wool, the sheep excrete into the wool a
+fatty substance known as wool fat.
+When the fleece is taken from the sheep
+and sent to the market the first thing
+that the manufacturer does with the
+fleece is to wash out all this foreign
+matter. The foreign matter is of a
+considerable quantity, for 60 per cent
+of wool as it comes from the sheep is
+dirt and grease, so that only 40 per
+cent of the sheep’s fleece represents
+wool fibres.</p>
+
+<p>This wool fibre is a very delicate
+affair, being made up of thousands of
+little cells, one laid on top of the other.
+On the surface of the fibre are a lot
+of scales arranged something like the
+scales on a fish. In the process of manufacturing
+the scales on one fibre lock
+with scales on another fibre, and in
+that way the fibres are held together
+in the piece of cloth.</p>
+
+<p>When wool is received at the factory
+it is in fleeces, and each fleece contains
+different kinds of fibres—long and
+short—coarse and fine, and it is necessary<span class="pagenum" id="Page84">[84]</span>
+that these should be sorted into
+different kinds or grades, as may be
+desired—perhaps six or eight different
+kinds, according to the particular uses
+to which the different qualities are to
+be put.</p>
+
+<div class="container w45emmax" id="Fig084">
+
+<img src="images/illo084.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="illocredit">Copyright American Woolen Company</p>
+
+<p class="caption">WOOL SORTING</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>The fleece is spread out on a table,
+the center of which is covered with
+wire netting, and through this netting
+part of the dust and other matter from
+the wool falls while the sorting is going
+on. Sorters tear with the hands the
+different parts of the fleece from each
+other and separate them into piles, according
+to their different qualities.</p>
+
+<p>All unwashed wool contains a fatty
+or greasy matter called yolk, which is
+a secretion from the skin of the sheep.
+The effect of this yolk is to prevent the
+fibres of the wool from matting, except
+at the ends, where, of course, it
+collects dust, and, forming a sort of a
+coating, really serves as a protection to
+the rest of the fleece while on the
+sheep’s back.</p>
+
+<p>After the wool is sorted it is next
+cleansed or scoured, in order to remove
+all this yolk, dirt and foreign
+matter, and this is accomplished by
+passing the wool, by means of automatic
+rakes, through a washing machine,
+consisting of a set of three or
+four vats or bowls, which contain a
+cleansing solution of warm, soapy
+water, until all the grease and dirt
+have been removed.</p>
+
+<p>Each bowl has its set of rollers,
+which squeezes out the water from the
+wool before it passes into the next
+bowl. Having passed through the last
+bowl and set of rollers the wool is
+carried on an apron made of slats on
+chains, to the drying chamber, called
+the dryer, where is taken out most of
+the moisture.</p>
+
+<p>The wool is now blown through pipes
+or carried on trucks to the carding
+room.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>DIFFERENCE IN<br>WOOLENS AND WORSTEDS</p>
+
+</div><!--sidemote-->
+
+<p>From this point the wool follows one
+of two different processes of manufacture—that
+of making into worsteds
+or that of making into woolens.</p>
+
+<p>Speaking in a general way, worsted
+fabrics are made of yarns in which the<span class="pagenum" id="Page85">[85]</span>
+fibres all lie parallel, and woolens are
+made of yarns in which the fibres
+cross or are mixed. Ordinarily,
+worsteds are made from long staple
+wools, and woolens from short staple
+wools.</p>
+
+<div class="container w40emmax" id="Fig085a">
+
+<img src="images/illo085a.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="illocredit">Copyright American Woolen Company</p>
+
+<p class="caption">WOOL SCOURING</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>By means of the comb the fibre is
+still further straightened out, the short
+stock and noil, or nibs, are removed,
+and when the sliver comes from the
+combs most of the fibres are parallel
+to each other. A number of the slivers
+taken from the comb are then put
+through two further operations of gilling,
+and wound into a large ball, which
+is called a finished top.</p>
+
+<p>The next process in the manufacture
+of worsteds is carding. In this process
+the wool is passed between cylinders
+and rollers, from which project the
+ends of many small wires. These cylinders
+revolve in opposite directions.
+The result is the opening, separating
+and straightening of the fibres; and the
+wool is delivered in soft strands, which
+are taken off by the doffer comb and
+wound upon a wooden roll into the
+shape of a large ball, known as a card-ball
+or card-sliver, or put into a revolving
+can. The sliver from a number
+of these balls or cans is now taken and
+put through what is known as the gilling
+machine, which to a degree
+straightens the fibres.</p>
+
+<p>From the gilling machine the wool
+comes off in soft strands. Four strands
+are then taken to the balling machine,
+where is made a large ball, ready for
+the combing. It takes eighteen of these
+balls to make a set or fill up the comb.</p>
+
+<p>The dyeing is done in three ways—in
+the top, in the thread or skein after
+being spun, or in the piece after it is
+woven. If the wool is to be stock dyed—that
+is, dyed in the top—it is sent to
+the dyehouse to be dyed the shade required,
+and afterwards returned to be
+gilled and recombed ready for the
+drawing.</p>
+
+<div class="container w30emmax" id="Fig085b">
+
+<img src="images/illo085b.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="illocredit">Copyright American Woolen Company</p>
+
+<p class="caption">WORSTED CARDING</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>Up to this point there has been no
+twist given to the wool, nor any appearance
+of a thread. The top, the soft
+untwisted end, is now run through the
+drawing machine, the process sometimes<span class="pagenum" id="Page86">[86]</span>
+consisting of nine distinct operations,
+and is drawn and redrawn until
+reduced to the size required for its
+special purpose; and the stock is then
+delivered to the spinning room on
+spools, and is called roving.</p>
+
+<div class="container w25emmax" id="Fig086a">
+
+<img src="images/illo086a.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="illocredit">Copyright American Woolen Company</p>
+
+<p class="caption">GILLING AFTER CARDING</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<div class="container w25emmax" id="Fig086b">
+
+<img src="images/illo086b.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="illocredit">Copyright American Woolen Company</p>
+
+<p class="caption">COMBING</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>In the spinning the process of drawing
+continues until the twisted thread
+is reduced to the size required, which,
+either singly or twisted together in two,
+three or four strands, is to be used for
+weaving.</p>
+
+<p>The yarn is then very carefully inspected,
+and all imperfections which
+would show in the finished goods are
+removed, and, if it is to be dyed in the
+skein, the yarn is taken to a reel, where
+the skeins are made ready for the dyehouse.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>HOW CLOTH IS<br>MADE FROM WOOL</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>The threads must now be prepared
+for the loom, in order that the actual
+weaving may be done. The thread is
+used in two ways in weaving—as warp,
+which is the thread which runs lengthwise
+of the cloth, and as filling, or
+woof, which runs across the cloth from
+side to side.</p>
+
+<div class="container w25emmax" id="Fig086c">
+
+<img src="images/illo086c.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="illocredit">Copyright American Woolen Company</p>
+
+<p class="caption">GILLING AND MAKING TOP AFTER COMBING</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>The warp threads—the threads which
+run lengthwise of the cloth—are sized
+and wound upon large reels, and from
+these transferred to a large wooden roll
+called the warp beam, which holds all
+the warp threads, usually several thousands.</p>
+
+<p>The filling threads are put on shuttle
+bobbins and placed in the shuttles to be
+refilled by the operatives as required,
+and as the weaving progresses.</p>
+
+<p>The warp beam is then taken to the
+drawing-in room, where these several
+thousand threads are drawn through
+wire heddles in a frame called the harness,
+then drawn through a wire reed.
+The completed warp beam is now ready
+for the loom.</p>
+
+<p>The harnesses are placed in the loom,
+and by means of what is called the
+“head-motion,” part of the threads are
+raised and part are lowered. This allows
+the filling shuttles to pass above
+some threads and below others, filling
+out the pattern required.</p>
+
+<p>The cloth, having been made in such
+length as is desired, is taken from the
+loom, and, by what is known as burling
+and mending, any knots or threads
+woven in wrongly are removed, and any
+imperfections which have been discovered
+through a careful examination
+are corrected.</p>
+
+<p>The web or cloth is scoured or
+washed and the oil and any foreign
+matter removed.</p>
+
+<p>Undressed fabrics would now be
+fulled. This consists of running cloth
+through a fulling machine, where,
+moistened with a specially prepared
+soap, it is subjected to a great pressure
+and pounding, which aids in giving the
+required finish.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page87">[87]</span></p>
+
+<p>There are different kinds of finishes
+which require different treatments, and
+it would be impracticable for us to
+dwell in detail upon this matter here.</p>
+
+<p>If dyed in the piece, the web or cloth
+is taken to the dyehouse and dyed. It
+is thoroughly rinsed, all moisture is
+extracted from it, and it is dried.</p>
+
+<p>After drying the cloth is run through
+a machine by which it is brushed and
+sheared, the brushing lifting the long
+fibres, and the shearing cutting them
+off at even length. The cloth is put
+through the press, which irons it out,
+giving it the lustre or the finish that is
+desired. It is examined again for further
+imperfections, and if such have
+occurred they are corrected.</p>
+
+<p>Measuring, weighing, rolling and tagging
+follow, and the cloth is packed
+and ready for the market.</p>
+
+<p>Woolens are made from short staple
+wools, known as clothing wools, and
+in the finished woolens the fibres of the
+yarns cross or are mingled together.
+In the case of woolens, after the scouring,
+it is frequently necessary to remove
+burrs or other vegetable matter
+from the wool. To accomplish this the
+wool is dipped in a bath of chloride of
+aluminum or sulphuric acid solution,
+then the moisture is extracted and the
+wool is put through a drier, where the
+temperature must be at least 212 degrees.
+This heat carbonizes the foreign
+substance, but has little effect on the
+animal fibres of the wool.</p>
+
+<div class="container w35emmax" id="Fig087a">
+
+<div class="split8020">
+
+<div class="left8020">
+
+<p class="caption">FINISHING
+BOX</p>
+
+<p class="caption">ENGLISH
+DRAWING</p>
+
+<p class="illocredit top">Copyright American Woolen Company</p>
+
+</div><!--left8020-->
+
+<div class="right8020">
+
+<p>&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--right8020-->
+
+</div><!--split8020-->
+
+<img src="images/illo087a.jpg" alt="">
+
+<div class="split3367">
+
+<div class="left3367">
+
+<p>&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--left3367-->
+
+<div class="right3367">
+
+<p class="illocredit bot">Copyright American Woolen Company</p>
+
+<p class="caption">GILLING</p>
+
+<p class="caption">ENGLISH
+DRAWING</p>
+
+</div><!--right3367-->
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--split3367-->
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>Next, an ingenious machine called
+the burr picker removes the burr.</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes there is to be a blend of
+the wool with other stocks, and in that
+case the several different wools are
+mixed together.</p>
+
+<div class="container w35emmax" id="Fig087b">
+
+<div class="split3664">
+
+<div class="left3664">
+
+<p>&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--left3664-->
+
+<div class="right3664">
+
+<p class="caption">GILLING, FIRST
+OPERATION</p>
+
+<p class="caption">ENGLISH
+DRAWING</p>
+
+<p class="illocredit top">Copyright American Woolen Company</p>
+
+</div><!--right3664-->
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--split3664-->
+
+<img src="images/illo087b.jpg" alt="">
+
+<div class="split6436">
+
+<div class="left6436">
+
+<p class="illocredit bot">Copyright American Woolen Company</p>
+
+<p class="caption">REDUCER</p>
+
+<p class="caption">ENGLISH
+DRAWING</p>
+
+</div><!--left6436-->
+
+<div class="right6436">
+
+<p>&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--right6436-->
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--split6436-->
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>HOW WOOLEN CLOTH<br>
+IS DYED</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>Dyeing of woolens is done in three
+ways—in the wool, in the thread after
+it is spun, or in the piece after it is
+woven. If the wool is to be “dyed in
+the wool” it is now conveyed to the
+dyehouse, dyed the shade required,
+then returned to the mixing room.</p>
+
+<p>During the process of scouring,
+when the yolk was removed, a large
+part of the natural oil of the wool was
+also eliminated, and, in order to restore
+this lubricant, the wool is sprinkled
+with an oil emulsion, and the mixing
+picker thoroughly blends the wools.</p>
+
+<p>From here the wool goes to the cardroom,
+and by means of the carding machine
+the fibres are carded and drawn
+and delivered to the finisher in a broad,
+flat sheet. By means of the condenser<span class="pagenum" id="Page88">[88]</span>
+it is divided into narrow bands, and
+the wool—free as yet from twist—comes
+out in soft strands. These
+strands or threads are called roping.</p>
+
+<div class="container w35emmax" id="Fig088a"><!--outside-->
+
+<img src="images/illo088a.jpg" alt="">
+
+<div class="container w25emmax"><!--inside-->
+
+<p class="caption threeinone lft">MENDING ROOM</p>
+
+<p class="caption threeinone credit lft">Copyright American Woolen Company</p>
+
+<p class="caption threeinone rght">BURLING RAISING KNOTS</p>
+
+<p class="caption threeinone credit rght">Copyright American Woolen Company</p>
+
+<p class="caption threeinone lft">MENDING PERCHING</p>
+
+<p class="caption threeinone credit lft">Copyright American Woolen Company</p>
+
+</div><!--container inside-->
+
+</div><!--container outside-->
+
+<div class="container w35emmax" id="Fig088b"><!--outside-->
+
+<img src="images/illo088b.jpg" alt="">
+
+<div class="container w25emmax"><!--inside-->
+
+<p class="caption threeinone">DRAWING
+IN WARP
+THREADS</p>
+
+<p class="caption threeinone credit">Copyright American Woolen Co.</p>
+
+<p class="caption threeinone credit lft">Copyright American Woolen Co.
+<span class="righttext">Copyright American Woolen Co.</span></p>
+
+<p class="caption threeinone">WEAVING AND SCOURING</p>
+
+</div><!--container inside-->
+
+</div><!--container outside-->
+
+<p>Now comes the mule spinning. The
+roping passes through rolls by which
+it is drawn and twisted to the size required,
+and wound on paper cop tubes
+or bobbins. Such of the yarn as is to
+be used for warp is then spooled from
+the bobbins to dresser spools. It is
+sized and wound upon large reels: from
+these transferred to the warp beam, as
+in the case of worsteds.</p>
+
+<p>The processes of drawing-in, preparation
+for weaving, burling and mending
+are practically the same as in the
+case of worsteds.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>HOW THE CLOTH<br>
+IS MADE PERFECT</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>The finishing processes of woolens,
+like the finishing processes of worsteds,
+vary with different fabrics, some fabrics
+being scoured and cleansed in the
+washers before fulling, others going to
+the fulling mill without cleansing.
+After fulling, the cloth is again washed
+and rinsed, and if necessary to remove
+any vegetable fibres it is carbonized.</p>
+
+<p>Napping or gigging raises the fibres
+to the nap desired. Gigging is done<span class="pagenum" id="Page89">[89]</span>
+by means of a wire napping machine
+or teasel gig, which raises the ends of
+the fibres on the face of the cloth. The
+teasel is a vegetable product about the
+shape of a pine cone, and it is interesting
+to note that no mechanical contrivance
+has ever been invented to equal
+it for the purpose.</p>
+
+<div class="container w40emmax" id="Fig089a">
+
+<p class="caption">SPINNING THE WOOL</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo089a.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="illocredit">Copyright American Woolen Company</p>
+
+<p class="caption">ENGLISH CAP
+SPINNING</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>The napping which has been raised
+by the teasel is sheared or cut to a
+proper length by machine. The cloth is
+pressed, and, if it is desired to finish it
+with lustre, it is wound upon copper
+cylinders and steam is forced through
+it at a high pressure.</p>
+
+<div class="container w40emmax">
+
+<img src="images/illo089b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig089b">
+
+<p class="illocredit">Copyright American Woolen Company</p>
+
+<p class="caption">RING TWISTING</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<div class="container w40emmax">
+
+<img src="images/illo089c.jpg" alt="" id="Fig089c">
+
+<p class="illocredit">Copyright American Woolen Company</p>
+
+<p class="caption">BEAMING—YARN INSPECTING</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<div class="container w40emmax">
+
+<img src="images/illo089d.jpg" alt="" id="Fig089d">
+
+<p class="illocredit">Copyright American Woolen Company</p>
+
+<p class="caption">WOOLEN MULE SPINNING</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<div class="container w40emmax">
+
+<img src="images/illo089e.jpg" alt="" id="Fig089e">
+
+<p class="illocredit">Copyright American Woolen Company</p>
+
+<p class="caption">FINISHER WOOLEN CARDING</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>Next the cloth is dyed, if it is to be<span class="pagenum" id="Page90">[90]</span>
+piece-dyed—that is, dyed in
+the piece. If the cloth is a
+mixture, the wool was dyed
+immediately after the scouring.
+In worsteds the dyeing
+is done either just after it has
+been subjected to the first
+combing processes, or the
+yarn is dyed in the skein or
+hank.</p>
+
+<div class="container w35emmax" id="Fig090a"><!--outside-->
+
+<img src="images/illo090a.jpg" alt="">
+
+<div class="container w25emmax"><!--inside-->
+
+<p class="caption threeinone">PIECE DYEING</p>
+
+<p class="caption threeinone credit">Copyright American Woolen Co.</p>
+
+<p class="caption threeinone lft">FULLING CLOTH</p>
+
+<p class="caption threeinone credit lft">Copyright American Woolen Co.</p>
+
+<p class="caption threeinone rght">FINISH PERCHING</p>
+
+<p class="caption threeinone credit rght">Copyright American Woolen Company</p>
+
+</div><!--container inside-->
+
+</div><!--container outside-->
+
+<div class="container w45emmax" id="Fig090b">
+
+<img src="images/illo090b.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="illocredit">Copyright American Woolen Company</p>
+
+<p class="caption">FINISHED CLOTH, READY FOR THE TAILOR</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>In the dry finishing the
+cloth is finished
+with various kinds
+of finishes desired,
+and it is steamed,
+brushed, sheared
+and pressed. Another
+examination
+for any imperfections
+or defects
+follows; the cloth
+is measured, packed
+and tagged and is
+ready for the market.</p>
+
+<p>The difference
+between worsteds
+and woolens is
+principally that in
+the threads or
+yarns from which
+worsteds are made the fibres of the wool lie
+parallel, one to another, being made from
+combed wool, from which the short fibres
+have been removed; and woolens are made
+from yarns in which the fibres cross and are
+matted and intermixed.
+When finished
+the effect of
+worsteds and woolens
+is materially
+different. Upon examination
+it will be
+found that the
+worsted thread resembles
+a wire in
+evenness, while the
+woolen thread is
+uneven and irregular.</p>
+
+<p>A worsted fabric when finished has
+a clear, bright, well defined pattern,
+seems close and firmly woven, and is
+of a pronounced dressy effect; while
+woolen cloths are softer, they are more
+elastic, the colors are more blended, the
+threads are not so easily distinguishable
+and the general effect is duller.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page91">[91]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Can’t We See in the Dark?</h2>
+
+<p>We cannot see in the dark because
+there is no light to see by. To understand
+this we must first understand that
+when we see a thing, as we generally
+say, we do not actually see the thing
+itself, but only the light coming from it.
+But we have become so used to saying
+that we see the thing itself that for all
+practical purposes we can accept that
+as true, although it is not scientifically
+exact. Scientifically speaking, we see
+that part of the sunlight or other light
+which is shining upon it, which the object
+is able to reflect.</p>
+
+<p>If there were no air about us we could
+not hear any sounds, no matter how
+much disturbance people or things created,
+because it requires air to cause
+the sound waves which produce sound,
+and air also to carry the sound waves
+to our ears. In the same way, if there
+is no light to produce light rays from
+any given object to our eyes, we can
+see nothing. It requires light waves to
+produce the reflections of objects to our
+eyes. Without light our eyes and their
+delicate organs are useless. You cannot
+see yourself in a mirror when the
+quicksilver which was once on the back
+of the glass has been removed, because
+there is then nothing to reflect the
+light. We can only see things when
+there is light enough about to reflect
+things to our eyes. When it is dark
+there is no light, and that is the reason
+we cannot see anything in the dark.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Can Cats and Some Other Animals
+See in the Dark?</h2>
+
+<p>They cannot see in the real dark any
+more than human beings. These animals
+can find their way in the dark
+and can see more than a human being,
+because of one distinct difference in
+their eyes, which may for them be considered
+an advantage. The pupils of
+their eyes can be made much larger,
+and they can, therefore, let more light
+into their eyes than people. The result
+is that when it is so dark that you cannot
+see a thing and you decide it is
+really dark, the cat can still see, because
+there is always a little more light
+left and she can open the pupils of her
+eyes and make them larger, thus letting
+in more light, and the little bit of light
+there is still left gets into her eyes and
+she is able to see. But in a really dark
+room a cat could see no more than you
+can. You see, our eyes open and shut
+more or less just like those of the cat,
+according to the intensity of the light.
+When you go out of the dark and
+shaded room into the bright sunlight
+and look at the sun, you naturally
+squint your eyes without deliberately
+intending to do so. This is nature’s
+way of preventing too much light getting
+into your eyes at one time. Gradually
+the pupils of your eyes contract
+and get smaller, until you can see, without
+squinting, anything in the sunlight.
+If, then, you were to go right back
+into a dark or shaded room, you would
+have to wait a moment or two before
+you could see things distinctly in the
+room—until the pupils of your eyes
+had dilated (become larger), so as to
+let in enough light to enable you to see
+normally. The eye automatically enlarges
+and contracts the pupil of the
+eye, to enable us to see distinctly in
+either light or less light places.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Is It Difficult to Walk Straight
+with My Eyes Closed?</h2>
+
+<p>The reason we cannot do this always
+is because when we walk naturally the
+steps taken by our right and left feet
+are not of equal length. This difference
+in the length of the steps is due to the
+fact that our legs are never exactly
+the same length. We think of them
+generally as of the same length, but
+they are not, and this will be proven if
+you measure them accurately. Now,
+then, the longer of the legs will always
+take a longer step than the shorter one,
+and so, if our eyes are shut, we walk in
+circles, unless we have something to
+guide us. When we walk with our eyes
+open, we are able to overcome the
+tendency to walk in circles, because
+our eyes help the brain to direct
+the legs on a straight course. Another
+reason which affects the matter is
+that our eyes are very necessary in
+keeping our bodies balanced on our
+feet, and it is very difficult to learn<span class="pagenum" id="Page92">[92]</span>
+to keep the body balanced with the eyes
+closed. Now, when your eyes are
+closed and you attempt to walk in a
+straight line your body balances from
+one side to the other, and this fact,
+coupled with the first reason given,
+makes your course irregular. But, say
+you, the man on the tight-rope has his
+eyes bandaged and he walks a very
+straight line. Yes; but remember that
+he has a straight tight-rope to guide
+him, and all he needs is to maintain his
+balance. One can learn to walk in a
+straight line with the eyes closed, but
+it takes a good deal of practice, as you
+will learn if you try.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Can’t We Sleep with Our Eyes
+Open?</h2>
+
+<p>We cannot sleep with our eyes open,
+because to be asleep involves losing
+control of most of the functions of the
+body. When we sleep the brain sleeps
+also. Perhaps it would be stated more
+clearly to say that we cannot sleep while
+the part of the brain which controls
+our activities is awake. There is a part
+of the brain which has the power to
+open our eyes, i. e., lift the eyelids,
+and when that portion of the brain
+ceases to exercise its power to keep the
+eyes open, they go shut. Even when
+we are awake that part of our brain
+cannot keep our eyes from winking,
+because there is another part of the
+brain which sees to it that our eyes
+wink every so often. This is done for
+the purpose of washing the eye-ball,
+and is the answer to another of your
+questions which is given in <a href="#Ref01">another
+place</a> in this book. When the engineer
+at the electric light plant shuts off the
+power all the lights go out, and when
+you go to sleep you automatically shut
+off the power that opens your eyes, and
+the eyes are shut. The brain is asleep
+also, and if it is not completely asleep,
+you are restless.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Do Our Eyes Sparkle When We
+Are Merry?</h2>
+
+<p>If you should watch very closely the
+eyes of a merry person when you see
+them sparkle you would probably notice
+that the eyelids move up and down
+more often under such conditions than
+ordinarily, and if you know what moving
+the eyelids up and down in front
+of the pupil of the eye does, you will
+have your answer.</p>
+
+<p>Every time the eyelid comes down it
+releases a little tear, which spreads over
+the eyeball and washes it clean and
+bright. It does this every time the eyelid
+comes down. Now, there is something
+about being merry which has the
+effect of making the eyelids dance up
+and down, and thus, every time the lid
+comes down, the ball of the eye is
+washed clean and bright, and gives it
+the appearance of sparkling, as we say.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Do We Laugh When Glad?</h2>
+
+<p>We laugh when glad because the
+things which make us laugh combine
+together to rouse those parts of the
+body which are involved in a good
+laugh to act in a certain harmony, and
+when this combination is arranged in a
+certain way it produces a laugh. Certain
+things in the world, whether they
+are funny, ludicrous, or other things
+that produce the laughing effect, cause
+the brain to work certain muscles and
+nerves in a combination that produces
+a laugh. The impression which reaches
+the brain causes these muscles and
+nerves to act involuntarily and the
+laugh comes. It works just like the
+keys of the piano. Some combinations
+of notes produce sad sounds and other
+combinations produce glad sounds, but
+the combination when once touched will
+always produce the same sound. It is
+the impressions made on the brain
+which start the proper combination, and
+it does this instantly. Just as a pin prick
+in the arm will at once send a “hurt”
+message to the brain and cause the
+brain to jerk the arm away, so a laugh-producing
+combination of sounds, or
+things we see, or feel, sends an impression
+to the brain which at once
+sends out the “laugh” order. Some
+things make some people laugh while
+they do not affect others at all. That
+is because our brains are not always
+the same in regard to recording impressions.
+Some things impress some brains
+one way and others entirely in a different<span class="pagenum" id="Page93">[93]</span>
+way or not at all. You do not
+laugh so heartily the second time you
+hear a funny story, because the impression
+the brain receives when the story
+is told the second time is not so vivid.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Do I Laugh When Tickled?</h2>
+
+<p>Practically the same things happen
+when we are tickled, and explains
+why you laugh when tickled. When
+some one tickles the bottom of your
+feet or your ribs or another part of
+your body it produces, in most cases,
+the same effect on the brain as the
+laugh-producing sound or sight, and
+arouses the same combination of
+muscles and nerves to activity. It is
+just like pushing the button of an electric
+bell. When you push the button
+the contact produces the spark which
+sets the machinery of the bell in motion
+and the bell rings and will continue to
+ring as long as you keep your finger
+on the button, or until the spark-producing
+power of the battery is gone.
+Then, as in the case of the bell, you
+cease to laugh, because the spark that
+produced the laugh combination is gone.
+That is why some things tickle some
+people very much and do not affect
+others. Some are not so sensitive to
+the laugh-producing combination as
+others. After the thing that tickles you
+has been going on for some time you
+are not tickled into laughter any more,
+because the impression on the brain
+ceases to be as strong.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Don’t I Laugh When I Tickle
+Myself?</h2>
+
+<p>Your mind tells you there is no need
+to laugh when you tickle yourself.
+Your mind will not respond to the
+tickling sensation when it is aware that
+the cause of the tickle is yourself. The
+reflex action of the mind which causes
+laughter and squirming when some one
+else tickles you only acts when it is not
+conscious of the cause.</p>
+
+<p>The whole purpose of the sensitive
+organization of our skins is to give us
+information and cause action which will
+enable us to protect ourselves when any
+outside influence touches us. An injurious
+touch causes shock and pain, and
+the harmless tickle arouses the laughing
+and squirming sensation.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Happens When We Laugh?</h2>
+
+<p>Laughter is what we call a reflex
+action. When something occurs to
+make us laugh, whether it is something
+we see, or feel, or hear, it is because
+certain sensory nerves receive an impression
+in one of three ways, carry
+it to the nerve centre and the nerve
+centre then sends the same impression
+along certain efferent nerves, which
+connect with certain muscles or glands,
+and excite them to activity. The action
+is practically the same as when you
+hold a light before a mirror. The rays
+from the light strike the surface of the
+mirror and are reflected back from the
+surface, lighting perhaps corners of the
+room, which the direct rays from the
+light could not reach, all depending
+upon the angle of reflection. Light will
+always reflect from a mirror that is
+exposed to it.</p>
+
+<p>Now, then, when you see, hear or
+feel anything that makes you laugh, the
+sensory nerves have only to receive the
+impression to bring on the explosion of
+laughter. Something touched the laugh
+nerves or the laugh trigger that caused
+it to go off. You can prove that it is
+a matter of impression entirely by noting
+that some people can listen to a perfectly
+funny story, even when told by a
+clever performer, and never crack a
+smile, while others burst into uncontrollable
+laughter, and he who does not
+even smile may be listening even more
+intently than the other—he may even
+be looking for a laugh. It all depends
+upon the impression that is made upon
+the nerves. The muscles have the
+power to express the state of gladness
+which is indicated by laughter when
+certain impressions pass along the
+nerves which operate them, just as they
+can be made to do other things when
+the proper cause for action is shown
+them.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Do We Cry When Hurt?</h2>
+
+<p>We cry when we are hurt for the
+same reason that we laugh when we
+are glad. The muscles and nerves,<span class="pagenum" id="Page94">[94]</span>
+under the direction of the brain, produce
+the cry just as the muscles and
+nerves produce laughter, although they
+are probably, but not necessarily, a different
+set of muscles and nerves.</p>
+
+<p>When we are hurt in any part of our
+body or feelings the impression does
+not affect us until it reaches the brain.
+Then instantly, of course, the body
+and brain go to work to destroy the
+pain. The first thing, of course, is to
+give a warning to other parts of the
+body that there is a hurt, and our crying
+is a warning to other people that
+we are hurt. That is probably the only
+good that crying does. It does not
+remove the hurt—it only tells others of
+our troubles. We cry with the lower
+part of the brain—the only portion of
+the brain which is active in a little
+baby. This is why even a tiny baby
+can cry. Crying is the only thing a
+baby can do to give warning of its distress
+or discomfort. Later in life the
+upper part of the brain develops. This
+is the master of the lower part. Therefore,
+we do not always cry when hurt
+as we grow older, because the master
+brain sometimes tells the lower brain
+that to cry will not help matters in the
+least, even though we are inclined to
+cry. Sometimes the hurt or shock to
+older people is so great or sudden
+that we cry out before the controlling
+part of the brain has had time to get
+in its work of preventing the outcry,
+but we are able to stop crying when
+the master brain again secures control.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor" id="Ref01">Where Do Tears Come From?</h2>
+
+<p>Tears are not made only when we
+cry. They seem to come only when you
+cry, because it is then that they spill
+over. A little part of you is making
+tears all the time, and your eyes are
+constantly washing themselves in them.
+You have often noticed how you wink
+every few seconds? You have often
+tried to keep from winking—to see
+how long you could keep from winking.
+Boys and girls often do that, and
+when you keep from winking what
+seems a long time, you notice how your
+eyes ache and feel very dry just before
+you have to let them wink, in spite of
+how hard you try not to, and just
+when you think you are not going to.
+I will tell you just what winking does
+for the eyes. All of the time your eyes
+are open the front, or the part you see
+things with, is exposed to the dust and
+dirt that fills the air at all times, although
+we cannot always see the dust.
+The wind, too, is constantly making
+them dry. But have you ever noticed
+that although you never wash the inside
+of the front of the eye, or pupil,
+it is always clean? Well, it is because
+your eye washes itself every time you
+wink. I will tell you how this is done.
+Up above each eye, inside, of course,
+there is a little gland called the tear-gland.
+This gland is busy all the time
+you are awake making tears. As soon
+as the front of your eye becomes dry,
+or if a particle of dust or anything else
+strikes it, the nerves you have there
+tell the brain, and almost at once the
+eyelid comes down with a tear inside
+of it, and so washes the front of your
+eye clean again. It does its work perfectly
+and as often as necessary. There
+is always a tear ready to be used in this
+way.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Where Do the Tears Go?</h2>
+
+<p>Let me show you. Look right down
+here at the inner corner of my eyelid,
+where you will see a little hole. That
+is where the tears get out of the eye,
+when they have washed your eyeball
+clean. Where do they go then? Did
+you ever notice how soon after you
+cry you have to blow your nose? The
+reason for that is that when the tears
+go through the little hole they run
+down into the nose. This making of
+tears and winking goes on all the time
+while you are awake, and after they
+wash your eye off they go on out
+through this little hole. But when you
+cry you make more tears come than
+you need, so many, in fact, that they
+cannot all get away through this little
+hole, and as there is no place else for
+them to go, and as there is no place
+to keep them inside the eye, they simply
+spill themselves right over the edge of
+your lower eyelid and run down your
+cheek.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page95">[95]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak">Story in a Barrel of Cement</h2>
+
+</div><!--chapter-->
+
+<h3>What Is Cement?</h3>
+
+<p>The dictionary tells us that cement
+is “any adhesive substance which makes
+two bodies cohere.” Thus any material
+performing this function may be called
+cement, such, for example, as the cement
+used in mending broken china.
+Glue also is a form of cement. This
+story has to do with Portland cement,
+which is a structural or building material
+used in countless ways.</p>
+
+<h3>Why Is Cement Called Portland Cement?</h3>
+
+<p>After being wet with water it hardens
+into stone, and it was given the
+name “Portland” because, when first
+manufactured in England, and mixed
+with sand and stone, it resembled a
+celebrated building stone called Portland,
+which was obtained from the Isle
+of Portland. Compared with other
+American industries, the manufacture
+of Portland cement is of recent origin.
+Formerly all Portland cement was
+brought from foreign countries. After
+successful manufacture became established
+in this country, however, the
+industry advanced with great rapidity.
+A few years ago the entire United
+States did not use as much cement as
+is now used in any one of our large
+cities. At the time these facts were
+written (1914) the manufacturers were
+making more than 90 millions of barrels
+a year.</p>
+
+<h3>What Is Cement Made Of?</h3>
+
+<p>Portland cement is composed chiefly
+of lime, alumina and silica. It is manufactured
+from rocks, marl, clay and
+shale containing these ingredients. If
+any one of them is lacking in the raw
+material as it is taken from the earth,
+it is supplied during process of manufacture.
+The greatest cement district
+in America is in Pennsylvania, and is
+known as the “Lehigh District.” A
+rock containing proper constituents for
+making Portland cement was found
+there in vast quantities, and for a number
+of years the Lehigh District was
+the center of the industry. In time
+it was found that certain clays, marls
+and shale could also be manufactured
+into Portland cement, and thus mills
+have been erected in all sections of the
+United States. One of the largest companies
+in the United States found that
+cement could be manufactured from a
+combination of blast-furnace slag and
+limestone, and this is now made by the
+company in large quantities, the product
+being a true Portland cement.</p>
+
+<h3>What Is Concrete?</h3>
+
+<p>Portland cement is the strongest and
+most lasting of all modern mortars or
+binding materials. When mixed with
+sand and stone the resulting mixture
+is called concrete. Being a plastic material
+when first mixed, it cannot be
+used as we use brick or stone, but must
+be poured into molds or forms, which
+hold it in place until it hardens into
+rock. It may be cast in any form
+or shape, and thus it is useful for a
+vast number of purposes. It will
+harden under water, and time and exposure
+to the elements merely increase
+its strength. The most common form
+in which it is used, one familiar to
+everybody, is in the construction of
+sidewalks. It is used in all great engineering
+projects, such as the building
+of dams, bridges, retaining walls,
+sewers, subways and tunnels. Being
+fireproof, large quantities of it are used
+in buildings and likewise on our farms,
+where it is extremely valuable as an
+enduring and sanitary material.</p>
+
+<h3>What Is Cement Used For?</h3>
+
+<p>It has been said that concrete is a
+plastic material, meaning that it is soft
+and pliable in the sense that clay or
+putty are plastic. For this reason it is
+cast in forms or molds. Sometimes it
+is used in the form of plain concrete,
+and on other occasions it is reinforced,
+meaning that iron rods, steel bars or
+woven wire mesh are imbedded in the
+concrete. When we speak of a “reinforced”
+concrete building, imagine a
+huge wire bird cage encrusted within
+and without with concrete. Place a
+block, beam or column of concrete upon
+the ground and it will bear a tremendous
+load, meaning that it has great
+strength in compression. On the other
+hand, if we were to place a long beam
+upon supports at either end, leaving the
+greater length of it suspended and without
+support, it would carry but a small
+load compared with concrete in compression.
+Therefore, in making concrete
+beams or girders in a building,
+strong steel bars are embedded in the
+concrete to take up what are termed
+the tensile strains.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page96">[96]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">WHAT A CEMENT MILL LOOKS LIKE</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo096a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig96a">
+
+<p class="caption long">This is a picture of a cement mill. Millions of dollars are invested in these great mills, which are
+now located in practically all sections of the country. Material is brought from the quarry to the
+mills, where it passes through various stages, such as grinding, burning and bagging. Expert chemists
+are employed to see that the cement is made exactly right. It is a very scientific matter to make a
+thoroughly good cement. There must be no guess work. Some mills are very large, the plant comprising
+a number of buildings, and some companies operate several mills in different localities. A single
+company supplied all of the cement used in the Panama Canal, which great project required more than
+six million barrels.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo096b.jpg" alt="" class="blankbefore" id="Fig96b">
+
+<p class="caption long">This picture shows a quarry in the famous Lehigh cement district. The giant steam shovel or
+excavator burrows into the hill like some great animal, and when the bucket is full it is dumped into
+the cars shown on the track, which convey the rock or the raw material to the mill.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page97">[97]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">WHERE THE MATERIAL IS OBTAINED</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo097a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig97a">
+
+<p class="caption long">This is an illustration of a method of excavating and loading marl and clay to be manufactured
+into Portland cement. The large bucket suspended over the cars does not gouge into the hillside as
+shown in the preceding picture, but descends like a huge steel hand, the metal parts opening and
+closing like fingers. The long derrick elevates the bucket and swings it over the train of cars.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo097b.jpg" alt="" class="blankbefore" id="Fig97b">
+
+<p class="caption long">This is a view of a powerful rock crusher, which is operated by the electric motor shown at the
+right. The cement rock is brought from the quarry and dumped into the machine, from which it
+issues in broken fragments, as shown in the illustration, this being the first or preliminary crushing
+process.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page98">[98]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">THE HUGE ROCK GRINDERS</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo098a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig98a">
+
+<p class="caption long">This is a view of the electric motors operating the grinding machines which reduce the raw material
+to a very fine powder. There are various types of mills or grinders, to which the material comes after
+going through the rock crusher. They grind it in preparation for the kilns.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo098b.jpg" alt="" class="blankbefore" id="Fig98b">
+
+<p class="caption long">The kiln is a very important feature of the cement plant. The finely ground raw material must
+be calcined or burned before it becomes Portland cement. These kilns range from 60 to 240 feet in
+length. They are slightly inclined and revolve upon rollers. The finely ground material enters the
+kiln at the upper end and travels throughout its length as the kiln slowly revolves. Powdered coal
+dust is fed into the kiln at the lower end, where it is ignited and generates intense heat. When the
+finely ground raw material comes into contact with the heat, which reaches 2800 degrees F., it is
+transformed into what is known as clinker, which issues from the lower end of the kiln and is passed
+on to other machinery, which grinds it into impalpable powder or Portland cement.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page99">[99]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">HOW CONCRETE IS MIXED</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo099a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig099a">
+
+<p class="caption long">This is an ingenious machine which bags and weighs the cement. The bags are suspended as
+shown, and when filled and weighed by the machine are placed in barrels and shipped to their destination.
+Every device of this kind that will save time and labor cheapens the cost of manufacture.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo099b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig099b" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption long">In mixing cement, sand and stone together in order that concrete may be obtained, it is customary
+to use, if the operation is a large one, what are known as mechanical mixers. These are large iron
+cylinders into which the three materials are put and water added. The cylinder or iron drum revolves
+until the contents are thoroughly mixed, when they issue from the mixer through a chute or spout.
+A mixer of this type is shown on a <a href="#Fig103a">succeeding page</a> describing the making of a concrete road. This
+picture shows mixing concrete by hand. The sand and cement are first thoroughly mixed in the dry
+state and subsequently the stone and water are added. Concrete should be thoroughly mixed in order
+that every grain of sand may be entirely coated with cement, and then these two combined make a rich
+mortar, which should surround entirely every piece of stone.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page100">[100]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">HOW CONCRETE BUILDINGS ARE MADE</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo100a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig100a">
+
+<p class="caption long">This picture shows how concrete houses or walls are built through the use of what are known
+as forms. In building a wall we have an inside and outside form, as shown in the picture, between
+which the concrete is placed. After it hardens the forms are removed. In some operations, such
+as the construction of a large factory building or great bridge, there is such a vast array of timber
+construction as to make the scene quite impressive, especially when bridge arches of great span and
+height are under construction.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo100b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig100b" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption long">This is a view of an arch built of concrete during the Jamestown Exposition. It is a striking
+illustration of how concrete may be used for both ornamental and practical purposes. In no field has
+concrete proved to be of more value and economy than in the construction of bridges, whether large
+or small. Some of the largest bridges in the world are built of concrete, and in many cases iron
+bridges are incased in concrete to keep them from rusting.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page101">[101]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">CONCRETE HOUSES CANNOT BURN</p>
+
+<div class="split5050">
+
+<div class="left5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo101a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig101a">
+
+<p class="caption long">This is a curious example of concrete construction.
+It is a coal pocket, from which locomotives
+are supplied with fuel. Railroad companies have
+adopted it because of its great strength and
+durability.</p>
+
+</div><!--leftsplit-->
+
+<div class="right5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo101b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig101b">
+
+<p class="caption long">Just as mammoth structures are created with
+poured concrete, so we may produce the most
+delicate and ornamental patterns. These are
+usually cast in plaster molds and often in molds
+of wood or iron. Where undercut work is required,
+such as in the sun-dial shown, a wood
+or metal mold could not be removed without
+injury to the concrete, and so sculptors have
+invented the pliable glue mold, which can be
+easily removed and which will spring back to
+its original shape if necessary to use it a second
+time.</p>
+
+</div><!--rightsplit-->
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--split-->
+
+<img src="images/illo101c.jpg" alt="" id="Fig101c" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption long">Concrete in dwelling construction means the elimination of fire danger and also cost of painting
+and repairs. This picture shows a solid concrete house, parts of which have been encrusted with
+beautiful tiles. Concrete has been successfully used in all types of dwellings, from the humble abode
+of the workingman to the palace of the multimillionaire. An entire house may be made of concrete,
+even to the roof and stairways, and where a dwelling is constructed of this material throughout, it is
+proof against fire and decay.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page102">[102]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">HOW THE FARMER USES CONCRETE</p>
+
+<div class="split5050">
+
+<div class="left5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo102a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig102a">
+
+<p class="caption long">This is an interesting example of concrete construction.
+It is a large water tower which will
+never warp, rust or decay. In this field concrete
+has been of great service, whether reservoirs are
+constructed in the form of towers or tanks. As
+already stated, water does not affect the life or
+strength of concrete, except to improve it.</p>
+
+</div><!--leftsplit-->
+
+<div class="right5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo102b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig102b">
+
+<p class="caption long">This is a concrete silo. A silo made of concrete
+is merely a huge stone jar in which green
+food for cattle is preserved. The crop is gathered
+and placed in the silo, thus insuring abundance
+of green and wholesome food throughout
+dry seasons and during the winter. The contents
+of the silo is known as silage or ensilage, and is
+merely corn fodder cut when green. Concrete
+silos are both storm- and fire-proof.</p>
+
+</div><!--rightsplit-->
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--split-->
+
+<img src="images/illo102c.jpg" alt="" id="Fig102c" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption long">It is usual to consider concrete in connection with great engineering enterprises, but nevertheless
+many millions of barrels are used each year by the farmers of the United States. This picture shows
+a clean, sanitary and durable concrete stable. In buildings of this character concrete is rapidly supplanting
+wood, which soon goes to decay, to say nothing of accumulation of filth.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page103">[103]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">HOW CONCRETE ROADS ARE BUILT</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo103a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig103a">
+
+<p class="caption">MECHANICAL CEMENT MIXER</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo103b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig103b" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption">A CONCRETE ROAD</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">Our two last pictures relate to an exceedingly important and rapidly increasing use of cement.
+It is the construction of concrete roads. The first picture shows a concrete road in course of construction.
+The mechanical mixer referred to above is shown in this picture. It is a self-propelling
+machine and mixes the concrete very rapidly. As it comes from the mixer in a wet and mushy mass
+it is placed between rigidly staked side forms, where it hardens into imperishable rock. The road is
+brought to its shape by working to and fro a long plank called a template, after which the surface of
+the road is troweled with wooden floats, giving it a texture which prevents horses and cars from
+slipping. The last picture shows a narrow concrete road in the state of Maryland. Wherever these
+roads have been built they mean much to the women and children of the community. They never
+grind up into mud or dust, and are as pleasant to walk upon as the sidewalks of the city. Children,
+especially, delight in them. In Wayne county, Mich., where they have the most celebrated concrete
+roads in the world, the children go to and from school on roller skates, and various games are played
+on the concrete road.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page104">[104]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Don’t We Make Roads Perfectly
+Level?</h2>
+
+<p>Roads are made with a curving upper
+surface, i. e., higher in the middle, in
+order that the rain will drain away
+from the road into the gutters or
+ditches which you find at the sides.
+You see water has the faculty of running
+only in one direction, and that is
+downward. If it cannot go down on one
+side or the other, it will collect in puddles
+and make the road impassable.
+For this reason we build our roads so
+they are higher in the middle than at
+the sides—not much higher; only about
+six inches or so—giving them just the
+gentle slope toward each side that is
+necessary to allow the water to run off
+gradually, but sufficiently sloping to
+keep the water from collecting in puddles
+in the road. Thus after the dust
+has been settled by the first rain that
+falls, most of the surplus rain that falls
+on the roads finally runs into the
+ditches at the side of the road.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Are Some Roads Called Turnpikes?</h2>
+
+<p>Undoubtedly the name turnpike as
+applied to some roads arose from the
+fact that pikes or gates were set across
+the roads by the keeper or toll-collector.
+In addition to collecting tolls, it was a
+part of the toll-keeper’s business to keep
+the road in repair. His wages and other
+expenses for doing this were received
+from the tolls collected from the people
+who used the road to ride on in carriages,
+wagons, etc. In the early days
+the toll-collector was armed with a pike,
+a long-handled weapon with a sharp
+iron head, which he used to prevent
+people who travelled his road from
+going by without giving up their toll.
+Later on a swinging gate was built
+across the road, which made it unnecessary
+to use the pike, though the
+name was retained, for no one could
+pass while the gate barred the way.
+When the passerby had paid his tolls,
+the toll-collector opened the gate and
+let him pass. If he did not pay the
+gate remained closed and the driver
+had to turn back or decide to pay.
+Hence comes the name turnpike. In
+some parts of the country they call
+these toll roads.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Is Dust?</h2>
+
+<p>A large part of the dust we see in
+the roadway when the horses kick it
+up, or when an automobile passes, is
+made up of the pulverized dirt of the
+roadway. It becomes mixed with
+other things, such as the street deposits
+of animals, particles of carbon,
+etc. Particles of this dust get into
+our throats, and as there are many
+germs in it, they are very liable to cause
+sickness, especially the colds from
+which we suffer.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Becomes of the Dust?</h2>
+
+<p>The dust of the roadway is generally
+blown away by the wind, to come down
+to earth again wherever the wind happens
+to carry it—on the lawns, the doorsteps
+or back to the road, perhaps. In
+any event, the rain which is certain to
+come sooner or later, washes this dust
+back into the soil, or into the sewers.
+Part of it mixes with the soil. The
+organic matter in dust helps to fertilize
+the soil, and is therefore useful. Other
+parts of the dust are oxidized and consumed
+by the air, through the heat of
+the sun. So you see the dust is continually
+changing from one thing to another.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page105">[105]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Are Stones Alive?</h2>
+
+<p>Real stones are not alive. They do
+not become stones until they have been
+burned out—until they have become
+what is known as dead matter. This
+is meant entirely in the sense that
+we commonly think of the meaning
+of the word “alive,” which is
+to be able to breathe and grow.
+Stones can neither breathe nor
+grow. They belong to the inanimate
+kingdom of things on the earth.
+Particles of this dead matter, found in
+stones, etc., are in many cases taken
+up by things that are actually alive,
+and help to form the bodies of living
+things.</p>
+
+<p>The most common thing to be found
+in rocks and stones is what is called
+“silicon,” and we find this silicon in the
+straws of the wheat, oats and corn, and
+in many other things, but not in a way
+that can be detected except by chemical
+analysis. A great many of the things
+found in stones are found in living
+things, but rocks and stones are not
+alive in any sense.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What and Why Is Smoke?</h2>
+
+<p>Smoke is produced only when something
+which is being burned is burning
+imperfectly. If we were to put anything
+burnable into the fire and establish
+just the right amount of draft,
+and knew how to build our fires properly,
+there would be no smoke and
+very little ashes.</p>
+
+<p>In the case of the black coal smoke
+which we think of mostly when we
+think of smoke at all, the black portion
+is principally little unburned particles
+of coal which pass up the chimney with
+the gases which are thrown off when
+the coal is being burned. These gases
+would be invisible—they really are invisible—if
+it were not for the little
+particles of coal which are drawn up
+the chimney with them. If you look
+at the chimney from which a wood fire
+expels the gases you find the smoke
+very light in color—showing that not
+so much unburned matter is being
+thrown off. A charcoal fire makes no
+smoke, because the charcoal has had
+the unburnable things taken out of it
+beforehand, and the charcoal stove is
+almost perfect in construction from the
+standpoint of combustion.</p>
+
+<p>Of course, the thickness of the smoke
+from a coal fire is often increased by
+the fact that there are unburnable
+things mixed in with the coal, some
+of which also pass off through the
+chimney.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Can’t We Burn Stones?</h2>
+
+<p>We cannot burn anything that has
+already been burned, and a stone has
+already been burned. To understand
+how this is we must first find out what
+takes place when a thing is burned.
+When a thing is burning it means
+merely that that particular thing is taking
+into its system all of the oxygen
+of the air that it can combine with.
+When it has done this it cannot be
+burned any more. Of course, in doing
+this the thing originally burned changes
+its character. The elements in a candle
+when lighted mix with the oxygen in
+the air and disappear in the form
+of gases. The elements in coal mix
+when fired with oxygen and change
+into ashes, gases and smoke. A stone,
+however, is the result of a burning
+that has already taken place. The
+original element of most of the rocks
+and stones we see was silicon, and
+when that combines with oxygen, the
+result is some form of rock, which you
+may be able to break up or throw, but
+which you cannot burn again.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Is Fog?</h2>
+
+<p>The fog which we generally think
+of when we speak this word is the fog
+at or on the sea or other body of water—the
+one that makes the ships stand
+by and blow their fog horns. A fog
+of this kind is nothing more nor less
+than a cloud, come right down to earth
+and spread out a little more. People
+who have gone up into the air in balloons
+and other airships through the
+clouds, say that the clouds are only
+fogs, and that above them it is as clear
+as it is on a sunshiny day on the water
+when there is no fog.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page106">[106]</span></p>
+
+<p>There is another kind of fog which
+settles down over the land, especially
+in the cities. It is a damp mist which
+combines with the smoke and other
+impurities in the air and forms a black
+and dirty cloud about everything. This
+occurs when the upper air prevents the
+smoke which rises from a city with
+all its people and fires in the furnaces
+from passing up and away. The upper
+air acts like a blanket and keeps the
+misty, smoky air down, until the wind
+comes along and blows it away.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Becomes of the Smoke?</h2>
+
+<p>There are a number of things in
+smoke, and when we know what they
+are, we will find a natural answer to this
+question. First, there are, of course,
+the little unburned particles of fuel
+which get carried up the chimney by
+its drawing power. These naturally
+fall to the ground of their own weight,
+once they get beyond the drawing
+power of the chimney and out of the
+current of air so formed. Some of the
+gases are already quite burned out
+when they pass up the chimney. There
+is a lot of carbonic acid gas which, of
+course, mixes with the air and eventually
+becomes food for the plants.
+Then there are some gases which are
+not entirely burned, and the air burns
+them still more until they, too, become
+carbonic acid gas, or water which is also
+thrown off by a burning fire.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Does an Apple Turn Brown When
+Cut?</h2>
+
+<p>The reason is that when you cut an
+apple, the exposure to the air of the
+inside of the apple causes a chemical
+change to take place, due to the effect
+the oxygen in the air has on what is
+scientifically known as the enzymes in
+the apple, or what are commonly called
+the “ferments.” When the peel is unbroken
+it protects the inside of the
+apple against this action by the oxygen.
+The brown color happens to be due to
+the chemical action. The action is similar
+to the action of the air on wet or
+damp iron or steel, in which case we
+call it rust.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Does a Piece of Wood Float in
+Water?</h2>
+
+<p>A piece of wood will float in water
+because it is lighter than the same
+amount of water. We do not mean
+that a piece of wood weighing one
+pound, for instance, would weigh any
+more than a pound of water, of course,
+but if you took the measurements of
+each you will find that it took less bulk
+to make a pound of water than of
+wood. If you had a piece of wood so
+shaped that it just filled a glass completely,
+and then took another glass
+and filled it with water, you would find
+that the glass containing the water
+weighed the most. Another name to
+give to this difference would be to say
+that the water was more dense than the
+wood. By the law of gravitation the
+denser thing will always go to the bottom,
+and as wood is less dense than
+water, it will stay at the top if put in
+water. The piece of wood has more air
+in it than the water. If you could
+expel the air from the piece of wood
+and then put it in water, it would sink.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Does Iron Sink In Water?</h2>
+
+<p>The explanation in regard to the
+piece of wood floating in water is the
+beginning of the answer to this question.
+A piece of iron is heavier than
+an equal bulk of water, and will therefore
+go to the bottom, as will all things
+which are more dense than water. A
+piece of iron has no air in it. The particles
+of a piece of iron are so close
+together that there is no room for air
+in it and it will therefore sink in
+water. A piece of wood from which
+all of the air had been expelled would
+also sink.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Doesn’t an Iron Ship Sink?</h2>
+
+<p>This is a very natural question for
+you to ask right after you were told
+why iron sinks in water. The explanation
+is that by making an iron ship in
+the way we do, we fix it so that it
+holds a lot of air in between the bottom
+and sides, making the combination of
+the two—the iron ship and the air in
+it—lighter than the water on which it<span class="pagenum" id="Page107">[107]</span>
+sails. Men thought at one time that
+a ship would sink if made of iron,
+and therefore built all of their ships
+of wood. Finally one inventor made a
+ship of iron and it was one of the wonders
+of the world. When we found
+that iron ships would float if they were
+built to retain sufficient air to keep
+them from sinking, we made the hulls
+of most ships of iron for a time. Now,
+however, the best ships are made of
+steel, which is even better.</p>
+
+<p>If you bore a hole in the bottom of
+a ship, the water will run in if the
+ship is in the water, and the ship will
+sink, because the water coming in
+drives out the air; and when the ship
+is full of water, the water in it, with
+the ship itself, are heavier than the
+water on which it sails, and the ship
+will go down. Filling a ship with water
+makes the iron part of the ship just
+like a bar of iron, so far as its sinking
+qualities are concerned.</p>
+
+<p>Of course, an iron ship must be
+made long enough and broad enough
+so that when it is completed there will
+be sufficient air contained within the
+hull to make the combination lighter
+than water. Always, therefore, when a
+ship is to be built, competent engineers
+must go over the plans of the vessel
+and calculate the air capacity, so as to
+make sure she will float.</p>
+
+<p>Nowadays it would be difficult to
+sink a modern vessel by boring one
+small hole in the bottom, because the
+bottom and sides are lined with enclosed
+steel air-chambers, and a ship
+will keep afloat even if one or a number
+of holes are made. The reason is, of
+course, that when you bore a hole into
+one of these air-chambers the water
+rushing in will fill that air-chamber
+with water, but as there is no connection
+from the inside with the rest of
+the ship, the water can get no further.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Does a Poker Get Hot at Both
+Ends if Left in the Fire?</h2>
+
+<p>Both ends of the poker become
+heated because the poker is made of
+iron, and iron is a particularly good
+conductor of heat. To understand this
+we must look into the question of what
+a good conductor of heat is. In this
+case the particles of iron, which combined
+form the poker, are so close together
+that when those at the end of
+the poker which is in the fire get hot,
+the particles at that end hand the heat
+on to the particles next to them, and
+so on until the whole poker is hot. The
+difference between a thing which is
+a good conductor of heat and a thing
+which is not a good conductor, lies in
+the ability of the different particles
+which compose it to hand the heat on
+to the others. Did you ever notice
+that the handle of a solid silver spoon
+will become hot if the spoon is left
+in hot coffee? Solid silver is a good
+conductor of heat. A plated spoon is
+not a good conductor, however, and
+will not become hot if left in the cup
+of hot coffee as a solid silver spoon
+will.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Would a Wooden Spoon Get Hot?</h2>
+
+<p>A wooden spoon would not get hot,
+because wood is not a good conductor
+of heat. The atoms which compose
+the wood have not the power to transmit
+the heat to each other. This is
+strange, too, when we think that a
+poker is a good conductor of heat, but
+will not burn, while wood is not a good
+conductor, but will burn readily. Perhaps
+you have already discovered this
+in connection with a wood fire. One
+end of a stick of wood may be burning
+fiercely, and yet you can pick it up by
+the other end and find it is not even
+warm. This proves to you that wood
+is not a good conductor of heat, and
+explains why the handle of a wooden
+spoon in a bowl of hot soup will not
+get hot while the handle of a silver
+spoon will.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Does Iron Turn Red When Red
+Hot?</h2>
+
+<p>The answer is that the piece of iron
+has been heated to the point where it
+gives off light of its own. The red you
+see is only one stage in the development
+of iron to the point where it
+makes its own light. If you heat it
+still more it will make a white light.<span class="pagenum" id="Page108">[108]</span>
+You know that it produces the light
+itself, because if you take a piece of
+iron into a perfectly dark room and
+heat it to a white heat it will show better
+than where there is other light. If
+you continue the process the iron will
+melt and change in form. Therefore,
+the “red hot” name for a piece of iron
+in that state is a perfect name. It is a
+warning that the iron is coming to a
+point where if the heating process is
+continued, it will change its form and
+in this state, when treated according
+to known methods, the iron is turned
+into steel, which has many characteristics
+that iron does not possess. Now,
+I can, of course, hear you ask why
+doesn’t an iron kettle get red hot? and
+I can answer that easily. If you treat
+the kettle the same way as you do the
+piece of iron, it will get red hot. The
+difference is that you are thinking of
+an iron kettle with water in it. As long
+as there is any water in the kettle, that
+keeps it from getting hot. The water
+inside keeps the kettle from becoming
+red hot. If you took a hollow rod of
+iron and filled it with water, it would
+not become red hot as long as any water
+remained in the hollow portion.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">How Did the Sand Get on the Seashore?</h2>
+
+<p>The sand on the seashore is nothing
+more or less than ground-up sandstone.
+In dealing with the inanimate things in
+the world we find that a very important
+element of all of them has been given
+the name silicon. When the crust of
+the earth, which is the part we call
+the land and rocks, and includes the
+part under the sea, was a molten mass,
+this silicon was burned, combining with
+the oxygen which surrounded everything,
+and produced what is known as
+silica. Silica is the name given to the
+thing which is left after you burn
+silicon. A very large part of this
+silica was deposited in parts of the
+earth, and when the crust of the earth
+cooled off it was sand. By pressure
+and contact with other substances it became
+stuck together, just as you can
+take wet sand at the seashore to-day
+and make bricks and houses and tunnels,
+excepting that in the case we
+speak of it was something besides
+water that pressed and stuck the little
+particles of sand together. They stuck
+together more permanently. Then
+when the oceans were formed, as
+shown in another part of this book,
+much of the sandstone was found to
+be at the bottom and on the shores of
+the oceans. The action of the water
+continually washing against the sandstone
+gradually broke the sandstone up
+into the tiny particles of sand again,
+and this is what makes the sand on the
+seashore.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Makes a Soap Bubble?</h2>
+
+<p>A bubble is merely a hollow ball of
+water with air inside. The air in coming
+up through the water in trying to
+rise out of the water is caught in the
+water in such a way as to form the
+bubble, and since the ability of the
+air inside of the bubble to rise is
+greater than that of the water which
+forms the bubble, and which has a tendency
+to pull it down, the bubble rises
+into the air. The water ball is very
+thin and keeps running down to the
+bottom of the ball, where you see it
+form into drops, and soon this makes
+the walls of the water bubble so thin
+that the air bursts through the ball of
+water, and that is</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Makes the Bubble Explode?</h2>
+
+<p>Sometimes we blow soap bubbles. We
+mix soap in the water and that makes
+the walls of the water ball which we
+produce a little tougher, and it requires
+a great deal more effort for the air to
+escape from it, as the soap keeps the
+water in the walls of the bubble from
+running down to the bottom for quite
+some time, and, therefore, soap bubbles
+will often travel in the air for
+some distance. The colors we see on
+soap bubbles are produced by the rays
+of sunlight, which strike the bubble
+and reflect them back to us in colors
+very similar to those of the rainbow.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Are Bubbles Round?</h2>
+
+<p>Bubbles are round because the air
+which forms the inside of the bubble
+exerts an equal pressure in all directions.
+It presses equally against all
+sides of the bubble at the same time.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page109">[109]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak">The Story in a Yard of Silk</h2>
+
+</div><!--chapter-->
+
+<h3>God’s Creation and Man’s Invention.</h3>
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>WHERE DOES SILK<br>
+COME FROM?</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>Silk in its finished state is an ideal
+product. It is at once durable, magnificent
+to the eye, tender to the touch, and
+its rustle is soft music to the ear.
+Hence it is easy to understand why the
+silkworm, from the earliest times, has
+been an object of much consideration
+and concern from a commercial and
+industrial point of view. In this country
+alone, we annually expend as much
+for silk goods as we do for public education
+and thirty times as much as we
+do for foreign missions. Such an indomitable
+producer of wealth is the
+silkworm, and a producer of wealth it
+has been from an age as remote as
+when Joseph was down in old Egypt,
+interpreting the dreams of King Pharaoh’s
+butler and baker and later that
+of the King himself.</p>
+
+<p>To-day we speak of twenty centuries,
+and our minds can hardly comprehend
+such a lapse of time. What shall we
+think of the silkworm, that for twice
+twenty centuries has furnished practically
+all the raw material for the
+world’s silk supply? Because man’s
+ingenuity is at present actively engaged
+in the attempt to displace it by cheaper
+substitutes, the thought has come to
+us that, without going too minutely into
+mechanical processes, a good opportunity
+is presented to give some interesting
+information in regard to the silkworm
+as the creation of the Divine
+Hand, in contrast to the silkworm as the
+creation of man.</p>
+
+<p>According to Chinese authority, the
+use of silk dates from 2650 B.C., and
+it is generally conceded that, in point
+of age, it stands midway among the
+great textiles, wool and cotton having
+preceded it, while flax, hemp and other
+fibrous plants followed shortly in its
+train.</p>
+
+<p>The first patron of the silkworm was
+Hoang-Ti, Third Emperor of China,
+and his Empress, Si-Ling-Chi, was the
+first practical silkworm breeder and silk
+reeler. It is related of her that she was
+once walking in the palace gardens
+when she discovered a strange and repulsive
+looking worm. It was small,
+of a pale green color, and was feeding
+greedily on a mulberry leaf. She interested
+the Emperor in this strange
+creature, and, at the Emperor’s suggestion,
+took the fine silken web which
+the worm finally spun, and was the
+first to successfully reel the new filament
+and weave it into cloth. So beneficial
+to the nation was her work considered
+that her gratified subjects bestowed
+upon her the divine title of
+“Goddess of the Silkworms,” and to
+this day the Chinese celebrate in her
+honor the “Con-Con Feast,” which
+takes place during the season in which
+the silkworm eggs are hatched.</p>
+
+<p>In accounting for the presence of
+silkworms in the garden of this early
+empress, we can rightly conclude that
+certain parts of China have always
+abounded in forests of mulberry trees,
+and that the worms themselves had existed
+in great numbers in a wild state
+and attached their cocoons to the trees
+for ages before any use was discovered
+for their web. In fact, such wild silkworms
+not only abound in China to-day,<span class="pagenum" id="Page110">[110]</span>
+but have also been found in
+Southern and Eastern Asia, inhabiting
+the jungles of India, Pegu, Siam and
+Cochin China, but the cocoons of these
+worms are, naturally, of a very inferior
+quality, and are only used for the crudest
+kind of work.</p>
+
+<div class="container w45emmax" id="Fig110">
+
+<img src="images/illo110.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="illocredit">Illustration by courtesy The Brainerd &amp; Armstrong Silk Co.</p>
+
+<p class="caption">THE INTRODUCTION OF SILK INTO EUROPE</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">Pilgrims brought
+silkworm eggs in
+their staffs, together
+with the
+branches of mulberry
+trees, from
+China to the Court
+of Justinian at Byzantine,
+A.D. 555.
+The penalty for
+taking silkworm
+eggs out of China
+was death.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">The accompanying
+illustration is
+a reproduction of
+a mural painting
+on rep in the
+Royal Textile Museum
+at Crefeld,
+Germany, one of
+the great silk textile
+centers of the
+world. The artist
+shows the pilgrims
+presenting the silkworm
+eggs and the
+mulberry branches
+to Justinian, beside
+whom, just in
+the act of rising, is
+his famous queen
+Theodora.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>Silk culture from the time of
+Hoang-Ti became one of the cherished
+secrets of China. The headquarters
+of the industry was in the
+Province of Chen Tong, where was produced
+the silk for the royal family. In
+time the silk and stuffs of China became
+articles of export to various portions
+of Asia. Long journeys were made by
+caravans, occupying two-thirds of a
+year in going from the cities of China
+to those of Syria, but the price obtained
+there exceeded the expense of the
+journey, and thus left a large margin
+of profit to the merchants. In this
+manner, for one thousand years, the
+Chinese sent their silk to the Persians
+who, without knowing how or from
+what it was made, carried it to the
+Western nations.</p>
+
+<p>So carefully did the Orientals guard
+their secret, that there is reason to believe
+that Aristotle was the first person
+in the occidental world to learn the true
+origin of the wrought silk from Persia.
+In commenting on the silk which was
+brought from that country on the return
+of Alexander’s victorious army, he
+described the silkworm as a “horned insect,”
+passing through several transformations,
+which produced “bomby-kia,”
+as he called the silk. But the
+classics must convince one that Aristotle’s
+discovery did not at once become
+matter of current knowledge. In fact,
+for five hundred years after Aristotle’s
+time the common theory of the origin
+of silk among the Greeks and Romans
+was that it was either “a fleece which
+grew upon a tree” (thus confounding
+it with cotton), or a fibre obtained from
+the inner bark of a tree; and some, deceived
+by the glossy and silky fibres of
+the seed vessels of the plant that corresponds
+to our milk or silk weed, believed
+it to be the product of some
+plant or flower. So Virgil, in speaking
+of silk, says, “the Seres comb the delicate
+fleecings from the leaves.”</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page111">[111]</span></p>
+
+<p>In the Sixth Century, A.D., all the
+raw silk was still being imported from
+China by way of Persia, when the Emperor
+Justinian, having engaged in war
+with Persia, found his supply of raw
+silk cut off and the manufacturers in
+great distress. His foolish legislation
+did not help the situation, and a crisis
+was averted only by two Nestorian
+monks, who came from China with seed
+of the mulberry tree and a knowledge
+of the Chinese method of rearing
+worms. No one, on pain of death, was
+allowed to export the silkworm eggs
+from China, but Justinian bribed the
+monks to return to that country, and in
+555 they came back, bringing with them
+a quantity of silkworm eggs concealed
+in their pilgrim’s staffs. And here let
+us say that there has only once since
+been an important importation of eggs
+from Asia. That was about 1860,
+when Dr. Pasteur was making a study
+of a germ disease which was threatening
+the industry. Consequently, it can
+truly be said that practically all the
+silkworms of the Western world are
+descended from those brought in the
+eggs by the monks to Constantinople.
+Justinian gave the control of the silk
+industry to his own treasurer. Weavers,
+brought from Tyre and Berytus, were
+employed to manufacture the silk, and
+the whole production was a monopoly
+of the emperor, he fixing its prices.
+Under his management, the cost of silk
+became eight times as great as before,
+and the Royal Purple was twenty-four
+times its former price. But this monopoly
+was not of long duration and,
+at the death of Justinian in 565, the
+monopoly ceased, and the spread of the
+industry commenced in new and diverse
+directions.</p>
+
+<p>While every detail of the growth of
+the industry has an unusual interest, as
+showing how such an insignificant thing
+as a worm may become a potent factor
+in Nature’s economy, the scope of this
+article will hardly allow us to more
+than sketch some of the other more
+salient points of the history of the silkworm.</p>
+
+<p>About the year 910, the silkworms
+made their appearance in Cordova,
+Spain, being brought there by the
+Moors. From Spain silk culture soon
+extended to Greece and Italy.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>WHEN SILK CULTURE WAS<br>
+INTRODUCED IN AMERICA</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>Silk was introduced on this continent
+through the Spanish Conquest of
+Mexico, and the first silkworm eggs
+sold for $60.00 an ounce.</p>
+
+<p>A century later royal orders were
+issued requiring mulberry trees to be
+planted in the Colony of Virginia, and
+a fine of twenty pounds of tobacco was
+imposed for neglect, and fifty pounds
+of tobacco was given as a bounty for
+every pound of reeled silk produced.</p>
+
+<p>Silk culture spread rapidly in the
+other Colonies, and to-day the story of
+the ineffectual attempts to profitably
+rear the silkworm in this country is as
+voluminous as it is interesting. Suffice
+it to say, as a sop to our inherent
+Yankee pride, that silk culture was introduced
+into Connecticut as early as
+1737, the first coat and stockings made
+from New England silk being worn by
+Governor Law in 1747, and the first
+silk dress by his daughter, in 1750.
+This State, for the eighty-four years
+following, led all the others in the
+amount of raw silk produced. In Connecticut
+also, was built the first silk mill
+to be erected on this continent for the
+special purpose of manufacturing silk
+goods. This building was constructed
+in 1810 by Rodney and Horatio Hanks,
+at Mansfield, and is still standing as an
+heirloom which has come to us from
+the infant days of the industry.</p>
+
+<p>The silkworm has become domesticated,
+since, during the long centuries
+in which it has been cultivated, it has
+acquired many useful peculiarities.
+Man has striven to increase its silk
+producing power, and in this he has
+succeeded, for, by comparing the cocoon
+of the silkworm of to-day with its
+wild relations, the cocoon is found to
+be much larger, even in proportion to
+the size of the worm that makes it or
+the moth that issues from it. The
+moth’s loss of the power of flight and
+the white color of the species are probably
+the results of domestication.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page112">[112]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">JAPAN THE NATURAL HOME OF THE SILK WORM</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo112a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig112a">
+
+<p class="caption">GATHERING MULBERRY BRANCHES.<a href="#Footnote1" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor1">[1]</a></p>
+
+<p class="caption">This picture shows a
+grove of mulberry
+trees from which
+branches are being
+gathered as food for
+the worms. This is
+often done by the children.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo112b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig112b" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption">FEMALE MOTHS DEPOSITING EGGS.<a href="#Footnote1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p>
+
+<p class="caption">The moths are placed
+upon pieces of cardboard,
+upon which they
+deposit their eggs.</p>
+
+<p class="caption">The cards with the
+eggs are kept in a cool
+place until the season
+for hatching arrives.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo112c.jpg" alt="" id="Fig112c" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption">PREPARING COCOONING BEDS.<a href="#Footnote1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p>
+
+<p class="caption">This picture shows
+two boys preparing a
+bed of twigs or
+branches upon which
+the worms may spin
+their cocoons.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote1" href="#FNanchor1" class="label">[1]</a>Illustrations by courtesy The
+Brainerd &amp; Armstrong Co.</p>
+
+</div><!--footnote-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page113">[113]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">HOW THE SILKWORMS ARE CARED FOR</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo113a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig113a">
+
+<p class="caption">HATCHING THE
+EGGS.</p>
+
+<p class="caption">As the eggs
+hatch on the
+cards, the young
+worms are removed
+to other
+cards or trays,
+where they are
+fed and cared
+for.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo113b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig113b" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption">REMOVING SILKWORMS
+FROM
+CARDS WHERE
+THEY WERE
+HATCHED.</p>
+
+<p class="caption">Every few days
+the young worms
+are changed to
+new and clean
+cards.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo113c.jpg" alt="" id="Fig113c" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption">METHOD OF REELING RAW
+SILK.</p>
+
+<p class="caption">The cocoons are soaked
+in hot water in the basins
+shown in the front to
+loosen the gum. The silk
+threads then pass through
+the hands of the operators
+and are reeled on swifts
+in the cabinet shown in
+the rear.</p>
+
+<p class="caption">A more modern <a href="#Page118">appliance</a>
+for reeling the silk
+is shown on one of the
+following pages.</p>
+
+<p class="blankbefore75 fsize90">The foregoing pages and pictures by courtesy of Brainerd &amp; Armstrong Silk Company,
+from their book entitled, “Silk, the Real versus the Imitation.”</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page114">[114]</span></p>
+
+<div class="container w50emmax" id="Fig114a">
+
+<img src="images/illo114a.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">FULL GROWN LARVA—SHOWING POSITION IN MOLTING.<a href="#Footnote2" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor2">[2]</a></p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<div class="container w60emmax">
+
+<div class="split8020">
+
+<div class="left8020">
+
+<div class="split5050">
+
+<div class="left5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo114b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig114b">
+
+<p class="caption">MALE MOTH.<a href="#Footnote2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p>
+
+</div><!--left5050-->
+
+<div class="right5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo114c.jpg" alt="" id="Fig114c">
+
+<p class="caption">FEMALE MOTH.<a href="#Footnote2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p>
+
+</div><!--right5050-->
+
+</div><!--split5050-->
+
+</div><!--left8020-->
+
+<div class="right8020">
+
+<img src="images/illo114d.jpg" alt="" id="Fig114d" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption">SIDE VIEW OF
+CHRYSALIS.<a href="#Footnote2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p>
+
+<img src="images/illo114e.jpg" alt="" id="Fig114e">
+
+<p class="caption">BOTTOM VIEW OF
+CHRYSALIS.<a href="#Footnote2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p>
+
+</div><!--right8020-->
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--split8020-->
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a href="#FNanchor2" id="Footnote2" class="label">[2]</a> The cuts on this page and balance of cuts in the story of silk copyright by the
+Corticelli Silk Mills.</p>
+
+</div><!--footnote-->
+
+<p>The silk moth exists in four states—egg,
+larva, chrysalis, and adult. The
+egg of the moth is nearly round, slightly
+flattened, and closely resembles a
+turnip seed. When first laid it is yellow,
+soon turning a gray or slate color
+if impregnated. It has a small spot on
+one end called the micropyle, and when
+the worm hatches, which in our climate
+is about the first of June, it gnaws a
+hole through this spot. Black in color,
+scarcely an eighth of an inch in length,
+covered with long hair, with a shiny
+nose, and sixteen small legs, the baby
+worm is born, leaving the shell of the
+egg white and transparent.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>THE SILKWORM—HOW<br>
+HE DOES HIS WORK</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>Small and tender leaves of the white
+mulberry or osage orange are fed the
+young worm which simply pierces
+them and sucks the sap. Soon the
+worm becomes large enough to eat the
+tender portions between the veins of
+the leaf. In eating they hold the leaves
+by the six forward feet, and then cut
+off semi-circular slices from the leaf’s
+edge by the sharp upper portion of the
+mouth. The jaws move sidewise, and
+several thousand worms eating make a
+noise like falling rain.</p>
+
+<p>The worms are kept on trays made
+of matting, that are placed on racks
+for convenience in handling. The
+leaves are placed beside the worms, or
+upon a slatted or perforated tray placed
+above them, and those that crawl off
+are retained, while the weak ones are
+removed with the old leaves. The
+worms breathe through spiracles, small
+holes which look like black spots, one
+row of nine down each side of the body.
+They have no eyes, but are quite sensitive
+to a jar, and if you hit the rack
+they stop eating and throw their heads
+to one side. They are velvety, smooth,
+and cold to the touch, and the flesh is
+firm, almost hard. The pulsation of the
+blood may be traced on the back of the
+worm, running towards the head.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page115">[115]</span></p>
+
+<p>The worm has four molting seasons,
+at each of which it sheds its old skin
+for a new one, since in the very rapid
+growth of the worm the old skin cannot
+keep pace with the growth of the
+body. The periods between these different
+molts are called “ages,” there
+being five, the first extending from the
+time of hatching to the end of the first
+molt, and the last from the end of the
+fourth molt to the transformation of
+the insect into a chrysalis. The time
+between the four “molts” will be found
+to vary, depending upon the species of
+worm.</p>
+
+<div class="container w30emmax" id="Fig115a">
+
+<img src="images/illo115a.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">HOW THE SILKWORMS ARE REARED.<a href="#Footnote2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>When the worm molts it ceases eating,
+grows slightly lighter in color,
+fastens itself firmly by the ten prolegs,
+and especially by the last two, to some
+object, and holding up its head and the
+fore part of its body remains in a torpid
+state for nearly two days.</p>
+
+<p>By each successive molt the worm
+grows lighter, finally becoming a slate
+or cream white color, and the hair,
+which was long at first, gradually disappears.
+The gummy liquid which
+combines the two strands hardens immediately
+on exposure to the air.</p>
+
+<p>The worm works incessantly, forcing
+the silk out by the contraction of its
+body. The thin, gauze-like network
+which soon surrounds it gradually
+thickens, until, twenty-four hours after
+beginning to spin, the worm is nearly
+hidden from view. However, the cocoon
+is not completed for about three
+days.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>SIXTY-FIVE MOTIONS OF<br>
+HIS HEAD A MINUTE</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>The cocoon is tough, strong, and
+compact, composed of a firm, continuous
+thread, which is, however, not
+wound in concentric circles, but irregularly
+in short figure eight loops, first in
+one place and then in another. In doing
+this the worm makes sixty-five elliptical
+motions of his head a minute
+or a total of 300,000 in an average cocoon.
+The motion of the worm’s head
+when starting the cocoon is very rapid,
+and nine to twelve inches of silk flow
+from the spinneret in a minute, but
+later the average would be about half
+this amount per minute.</p>
+
+<div class="container w30emmax" id="Fig115b">
+
+<img src="images/illo115b.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">SILKWORM EATING.<a href="#Footnote2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page116">[116]</span></p>
+
+<div class="container w25emmax" id="Fig116a">
+
+<p class="caption">SILKWORM—ONE OF THE WORLD’S GREATEST WORKERS</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo116a.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">SILKWORM PREPARING TO FORM ITS COCOON.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>Having attained full growth, the
+worm is ready to spin its cocoon. It
+loses its appetite, shrinks nearly an inch
+in length, grows nearly transparent,
+often acquiring a pinkish hue, becomes
+restless, seeks a quiet place or corner,
+and moves its head from side to side
+in an effort to find objects on which to
+attach its guy lines within which to
+build its cocoon. The silk is elaborated
+in a semi-fluid condition in two long,
+convoluted vessels or glands between
+the prolegs and head, one upon each
+side of the alimentary canal. As these
+vessels approach the head they grow
+more slender, and finally unite within
+the spinneret, a small double orifice
+below the mouth, from which the silk
+issues in a glutinous state and apparently
+in a single thread.</p>
+
+<div class="container w25emmax" id="Fig116b">
+
+<img src="images/illo116b.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">COCOON BEGUN—SILKWORM CAN STILL BE SEEN.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>The color of the worm’s prolegs before
+spinning indicates the color the cocoon
+will be. This varies in different
+species, and may be a silvery white,
+cream, yellow, lemon, or green.</p>
+
+<div class="container w30emmax" id="Fig116c">
+
+<img src="images/illo116c.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">COMPLETED COCOON.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>WHEN THE SILKWORM’S<br>
+WORK IS DONE</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>When the worm has finished spinning,
+it is one and a quarter inches
+long. Two days later, by a final molt,
+its dried-up skin breaks at the nose and
+is crowded back off the body, revealing
+the chrysalis, an oval cone one inch in
+length. It is a light yellow in color, and
+immediately after molting is soft to the
+touch. The ten prolegs of the worm
+have disappeared, the four wings of
+the future moth are folded over the
+breast, together with the six legs and
+two feelers, or antennæ. It soon turns<span class="pagenum" id="Page117">[117]</span>
+brown, and the skin hardens into a
+tough shell. Nature provides the cocoon
+to protect the worm from the
+elements while it is being transformed
+into a chrysalis, and thence into the
+moth.</p>
+
+<div class="container w30emmax" id="Fig117a">
+
+<img src="images/illo117a.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">MOTHS EMERGING FROM COCOONS.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>With no jaws, and confined within
+the narrow space of the cocoon, the
+moth has some difficulty in escaping.
+After two or three weeks the shell of
+the chrysalis bursts, and the moth
+ejects against the end of the cocoon a
+strongly alkaline liquid which moistens
+and dissolves the hard, gummy lining.
+Pushing aside some of the silken
+threads and breaking others, with
+crimped and damp wings the moth
+emerges; and the exit once effected, the
+wings soon expand and dry.</p>
+
+<div class="container w50emmax" id="Fig117b">
+
+<img src="images/illo117b.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">COCOONS FROM WHICH THE MOTHS HAVE EMERGED.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>The escape of the moth, however,
+breaks so many threads that the cocoons
+are ruined for reeling, and consequently,
+when ten days old, all those
+not intended for seed are placed in a
+steam heater to stifle the chrysalis, and
+the silk may then be reeled at any future
+time.</p>
+
+<p>The moths are cream white in color.
+They have no mouths, but do have eyes,
+which is just the reverse of the case of
+the worm. From the time it begins to
+spin until the moth dies, the insect takes
+no nourishment. The six forward legs
+of the worm become the legs of the
+moth. Soon after mating the eggs are
+laid.</p>
+
+<p>The male has broader feelers than
+the female, is smaller in size, and quite
+active. The female lays half her eggs,
+rests a few hours, and then lays the
+remainder. Her two or three days’ life
+is spent within a space occupying less
+than six inches in diameter.</p>
+
+<p>One moth lays from three to four
+hundred eggs, depositing them over an
+even surface. In some species a gummy
+liquid sticks the eggs to the object
+upon which they are laid. In the large
+cocoon varieties there are full thirty
+thousand eggs in a single ounce avoirdupois.
+It takes from twenty-five hundred
+to three thousand cocoons to make
+a pound of reeled silk. Do you wonder
+that, centuries ago, silk was valued at
+its weight in gold?</p>
+
+<p>Growers of silk in the United States,
+by working early and late every day
+during the season, which lasts from
+six to eight weeks, could scarcely average
+fifteen cents for a day’s labor of
+ten hours. Silk, once regarded as a
+luxury, is now considered a necessity.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page118">[118]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">HOW THE COCOON IS UNWOUND</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo118a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig118a">
+
+<p class="caption">REELING THE SILK FROM COCOONS BY FOOT POWER, CALLED “RE-REEL” SILK.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">The cocoons are first assorted, those of the same color being placed by themselves,
+and those of fine and coarse texture likewise. The outside loose silk is then removed,
+as this cannot be reeled, after which the cocoons are plunged into warm water to soften
+the “gum” which sticks the threads together. The operator brushes the cocoons with a small
+broom, to the straws of which their fibers become attached, and then carefully unwinds
+the loose silk until each cocoon shows but one thread. These three operations are called
+“soaking,” “brushing,” and “cleansing.”</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">Into one or two compartments in a basin of warm water below the reel are placed
+four or more cocoons, according to the size of the thread desired. The threads from the
+cocoons in each compartment are gathered together and, after passing through two
+separate perforated agates a few inches above the surface of the water, are brought
+together and twisted around each other several times, then separated and passed upward
+over the traverse guide-eyes to the reel. The traverse moves to and fro horizontally, distributing
+the thread in a broad band over the surface of the reel. The rapid crossing
+of the thread from side to side of the skein in reeling facilitates handling and unwinding
+without tangling, the natural gum of the silk sticking the threads to each other on the
+arms of the reel, thus securing the traverse. Silk reeled by hand or foot power is known
+as “Re-reel” silk, while silk reeled by power machinery is called “Filature.”</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo118b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig118b" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption">A FILATURE—REELING THE SILK FROM COCOONS BY POWER MACHINERY.<a href="#Footnote2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page119">[119]</span></p>
+
+<div class="container w45emmax" id="Fig119a">
+
+<img src="images/illo119a.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">DRYING SKEINS OF SILK.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<div class="container w50emmax" id="Fig119b">
+
+<p class="caption">THE SILK IS WOUND
+ON SPOOLS</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo119b.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">WINDING FRAMES—WINDING THE SILK ON BOBBINS.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>WHERE MAN’S WORK<br>
+ON THE SILK BEGINS</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>The raw silk is first assorted, according
+to the size of the fiber, as fine,
+medium, and coarse. The skeins are
+put into canvas bags and then soaked
+over night in warm soapsuds. This is
+necessary to soften the natural gum in
+the silk, which had stuck the threads
+together on the arms of the reel. Following
+the soaking, the skeins are
+straightened out and hung across poles
+in a steam-heated room, as shown in the
+accompanying <a href="#Fig119a">photograph</a>. When the
+skeins are dry, they are ready for the
+first process of manufacturing. The
+room we now step into is filled with
+“winding frames,” each containing two
+long rows of “swifts,” from which the
+silk is wound on to bobbins. The bobbins
+are large spools about three inches
+long. The bobbins filled with silk, as
+wound from the skeins, are next placed
+on pins of the “doubling frames”; the
+thread from several bobbins, according
+to the size of the silk desired, is<span class="pagenum" id="Page120">[120]</span>
+passed upward through drop wires on
+to another bobbin. Should one of the
+threads break, the “drop wire” falls,
+which action stops the bobbin. By this
+ingenious device absolute uniformity in
+the size of silk is secured. The “doubling
+frame” is <a href="#Fig120a">shown</a> in one of the photographs
+herewith.</p>
+
+<div class="container w45emmax" id="Fig120a">
+
+<img src="images/illo120a.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">DOUBLING FRAMES—THE SILK THREAD IS MADE UNIFORM.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>The bobbins taken from the “doubling
+frame” are next placed on a “spinner.”
+Driven by an endless belt at the rate
+of over six thousand turns a minute,
+the bobbins revolve, the silk from them
+being drawn upward on to another bobbin.
+This spins the several strands
+brought together by the “doubling process”
+into one thread, the number of
+turns depending on the kind of silk—Filo
+silk being spun quite slack, and
+Machine Twist just the reverse.</p>
+
+<div class="container w30emmax">
+
+<img src="images/illo120b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig120b">
+
+<p class="caption">SPINNING SILK.<a href="#Footnote2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<div class="container w30emmax">
+
+<img src="images/illo120c.jpg" alt="" id="Fig1120c">
+
+<p class="caption">TWISTING SILK.<a href="#Footnote2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>A transferring machine combines two
+or three of these strands; two for sewing
+silk and three for machine twist;
+and the bobbin next goes on to the
+“twisting machine”—a machine that is
+similar to a “spinner,” but the silk is
+twisted in the opposite direction from
+the spinning. To stand before these<span class="pagenum" id="Page121">[121]</span>
+machines and watch how rapidly and
+how accurately they do the work assigned
+them is a revelation. No one
+realizes how nicely the parts are adjusted.
+If but one tiny strand breaks
+that part of the machinery is stopped
+by an automatic device which works
+instantaneously. After twisting, the
+silk is stretched by an ingenious machine
+called a “water-stretcher.” This
+smooths and consolidates the constituent
+fibers, giving an evenness to the
+silk not to be obtained by any other
+known process. The bobbins are placed
+in water and the silk is wound on to
+the lower of the two copper rolls. From
+the lower roll it passes upward to the
+upper roll, which turns faster than the
+lower one, thereby stretching the silk.
+From the upper roll it passes again on
+to a bobbin.</p>
+
+<div class="container w50emmax" id="Fig121">
+
+<p class="caption">SILK THREADS READY FOR THE WEAVER</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo121.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">WATER STRETCHER—MAKING THE SILK THREAD SMOOTH.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>The dyeing process is a very important
+one, and upon its success depends
+the permanency of the various colors.</p>
+
+<p>Vast tubs, tanks, and kettles surround
+you on every side, and the hissing
+steam seems to spring from all
+quarters. The “gum” of the silk is
+first boiled out by immersion in strong
+soapsuds for about four hours. The
+attendants, standing in heavy “clogs”
+(big shoes with wooden soles two
+inches thick), turn the silk on the sticks
+at intervals until the gum is removed.
+After the silk is dyed it is put into a
+“steam finisher,” a device looking like a
+long, narrow box with a cover opening
+on the side, set upright on top of an
+iron cylinder. The hanks of silk are
+placed upon two pins in the steam chest,
+the cover fastened, and the live steam
+rushes in around the silk. This brightens
+the silk, giving it the lustrous,
+glossy appearance.</p>
+
+<p class="fsize90">The editors are indebted to the Corticelli Silk Mills, Florence, Mass., for this story
+of how silk is made, as well as for permission to use their splendid life-like copyrighted
+photographs of the silkworm. Many teachers will be glad to know that they can obtain
+from the Corticelli Silk Mills, at slight expense, specimen cocoons and other helps for
+object lesson teaching.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page122">[122]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Animal Can Leap the Greatest
+Distance?</h2>
+
+<p>The galago, or flying lemur. This
+singular animal is a native of the Indian
+Archipelago. It is from 2 ft. to 3 ft.
+in length, and is furnished with a sort
+of membrane on each side of its body
+connecting its limbs with each other;
+this is extended and acts as a parachute
+while taking its long leaps, which measure
+about 300 ft. in an inclined plane.
+The kangaroo can leap with ease a distance
+of between 60 ft. and 70 ft. and
+can spring clean over a horse and take
+fences from 12 ft. to 14 ft. in height.
+The animals that can leap the greatest
+distance in proportion to their size are
+the flea and the grasshopper, the former
+being able to leap over an obstacle five
+hundred times its own height, while the
+grasshopper can leap for a distance
+measuring 200 times its own length.
+The springbok will clear from 30 ft. to
+40 ft. at a single bound. The flying
+squirrel, in leaping from tree to tree
+often clears 50 ft. in a leap. This animal
+also has a broad fold of skin or
+membrane connecting its fore and hind
+legs. A steeplechase horse, called The
+Chandler, is reported to have covered
+39 ft. in a single leap at Warwick some
+years ago. Some species of antelopes
+can make a leap 36 ft. in length and 10
+ft. in height. A lion and a tiger each
+clear from 18 ft. to over 20 ft. at a
+bound while springing on their prey. A
+salmon often leaps 15 ft. out of the
+water in ascending the falls of rivers.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Do We Call Voting Balloting?</h2>
+
+<p>The term covers all forms of secret
+voting, as in early times such votes were
+determined by balls of different colors
+deposited in the same box, or balls of
+one color placed in various boxes. The
+Greeks used shells (ostrakon), whence
+we derive the term ostracism. In 139
+B.C. the Romans voted by tickets. The
+ballot was first used in America in 1629,
+when the Salem Church thus chose a
+pastor. It was employed in the Netherlands
+in the same year, but was not
+established in England until 1872, although
+in Scotland it was used in cases
+of ostracism in the 17th century. In
+1634 the governor of Massachusetts
+was elected by ballot, and the constitutions
+of Pennsylvania, New Jersey and
+North Carolina adopted in 1776, made
+this method of voting obligatory. The
+ballot progressed slowly in the Southern
+States, Kentucky retaining the viva
+voce method until a comparatively recent
+date. In certain states, the constitutions
+stipulate that the legislature
+shall vote viva voce, i. e., cast their
+votes orally. Since 1875 all congressmen
+have been elected by ballot. In
+1888 the Australian ballot system,
+which requires the names of all the
+candidates for the various offices to be
+placed on one large sheet of paper,
+commonly known as a “blanket” ticket,
+was adopted in Louisville, Ky., and
+some sections of Massachusetts. It is
+now in very general use in this country.
+The voter, in the privacy of an
+individual booth, indicates his preference
+by making a mark opposite a party
+emblem or a candidate’s name. This
+system originated in 1851 with Francis
+S. Dutton, of South Australia, and
+Henry George, in a pamphlet, “English
+Elections,” published in 1882, was
+the first to advocate it in the United
+States. The first bill enacting it into a
+law here was introduced in the Michigan
+legislature in 1887, but it did not
+pass until 1889.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Do We Call a Cab a Hansom?</h2>
+
+<p>The term is applied usually to a public
+vehicle, known in England as a “two-wheeler,”
+or “Hansom” (from the
+name of the inventor), and drawn by
+one horse. In a hansom cab, the passenger
+or hirer of the vehicle sits immediately
+in rear of the dashboard, the
+driver sitting on an elevated perch behind,
+the reins being passed over the
+top. The term cab is sometimes also
+applied to a four-seated, closed or open
+carriage, drawn by one or two horses,
+the driver sitting in front. The term
+is also applied to the covered part of a
+locomotive, in which the engineer and
+fireman have their stations. The word
+cab is derived from the cabriolet, a
+light one-horse carriage, with two seats<span class="pagenum" id="Page123">[123]</span>
+and a calash top. In London, England,
+the cab or hansom was called the “gondola”
+of the British metropolis by Disraeli.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Where Did the Name Calico Come From?</h2>
+
+<p>A fabric of cotton cloth, the name being
+derived from the city of Calicut, in
+Madras, where it was first manufactured,
+and in 1631 brought to England
+by the East India Company. Calico-printing,
+an ancient Indian and Chinese
+art, has become a great industry in
+this country and in Britain, as well as
+in Holland.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Who Made the First Postage Stamp?</h2>
+
+<p>The stick on postage stamps so generally
+used today was invented by an
+Englishman James Chalmers in 1834.
+The English Government passed a bill
+calling for uniform postage of One
+Penny in 1840 and furnished envelopes
+bearing stamps printed on them. The
+people did not like them, however, and
+the adhesive stamp invented by Chalmers
+was substituted. The first stamps
+used in America were introduced in
+1847. People have, it seems, always
+preferred to lick their postage stamps.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">How Many Languages Are There?</h2>
+
+<p>It is said that there are more than
+3,400 languages, including dialects, in
+the world. Most of them belong, of
+course, to savage or uncivilized people.
+There are said to be more than 900 languages
+used in Asia, almost 600 in
+Europe, 275 in Africa and more than
+1,600 languages and dialects which are
+American.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Is the Deepest Mine In the
+World?</h2>
+
+<p>The mine that goes farther down
+than any other in the world is the rock
+salt mine near Berlin, Germany which
+is 4,175 feet. It is not, however, straight
+down but somewhat slanting. The Calumet
+Copper Mine near Lake Superior
+is at a depth in some places of 3,900
+feet.</p>
+
+<p>The deepest boring in the world is an
+artesian well at Potsdam, Missouri,
+which is 5,500 feet deep or more than
+one mile straight down.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Is Color?</h2>
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>WHAT PRODUCES<br>THE COLORS WE SEE?</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>What is termed the color-sense is the
+power or ability to distinguish kinds or
+varieties of light and their distinctive
+tints. We owe the faculty of doing
+this to the structure of the eye and its
+elaborate connecting nerve machinery.
+The eye in man is specially sensitive
+to light, and the sensations we feel
+through it enables us to distinguish the
+different colors. Over 1,000 monochromatic
+tints are said to be distinguishable
+by the retina of the eye,
+though these numerous tints are, in the
+main, merely blendings or combinations
+of the three primary color-sensations,
+the sense of red, of green and of violet.
+Each of these colors, it has been demonstrated,
+is produced by light of a
+varying wave length, while white light
+is only light in which the primary colors
+are combined in proper proportion.
+Colored light, on the other hand, as
+Newton proved, may be produced from
+white light in one of three ways: First,
+by refraction in a prism or lens, as observed
+in the rainbow; second, by diffraction,
+as in the blue color of the sky,
+or in the tints seen in mother-of-pearl;
+and third, by absorption, as in the red
+color of a brick wall, or in the green
+of grass—the white light which falls
+upon the wall being wholly absorbed,
+save by the red, and all that falls upon
+the grass being absorbed except the
+green. In art, color means that combination
+or modification of tints which
+is specially suited to produce a particular
+or desired effect in painting; in
+music, the term denotes a particular
+interpretation which illustrates the physical
+analogy between sound and color.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Where Did the Term Dixie Originate?</h2>
+
+<p>The term was applied originally to
+New York City when slavery existed
+there. According to a myth or legend,
+a person named Dixie owned a tract of
+land on Manhattan Island and had a
+large number of slaves. As Dixie’s
+slaves increased beyond the requirements
+of the plantation, many were sent<span class="pagenum" id="Page124">[124]</span>
+to distant parts. Naturally the deported
+negroes looked upon their early home
+as a place of real and abiding happiness,
+as did those from the “Ole Virginny”
+of later days. Hence “Dixie”
+became the synonym for a locality
+where the negroes were happy and contented.
+In the South, Dixie is taken to
+mean the Southern States. There the
+word is supposed to have been derived
+from Mason and Dixon’s line, formerly
+dividing the free states from the
+slave states. It is said to have first
+come into use there when Texas joined
+the Union, and the negroes sang of it
+as Dixie. It has been the theme of
+several popular songs, notably that of
+Albert Pike, “Southrons, Hear Your
+Country Call”; that of T. M. Cooley,
+“Away Down South where Grows the
+Cotton,” and that of Dan Emmett, the
+refrain usually containing the word
+“Dixie” or the words “Dixie’s Land.”
+During the Civil War, the tune of
+“Dixie” was to the Southern people what
+“Yankee Doodle” had always been to
+the people of the whole Union and
+what it continued, in war times, to be
+to the Northern people, the comic national
+air. The tune is “catchy” to the
+popular ear and it was played by the
+bands in the Union army during the
+war as freely as by those on the other
+side. During the rejoicing in Washington
+over the surrender of Lee at
+Appomattox, a band played “Dixie” in
+front of the White House. President
+Lincoln began a short speech, immediately
+afterward, with the remark, “That
+tune fairly belongs to us now; we’ve
+captured it.”</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">How Big Is the Earth?</h2>
+
+<p>The third planet in order of distance
+from the sun, Mercury and Venus being
+nearer to it. It is in shape a sphere
+slightly flattened at the poles and bulged
+at the equator, hence it is called an
+oblate spheroid. The equatorial diameter
+or axis measures 7,926 miles and
+1.041 yds., and the polar diameter is
+7,899 miles and 1.023 yds. The earth
+revolves upon its axis, completing its
+diurnal or daily revolution in a sidereal
+day, which is 3 minutes and 55.9 seconds
+shorter than a mean solar day. It
+revolves around the sun in one sidereal
+year, which is 365 days, 6 hours, 9 minutes,
+and 9 seconds. Its orbit or path
+around the sun is an ellipse, having
+the sun in one of the foci. The earth’s
+mean distance from the sun is 93,000,000
+miles. Its axis is inclined to the
+plane of its orbit at an angle of 23°
+27′ 12.68″. The circumference at the
+equator measures 24,899 miles. The total
+surface is 196,900,278 sq. miles, and
+the solid contents is 260,000,000,000
+cubic miles. As we descend into the
+earth the temperature rises at the rate
+of 1° Fahr. for every 50 ft. At the
+depth of 10 or 12 miles the earth is
+red-hot, and at a depth of 100 miles the
+temperature is such that at the surface
+of the earth it would liquefy all solid
+matter in the earth.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Causes Hail?</h2>
+
+<p>Hail is the name given to the small
+masses of ice which fall in showers, and
+which are called hailstones. When a
+hailstone is examined it is found usually
+to consist of a central nucleus of
+compact snow, surrounded by successive
+layers of ice and snow. Hail
+falls chiefly in Spring and Summer,
+and often accompanies a thunderstorm.
+Hailstones are formed by the gradual
+rise and fall, through different degrees
+of temperature (by the action of windstorms),
+and they then take on a covering
+of ice or frozen snow, according
+as they are carried through a region
+of rain or snow.</p>
+
+<p>With regard to rain, it may be said,
+in popular language, that under the influence
+of solar heat, water is constantly
+rising into the air by evaporation
+from the surface of the sea, lakes,
+rivers, and the moist surface of the
+ground. Of the vapors thus formed the
+greater part is returned to the earth
+as rain. The moisture, originally invisible,
+first makes its appearance as
+cloud, mist or fog; and under certain
+atmospheric conditions the condensation
+proceeds still further until the
+moisture falls to the earth as rain.
+Simply and briefly, then, rain is caused
+by the cooling of the air charged with
+moisture.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page125">[125]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Does a Human Being Have To
+Learn to Swim?</h2>
+
+<p>It is strange, isn’t it, that almost every
+animal, excepting man and possibly
+the monkey, knows how to swim naturally;
+others such as birds, horses, dogs,
+cows, elephants, can swim as soon as
+they can move about alone.</p>
+
+<p>The trouble with man in this connection
+is that his natural motion is climbing.
+He has been a climber ever since
+he was developed from the monkey, and
+when you throw him into the water before
+he has learned to swim, he naturally
+starts to climb and as a climbing
+motion won’t do, for swimming, the
+man will drown.</p>
+
+<p>This climbing motion is as much of
+an instinct in man and monkeys as the
+instinct in dogs which causes him to
+turn round once or twice before he lies
+down just as his forefathers used to do
+ages ago when, as wild dogs, they first
+had to trample the grass before they
+could lie down comfortably.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Do I Get Cold in a Warm Room?</h2>
+
+<p>I suppose you mean the instances
+when you get cold while in a warm
+room even when you are perfectly well.
+This will happen often when all of the
+moisture in the room outside of what
+is in your body, is evaporated by the
+heat in the room. The remedy is, of
+course, to keep a pan of water some
+place in the room as the air has become
+too dry.</p>
+
+<p>While heat is necessary to evaporate
+water, the process of evaporation produces
+cold. The quicker the evaporation
+the sharper the cold feeling produced.
+Now your body is continually
+evaporating the water from your body
+which comes out in the form of perspiration
+through the pores of the skin.
+This is one of nature’s ways of taking
+the impurities and waste out of the
+body. You know, of course, don’t you,
+that more than one-half the waste material
+which the body expels from the
+system comes out through the pores of
+the skin rather than through the canals.</p>
+
+<p>When the air in the room becomes
+too dry, the evaporation on the outside
+of the body proceeds faster and makes
+you cold. By keeping water in some
+vessel in the room you keep the air of
+the room from becoming too dry.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Do They Call Them Wisdom
+Teeth?</h2>
+
+<p>The wisdom teeth are the two last
+molar teeth to grow. They come one
+on each side of the jaw and arrive
+somewhere between the ages of twenty
+and twenty-five years. The name is
+given them because it is supposed that
+when a person has developed physically
+and mentally to the point where he has
+secured these last two teeth he has also
+arrived at the age of discretion. It does
+not necessarily mean that one who has
+cut his wisdom teeth is wise, but that
+having lived long enough to grow these,
+which complete the full set of teeth,
+the person has passed sufficient actual
+years that, if he has done what he
+should to fit himself for life, he should
+have come by that time at the age of
+discretion or wisdom. As a matter of
+fact these teeth grow at about the same
+age in people whether they are wise or
+not.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Makes Freckles Come?</h2>
+
+<p>Freckles are generally caused by the
+exposure of unprotected parts of the
+body to the sun, but this will not cause
+freckles on all people. Only people
+with certain kinds of sensitive skins
+freckle. What happens when freckles
+are produced in this way is this: The
+sunlight shining on the face, neck or
+arms of anyone who has a tendency to
+freckle, has a peculiar action on certain
+cells of the skin which produces a yellowish
+brown coloring pigment, which
+remains for a time.</p>
+
+<p>Then again the skins of some people
+are so peculiarly sensitive the cells develop
+this kind of coloring matter in
+almost any kind of light and such
+people are, so to speak, apt to be
+freckled for life.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page126">[126]</span></p>
+
+<div class="container w50emmax" id="Fig126">
+
+<img src="images/illo126.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">First successful power-driven aeroplane. The Langley monoplane with steam engine, which
+flew over the Potomac River in 1896.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<h2 class="nobreak">The Flying Boat</h2>
+
+<h3>When Did Man First Try to Fly?</h3>
+
+</div><!--chapter-->
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>HOW MAN<br>LEARNED TO FLY</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>Man’s desire to conquer the air is
+older than recorded history. When a
+kite was flown for the first time the
+principle of aviation, or dynamic flight,
+was uncovered. For centuries man has
+sought the mechanical equivalents for
+the things that keep a kite flying steadily
+in the air,—the power that lies in
+the cord that keeps a kite headed into
+the wind; an equivalent for the wind’s
+own power; an equivalent for the tail
+which controls the kite’s lateral and
+longitudinal balance.</p>
+
+<p>Each separate part of the modern
+flying machine, or aeroplane, was
+worked out long ago, with the exception
+of the gas engine light enough and
+reliable enough to be used for this
+work. The present generation knows
+dynamic flight as a commonplace thing,
+not because we are so much more clever
+than previous generations in designing
+flying machines, but because of the development
+of the modern gasoline or
+internal combustion engine.</p>
+
+<h3>Who Invented Flying?</h3>
+
+<p>No one invented flying, nor did any
+one man invent all the separate parts of
+the flying machine. They are the result
+of evolution,—of the combined
+work and thought of hundreds of men,
+many of whose names are unrecorded.
+To attempt to find the true beginning
+of the modern flying machine would
+be as difficult as attempting to discover
+who planted the seed of the tree from
+which one has gathered a rose. But
+the tree from which all the flying machines,
+or aeroplanes, of today have
+sprung undoubtedly is Dr. Samuel
+Pierpont Langley, third secretary of
+the Smithsonian Institution.</p>
+
+<h3>Some of the Men Who Helped.</h3>
+
+<p>Taking the most conspicuous names
+of scientists who worked out various
+details of the aeroplane during the past
+century we find that a century ago Sir
+George Cayley built a machine on lines
+very similar to those accepted today,
+and he went so far as to foretell the<span class="pagenum" id="Page127">[127]</span>
+necessity of developing the internal
+combustion engine before dynamic
+flight could be a success. Mr. F. H.
+Wenham, in 1866, also built a flying
+machine along conventional lines and
+tried to fly it with a steam engine, which
+of course, proved too heavy.</p>
+<div class="container w50emmax" id="Fig127">
+
+<img src="images/illo127.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">One of Dr. Langley’s first models; a biplane with flexible wing-tips and twin propellers. 1889.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>EARLY TYPES OF<br>
+FLYING MACHINES</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>M. A. Penaud, a Frenchman, in experimenting
+with models, seems to have
+been the first to discover the necessity
+of vertical and horizontal rudders in
+maintaining balance. Mr. Horatio
+Phillips, an Englishman, discovered,
+and patented, the use of curved instead
+of flat surfaces for the planes. Otto
+and Gustav Lilienthal are said to have
+been the first to attempt to balance
+aeroplanes by flexing or bending the
+wings. Various others, including
+Messrs. Richard Harte, Boulton, Mouillard,
+worked out ideas for balancing
+machines by the use of auxiliary planes
+which could be set at different angles
+with regard to the line of flight, thus
+forcing the machines to different positions
+by the force of the air rushing
+against them.</p>
+
+<p>Dr. Langley, trained in scientific investigation,
+conducted an elaborate
+series of experiments covering many
+years and costing thousands of dollars
+to test and prove the value of the
+claims of the earlier investigators.
+Some things which he thought he was
+the first to discover,—such as the effect
+of the vertical and horizontal rudders,—he
+later found had already been
+proven by others. Independently he
+covered the entire field of experiment
+and after building hundreds of small
+models he succeeded, in 1896, in making
+a machine weighing several pounds
+equipped with a very light steam engine
+which flew safely as long as the fuel
+lasted. For his early experiments Dr.
+Langley was afforded financial assistance
+by Mr. William Thaw of Pittsburg.
+After the success of his small
+machines Dr. Langley was asked to
+undertake the construction of a large,
+man-carrying machine, and Congress
+voted him $50,000 to carry on the work.
+A large share of this was spent on
+the development of a very light gasoline
+engine. The machine finally was
+completed, but was twice broken
+through defective launching apparatus.
+Congress and Dr. Langley were so ridiculed
+by the public press that the machine
+was temporarily abandoned. Not,
+however, until after Dr. Langley had
+successfully flown a steam driven machine
+much larger than many of the
+racing aeroplanes of today.</p>
+
+<p>But eight years after Dr. Langley’s
+death, which is said to have been due<span class="pagenum" id="Page128">[128]</span>
+to the heart-breaking disappointment
+he suffered in trying to demonstrate the
+large machine, Glenn H. Curtiss, at
+the request of the Smithsonian Institution,
+rebuilt the old Langley machine
+and succeeded in making a flight with
+it at Hammondsport, N. Y., on May
+28, 1914.</p>
+
+<div class="container w45emmax" id="Fig128a">
+
+<p class="caption">THE FIRST MAN-CARRYING AEROPLANE</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo128a.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">First successful man-carrying aeroplane. Designed by Dr. Langley in 1898; flown by
+Glenn H. Curtiss at Hammondsport, N. Y., 1914.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<div class="container w45emmax" id="Fig128b">
+
+<img src="images/illo128b.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">Front view of big Langley machine in 1914.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>While longer flights probably will be
+made with this machine none will attain
+greater importance, because this first
+flight with it was sufficient to establish
+for all time the fact that Dr. Langley
+built the first man-carrying machine
+equipped with a gasoline engine
+and able to fly and raise itself with its<span class="pagenum" id="Page129">[129]</span>
+own power. This was considerably
+more than was accomplished by other
+machines for some time after Dr. Langley’s
+death. The Langley machine not
+only lifted the weight it was designed
+to fly with, but also carried pontoon
+and other fittings, added by Mr. Curtiss
+to make flight from the water possible,
+which added 340 pounds to the original
+weight of the machine.</p>
+
+<div class="container w50emmax" id="Fig1219">
+
+<p class="caption">THE MACHINE WITH WHICH BLERIOT FLEW IN EUROPE</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo129.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">Copy of early Langley model with which Bleriot made first circular flight in Europe.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>The connection between Dr. Langley’s
+work and present machines is now
+very easy to trace, though not obvious
+until 1911, when the Smithsonian Institution
+published memoirs written by
+Dr. Langley in 1897, and some memoirs
+of Mr. Octave Chanute, a French engineer
+who resided in Chicago, and who
+forms one of the main connecting links.
+The chain is practically completed by
+notes left by the late Lieut. Thomas Selfridge,
+U. S. A., America’s first martyr
+to aviation.</p>
+
+<p>Dr. Langley’s knowledge is represented
+in modern aviation by three distinct
+lines. The central and most direct
+line is through Dr. Alexander
+Graham Bell, inventor of the telephone,
+to the Aerial Experiment Association,
+and thence to Mr. Glenn H. Curtiss,
+and finds its expression in what is
+known as the Curtiss type of machines.</p>
+
+<p>Another line is that carried by a Mr.
+A. M. Herring to Mr. Chanute and by
+him transmitted to Mr. Wilbur Wright,
+finding expression in the Wright type
+of biplane.</p>
+
+<p>The third line is that leading to the
+modern monoplane school; M. Bleriot
+having first copied in toto the tandem
+monoplane form, generally known as
+the Langley type, and later, with the
+development of better gasoline engines,
+developing into the monoplane as known
+today.</p>
+
+<p>With the exception of M. Bleriot it
+is doubtful if the others fully realized
+the source of their inspiration,—not
+to call it information.</p>
+
+<p>Dr. Bell was interested in Dr. Langley’s
+work for more than ten years before
+Dr. Langley gave up. He observed
+many of the trials, and his reports
+of the first successful flights are
+incorporated in the official publications
+of the Smithsonian Institution. Dr.
+Bell began some independent experiments,
+but following Dr. Langley’s
+death he formed the Aerial Experiment
+Association, to carry on the work left
+by Dr. Langley. The members of this
+organization were, Mr. Curtiss, at that<span class="pagenum" id="Page130">[130]</span>
+time the most successful builder of light
+motors; Lieut. Thomas H. Selfridge,
+U. S. A.; Mr. J. A. D. McCurdy and
+Mr. F. W. Baldwin, two young Canadian
+engineers. Mrs. Bell financed the
+project, furnishing the sum of $35,000
+for the experiments.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>WHAT TWO BROTHERS<br>
+ACCOMPLISHED FOR FLYING</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>The Wright Brothers, for Wilbur
+Wright was joined by his brother Orville
+in the experiments, were the first
+to reap success from the seeds of Dr.
+Langley’s sowing. Mr. Chanute had
+been experimenting with a biplane form
+of motorless glider with little success,
+because of lack of means for balancing
+the machines in the air, until he was
+joined by a former employe of Dr.
+Langley. He appears to have imparted
+to Mr. Chanute the secret of the stabilizing
+effect of the Penaud tail, or
+combination of vertical and horizontal
+rudders. Thereafter hundreds of successful
+gliding flights were made with
+the Chanute biplane, though Chanute
+seems not to have grasped the full significance
+of the rudders,—though it
+was well understood by Dr. Langley.
+To the Chanute machine, as described
+to him, Mr. Wright added first the idea
+of flexing or warping the wings, after
+the fashion set by the Lilienthals. He
+found, however, as Dr. Langley had
+found years before, that in attempting
+to correct lateral balance in this way
+caused the aeroplane to swerve to such
+an extent that the fixed vertical rudder,
+as originally employed, did not correct
+the upsetting tendency that was developed.
+Mr. Wright then arranged his
+rudder in such a way that when the
+wing was warped the rudder turned in
+a way to offset the swerve. This combination
+was patented all over the world
+and has resulted in much complicated
+litigation.</p>
+
+<p>To this machine the Wright Brothers
+added a gasoline motor in December,
+1903, and with it made numerous flights
+during 1904-5. Their claims were not
+generally credited however until a later
+date for their experiments had been
+conducted with considerable secrecy,
+and during 1906, 1907 and until late in
+1908 they did no more flying.</p>
+
+<p>In the meantime M. Bleriot had
+made a copy of one of the early Langley
+tandem monoplane models and made
+some fairly successful flights with it
+in Europe. Later, as gasoline motors
+developed in power for weight, he reduced
+the rear surface until the modern
+monoplane evolved.</p>
+
+<p>While Bleriot was working in Europe,
+Dr. Bell’s Aerial Experiment Association
+in America was evolving still
+another type of machine, and the members
+of the association made the first
+successful public flights in America.
+Mr. Curtiss won the Scientific American
+Trophy for the first time on July 4th,
+1908, by a straightaway flight of more
+than a kilometer. The balancing system
+employed by the A. E. A. differed
+from that employed by the Wrights and
+by Bleriot in that small auxiliary planes
+took the place of warping planes for
+righting the machine. This they
+claimed to be a superior method, first,
+because it eliminated the use of the rudder
+as being absolutely essential to the
+balance of the machine; second, because
+it enabled them to make the main
+planes rigid throughout, and consequently
+stronger than the flexible
+planes.</p>
+
+<p>There are several other names that
+must be mentioned in connection with
+the early history of successful flight;
+these are the Frenchmen, Messrs. Henri
+Farman, Maurice Farman, the brothers
+Voisin, and Santos Dumont. These
+produced some of the first notably successful
+aeroplanes in Europe but seem
+to have discovered nothing which has
+had any marked effect upon the later
+development of flying machines. M.
+Farman adopted the auxiliary planes
+used by the A. E. A. and modified them
+to suit his ideas.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>WONDERFUL RECORDS<br>
+OF AEROPLANES</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>Volumes could be, in fact, have been
+written about the exploits of the first
+demonstrators of the practical heavier-than-air
+flying machines,—of the crossing
+of the English Channel by Bleriot,
+of the flights by Wilbur Wright at
+Rheims, France; of Mr. Curtiss’ winning
+of the first Gordon Bennet International
+speed trophy and his flight<span class="pagenum" id="Page131">[131]</span>
+down the Hudson from Albany to New
+York; of Orville Wright’s flight at
+Fort Meyer, and the death of Lieut.
+Selfridge who was flying with him. The
+barest record of these interesting accomplishments
+would fill volumes. Of
+the aeroplane proper it is enough to
+say here that since 1908 its development
+has been too rapid for accurate
+recording. In strength, in speed, in
+reliability, in size and carrying capacity,
+it has developed at a remarkable rate.
+At this writing the speed record is
+about 130 miles per hour; the duration
+record is more than 24 hours, non-stop;
+the distance record is some 1,300 miles
+in one day; the altitude record some
+26,000 feet. New records succeed the
+old ones with such rapidity that probably
+before this can be printed all these
+present records will have been greatly
+eclipsed.</p>
+
+<div class="container w50emmax" id="Fig131a">
+
+<img src="images/illo131a.jpg" alt="">
+
+<div class="illotext w25emmax">
+
+<p class="center">AEROPLANE “RED WING” HAMMONDSPORT, N.Y.<br>
+FIRST AMERICAN PUBLIC FLIGHT, MAR 12 1908</p>
+
+</div><!--illotext-->
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<div class="container w60emmax" id="Fig131b">
+
+<img src="images/illo131b.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">The biplane in which G. H. Curtiss flew from Albany to New York in 1910.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>Meantime the aeroplane has developed
+greatly in other directions. In
+flying over land with the early types
+of machines many fatal accidents occurred,
+particularly to the fliers who
+gave exhibitions everywhere during
+1909, 1910 and 1911. A majority of
+these accidents were indirectly due to
+the fact that a very smooth surface is
+required for landing a fragile machine
+running at high speed. The obvious
+expedient was to develop machines
+capable of rising from and alighting
+upon the water.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page132">[132]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">SOME FAMOUS FOREIGN MONOPLANES</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo132a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig132a">
+
+<p class="caption">A modern German monoplane.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo132b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig132b" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption">The machine in which Bleriot crossed the English Channel in 1909. A modified Langley
+type.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo132c.jpg" alt="" id="Fig132c" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption">Rolland Garros and monoplane in which he flew across the Mediterranean Sea in 1914.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page133">[133]</span></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>THE WONDERFUL<br>
+FLYING BOAT</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>During the winter of 1910 and 1911
+Mr. Curtiss, who had continued independent
+experiments upon the disbandment
+of the Aerial Experiment Association,
+succeeded in producing the first
+machine to safely leave and return to
+the water. For the development and
+demonstration of this type of flying
+machine he was awarded the Aero Club
+of America Trophy, and when during
+1912 he produced still another type of
+water flying machine, the Curtiss Flying
+Boat, he was again awarded the
+Aero Club Trophy and also voted a
+Langley Medal by the directors of the
+Smithsonian Institution.</p>
+
+<div class="container w50emmax" id="Fig133">
+
+<img src="images/illo133.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">Different views of flying boat.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>Not until the development of the flying
+boat did the general public begin
+to take a participative interest in aviation,
+but as soon as the comparative
+safety of this type of machine became
+apparent the new sport began to be
+taken up rapidly both in this country
+and in Europe. The experiences of
+naval fliers and amateurs alike went
+to show that water flying offered not
+only the fastest and most comfortable
+mode of rapid travel, but also the safest,
+for during 1913 several hundred thousand
+miles were flown by navy aviators
+and amateur enthusiasts in Curtiss
+water flying machines without a single
+serious accident.</p>
+
+<p>What aviation will mean to future
+generations,—even to this generation in
+the course of a few years,—it would
+be foolhardy to try to guess. Mr. Rodman
+Wanamaker already has agreed to
+furnish the financial support for Mr.
+Curtiss’ attempt to build a machine to
+fly across the Atlantic Ocean, from
+America to Europe. If the venture is successful
+it is expected the crossing will
+be made in a fraction of the time taken
+by the fastest Transatlantic liners. The
+discovery of new metals and new manufacturing
+methods will certainly result
+in the development of light motors that
+may be relied upon to run for days
+without stopping, and automatically
+stable aeroplanes seem to be not far
+away. This will result in overland flight
+as safe and sure as we now enjoy over
+water.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page134">[134]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">INSIDE OF A MODERN FLYING BOAT</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo134a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig134a">
+
+<p class="caption">Interior arrangement of modern flying boat, showing fuel tank and instrument board.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo134b.jpg" alt="" class="blankbefore" id="Fig134b">
+
+<p class="caption">Six-passenger flying boat hull. This machine will fly 1,000 miles without stopping for fuel.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page135">[135]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">FUN IN A FLYING BOAT</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo135a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig135a">
+
+<p class="caption">Flying at speed of a mile a minute.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo135b.jpg" alt="" class="blankbefore" id="Fig135b">
+
+<p class="caption">Monoplane flying boat, built for R. V. Morris.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo135c.jpg" alt="" class="blankbefore" id="Fig135c">
+
+<p class="caption">In a flying boat on pleasure bent.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page136">[136]</span></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>GREATEST PRESENT VALUE<br>
+OF AEROPLANE</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>At present the greatest value of the
+aeroplane seems to be for military
+reconnaissance and all the great powers
+are striving their utmost to secure supremacy
+in the air. France, Germany,
+Russia and England have to date spent
+millions in developing aeroplane fleets.
+Only the government of the United
+States has failed as yet to appreciate
+the military significance of the flying
+machine. If the relative aeronautical
+strength of the world’s nations were
+represented alphabetically the U. S.
+would naturally scarce have to change
+its initial, U being slightly in advance
+of Z which would stand for Zululand.
+But even with its modest equipment
+the navy fliers of the United States
+proved the great worth of the aeroplane
+and the flying boat, when during the
+recent trouble in Mexico the air scouts
+gathered in a few minutes information
+that could only have been secured by
+days of cavalry scouting before the
+advent of the flying machine. Indeed,
+the name of Lieut. P. N. L. Bellinger,
+the most able of the naval fliers at Vera
+Cruz, has figured more prominently in
+the despatches from the front than that
+of any other officer connected with the
+expedition.</p>
+
+<p>Flying seems certain in the very near
+future to take its place as the fastest,
+safest and most comfortable mode of
+conveyance. The flying boat will render
+quickly accessible the vast country
+lying along the great rivers of South
+America, Africa, and Australia; it will
+bridge the great lakes and the oceans;
+bring near together the islands of the
+Pacific and Indian oceans. It will make
+imperative, because of the speed with
+which distances will be traversed, of a
+language common to all peoples; and
+treble man’s life without extending his
+years by making it possible to see and
+do three times as much in the same
+length of time.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>TEN YEARS<br>
+OF FLYING</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>Ten years ago on that day, December
+17, 1913, Wilbur and Orville Wright
+made four flights on the coast of North
+Carolina near Roanoke Island, a spot
+historic in America’s history as the site
+of the first English settlement in the
+Western Hemisphere.</p>
+
+<div class="container w50emmax" id="Fig136">
+
+<img src="images/illo136.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">Flying over military post in Curtiss biplane.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>The first flight started from level
+ground against a 27-mile wind. After
+a run of 40 feet on a monorail track,
+the machine lifted and covered a distance
+of 120 feet over the ground in
+12 seconds. It had a speed through
+the air of a little over 45 feet per second,<span class="pagenum" id="Page137">[137]</span>
+and the flight, if made in calm air,
+would have covered a distance of over
+540 feet.</p>
+
+<p>Altogether four flights were made
+on the 17th. The first and third by Orville
+Wright, the second and fourth by
+Wilbur Wright. The last flight was the
+longest, covering a distance of 852 feet
+over the ground in 59 seconds. After
+the fourth flight, a gust of wind struck
+the machine standing on the ground
+and rolled it over, injuring it to an extent
+that made further flights with it
+impossible for that year.</p>
+
+<div class="container w20emmax" id="Fig137">
+
+<img src="images/illo137.jpg" alt="Wright brothers aircraft">
+
+<div class="illotext w05emmax">
+
+<p class="center">1900<br>
+1901<br>
+1902<br>
+1905 1904<br>
+1903</p>
+
+</div><!--illotext-->
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>The gliding experiments of Lilienthal
+in 1896 led the Wright Brothers to
+become interested in flight. The next
+four years were spent in reading and
+theorizing. In the Fall of 1900 practical
+experiments were begun with a man-carrying
+glider. These experiments
+were carried on from the sand hills
+near Kitty Hawk, North Carolina. The
+first glider was without a tail, the lateral
+equilibrium and the right and left steering
+were obtained by warping of the
+main surfaces. A flexible forward elevator
+was used. This machine was
+flown as a kite with and without operator,
+and several glides were made with
+it.</p>
+
+<p>A second machine was designed of
+larger size, and many glides were made
+with it in 1901. This machine was similar
+to the one of 1900 but had slightly
+deeper curved surfaces. Experiments
+with this machine demonstrated the inaccuracy
+of all the recognized tables of
+air pressures, upon which its design had
+been based.</p>
+
+<p>In 1902 a third glider was constructed,
+based upon tables of air pressures
+made by the Wright Brothers
+themselves. The lateral control was
+maintained by warping surfaces, and a
+vertical rear rudder operated in conjunction
+with the surfaces. Nearly a
+thousand gliding flights were made
+with this machine.</p>
+
+<p>In 1903, the Wright Brothers designed
+a machine to be driven with a
+motor. They also designed and built
+their own motor. This had four horizontal
+cylinders, 4 in. by 4 in., and developed<span class="pagenum" id="Page138">[138]</span>
+12 h.p. Two propellers, turning
+in opposite directions, were driven
+by chains from the engine. After
+many delays the machine was finally
+ready and was flown on the 17th of
+December, 1903, as related above.</p>
+
+<p>In the Spring of 1904, power flights
+were continued near Dayton with a machine
+similar to the one flown in 1903,
+but slightly heavier.</p>
+
+<p>The first complete circle was accomplished
+on the 20th of September, 1904,
+in a flight covering a distance of about
+one mile. Altogether 105 flights were
+attempted during the year, the longest
+of which were two of five minutes
+each, covering a distance of about three
+miles. All of the flights were started
+from a monorail.</p>
+
+<p>After September a derrick and a falling
+weight were used to assist in launching
+the machine.</p>
+
+<div class="container w20emmax" id="Fig138">
+
+<img src="images/illo138.jpg" alt="">
+
+<div class="illotext w10emmax">
+
+<p class="center">1908-9<br>
+1910<br>
+1910<br>
+MODEL R, 1910</p>
+
+</div><!--illotext-->
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>INTERESTING GOVERNMENTS<br>
+IN FLYING MACHINES</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>It was not till 1908 that the Wright
+Brothers found purchasers for their invention.
+In that year they made a contract
+to furnish one machine to the Signal
+Corps of the United States Army
+and to sell the rights to their invention
+in France to a French company. In
+both cases they agreed to carry a passenger
+in addition to the operator, fuel
+sufficient for a flight of 100 miles, and
+to make a speed of 40 miles an hour.</p>
+
+<p>After making some preliminary practice
+flights at their old experiment
+grounds near Kitty Hawk in May, 1908,
+Wilbur Wright went to France to give
+demonstrations before the French Syndicate
+and Orville Wright to Washington
+to deliver the machine to the United
+States Signal Corps. The machines
+used by Wilbur Wright had been standing
+in bond in the warehouse at Havre
+since August of the year before. Owing
+to damage done to the machine in
+shipment, it was not ready for the official
+demonstrations until late in the
+year.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile Orville Wright in September,
+1908, started demonstrations of
+the machine contracted for by the
+United States Government. On the 9th
+he made two flights, one of 57 minutes,
+and the other one hour and 2 minutes,<span class="pagenum" id="Page139">[139]</span>
+world’s records. On the 10th and 11th,
+these records were increased and on
+the 12th a flight of 1 hour and 15 minutes
+was made. On the 17th, the tests
+were terminated by an accident in which
+Lieutenant Selfridge met his death and
+Mr. Wright was severely injured, so
+that he was not able to complete the
+tests until the following year.</p>
+
+<p>Four days after the accident, on the
+21st of September, Wilbur Wright
+made a flight of 1 hour and 31 minutes
+at Le Mans, France, which record he
+improved several times during the following
+months, and on the 31st of December,
+won the Michelin Trophy by
+a flight, in which he remained in the
+air 2 hours and 24 minutes.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Where Is the Wind When It Is Not
+Blowing?</h2>
+
+<p>The answer is, of course, that there
+isn’t any wind then. To understand
+this perfectly we must study a little
+and find out what wind is. In plain
+words it is nothing more than moving
+air.</p>
+
+<p>If you make a hole in the bottom
+of a pail of water the water will run
+out slowly. If you knock the whole
+bottom out of the pail filled with water,
+the water will rush out before you
+know it.</p>
+
+<p>That is about what happens to make
+the wind. The air is constantly full
+of air currents, like the currents you
+can see in a river. Down the middle
+of the river you may notice a softly-flowing
+current going straight. Along
+the shores there will be little side currents
+going in all directions, and you
+may find some little whirlpools. That
+is exactly what we should see in the
+air if we could see air currents.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Where Does the Wind Begin?</h2>
+
+<p>The movement of these currents of
+air leaves many pockets of space where
+there is no air, and when one of these
+is uncovered the air rushes in and creates
+a wind in doing so. These air
+currents are continually pressing
+against each other to get some place
+else. They change their direction according
+to the pressure that is being
+applied to them. Sometimes the pressure
+will be very light in one part of
+the air, many miles away perhaps, and
+then the air in another part, which is
+under great pressure, will rush with
+great force into the part where the
+pressure is light, and thus form a big
+wind. When the pressure stops the
+wind stops.</p>
+
+<p>We have probably felt the wind
+which comes out of the valve of the
+automobile tire when the cap is taken
+off to pump up the tire. It is a real
+wind that comes out. The reason is
+that the air in the tube of the tire is
+under great pressure, and when the opportunity
+is given to get where the
+pressure is light it starts for that place
+with a rush and comes out of the valve
+a real wind.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Causes the Wind’s Whistle?</h2>
+
+<p>The whistle of the wind is caused
+very much like the whistle you make
+with your mouth or the noise made by
+the steam escaping through the spout
+of the kettle. You do not hear the
+wind whistle when you are out in it.
+You can hear it when you are in the
+house and the wind is blowing hard.
+When the wind blows against the house
+it tries to get in through all the crevices,
+under the cracks of the doors, down
+the chimneys, wherever it finds an
+opening. And whenever it starts
+through an opening that is too small for
+it, it makes a noise like the steam coming
+out of the spout of the kettle,
+provided the opening is of a certain
+shape.</p>
+
+<p>Not all the noises made by the wind,
+however, are made in this way. The
+wind in blowing against things makes
+them vibrate like the strings of a piano
+or violin, and when things vibrate, as
+we have already seen, they produce
+sound waves, which, when they strike
+our ears, produce sounds of various
+kinds. The wind even on ordinary
+days makes the telegraph and telephone
+wires hum, as you can prove to yourself
+by placing your ear against a telegraph<span class="pagenum" id="Page140">[140]</span>
+or telephone pole, and whenever the
+wind makes anything vibrate, a great
+many queer sounds are produced,
+which often frighten us more than
+they should.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Does the Air Never Get Used Up?</h2>
+
+<p>Simply because it is constantly being
+replenished. The three gases, oxygen,
+nitrogen and carbonic acid gas, which
+are found in the air about us, are constantly
+being used up. All living animal
+creatures are at all times taking oxygen
+out of the air to live on. Certain microbes
+are using up quantities of the
+nitrogen all the time, and the plants
+live on the carbonic acid gas. But while
+these different kinds of life between
+them use up the air, they give back
+something also. The plants give off
+oxygen. The bodies of the animals
+and plants when they die decompose,
+and as they are full of nitrogen, that
+is given back to the air in that way,
+and then all living creatures are always
+throwing off carbonic acid gas through
+their lungs, and thus everything that
+is taken out of the air is put back
+again. The plants live on carbonic acid
+gas, and give us back oxygen. The
+living creatures live on oxygen and
+give off carbonic acid gas, and when
+they die their bodies put back in the
+air the nitrogen which the microbes
+take out, and so, consumption and production
+are about equal all the time.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Can’t We See Air?</h2>
+
+<p>We cannot see air because it has no
+color and is perfectly transparent. If
+at times it appears that there is color
+in the air it is not the air you see, but
+some little particles of various substances
+in it. Sometimes you think
+when you look off toward a range of
+mountains or hills, for instance, that
+the air is blue. You know the grass
+and trees on the mountains are green,
+so it cannot be they that have turned
+blue, and so you think the air is blue.
+But it is only the sunlight reflected to
+your eyes from the little particles of
+dirt and other substances which fill the
+air at all times which makes the blue
+that you see, and not the air.</p>
+
+<p>Pure air is a mixture of gases without
+any color and is perfectly transparent.
+Air is nearly entirely composed of
+a gas called nitrogen—the remainder
+being oxygen with a little water and
+carbonic acid gas, which latter is
+thrown off in breathing. This is, however,
+but a very small percentage.</p>
+
+<p>Air has been and still can be reduced
+to a liquid state, and with the use of
+it in this form many seemingly wonderful
+things can be done, which are interesting
+to look at, but have not as yet
+become commercially practical.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Does Thunder Always Come After
+the Lightning?</h2>
+
+<p>This occurs simply because lightning
+or light travels so much more quickly
+than sound. Light travels at the rate
+of 186,000 miles per second, and sound
+travels only at the rate of 1090 feet
+per second when the temperature is at
+32 degrees. Now, the thunder and lightning
+come at the same time and place
+in the air, but the light travels so much
+faster that you see the lightning often
+quite some seconds before you hear
+the thunder. In fact, you can tell quite
+accurately how far away from you the
+flash of lightning and clap of thunder
+are by taking a watch and noting the
+number of seconds which elapse between
+the flash of the lightning and
+the time when you hear the roll of the
+thunder. If as much as five seconds
+elapse you can figure that it was about
+a mile away from you, since sound
+travels only about 1100 feet per second
+and there are 5280 feet in a mile. When
+the thunder and lightning come close
+together you may know that it is near
+by, and when they come at the same
+time you may be sure it is very close.
+When, therefore, you see the lightning
+and then have to wait several seconds
+for the noise of the thunder, you may
+rest easy about the lightning hurting
+you, because you know then it is too
+far away to harm you, and when it is
+so close that the lightning and thunder
+come simultaneously, there is no use<span class="pagenum" id="Page141">[141]</span>
+being afraid, because if you were to be
+struck you would have been struck at
+the same instant or before you would
+have had time to notice that the lightning
+and thunder come together.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">How Big Is the Sun?</h2>
+
+<p>It is very difficult to gain a clear idea
+of how very large the sun really is.
+We know from the scientists who have
+measured it with their accurate measuring
+instruments that it is 865,000
+miles through it, and that at its largest
+part it is 2,722,000 miles around. Now,
+you can see why I said it is very difficult
+to get a clear conception of the
+sun’s size. A mile is quite a long distance
+to walk on a hot day. Now, the
+earth is 8000 miles through. If there
+were a tunnel right through the earth,
+like the subway, and you started to
+walk it, it would take you 83¹⁄₃ days
+if you walked day and night without
+stopping to rest or eat, if you kept
+going at the rate of four miles every
+hour. This would be a long, hot walk,
+for, of course, the inside of the earth
+is hot, as we have already learned. It
+would take an automobile, going at the
+rate of 40 miles an hour night and day,
+about nine days to make the trip
+through such a subway from one side
+of the earth to the other. That makes
+it look like a pretty big old earth,
+doesn’t it? But let us see what would
+happen if we started to do the same
+thing on the sun. The sun is 865,000
+miles through. If you were to walk
+through a similar tunnel on the sun
+at four miles per hour it would take
+you 20 years, not counting the stops,
+and an automobile going 40 miles an
+hour day and night would take two
+years and a half to make the trip one
+way.</p>
+
+<p>The sun is ninety million miles from
+the earth and an automobile travelling
+at the rate of forty miles per hour day
+and night on a straight road, without
+stopping, would be 257 years in getting
+there.</p>
+
+<p>When we stop to think of how big
+the bulk of the sun is it is altogether
+beyond us. We have a general idea
+that our earth is a pretty large affair as
+worlds go, and yet we cannot conceive
+how much the bulk of the earth
+amounts to. Still, the sun is so large
+that it could contain a million worlds
+like our own.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">How Hot Is the Sun?</h2>
+
+<p>We think the sun is pretty hot in
+summer when the thermometer goes up
+to 90 degrees in the shade or out. We
+begin to get sunburned long before it
+reaches that high. But right on the
+sun’s surface it is between 10,000 and
+15,000 degrees hot. That is, of course,
+a degree of heat which we cannot conceive.
+How much hotter still it is on
+the inside of the sun we don’t as yet
+know. It must be awfully hot there.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Is It Warm in Summer?</h2>
+
+<p>It is warm in summer because at
+that season of the year the heat rays
+of the sun strike our part of the earth
+through less air. The blanket of air
+which surrounds the earth is very much
+in comparison as to thickness like the
+peeling of an orange and surrounds the
+earth in just the same way. If you stick
+a pin straight into an unpeeled orange
+you only have to stick it in a little way
+before you reach the juicy part of the
+orange, but if you stick the pin in at
+an angle the pin will travel a much
+longer ways through pure peeling before
+it strikes the juicy part. Now,
+then, in summer the rays of the sun
+come down to us straight through the
+peeling of air, and less of the heat is
+lost by contact with the air, and that
+makes it warmer in summer. The explanation
+also accounts for your next
+question.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Is It Cold in Winter?</h2>
+
+<p>In winter the heat rays of the sun
+strike at our part of the earth at the
+angle at which you stick the pin into
+the orange when you wish to make it
+travel through the most peeling. In<span class="pagenum" id="Page142">[142]</span>
+winter the rays strike the earth at such
+an angle that a great deal of the heat
+is lost in travelling through the air,
+because they have to come through so
+much more of the air. Of course, the
+sun’s rays strike some part of the earth
+straight down through the peeling of
+air at all times, and at the equator this
+occurs all the year round, so it is
+always summer there, while at the
+North and South Poles the rays always
+strike the earth at the greatest possible
+angle, and it is always very cold winter
+there. In between, when it is neither
+hot nor cold, we have spring and fall,
+due to the fact that the rays come down
+at an angle, but not so great an angle.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Have We Five Fingers on Each
+Hand and Five Toes on Each Foot?</h2>
+
+<p>All animals, it seems, from a study
+of nature were started with ten fingers
+and ten toes, the fingers originally having
+been the toes of the fore legs. In
+a good many cases the environment in
+which animals have lived has caused
+a change in the formation of the ends
+of the limbs as well as in the limbs
+themselves. The horse, for instance,
+has developed into a one toe or one
+finger animal, while a cow is a two
+finger animal. The hen has only three
+toes on each foot and a part of another.
+But if we go back into the history and
+examine how the horses’ foot used to
+look we will find that he originally had
+five toes. The same is true of the cow
+and also the hen. Something happened
+to cause the change, for the rule of
+five fingers and five toes on the end of
+each limb has been universal. If you
+examine a chicken in a shell just before
+it is ready to come out, you can distinctly
+count five toes on each foot and
+at the ends of the wings you will see
+five little points, which under other
+conditions would develop into fingers,
+perhaps. Some of these toes of the
+new-born chicken do not develop. It
+can be accepted as a rule that creatures
+were intended in the original plan to
+have five fingers on each hand and five
+toes on each foot, making our count
+of tens, which is the world’s basis for
+counting, and has always been.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Do We Have Finger Nails?</h2>
+
+<p>Finger nails and toe nails are only
+another phase of the development of
+man from the animal that originally
+walked on four feet. Animals that
+walk on all fours use the finger and toe
+coverings which in man is the nail, to
+scratch in the ground, to attack enemies,
+and to climb with, and our nails of the
+present day are what the development
+of man into a civilized being has
+changed them to. At that, there are
+still uses for finger nails and toe nails,
+or man in his changing to a higher
+plane would have found a way to develop
+away from them. They are useful
+to-day in making our fingers and
+toes firm at the end, and enable us to
+pick up things more easily. The time
+may come when man will have neither
+finger nails nor toe nails.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Are Our Fingers of Different
+Lengths?</h2>
+
+<p>There is no known reason why our
+fingers should be of different lengths
+to-day; in fact, it is thought by some
+people that the hand would be stronger
+if the fingers were all of the same
+length. Certainly, however, the hands
+would not then be so beautiful, and it
+might not be so useful. The human
+hand to-day is perhaps the most versatile
+thing in the world. You can do
+more things with the hand than with
+any other thing in the world. The
+probability is that the shape of the hand
+to-day and the length of the fingers
+are the result of the different things the
+human being has called upon the hand
+to do during man’s development up to
+the present time.</p>
+
+<p>We must go back to the time, however,
+when man walked on fours, for
+that is probably the real explanation.
+Originally man’s fingers were of different
+lengths because all four-footed animals
+had the same peculiarities. The
+shape and length of the toes and their
+arrangement were the ideal arrangement
+for giving the proper balance and
+support to the body, and in moving
+about and in climbing produced the best
+toe hold.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page143">[143]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Does It Hurt When I Cut My
+Finger?</h2>
+
+<p>It hurts when you cut your finger,
+or, rather, where you cut it, because the
+place you have cut is exposed to the
+oxygen in the air, and as soon as it is
+so exposed a chemical action begins
+to take place, just as when you cut an
+apple and lay it aside you come back
+and find the cut surface all turned
+brown. If the apple could feel it would
+hurt also, because the chemical action
+is much the same. The apple has a skin
+which protects its inside from the oxygen
+in the air, and you have also a skin
+which protects you from the oxygen
+as long as it is unbroken.</p>
+
+<p>What happens, of course, is this:
+When you cut your finger you sever
+the tiny little veins and nerves which
+are in your finger. They are spread
+all over your body like a net-work
+under the skin, close to the surface in
+most places. The nerves when cut send
+a quick message to the brain, with
+which they are connected, telling that
+they are damaged, and the brain calls
+on the heart and other functions to get
+busy and repair the damage along the
+line. There may be some hurt while
+this process of repairing is going on, but
+the principal part of your hurt, outside
+of what we call your feelings, is due to
+the fact that the inside of you is thus
+exposed to the chemical action of the
+air. Then I can hear you say next:</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Don’t My Hair Hurt When It Is
+Being Cut?</h2>
+
+<p>It does not hurt to cut anything that
+has no nerves. There are no nerves
+in the hair which the barber cuts. If
+he pulls out a hair it hurts, because the
+root of the hair has nerves, which telegraph
+notice of the damage to the
+brain. When a dentist takes out or
+kills the nerve in your tooth you cannot
+have any more toothache in that tooth,
+because there is no nerve there to send
+the message to the brain. You can cut
+your finger nails without feeling pain,
+because they have no nerves at the ends,
+but underneath, where they join the
+skin of the finger, there are a great
+many nerves, and it hurts very much
+to bruise the nails at that location.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Of What Use Is My Hair?</h2>
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>WHY<br>WE HAVE HAIR</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>Your hair is a relic of the days when
+the entire body was covered with hair,
+just like some animals to-day, to protect
+the body from the heat, cold and
+wet. Man has, however, for so long
+a time worn clothes over most of his
+body that the need of the hair to protect
+him from these elements has all
+but disappeared, and so also has the
+hair, excepting in such places as the
+top of the head and face and other exposed
+parts. If you were to go out
+into the woods without clothes and live
+a long time your body would probably
+again become covered with hairs. The
+time is coming, however, it is believed,
+when human beings will have no hair at
+all on their bodies. You have hair on
+your head, but if you were to wear a
+hat or cap all the time you would soon
+be bald. Hair is of no use to us to-day
+excepting to adorn our bodies and add
+to our appearance. This it seems to do
+to-day, probably because we are accustomed
+to seeing it, and will make no
+difference in our looks relatively if the
+time comes when we have no hair at all.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Does My Hair Stand On End When
+I Am Frightened?</h2>
+
+<p>It does this under certain conditions,
+because there is a little muscle down at
+the root of each hair that will make
+each hair stand up straight when this
+muscle pulls a certain way. It is difficult
+to say just how these muscles
+are caused to act in this way when we
+are frightened. We know that when
+thoroughly frightened our hair will
+sometimes stand straight up, and we
+know that it is this muscle at the root
+of each hair that makes it possible, but
+why it is that a big scare will make
+this muscle act this way we do not as
+yet know.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Makes Some People Bald?</h2>
+
+<p>The chief cause of baldness is the
+lack of care of the hair. It is as necessary<span class="pagenum" id="Page144">[144]</span>
+for the roots of the hair to have
+a free circulation of the blood and that
+the hair itself should have plenty of air
+as it is necessary for the brain to have
+a good circulation. A great many men
+become bald through wearing their hats
+most of the time. The hat pulled down
+tight over the head presses against the
+scalp and interferes with the circulation
+of the blood in the scalp. Then, also,
+many hats do not have any means of
+ventilation, and that keeps the pure
+air away from the hair. The hair then
+becomes sick and dies, just as flowers
+wilt if you keep them away from the
+air. You will notice that women do not
+become bald so easily. One reason is
+that even when the women wear large
+hats, as they often do, there is plenty of
+room for the air to circulate through
+the hair, even when the hat is on, and
+women’s hats are not pulled down
+tightly on the scalp. Therefore, they
+do not press on the arteries and veins
+in the scalp and interfere with the circulation
+of the blood. Another reason
+why women do not become bald is that
+the hair of women has long been their
+“crowning glory”; a man likes to see
+a fine head of hair on a woman, and as
+women have long tried to please men
+in every possible way, they take better
+care of their hair than men do, because
+they like to have the men consider it
+beautiful.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Makes Some Things in the Same
+Room Colder than Others?</h2>
+
+<p>The objects in a room which has
+been kept at a given even temperature
+of heat will be all the same temperature,
+because heat spreads from one
+thing to another equally.</p>
+
+<p>Still, if you put your hands on various
+objects in such a room some of
+them will feel colder than others. You
+touch the tiling of the fireplace and
+that will feel cool to you. On the other
+hand, the upholstered furniture will
+feel quite warm. The piano keys feel
+cool, while the wood of the piano and
+case is warm. The difference is due
+to the fact that heat or cold will run
+through some objects more quickly than
+through others. It will run through
+the tiling on the hearth and the piano
+keys more quickly than through the upholstering
+on the furniture or the wood
+of the piano case. When you touch
+a thing with your finger you supply
+some of the heat of your body to the
+object through your finger. If the object
+is the tiling on the hearth or the
+keys of the piano the heat runs through
+it quickly and you get a cold impression
+in your finger. On the other hand, if
+you touch the upholstery on the furniture,
+through which the heat runs
+slowly, you get a warm feeling for the
+very same reason. Thus, anything
+which carries the heat away from our
+contact quickly we call a cold feeling
+object, and if the object touched does
+not carry the heat away so quickly we
+call it a warm feeling object.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Does the Hair Grow After the
+Body Stops Growing?</h2>
+
+<p>The hair on our bodies is one of the
+things that is continually wearing or
+falling away, and since, like the skin,
+it is necessary to protect certain portions
+of the body, the hair keeps on
+growing long after the grown up period
+has arrived. The skin is a very necessary
+protection of the whole body, but
+is constantly being worn away, and is
+all the time being replaced. Your hair
+falls out when it is not healthy. Unless
+proper care is given to it, it will fall
+out and not grow in again, and then
+we become bald.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Will People All Be Bald Sometime?</h2>
+
+<p>There is a theory that before many
+years have passed human beings will
+lose all of the hairs which now grow
+on different parts of their bodies, due
+to the fact that we wear so much clothing
+and keep so much of our bodies
+away from the sunlight. If that time
+comes we shall have a hairless race of
+men and women.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page145">[145]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<h2 class="pagheading">THE STORY IN A LUMP OF SUGAR</h2>
+
+<img src="images/illo145a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig145a">
+
+<p class="caption">PREPARING THE GROUND.—PLOWING AND HARROWING WITH A CATERPILLAR ENGINE.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">Sugar beets require deep plowing, ten to fourteen inches, or twice the usual depth.
+When using horses, farmers are inclined not to plow deeply enough to secure maximum
+results, and some of the factories have put in power plows which turn six furrows and
+harrow the land at the same time. They plow and harrow the land of beet farmers for
+$2.50 per acre, which is about one-half of what it costs the farmers to plow equally deep
+with horses. The traction engines also are used for hauling train wagon loads of beets
+to the factory. In some localities farmers are banding together and purchasing engines
+for plowing and hauling beets. The outfit illustrated above costs about $4,500.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo145b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig145b" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption">DRILLING THE SEED.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">Beets are drilled in rows, usually eighteen inches apart, 18 to 25 pounds of seed being
+drilled to each acre. Practically all the beet seed used in America is grown in Europe,
+principally in Germany, but it has been demonstrated that superior seed can be produced
+in the United States. Sugar-beet seed growing requires five years of the utmost skill,
+care and patience, from the planting of the original seed to the maturing of the commercial
+crop which is sold to the trade. The factories contract for their seed for three
+to five years in advance, sell it to farmers at cost price, and deduct the amount from the
+payment for beets.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page146">[146]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">HOW THE BEETS ARE GROWN</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo146a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig146a">
+
+<p class="caption">BLOCKING AND THINNING.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">When the beets are up and show the third leaf they should be “thinned.” Unless
+thinned at the proper time the pulling up of the superfluous beetlets injures the roots of
+the remaining ones. Scientific experiments in Germany, where all other conditions were
+identical, showed that one acre thinned at the proper time yielded 15 tons; the next acre,
+thinned a week later, yielded 13¹⁄₂ tons; the third acre, thinned still a week later, yielded
+10¹⁄₂ tons; and the fourth acre, thinned three weeks after the first, yielded 7¹⁄₂ tons.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">The men in the foreground are “blocking” the beets, leaving a bunch of them
+every eight inches. Those in the rear are “thinning,” or pulling up the superfluous beetlets,
+leaving one in a place, eight inches apart.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo146b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig146b" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption">READY FOR THE HARVEST.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">This field of beets yielded 20 tons to the acre. Ex-Secretary of Agriculture James
+Wilson is convinced that when American farmers become expert in beet culture they will
+average to produce more than 20 tons per acre because of the superiority of our soils.
+The ideal factory beet weighs about two pounds, and a perfect “stand” of such beets,
+one every eight inches, in rows eighteen inches apart, would yield 43¹⁄₃ tons per acre.
+The present average yield in the United States is about 10 tons per acre, while the hitherto
+“worn-out soils” of Germany yield 14 tons per acre, or 40% more than is secured from
+our “virgin soils.”</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page147">[147]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">HUGE BINS TO HOLD THE BEETS AT FACTORY</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo147a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig147a">
+
+<p class="caption">TOPPING THE BEETS.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">After the beets are plowed out they are topped or cut off by hand and the tops are
+fed to stock, for which purpose they are worth $3.00 per acre. They are topped just below
+the crown and the factories require that they be so topped as to remove any portion
+which grew above the ground, as such portion of the beet contains but a small percentage
+of sugar. The beet will grow in length, and, if as a result of shallow plowing or coming
+in contact with a rock it cannot grow downward, it will grow upward and out of the
+ground, thus necessitating a deeper topping and consequent loss to the farmer.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo147b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig147b" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption">DUMPING CARS AT FACTORY WITH HYDRAULIC JACK.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">Beets arriving at the factory by rail from receiving stations either are stored in bins until needed
+or are floated directly to the beet washers. If to be used at once, they are dumped, as shown above,
+and slide directly into a cement flume filled with warm water, which has been pumped to its upper
+end, and is flowing in the direction of the beet end of the factory. In whatever manner they may be
+received, they first are weighed, and as they are dumped, a basket is held under them to catch a fair
+sample of both beets and the loose dirt, which the car or wagon contains. These samples, properly
+tagged, are conveyed to the beet laboratory, where they are washed, and trimmed if not properly
+topped, and the difference in the weight of the sample beets as received and their weight when washed
+is called the “tare.” Whatever percentage this amounts to is applied to and deducted from the weight
+of the car or wagon load. A sample of these beets then is tested by the polariscope for its sugar
+content and its purity; farmers often being paid a stipulated price per ton for a beet of a given sugar
+content and 25 to 33¹⁄₃ cents per ton additional for each extra degree of sugar which they contain.
+The tare rooms and the beet-testing laboratories are open to any one, and in some localities the farmers’
+associations employ experts to tare and analyze each sample of beets.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page148">[148]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">MILLIONS OF BUSHELS OF BEETS</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo148a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig148a">
+
+<p class="caption">FACTORY BEET BINS FILLED TO CAPACITY.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">As they arrive by rail from receiving stations, or by team, or traction engines from the farm,
+beets are stored in bins or sheds, the capacity of which ranges from 6000 to 35,000 tons per factory,
+depending upon location and general climatic conditions.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">The bins are V shaped, about 3 feet wide at the bottom, 20 to 30 feet at the top, and they are
+20 to 30 feet high. As beets are needed, beginning at one end of the bin the loose three-foot planks
+at the bottom are removed one at a time, and with hooks attached to long poles the beets are rolled
+into the flume or cement channel below, in which they are floated into the factory. This is not only
+to save labor, but to loosen up the dirt which attaches to the beets, thus partially washing them. The
+water which is used in the flumes is warm water from the factory.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo148b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig148b" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption">TYPICAL AMERICAN BEET SUGAR FACTORY.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">These factories cost from half a million to three million dollars. They consume
+from 500 to 3,000 tons of beets per day, and during the “campaign,” which usually lasts
+about three months, will produce from 12 to 75 million pounds of granulated sugar. There
+are 73 of these factories, located in 16 States, from Ohio to California. During the
+operating season they give employment to from 400 to 1000 men each.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page149">[149]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">WASHING THE SUGAR BEETS</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo149a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig149a">
+
+<p class="caption">CHEMICAL LABORATORY.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">In a beet-sugar factory each set of apparatus for performing a given process is
+termed a “station.” In the chemical laboratory the juices and products from each station
+are tested hourly to check up the correctness of the work and to determine the losses of
+sugar in each process in the factory.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo149b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig149b" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption">CIRCULAR DIFFUSION BATTERY.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">After being floated in from the sheds the beets are elevated from the flume to a washer, where
+they are given an additional washing before being sliced. From the washer they are elevated and
+dropped into an automatic scale of a capacity of 700 to 1500 pounds. From the scale they pass to the
+slicers, where with triangular knives they are cut into long, slender slices, which look something like
+“shoestring” potatoes. These slices drop through the upright chute seen at the right side of the picture,
+and are packed tightly into cylindrical vessels holding from two to six tons each; the battery consisting
+of eight to twelve vessels arranged either in a straight line or in circular form. Warm water is run into
+these slices, and coaxes out the sugar as it passes from one vessel to the succeeding ones. After
+passing through the entire series of vessels the water has become rich in sugar, of which it contains
+from 12 to 15 per cent, depending upon the richness of the beets. It then is drawn off and is called
+diffusion juice or raw juice. This is carefully measured into tanks and recorded. As this juice is
+drawn off the vessel over which the water started is emptied of the slices from the bottom, the exhaust
+slices containing in the neighborhood of ¹⁄₄ to ¹⁄₃ per cent of sugar. These slices are carried out
+from the factory in the form of pulp and fed to stock, as explained <a href="#Fig153b">later</a>.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page150">[150]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">HOW THE SUGAR IS TAKEN FROM THE BEET</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo150a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig150a">
+
+<p class="caption">CARBONATATION AND SULPHUR STATION.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">Warm raw juice is drawn into the carbonatation tanks and treated with about 10 per cent milk of
+lime—about like ordinary whitewash. This lime throws out impurities, sterilizes the juice and removes
+coloring matter. Carbonic acid gas from the lime kiln is forced through the lime juice in the tank,
+throwing out the excess of lime, converting it into a carbonate of lime or chalk. Tests are taken here
+by the station operator to show when the process is finished.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo150b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig150b" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption">FILTER PRESSES.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">From the carbonatation tanks the juice is pumped or forced through filter presses
+consisting of iron frames so covered with cloth that the juice passes through the cloth
+as a clear liquid, leaving the lime and impurities precipitated by it, in the frame, in the
+form of a cake. This cake, after washing, is dropped from the presses and conveyed
+out of the factory. It contains from one to two per cent of its weight in sugar, which
+constitutes one of the large losses of the process. It also contains organic matter, phosphate
+and potash, besides the carbonate of lime, which makes it an excellent fertilizer, all of
+which is used in Europe on the farm, but so far to too small an extent in America.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page151">[151]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">EVAPORATING THE WATER FROM THE SUGAR</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo151a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig151a">
+
+<p class="caption">EVAPORATORS.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">After a second, and sometimes a third carbonatation and filtration, the juice is carried
+to the evaporators, commonly called the “effects,” usually four (4) large air-tight vessels
+furnished with heating tubes running from 3000 to 7000 square feet in each vessel. A
+partial vacuum is maintained in these evaporators which makes the juice boil out at a low
+temperature, thus preventing discoloration, and to a large degree the destruction of sugar
+which will come about by high temperature. There always is, however, some unavoidable
+loss of sugar in this apparatus. The juice passes along copper pipes from first to last vessel,
+becoming thicker as it does so. It comes into the first vessel at 10% to 12% sugar and
+is pumped out of the last one so thick that it contains about 50% of sugar.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo151b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig151b" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption">VACUUM PANS.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">After a careful filtration, the juice that comes from the evaporators, and is called thick juice, is
+pumped to large tanks high up in the building, and from these is drawn into vacuum pans. These are
+large cylindrical vessels from 10 to 15 feet in diameter and from 15 to 25 feet high, with conical top
+and bottom, built air-tight. Around the inner circumference they are furnished with 4- to 6-inch copper
+coils, which have a heating surface of 800 to 2000 square feet. Exhaust steam is used in the evaporators,
+live steam in the pans, the juice in both being boiled in a vacuum to prevent discoloration and reduce
+losses.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">After considerable thickening by this evaporation, minute crystals begin to form. When sufficient
+of these have formed, fresh juice is drawn in and the crystals grow, the operator governing the size of
+the crystals to suit the trade. If small crystals be desired, a large quantity of juice is admitted at the
+outset, while if large crystals are desired, a small quantity of juice first is admitted, and, as it boils to
+crystals, fresh juice gradually is added to the pan, and the crystals are built up to the desired size.
+The operator of this pan, known as the “sugar boiler,” is one of the must important men in the factory.
+The water furnished the condensers of these vacuum pans and the evaporator goes to the beet sheds
+and is used for floating in the beets. It amounts to from 3,000,000 to 8,000,000 gallons every 24 hours,
+depending upon the size of the factory, and must be very pure.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page152">[152]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">HOW SUGAR IS GRANULATED</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo152a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig152a">
+
+<p class="caption">FRONT VIEW OF CENTRIFUGAL MACHINES.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">The mass of crystals with syrup around them and containing about 8 per cent to 10 per cent of
+water is let out of the vacuum pan into a large open vessel called a mixer, beneath which are the
+centrifugal machines. These are suspended brass drums perforated with holes and lined with a fine
+screen. They are made to revolve about 1000 times to a minute, and the crystal mass of sugar rises
+up the side like water in a whirling bucket. The centrifugals force the syrup out through the screen
+holes, leaving the white crystals of sugar in a thick layer on the inner surface. These are washed with
+a spray of pure warm water and then are ready for the dryer.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo152b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig152b" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption">SUGAR GRANULATOR OR DRYER.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">The damp white crystals from the centrifugal machine are conveyed to horizontal
+revolving drums about 25 feet long by 5 to 6 feet in diameter. These drums are furnished
+with paddles on the inside circumference, the paddles picking the sugar up and dropping
+it in showers as the drum revolves. Warm dry air is drawn through and takes the moisture
+out of the sugar, which now is ready to be put in bags or barrels for the market.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page153">[153]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">BY-PRODUCTS OF THE SUGAR BEET</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo153a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig153a">
+
+<p class="caption">CRYSTALLIZERS.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">The syrup that was thrown off from the crystals in the centrifugal machines is taken
+back to the vacuum pan, evaporated in the same manner as previously described, and
+from the vacuum pan goes into the crystallizers to carry the process of crystallization
+as far as it will go. These contain from 1000 to 1600 cubic feet of the crystallized mass
+which remains in them from 36 to 72 hours, during which time it is kept in constant
+motion by a set of slowly revolving paddles, or arms, to facilitate further crystallization.
+From the crystallizers it goes to the centrifugal machines, where the syrup is separated
+from the crystals as before. The crystals are remelted and go in with the thick juice
+for white sugar. The syrup, still containing a large amount of sugar, goes out to be sold
+as cattle feed or to an Osmose or Steffens process, where a portion of the remaining sugar
+may be recovered. This lost syrup constitutes the largest loss in the entire process. It
+contains all the impurities of the beet juice not removed by the lime. These impurities
+prevent more than one and one-half times their weight of sugar from crystalizing, and
+make what is called molasses.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo153b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig153b" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption">A SEA OF BEET PULP.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">For a century the high feeding value of sugar-beet pulp has been recognized in Europe, but until
+a few years ago millions of tons of this valuable by-product rotted about American beet-sugar factories,
+as shown above, because American farmers could not be made to believe it possessed sufficient value
+to pay for hauling it back to the farm.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page154">[154]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">MACHINE THAT FILLS, WEIGHS AND SEWS THE BAGS OF SUGAR</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo154.jpg" alt="" id="Fig154">
+
+<p class="caption">SACKING ROOM.—SHOWING AUTOMATIC SCALES AND SEWING MACHINE.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">After the moisture has been thoroughly removed in the granulators or dryers, the
+sugar drops directly to the sacking room through a chute, at the lower end of which the
+top of the double bag is attached. The sugar flows directly into the sack, the flow being
+cut off automatically with each 100 pounds, when an endless belt conveyor passes the upright
+sack past the sewing machine at the proper speed and the product is sealed ready for
+storage or shipment.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">While it requires from 400 to 1000 men to man a factory, not a human hand has touched
+either beets or product since the beets were topped in the field, and at no stage of the
+operation could flies or vermin or filth come in contact with the product, which from the
+beginning has been subjected to continuous high temperatures.</p>
+
+<p class="blankbefore75">Pictures herewith by courtesy of United States Beet Sugar Industry.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page155">[155]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">How Can We Smell Things?</h2>
+
+<p>You do not need to be told what
+organ of the body we use in exercising
+the sense of smell. You can
+prove that easily to yourself by getting
+the nose within range of a distasteful
+smell.</p>
+
+<p>We do not use all of the nose to
+smell with, and the nose is useful to us
+in other ways besides this. We use the
+nose a great deal in the act of respiration
+or breathing, and it is also useful
+in helping us to make sounds,
+form words, and, though you may not
+have known it, helps our sense of
+taste.</p>
+
+<p>We smell things by means of the
+olfactory nerves which are located
+within the nose. The entire interior
+surface of the nose is covered with a
+membrane. The ends of olfactory
+nerves, or the nerves which give us
+the sensation of smell, are in this
+membrane, and the air, which is filled
+with the odor of things we smell,
+passes over this membrane, and thus
+the ends of the nerves feel the odor
+and cause sensation of smell in the
+brain. The nerves of smell do not,
+however, go all through this membrane.</p>
+
+<p>There are other nerves in the nose,
+however, besides those which give us
+the sensation of smell. These are also
+very sensitive and serve to make the
+nose exercise other functions when
+the inside of the nose is hurt or
+tickled. When a foreign substance,
+one of the many smaller particles
+which are constantly floating in the
+air, gets into the membrane in the
+nose, it irritates these nerves and often
+causes us to sneeze, which is only nature’s
+effort to drive out this foreign
+substance and clean out the nose.
+Smell is one of the lesser of the five
+senses which we possess. It is one of
+what has been called the chemical
+senses. The sense of smell does not
+act at any great distance. This sense
+could be made of more value to us
+if we developed it. Some people have
+a more highly developed sense of
+smell than others. The lower animals
+have a much keener sense of smell
+than people. A great many of them
+can follow a trail for miles merely by
+the smell of the foot-prints, and it
+is said that a deer will note the presence
+of man or any other animal that
+may subject him to danger even when
+miles away, the odor being carried to
+him through the air.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">How Do We Taste Things?</h2>
+
+<p>The sense of taste is closely associated
+with the sense of smell. In
+fact we do a good deal of what we
+think is tasting by using our sense of
+smell. A cold in the nose will sometimes
+destroy almost altogether the
+taste of food, so that there is a very
+close connection between the sense of
+taste and the sense of smell.</p>
+
+<p>The sense of taste comes to us
+through the tongue, which is the principal
+organ of taste. The remainder
+of our sense of taste lies in the surface
+of the palate and in the throat. As
+in the case of the other senses, the
+sensation of taste is given us through
+nerves, the ends of which are all
+through those parts of the tongue, the
+palate and the throat, which contribute
+to this sense. More nerves of
+taste are located in the back part of
+the tongue than on the front, and it
+is said that when you have to swallow
+a bad dose of medicine it won’t
+taste so much if you put it on the
+front part of your tongue and then
+swallow, because there are so few
+tasting nerves there. The extreme tip
+of the tongue, however, is very
+thickly covered with the ends of the
+taste nerves. In like manner one could
+have the front end of the tongue cut
+off and still retain most of the sense
+of taste.</p>
+
+<p>Now, in order to produce the sensation
+of taste, the substance to be
+tasted must come in contact with
+something which mixes with it and
+causes the sensation of taste. This is
+what happens when we taste anything.
+The juices or liquids which
+are caused to flow when anything is
+put into the mouth act on the substances<span class="pagenum" id="Page156">[156]</span>
+which enter and give the taste
+nerves a chance to taste them. Really
+the nerves of taste are so placed in the
+mouth as to be regular guards or inspectors
+of what shall go into the
+stomach. You can see how well they
+are arranged. In the tip of the tongue
+quite a few of them; in the back part
+of the tongue a great many nerves,
+for from there the food goes into the
+throat, which delivers it to the stomach;
+then those in the palate and in the
+throat. They are arranged so that the
+taste nerves have ample opportunity
+to test what comes in and to give
+warning to the brain of what is being
+sent to the stomach. Sometimes the
+things that come into the mouth are
+so distasteful to the nerves of taste
+that they refuse to hand it over to
+the stomach, but instead cause the distasteful
+substance to be thrown out
+again immediately.</p>
+
+<p>It is said that a good rule to follow
+in eating would be to swallow only
+such things as are pleasing to the sense
+of taste. On this principle many
+children would decide to eat nothing
+but candy, but do you know, if you
+tried that, the continuous tasting of
+sweets by our sense of taste nerves
+would cause them to repel further insertion
+of candy after a while. You
+know that too much of a good thing
+is bad for you, and that is what makes
+you feel badly when you have eaten
+too much of one thing.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Happens When We See?</h2>
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>HOW WE SEE<br>THINGS</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>Of course, it is the eyes with which
+we see things. When we think of the
+things with which we see, we think
+only of eyes, which give us our sense of
+vision, but there are certain forms of
+animal life which have no eyes but
+which have what are called eye spots or
+eye points, which are sensitive to light
+and which are merely spots. These
+eye spots may be located in any part
+of the body, and are often found in
+great numbers on the same body. These
+rude eyes are, however, not real eyes.
+They are, as has already been said, sensitive
+to light, but are found only in
+some of the very low forms of animal
+life which live in the water. A real
+eye is an organ in which the parts are
+so arranged that optical images may be
+formed.</p>
+
+<p>As animal life becomes developed to
+a higher scale, the parts which contain
+the making of real eyes become more
+distinct although, of course, the eyes
+themselves are not so highly developed
+as in man. One of the first kinds of
+life which has eyes with a definite structural
+character are the worms, snails,
+etc., though their sense of vision is more
+or less dim.</p>
+
+<p>When we come to the family of mollusks,
+however, low down in the scale
+of life though they are, we find them
+to possess eyes which enable them to
+see almost as well as animals which
+have a backbone, although this kind of
+eyes is constructed in a very different
+manner than the eyes of vertebrate
+animals referred to. As we ascend the
+scale of animal life in the study of eyes,
+we come next to the crustaceous, which
+is an important division of animal life
+that embraces the crabs and lobsters,
+shrimps, crawfish, and insects such as
+sand-hoppers, beach-fleas, wood-lice,
+fish-lice, barnacles. The eyes of such
+animals are quite developed, but the
+number that each will have varies.
+Some have only a single eye and others
+two, four, six or eight, but only certain
+kinds of this class of life have more
+than two eyes. The spiders generally
+have the most.</p>
+
+<p>In vertebrates, which is the class of
+animal life to which we belong, the
+number of eyes is almost always two
+and no more. The eyes are formed in
+special sockets in the skull, which are
+called eye sockets or orbits. This arrangement
+of placing them in a socket
+is of great advantage because the eye
+is thus protected from chance of injury
+except from one direction—the
+front. These animals have also eyelids,
+eyebrows and eyelashes, which
+serve as a further protection to the
+eyes.</p>
+
+<p>The principal parts of the eye are
+arranged in a globe-like ball called the
+eyeball. This eyeball is movable<span class="pagenum" id="Page157">[157]</span>
+in the socket under control of various
+muscles. The eyeball is almost surrounded
+by a membrane which is opaque
+in most parts, but very transparent at
+the front. This transparent portion
+of the surrounding membrane is called
+the cornea, and is quite hard. This is
+the outside coat of the eye. The second
+coat of membrane consists of parts of
+various names and contains the iris.
+The third coat is the retina, which is
+the end of the optic nerve entering the
+eye full from behind and expanded into
+a membrane which spreads out over
+the second coat.</p>
+
+<p>The retina or optic nerve receives
+optical impressions focused upon it by
+the crystalline lens. These impressions
+are carried along the optic nerve to the
+brain, and the brain then receives the
+sensation of seeing the image. The eyeball
+is hollow, and its three surrounding
+coats form what is practically the same
+as the interior of a camera. The crystalline
+lens of the eye acts the same
+as the lens in the camera. This crystalline
+lens is suspended within the eyeball
+right in front of the transparent
+opening in the front of the eyeball, and
+when the rays of light strike this lens
+it focuses them on the retina, which is
+the same as the film in your camera.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Can We Hear?</h2>
+
+<p>We can hear because nature has provided
+us with a very wonderful organ
+called the ear and which catches the
+sound waves that come through the
+air into the ear and make a part of the
+ear vibrate.</p>
+
+<p>In man and mammals the ear is generally
+found on the outside of the body,
+but the principal part of the ear is located
+within the skull. What we call
+ears are only the funnel-shaped extensions
+on the outside of the head which
+are not so very important so far as
+hearing is concerned, because they
+only help the real ear to hear more
+easily. The outside of the ear gathers
+in the sound waves and, because it is
+much larger than the little hole which
+takes the sounds in to the real ear,
+we can detect more sounds by having
+this funnel-shaped arrangement on the
+outside.</p>
+
+<p>The inside of the ear contains an eardrum
+or tympanum which is separated
+from the outside part of the ear by a
+membrane. Behind this eardrum is the
+real hearing part of the ear in a labyrinth
+containing the nerves of hearing.</p>
+
+<p>Now, when a sound wave strikes the
+membrane which hangs over the opening
+before the eardrum, the membrane
+vibrates and transmits the sound
+wave through the eardrum into the
+inner ear which contains the ends of
+the nerves by which we hear. These
+nerves, on receiving the sensation,
+transmit it to the brain which thus records
+the impression of sounds.</p>
+
+<p>As we descend the scale of animal
+life from the mammals downward, the
+ear becomes a more and more simple
+organ. In the vertebrates which are not
+mammals, there is no external ear at all,
+and we find great simplifications of the
+ear the lower down in the scale we go.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Is a Totem Pole For?</h2>
+
+<p>Before people had individual names,
+the savage people who lived in clans or
+tribes referred to themselves in the
+name of some natural object, usually
+an animal which they assumed as the
+name or emblem of the clan or tribe.
+These names never applied to one individual
+more than another, but only
+to the clan or tribe, so that everyone
+in a tribe which had taken the “wolf”
+for its emblem was known as “Wolf.”
+Later on they began to distinguish individuals
+by giving them additional
+names characteristic of the individual,
+such as “Lonely Wolf,” “Growling
+Wolf,” or other names. The name of
+this animal was then the emblem of one
+tribe. They, therefore, placed this emblem
+upon their bodies, their clothes,
+utensils, etc. Through this, these emblems
+also became at times idols of
+worship and so they erected poles upon
+which their emblems were engraved.
+The word totem is a North American
+Indian word meaning “family token.”
+The tribes called themselves after animals
+from which they believed themselves
+descended.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page158">[158]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Where Does a Flower Get Its Perfume?</h2>
+
+<p>The perfume or smell of the flower
+comes from within the plant itself. The
+perfume arises from an oil which the
+plant makes, and just as there are many
+kinds of flowers, so almost every flower
+has a different smell. Of course, flowers
+belonging to the same family or species
+are likely to develop different smells.
+The oils produced are what are known
+as the volatile oils, which means “flying
+oils,” because, if extracted from the
+flower and placed in a bottle and the
+cork left out, they will vanish into the
+air. Without this quality we could not,
+of course, smell them at all.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Do Flowers Have Perfumes?</h2>
+
+<p>Man uses these oils to provide himself
+with perfumes, but the plant or
+flower has another purpose than this.
+The perfume is not made for man’s use,
+but for the use of the plant itself. In
+the plant and flower world the smell
+of the plant which is in the flower is
+a part of the scheme whereby plants reproduce
+themselves.</p>
+
+<p>Every plant in order to reproduce itself
+must produce a seed. The flowers
+are in most cases the advance agent of
+the coming seed. Each flower produces
+within itself a little powder called the
+pollen, but as plants are like people—also
+male and female—they are dependent
+upon each other for the production
+of a perfect seed. Some of the pollen
+from the male plant must be mixed
+with the pollen of the female plant
+before a perfect seed results.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">How Do Flowers Produce Seeds?</h2>
+
+<p>Naturally, the nearest male plant to
+a female plant may be quite some distance
+off. How, then, is the pollen from
+the male plant to mix with the pollen
+of the female plant? In some cases it
+is the wind which blows the pollen powder
+from one to the other, and this thus
+leaves the development of a perfect
+seed from a perfect flower open to
+chance. In the case of perfumed
+flowers, however, which are mostly low-growing
+plants, the wind cannot be
+depended upon. So nature gives to
+such plants the power to make the perfumed
+oil and the busy bee does the
+rest. The perfume being a flying oil
+rises up into the air and attracts the
+bee. He is gathering honey and visits
+in turn all the flowers to which he is
+attracted. He lights on a male flower
+and gathers in his honey, and incidentally
+acquires on his legs, without
+intending to do so, some of the pollen
+of the male flower. Then he flies about
+to the next flower, and to others, and
+sooner or later he will come across a
+female flower of the same kind as that
+from which he secured the pollen on
+his legs. When he thus enters the female
+flower, the pollen on his legs
+mixes with the pollen of the same kind
+of the female flower, and quite unintentionally
+the bee helps thus to make
+the perfect seed. It is not a part of a
+bee’s business to do this carrying. It
+only happens that he does this in connection
+with his regular business of
+gathering honey. It is a wonderful
+thing which may be noted here that the
+pollen from a male of any flower will
+not mix with the pollen of the female
+of any other kind of flower, but that
+the same kinds only have attractions
+for each other. Flowers are given these
+attractive perfumes in order that they
+may attract the bees and other insects
+in this way. The plants or flowers
+which grow closest to the ground have
+generally the strongest and most far-reaching
+smells. This is so that they
+will not be overlooked.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Are Leaves Not All the Same
+Shape?</h2>
+
+<p>Leaves are of different shapes because
+they belong to different families
+of plants or trees. They are a good
+deal like people in this respect. Hardly
+two people in the world look exactly
+alike, but there is a distinct family resemblance
+in members of the same family.
+It is difficult to say just what happens
+inside the tree to determine the
+shape of the leaf and that causes them
+to possess different shapes from others.
+The shape of the leaf is a mark of
+identification of the family to which the<span class="pagenum" id="Page159">[159]</span>
+tree or plant belongs, just as you can
+tell from a dog’s ears and from other
+characteristics what his breeding has
+been. In the case of plants and trees
+however it is quite probable that the
+shape and texture of the leaves has been
+developed as the result of the conditions
+under which the plant grows. A
+plant or tree throws off oxygen and
+takes in carbonic acid gas through the
+surface of the leaves. To thrive and
+be healthy it must secure just the proper
+amount of this food and as the quantity
+of food taken in depends upon the
+amount of surface exposed through the
+leaves, each particular tree or plant has
+developed in its own direction in this
+respect until this feature of their structures
+has been adjusted properly to
+their needs. It is a good deal like the
+radiation of heat in your home.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Are Some Radiators Longer Than
+Others?</h2>
+
+<p>When the plumber gets ready to put
+in the radiators in the home he figures
+the cubic measurements of the room and
+then puts in a radiator, the outside surface
+of whose pipes, is in the right
+proportion to throw off sufficient heat
+to fill the room or heat all the air in
+the room. It requires a certain number
+of square inches of radiator surface
+to heat each cubic foot of air space and
+a good plumber can figure this to a
+nicety. If he puts in a radiator however
+that has not sufficient number of
+square inches on the outside of the
+pipes, the room will not be heated properly.
+In the same way, the trees, require
+that their leaves have a certain
+amount of square inches of surface
+space in proportion to the size of the
+tree, to enable them to do what is required
+of them and this is arranged by
+nature so that the trees grow naturally,
+and no doubt the shape of the leaves
+has something to do with this.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Makes Roses Red?</h2>
+
+<p>All roses are not red. Some are
+white and others pink or of still another
+color. The color of the rose, and in
+fact the color of all flowers is due to
+the way they absorb and reflect the sunlight.
+In the case of the red rose, the
+something in the plant that determines
+the color, absorbs all the other colors
+in the sunlight and reflects the pure
+red rays and that makes the color of
+the red rose. You cannot see the color
+of any flower when it is perfectly dark.
+That is because they have no color of
+their own, but only the colors which
+they reflect when in the sunlight or
+some other light. The question of colors
+is more fully explained in another
+part of the book.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Do Plants and Trees Grow Up
+Instead of Down?</h2>
+
+<p>As a matter of fact plants and trees
+do grow downward as well as up. There
+is a part of each called the root whose
+business it is to grow down and
+take certain things necessary to the life
+of the tree out of the ground. But the
+part we see above the ground and
+which is the part we generally think
+of only when we think of plants or trees.</p>
+
+<p>The tree or plant, in order to grow
+properly, and eventually produce flowers
+and perfect seeds, must have sunshine
+and carbonic acid gas, and it is
+the business of the leaves and other
+parts above the ground to get these out
+of the air for the good of the plant
+or tree. So they start to grow toward
+the sun. It is easy to prove how a plant
+will turn toward the light. Take notice
+of the plants in the flower pots at home.
+Set one of them on the window sill
+inside the window where the sun can
+shine on it and notice how quickly the
+leaves and branches will be bent over
+against the window pane. Turn it completely
+around then so that the plant
+leans away from the sunlight and watch
+it for a day or two. Before long you
+will find that it has not only straightened
+itself completely out but started
+to lean toward the window glass again
+so as to get as near the sun as possible.
+Most plants, if kept where the sunlight
+cannot touch them, will die. The
+sunlight is a necessary part of their
+lives.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page160">[160]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Becomes of the Plants and Flowers
+in Winter?</h2>
+
+<p>A great many, in fact the large percentage
+of plants, live only during one
+season. This kind of plant actually dies
+completely after, in the natural course
+of growth and flowering, it has produced
+its seed which is the method by
+which such plants are reproduced.
+Other plants only appear to die in the
+winter. Parts of them, such as the
+leaves and flowers actually die, but the
+roots and stalks of such plants do not
+die in winter. The part that represents
+the life in them goes to sleep and lies
+dormant until the light and warmth of
+summer bring forth the leaves and
+flowers again.</p>
+
+<p>The flowers, however, always die and
+the same flowers never appear again but
+others just like them appear in their
+places.</p>
+
+<p>Even in hot countries where there is
+no winter, the plants must go through a
+period of rest or sleep, although this
+change is not so marked in plants which
+grow in these hot countries.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">How Can Some Plants Climb a Smooth
+Wall?</h2>
+
+<p>To get at the answer to this question,
+we should pick out one kind of plant like
+the creeping ivy vine. If we examine
+same as it climbs a brick wall, we find
+that it sends out little shoots which attach
+themselves around the little rough
+places in the bricks of the wall which,
+if examined under a microscope are
+quite large apparently—at least they are
+large enough for the tiny creepers of
+the ivy to hold on to. Of course, if
+there were only one little “shoot” to
+reach out and take hold of the rough
+spots in the wall, the vine could not
+cling to the wall, but the vine puts out
+a great many of these shoots—which it
+would perhaps be best to call “clingers”
+and as each helps a little to hold on, the
+great number all holding on together
+enable a quite heavy vine to hang on to
+an apparently smooth wall.</p>
+
+<p>Some vines have actually the ability
+to send out little suckers which are
+made on the same principle as the boys’
+sucker (a circular piece of leather with
+string attached to the middle with
+which a boy can pick up stones) and
+such plants can cling to and climb up an
+almost perfectly smooth wall.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Are the Thorns on Roses and
+Other Plants Good For?</h2>
+
+<p>The thorns of roses and other plants
+which have thorns originally grew for
+the purpose of enabling the plants to
+fasten themselves on to other things thus
+helping them to climb. Many plants with
+thorns are permitted to grow now in
+places where they can use their thorns
+for climbing but many others with
+thorns are cut down by the gardener to
+make the plants shapely and to make
+them produce more flowers and less
+branches, but they keep on growing
+their thorns just the same.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Do Plants Breathe?</h2>
+
+<p>Yes, indeed, plants do breathe. To
+breathe is just as important to the life
+of a plant as it is to a boy or girl.
+Plants do not have lungs like boys and
+girls and grown up people, but they find
+it necessary to breathe. You know, of
+course, that fishes breathe, but they
+haven’t any lungs either, even though
+they belong to the animal kingdom.
+Fishes do not, however, breathe the air
+in the same form as we do because they
+must use the air which they find in the
+water. That is why we say fishes drown
+when on the land. They cannot breathe
+air in the form in which we are able
+to use it any more than people can
+breathe the air in the water.</p>
+
+<p>Breathing, however, is necessary to
+all living things and the gas which we
+take in when breathing is oxygen. There
+is oxygen in the water as well as in the
+air. Things which live in the air take
+their oxygen out of the air and things
+which live in the water get their oxygen
+out of the water. For this purpose it
+is necessary for plants and animals
+that live under the water to have a
+breathing apparatus especially adapted
+for getting oxygen out of the water.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page161">[161]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Happens When Breathing Occurs?</h2>
+
+<p>The act of breathing consists really
+of two actions. Taking something into
+the body and expelling something.
+Every living thing inhales and expels
+in breathing. We take in oxygen and
+expel it again but when it comes out it
+has added something to it and the combination
+or result is carbonic acid gas—so
+we take in oxygen and expel carbonic
+acid gas.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">How Do Plants Breathe?</h2>
+
+<p>The lungs of a plant, or what the
+plant breathes with corresponding to
+our lungs, are located in the leaves of
+the plant. Under a magnifying glass
+we can see the lungs of the leaf quite
+clearly. In addition to this we know
+that plants breathe, because if we put
+them in a vacuum where there is no air
+they die very quickly. The plant needs
+air or it will suffocate just as any animal
+will suffocate under similar conditions.
+Plants, however, do not make
+use of the oxygen as they find it in
+the air. They live on the carbon which
+they find in the air mixed with oxygen.
+What happens then is this. The plants
+take in through their lungs in the leaves
+carbonic acid gas from which they take
+the carbon and use it as food, and throw
+off the oxygen which they cannot use.
+Human beings and other animals take
+the oxygen into their lungs and use it
+and expel carbonic acid gas. The result
+is that each kind of life is dependent
+upon the other. If it were not for the
+plant life, men and other animals would
+find it difficult perhaps to find sufficient
+oxygen in the air to keep them alive, and
+if it were not for the carbonic acid gas
+which the animals throw off, plants and
+other vegetable life would have great
+difficulty in finding sufficient carbonic
+acid gas to go around.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Do Plants Need Sunlight?</h2>
+
+<p>Most plants, if placed where no light
+from the sun can reach them, will die
+very quickly. To prove that a plant
+needs the sunlight we have only to
+place it in a dark corner of the cellar
+and notice how soon it dies. In fact if
+it were not for sunlight there would be
+no life on earth at all. The plant or
+tree drinks in sunlight through the surface
+of the leaves. In fact the ability
+to take in sunlight constitutes the real
+life of the tree or plant. Leaves grow
+thin and flat in order that as much surface
+as possible may be exposed to the
+sunlight. If a leaf were curled up like
+a hoop only a part of the outside surface
+would be exposed to the sunlight
+and the amount of life that a leaf could
+supply to the rest of the tree would be
+much less. The leaf is so constructed
+that when the sunlight strikes down
+upon its green surface, it changes the
+carbonic acid gas which it drinks in,
+into its elements, i.e., it takes out the
+carbon which goes into the body of the
+plant and combining with other food
+and water supplied by the roots causes
+the plant or tree to grow and then returns
+the oxygen part of the carbonic
+acid gas to the air.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Does Milk Turn Sour?</h2>
+
+<p>The milk turns sour because a little
+microbe, known as the milk microbe
+gets into it, and being very fond of the
+sugar which is in the milk, turns this
+sugar into an acid.</p>
+
+<p>If we could keep milk entirely away
+from the air after the cow is milked,
+it would not turn sour, but as soon as
+it is exposed to the air these microbes
+which are constantly in the air, drop
+into the milk. They are alive, although
+invisible to the naked eye. If when they
+drop into the milk it is warm enough
+for them to get in their work so to
+speak, they fall upon the sugar in the
+milk and turn it into the acid. Their
+attempt to sour the milk can be overcome
+by keeping the milk at a low temperature
+in the refrigerator, but as soon
+as the milk is taken out of the refrigerator
+and left out long enough to become
+warm, the microbe begins to work and
+the milk cannot be made sweet again.
+If the milk is boiled as soon or shortly
+after the cow is milked, the sugar in
+the milk is changed in such a way that
+the microbe cannot feed upon it.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page162">[162]</span></p>
+
+<div class="container w50emmax" id="Fig162">
+
+<img src="images/illo162.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">A PERSIAN RUG WEAVER AT WORK.<a id="FNanchor3" href="#Footnote3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a></p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote3" href="#FNanchor3" class="label">[3]</a> Pictures and descriptions by courtesy of Hartford Carpet Co.</p>
+
+</div><!--footnote-->
+
+<h2 class="nobreak">The Story in a Rug</h2>
+
+</div><!--chapter-->
+
+<h3>What Are Carpets and Rugs Made Of?</h3>
+
+<p>The choicest wool of the world is
+used in the manufacture of carpet. In
+order to give satisfactory service carpet
+must be made of wool that is of a tough
+quality and has a long fiber. Such
+wool is not produced in America, and
+the markets of the distant lands that
+supply it are practically exhausted to
+supply the American manufacturers.
+Most of the wool used comes from
+Northern Russia, Siberia and China. It
+is shipped in bales. When it arrives at
+the mill there is much to be done before
+the wool is ready for any process of
+manufacturing.</p>
+
+<h3>How Long Have People Used Carpets?</h3>
+
+<p>The art of weaving stands foremost
+among the ancient industries. It came
+into being in the sunrise lands of the
+East where color has endless charm
+and variety and where figure is made to
+serve the purpose of fact and fancy.
+The art of weaving rugs is older than
+Egyptian civilization. Stone carvings
+made when Egypt was yet unborn were
+reproduced in rugs.</p>
+
+<p>At what period the loom was first
+used is impossible to tell. An ancient
+Jewish legend claims that Naamah,
+daughter of Tubal-Cain, was the inventor
+of the process of weaving
+threads into cloth. There are other indications
+that the ancient Hebrews were
+the first weavers. Mythology also tells
+of beautiful maidens weaving exquisite
+patterns for the gods. Most of us are
+familiar with the story of Jason who
+set sail on the Argo in search of the
+Golden Fleece, arrived at the kingdom
+of Aeetes, won the hand of Medea, the
+daughter of Aeetes, who eloped with
+him after he had secured the coveted
+fleece.</p>
+
+<p>The first hands busy at the weaving
+craft undoubtedly were those of
+women. Chaldean gossip, repeated in
+history relates that Sardanphulees, an
+ancient Greek king, was often seen in
+woman’s garb carding purple wool
+from which his wives wrought rugs for
+floor coverings for the palace. Homer
+shows Helen of Troy setting the tale
+of her people’s war in the woof of her
+web, and also tells with Virgil of rugs
+that were laid under the thrones of
+kings or upon chariot horses. Ancient
+Hindu hymns show that these people
+made their textile fabrics studies of
+great beauty. The woman in the Proverbs<span class="pagenum" id="Page163">[163]</span>
+of Solomon says: “I have woven
+my bed with cords; I have covered it
+with painted tapestry from Egypt.”
+One learns from the writings of Pliny
+of the large money value of rugs in
+ancient times. He wrote at length of
+a vast rug displayed at a banquet of
+Ptolemy Philadelphius, the value of
+which was placed at a fabulous sum.</p>
+
+<p>A later writer tells of the love of
+Cleopatra for rich rugs and tapestries
+that were woven in her palace or in
+the countries to the East. On the occasions
+of her meeting with Cæsar and
+Antony, the Egyptian queen enveloped
+herself in a superb rug which she had
+woven especially for the purpose of
+showing her renowned beauty to the
+best advantage. Akhar, emperor of
+Hindostan, spread a knowledge of the
+art of weaving throughout India.</p>
+
+<p>The earlier phases of the art of
+weaving may be traced through the
+land of the Pharaohs to Northern
+Africa, Southwestern Asia, and finally
+into the dawn of the Aryan civilization.
+The loom has not been materially
+changed, and it may be seen to-day as
+it was in the time when the priests of
+Heliopolis decorated the shrines of
+their gods with magnificent carpets and
+when Delilah wove the hair of Samson
+with her web and fastened it with a
+wooden pin. The ancient weavers attained
+high artistic standards in their
+fabrics. Pliny tells of Babylonian
+couch covers that had all the beauty of
+paintings and sold for great fortunes
+to the ancient Asiatic kings.</p>
+
+<p>In all ages fine rugs have been used
+for religious purposes. Early writings
+describe the use of rugs on the holy
+cars of pilgrimage to Mecca, at the
+tomb of the prophet at Medinah and
+throughout the mosques of the Orient.
+The abbot Egelric gave to the church
+at Croyland, before the year 892, two
+large rugs to be laid before the high
+altar on great festivals. At later periods
+rugs were used for similar purposes
+in the cathedrals of Southern
+Europe.</p>
+
+<p>The Oriental people ever have been
+devoted to symbols and naturally wove
+them into their fabrics. Their textiles
+were made to reproduce mythological
+stories in which the fauna and flora of
+a country figured prominently. There
+was the symbolism of form, color and
+animal life, of trees and flowers, of
+faith, and earthly and heavenly existence.
+The symbols were made to illustrate
+the conflict between light and
+darkness, the evolution of life, the
+decay of death and the immortality that
+awaits the blessed in paradise.</p>
+
+<h3>What Do the Designs in Rugs Mean?</h3>
+
+<p>Since many of the figures of ancient
+rug-weaving are retained in modern rug
+designs, the following list of meanings
+of ancient Oriental symbols used in
+rug-weaving may be interesting as a
+key to the stories that are said to appear
+in many rugs of Oriental design:</p>
+
+<ul class="rugdesign">
+
+<li>Asp—intelligence</li>
+<li>Bat—duration</li>
+<li>Bee—immortality</li>
+<li>Beetle—earthly life</li>
+<li>Blossom—life</li>
+<li>Boat—serene spirit</li>
+<li>Butterfly—soil</li>
+<li>Crescent—celestial virgin</li>
+<li>Crocodile—deity</li>
+<li>Dove—love</li>
+<li>Eagle—creation</li>
+<li>Egg—life</li>
+<li>Feather—truth</li>
+<li>Goose—child</li>
+<li>Lizard—wisdom</li>
+<li>Palm tree—immortality</li>
+<li>Sail of vessel—breath</li>
+<li>Wheel—deity</li>
+<li>Lion—power</li>
+<li>Ass—humility</li>
+<li>Butterfly—beneficence of summer</li>
+<li>Jug—knowledge</li>
+<li>Ox—patience</li>
+<li>Hawk—power</li>
+<li>Lotus—the sun</li>
+<li>Pine-cone—fire</li>
+<li>Zigzag—water</li>
+<li>Leopard—fame</li>
+<li>Sword—force</li>
+<li>Serpent—desire</li>
+<li>Bird—spirit</li>
+<li>Owl—wisdom</li>
+<li>Pig—kindness</li>
+
+</ul>
+
+<p>Such are the traditions that the
+makers of modern rugs must live up
+to. The art of the centuries has been
+revealed in the rugs of many nations,
+and the rug-maker of to-day must uphold
+the standards of an art that undoubtedly
+takes rank with the great
+arts. Where a valuable painting goes
+into the home of one millionaire, thousands
+of rugs made from an original
+design of unquestioned art and beauty
+go into homes the country over to give
+warmth, comfort and beauty, delighting<span class="pagenum" id="Page164">[164]</span>
+housewives and imparting a sense
+of coziness and elegance.</p>
+
+<p>According to students of the art of
+weaving, the perfection of this art was
+attained about the sixteenth century,
+after many centuries of slow growth.
+Since then weaving as an art has been
+broadened and given a wider scope
+by means of processes invented for a
+cheaper production of rugs in all the
+beauty of their original designs. But
+there also has developed a modern
+school of rug and carpet designing that
+in itself represents no mean standard
+of art. Many of the less expensive
+grades of American rugs and carpets,
+for example, are of designs created by
+artists of this modern school of weaving
+designs whose work is of a high
+degree of artistic excellence.</p>
+
+<div class="container w50emmax" id="Fig164">
+
+<p class="caption">HOW OUR GRANDMOTHERS MADE RAG CARPETS</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo164.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">MAKING THE OLD RAG CARPET.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>A quarter of a century ago many
+homes had rugs woven by the housewives
+with their spinning-wheels, or no
+floor coverings, except crude cloths
+made of rags. These homes, of course,
+were those of families in moderate circumstances,
+which to-day can have
+their attractive and comfort-giving rugs
+of the less expensive grades of tapestry
+carpet, Axminster or of the various
+other grades of carpet manufactured
+at a range of prices within the financial
+reach of people of modest means.</p>
+
+<p>It is only a step from the ancient
+weaving of rugs, with all the color,
+glamor and romance that attached to
+rug-weaving in the ancient days, to the
+manufacture of rugs in America to-day.
+There is no romance attached to the
+making of rugs and carpets in America,
+except the romance of industrial
+achievement; but the American rug-maker
+is as careful of the quality and
+beauty of his product as was the
+ancient weaver, and the best standards
+of ancient weaving have been realized
+in the manufacture of rugs and carpets
+in America to-day.</p>
+
+<h3>Why Did the Ancients Make Rugs?</h3>
+
+<p>It is only a rug, several yards of
+woven threads, a design that few can
+understand—a simple thing, to be sure;
+yet what a lot of history and memories
+and traditions it carries! Merely a
+strip of carpet, with strange figures,
+beautiful though meaningless, a product
+of modern invention like many
+another, some may think. But the story
+of a rug may go back through many
+centuries to ancient times of opulent<span class="pagenum" id="Page165">[165]</span>
+splendor, when wars were waged and
+kingdoms created and shattered for the
+beauty of a woman; when gorgeous
+palaces were raised and great spectacles
+of art were shown to inspire the world
+for thousands of years.</p>
+
+<p>Only a rug, but a relic of a rich and
+glowing past! For in those distant days
+of war and pageantry, an era more
+classic than our own, history and romance
+were woven into the rug. The
+patterns and designs told great stories
+of wars and loves that swept nations
+away and created great new empires
+and related vivid accounts of intrigue
+and tragedy that determined history
+and inspired the immortal works of
+poets and dramatists. The rug in the
+ancient times was also used for religious
+symbolism, and sacred doctrines
+were inscribed in the woven figures.</p>
+
+<p>Of all the arts none has been as close
+to the lives and history of the peoples
+of the earth as the art of weaving.
+Songs and stories of these peoples and
+their national achievements have been
+immortalized through their woven fabrics.
+Generations have learned of the
+great deeds of their forefathers
+through the historical accounts woven
+into rugs. And in the days of the early
+Greeks, Hebrews and Egyptians and on
+through the succeeding centuries until
+the middle ages the rug was used as a
+symbolical part of state, religious and
+romantic ceremonies.</p>
+
+<h3>What Makes Some Rugs so Valuable?</h3>
+
+<p>The reason many rugs are valued at
+so high a price in money is largely due
+to the skill of the artist or designer,
+just as a painting becomes valuable because
+the artist who painted it has
+succeeded in producing a remarkable
+result. The question of rarity also
+enters largely into the value of rugs.
+The great artist weavers of the past
+who worked for love of their art rather
+than for the money they might secure
+by disposing of their masterpieces, are
+dead, and they have had no successors.
+Then, also, the rug becomes valuable
+by reason of the amount of time and
+labor put into it. Many valuable rugs
+take years to produce, because the artist
+must do all his work by hand practically
+and tie his different colored
+yarns together just so, or the pattern
+will not come right. These knots may
+occur every inch or sometimes even
+less than an inch, and there will be
+thousands of hand knots in one rug.</p>
+
+<div class="container w50emmax" id="Fig165">
+
+<img src="images/illo165.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">MAKING TURKISH RUGS.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page166">[166]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">THE OLDER THEY ARE THE MORE HIGHLY PRIZED</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo166a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig166a">
+
+<p class="caption long">The above is a typical Chinese rug, containing symbolical emblems.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">This is an antique and is of a class that sells sometimes as high as $5,000, its rarity
+of design, beauty in colors, and scarcity enhances its value.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo166b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig166b" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption long">This is an American machine-made interpretation of a Chinese rug. The ground is a
+rich gold coloring, the figures being in ecru, dark blue, terra cotta and light blue. It is
+a beautiful rug, and one of the finest examples of loom-tufted goods ever produced.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page167">[167]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">WHERE THE BEST PERSIAN RUGS ARE MADE</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo167a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig167a">
+
+<p class="caption long">This antique Persian was made in the district of Kurdistan, in Western Persia. The general effect
+is handsome, although the design is crude. The ground is of a deep rich red, and top colors of dark
+blue and ecru.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">The most valuable Persian rugs come from Kurdistan, Khurasan, Peraghan and Karman. The most
+highly prized come from Kurdistan. The pattern does not show a uniform ground of flowers or other
+objects, but looks more like a field of wild flowers in the spring, which is very appropriate as a design
+for anything that is to be walked upon. It is astonishing what wonderful artistic ability is displayed by
+some of the members of these wild nomadic Persian people. The carpets and rugs are woven on a
+simple frame on which the warp is stretched. The woof, or cross threads, consist of short threads
+woven into the warp with the fingers and without the use of a shuttle. Then a sort of comb is pressed
+against the loose row of cross threads to tighten it. The weaver sits with the back of the rug towards
+him, so that he depends entirely on his memory to produce a perfect pattern.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo167b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig167b" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption long">This rug is an American copy of a typical Kurdistan. It is marvellous how well the effect in colors
+and design are reproduced in this domestic rug.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page168">[168]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">HOW WE IMITATE POPULAR DESIGNS BY MACHINERY</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo168a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig168a">
+
+<p class="caption long">This Tabriz reproduction has all the characteristics of the genuine rug in both design
+and color. The ground is of a soft rose with figures olives, ivory and deep blue.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo168b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig168b" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption long">This is a copy of an old piece of a rug in the Kensington Museum, London, which is
+500 to 600 years old. The design is very interesting on account of the symbolical figures
+which cover the ground.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page169">[169]</span></p>
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<div class="container w45emmax" id="Fig169">
+
+<img src="images/illo169.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">WOOL-PICKING MACHINE.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<h2 class="nobreak">The Making of Carpets</h2>
+
+</div><!--chapter-->
+
+<h3>How Are Modern Rugs and Carpets
+Made?</h3>
+
+<p>The best way to learn of this is for
+us to take a brief visit to one of the
+largest carpet factories, where we will
+assume we have already arrived.</p>
+
+<p>There is a sharp whistle, then an outlet
+of steam, the clang of a bell and a
+locomotive rolls around the curve of
+the spur-track into the factory yard.
+Attached to it are several freight cars
+that only the day before received their
+cargoes at the New York docks fresh
+from steamships coming from foreign
+lands. Inside the yard, the engine
+comes to a stop alongside a warehouse.
+Sturdy men unlock the doors of the
+cars and begin pulling out bales of the
+imported wool.</p>
+
+<p>This is the first step in the evolution
+of a rug. Between the arrival of the
+rough wool at the warehouse and the
+placing in the stock room of the finished
+rug, splendidly woven after an artistic
+design shown in attractive colors, many
+interesting processes are followed. It
+is sufficient to state that few people
+looking at rugs of the Saxony, or Axminster
+or Tapestry type realize the
+high degree of mechanical science and
+artistic perception that have been
+brought to bear in the manufacture of
+these rugs.</p>
+
+<p>After the arrival of the wool there
+are many steps to be taken until the
+skeins of yarn receive their coloring
+treatment in the dye-house and, at the
+bidding of the great machine, assemble
+themselves in the beautiful designs that
+the artists have created. Though there
+are many details of work in the development
+of a rug, they have been so
+well mastered that the employes in
+charge of every stage of the rug’s evolution<span class="pagenum" id="Page170">[170]</span>
+give to their work a nicety of
+attention in little time that careful training
+and scientific understanding alone
+can supply.</p>
+
+<p>The travel-stained covers of the bales
+are removed. The heavy bulk is broken
+and the tightly-compressed bales loosened.
+Then the wool is fed into the
+washing-machine, and after that goes
+into the picking-machine. The process
+of cleansing the wool is an elaborate
+one, for it is so full of dirt and grease
+that several waters and several operations
+are necessary to its final appearance
+in a white and fleecy condition.
+After the last washing the wool is lifted
+to a drying-room, where the heat from
+steam-coils is forced through it by
+means of blowers.</p>
+
+<p>The wool now passes to the sorting-room,
+where the blends are carefully
+made before it goes to the machine
+which tears the wool fibers apart, and
+gets them in shape for the carding and
+combing processes. Next the wool is
+blown into a spinning mill. The wool
+is now ready to be converted into yarn.
+It passes through a picking-machine,
+which blends the different grades of
+the raw material, selecting the strands
+as to fiber and color. Then it is refined
+and purified.</p>
+
+<div class="container w30emmax" id="Fig170a">
+
+<img src="images/illo170a.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">CARDING MACHINE</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>Through tubes the wool is forced to
+the carding-room by means of air pressure.
+In passing through the cards it
+is carefully weighed to secure evenness
+in the yarn. Leaving the carding machine,
+the wool is taken to the floor
+above, where the big spools of yarn
+reach the combing machine for the next
+process. This machine separates the
+long from the short fibers. The strands
+of wool are still thick and must go
+through another process before they are
+ready to be made into yarn. They are
+finally united and given sufficient
+strength to stand the weaving process.
+As the visitor sees the strands of yarn
+first appear on the machine they resemble
+rolls of smoke.</p>
+
+<div class="container w30emmax" id="Fig170b">
+
+<img src="images/illo170b.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">DYEING THE YARN</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>HOW THE YARN FOR<br>
+CARPETS IS DYED</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>The yarn next appears on rows of
+spindles in the mule-room, six hundred
+feet long, where the yarn is
+twisted and brought to its final stage.
+The yarn now is ready for the dye-house.
+Here the atmosphere is very
+dense. Clouds of steam rise from the
+many vats of boiling dyes. The yarn
+receives the coloring for which it is intended,
+or is bleached in an adjoining
+department, and then is transferred on
+poles to the drying-room, after passing
+through a steaming process which sets
+the color. Next it passes on an electric
+conveyor to the weave-shop.</p>
+
+<p>Considerable skill is required in the
+weaving process. The assembling of
+the yarns and matching of colors require
+expert attention. The skeins of
+yarn are wound on spools, which are
+put in sets back of the looms, each
+color or set representing one “frame”
+of color in the rug. By the famous
+Jacquard motion of cards each color
+wanted in the surface of the rug is
+pulled up in its proper place, the other
+frame color laying in the back of the
+rug. The mechanical process is a remarkable
+sight. As the pattern forms
+itself from the mechanical devices, the
+onlooker is struck with the wonder of
+it.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page171">[171]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage landscape" id="Fig171">
+
+<p class="paghead">HOW A CARPET IS WOVEN BY MACHINERY</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo171.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">WEAVING A RUG BY MACHINERY</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page172">[172]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage landscape" id="Fig172">
+
+<p class="paghead">10,000,000 YARDS OF CARPET PER YEAR FROM ONE FACTORY</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo172.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption long">This picture shows the plant of one of the largest carpet factories in the United States
+at Thompsonville, Conn. From the looms of these mills are annually produced ten-million
+yards of the twenty-five different grades of carpet manufactured by this concern.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">Imagine a strip of carpet across the United States at its widest part, the Forty-second
+latitude—a strip of “Hartford Saxony”, say, stretching from the Atlantic seaboard to the
+Pacific coast; and then another carpet strip the length of the United States, where this
+country is the longest—i. e., from the Northern boundary of the state of Minnesota to the
+Southern boundary of the state of Texas; then imagine one more strip stretching from
+Chicago to New Orleans, and finally a connection between the two latter strips at about the
+vicinity of St. Louis.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">With a mental picture of this vast country thus stripped with carpet, you wonder if
+there is that much carpet in the world. It seems incredible that this great sweep of land
+could be measured with carpet—and yet enough material comes every year from the looms
+of one carpet factory alone in this country to strip the United States East and West, and
+North and South as indicated above.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page173">[173]</span></p>
+
+<p>The weave is now completed; the rug
+comes out. But it is rough and has to
+be finished. It is passed through a machine
+that removes the roughness of
+the face as a lawn-mower cuts away
+the top-grass. The ends are finished,
+and the carpet is complete.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>SOME DESIGNS STAMPED<br>
+ON YARN BEFORE WEAVING</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>The pattern of tapestry carpet is
+obtained by printing the colors to appear
+in the design on the yarn which
+forms the face before the weaving is
+started, by means of large drums. After
+all rugs leave the weave-shop a force
+of skilled women examine them carefully
+to make sure that there are no
+defects. Every yard of the annual output
+of carpet and rugs is inspected five
+times before it leaves the factory.</p>
+
+<div class="container w40emmax" id="Fig173a">
+
+<img src="images/illo173a.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">EXAMINING AND REPAIRING</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<div class="container w40emmax" id="Fig173b">
+
+<img src="images/illo173b.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">PACKING FOR SHIPMENT</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Do I Yawn?</h2>
+
+<p>When you yawn, you do so because
+you have not been breathing quite properly
+and for some reason or other your
+blood supply has not been getting sufficient
+oxygen through the air which has
+been taken into your lungs. Nature’s
+way, in this instance, is to call for a big
+intake of air all at one time, and since
+it is important at such times that a
+large quantity of air should be supplied
+to the lungs at once, nature has so
+arranged matters that certain muscles
+shall cause you to open your mouth
+wide and take in as much air as
+you can at one time, and also has
+arranged so that it is almost impossible
+to keep from yawning when
+the demand for it is once made. The
+yawn is controlled by a part of our
+nerve structure which looks after the
+breathing apparatus.</p>
+
+<p>The satisfaction we feel after a
+wholesome yawn is due to the fact that
+having replied to nature’s demand that
+we bring in more air, our blood secures
+the oxygen which it needs and we feel
+the effect of better blood in our arteries
+at once.</p>
+
+<p>A peculiar thing about the process of
+yawning is that one person in a room
+yawning will quite likely set all or
+nearly all the others to yawning also.
+There seems to be no explanation of
+this excepting that when a number of
+people are in one room and one of them
+begins to yawn, the others do so, not
+because they perceive the first yawn so
+much as the probable fact that the air
+in the room has become so poor that
+there is not enough good air for all
+the people in it, breathing normally,
+and many of them are forced to yawn
+at about the same time.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page174">[174]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Where Do Living Things Come From?</h2>
+
+<p>This is a big subject, but a very interesting
+one. To understand it fully
+we must begin at the very beginning
+of the world.</p>
+
+<p>God made first of all the rocks, the
+mountains, the sun, the moon, the
+stars, the soil, and put the water in the
+lakes, rivers and oceans. This took a
+long time, but they had to be there
+before the living things could begin
+to be.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What is Inorganic Matter?</h2>
+
+<p>This thing we have spoken of is
+called inorganic matter, which means
+“without life,” and everything in the
+world which has no life is called inorganic
+matter. These things do not die,
+and for that reason do not have to be
+replaced. The form and appearance of
+inorganic matter and its location is
+often changed by man or other causes,
+but even when man burns the coal
+which he has dug up out of the ground
+in the furnace, no part of it is destroyed.
+Some of it is turned into
+smoke and gas and some of it is turned
+into ashes, while every other particle
+which went to make up the coal originally
+is still in existence. It remains as
+inorganic matter in some form or other.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Where Did Life Begin on Earth?</h2>
+
+<p>After the inorganic things had been
+made and the earth was ready for life,
+the different kinds of living things
+which we find on the earth began to
+exist. These are called organic objects,
+which means objects “with life.” The
+first living things to appear were the
+bushes, the grass, the garden vegetables,
+the flowers, trees, and all the
+kinds of life which we ordinarily think
+of as growing things.</p>
+
+<p>This division of living things makes
+up what we call the vegetable kingdom,
+and in a general way of classing it is
+the kind of life which cannot move
+about from place to place and which
+has not a sense of feeling, or any of the
+other senses, seeing, hearing, tasting or
+smelling.</p>
+
+<p>After this division of life had been
+established the world was ready for
+the other and more important form of
+life—the fishes, the birds, cats, dogs,
+horses, cows, with others that we call
+domestic animals, and also the lions,
+tigers, elephants and others which constitute
+the division of wild animals.</p>
+
+<p>This kind of life was given some or
+all of the five senses, but not all classes
+of animal life possess all these senses.
+Some of the lower forms of animal life,
+like the oysters, clams, in the fish family,
+cannot see, hear, smell or taste.
+They can only feel; others are able to
+do more of these things, and many
+have all of the five senses.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">When Did Man Begin to Live?</h2>
+
+<p>Man was not created until all the
+other living things on earth had been
+started, and he was given additional
+powers so that he might become the
+ruler of all the other living things, principally
+because he was given a brain
+with power to think, reason and originate.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Must Life Be Reproduced?</h2>
+
+<p>Life must be reproduced because
+living things die. They have power to
+live only for a certain length of time.
+The other life in the world is used
+to provide food for man, and if there
+were no way of reproducing life it
+would not be long before man had
+eaten all the vegetables and the animals
+too, and would himself then starve to
+death.</p>
+
+<p>To avoid such a calamity God put
+into each living thing, both vegetables
+and animals, a power to cause other
+things of the same kind as itself to
+grow. This is called the power of reproduction.
+With this power each kind
+of living thing can bring other specimens
+of the same kind into the world
+and each kind of living thing can do
+this without aid from any other kind
+of life.</p>
+
+<p>The trees, the flowers, and other
+kinds of vegetable life would reproduce
+themselves without the aid of man, as
+would also the fishes and other kinds
+of animal life. Man, however, just to
+have things conveniently at hand, uses
+his power over other life to cause his<span class="pagenum" id="Page175">[175]</span>
+vegetables to grow near where he lives,
+and keep the animals which he wishes
+to use as food in some place where he
+doesn’t have to hunt for them every
+time he wishes meat for his table. This,
+however, he does only with the animals
+which he has domesticated or tamed.
+When he wants meat from the animals
+which are still wild he must hunt for
+them as he used to do.</p>
+
+<p>Each kind of life has the power,
+however, to reproduce only its own
+kind. If you plant a peach stone you
+will sooner or later have a peach tree
+which will bear peaches, and these
+peaches from the young tree will look
+and taste just like the peach whose pit
+or stone you planted. There may be
+other kinds of fruit trees all about,
+and also trees which do not bear fruit.
+All of the trees secure the food upon
+which they live and grow from the
+same soil. Even the grass under your
+peach tree eats the same things as your
+peach tree, but it remains always true
+that things in the vegetable kingdom
+will grow only to be like the thing from
+which it came.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Have Plants Fathers and Mothers?</h2>
+
+<p>The little trees grow up to be
+exactly like their fathers and mothers
+(for they have fathers and mothers),
+which is something all living things
+must have. These are not the same
+kind of fathers, or mothers either, that
+a boy or girl has, exactly, but they are
+parents just the same. So far as the
+trees, flowers and plants are concerned
+we call the parents father and mother
+natures, which is a term used merely
+to keep you from confusing vegetable
+life fathers and mothers with the regular
+kind.</p>
+
+<p>In the vegetable kingdom you cannot
+always see these father and mother
+natures, which enable them to reproduce
+their kind of life, but everything
+in the vegetable and also in the animal
+kingdom has them.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">How Do Plants Reproduce Life?</h2>
+
+<p>In the spring we put seeds into the
+ground and later on plants grow up
+where the seeds were planted, and
+later the flowers come. The seeds
+contain the baby plants, which come
+to life, and after bursting the covering
+of the seed, unfold and grow up into
+plants if placed in the ground, where
+they can obtain the proper amount of
+warmth and moisture to give them a
+start.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Do Plants Have Seeds?</h2>
+
+<p>To get at this subject in the best
+manner we must study first how plants
+produce seeds and what happens. The
+power in a plant to make another plant
+like it grow comes from the flower.
+Ordinarily we think of the flowers as
+beautiful to look at and delightful to
+smell, but the flowers do not grow for
+the mere purpose of being beautiful,
+but are for a more useful purpose—to
+develop a seed which, when
+planted, will produce another plant.
+The machinery for producing a perfect
+seed is in the flower or blossom.
+Every flower has a definite
+plan of construction. The leaves and
+colors vary, but the plan for a perfect
+flower is always there. The petals
+which are generally colored are called
+the <i>crown</i>. When you pluck off the
+petals you see a number of green leaves
+at the bottom where the petals were attached.
+These form what is called
+the <i>calyx</i>, and help to hold the petals
+in place. Inside the flower are little
+stems which grow to the petals. These
+are called <i>stamens</i>. Every one of these
+little stems is hollow, and if you split
+one open you will discover a <i>fine powder</i>.
+This powder is called <i>pollen</i>, and
+is the “father” nature of the plant. In
+the calyx, the part we had left after
+we plucked off the petals, is the
+“mother” nature of the plant. The main
+part of the mother nature is the stem
+of the flower called the <i>ovary</i>, and this
+is where the seeds grow. These seeds
+in the ovary, however, will not become
+perfect seeds unless some of the pollen
+from the “father” nature of the plant
+touches them and fertilizes them.</p>
+
+<p>At the proper age of the flower some
+of this pollen powder passes into the
+ovary and fertilizes the seeds and makes
+them good seeds. This is only one kind<span class="pagenum" id="Page176">[176]</span>
+of flower, however. In this kind the
+father and mother natures are in the
+same flower. In other kinds of plants
+the father and mother natures are
+found on different parts of the same
+plant.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Does an Ear of Corn Have Silk?</h2>
+
+<p>The corn plant is one of this kind.
+You know what it looks like—a tall
+plant, generally six or seven feet high.
+The ears of corn grow out of the side
+of the corn stalk. The ear is covered
+with husks and out of the end of the
+ear hangs a bunch of brown silk
+threads which we term corn silk. Up
+at the top of the plant you will see the
+tassel, but you may not have known
+that this is the flower of the corn plant.
+The tassel or flower in this case contains
+the “father nature” of the corn
+plant, and the ear of corn contains the
+“mother nature.” The husks on the
+outside of the ear of corn protect the
+grains of corn on the ear inside and
+keep them tender. The ear of corn is
+really the ovary of the corn plant, because
+that is where the seeds grow.
+You will guess, of course, that the
+grains of corn on the ear are but seeds
+of the plant. Were you to examine
+one of these ears of corn on the plant
+when it had just started to form you
+would find no kernels on the cob, but
+only little marks which indicated where
+the grains of corn are expected to grow,
+but if you want to know, then, how
+many grains of corn were expected
+to grow on the ear, you could easily tell
+by counting the little silk threads
+which you see on the cob and which
+stick out over the end. There will be
+a thread of silk for each grain of corn
+that is expected to grow.</p>
+
+<p>Every grain of corn must receive
+some of the pollen powder from the
+tassel or father nature at the top of the
+corn plant or it will not develop into a
+nice large, juicy kernel.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">How Does the Pollen Touch the Grain of
+Corn?</h2>
+
+<p>Before the kernels of corn grow the
+tassel is in bloom. The wind blows
+and shakes the pollen powder off of
+the tassel and the powder falls on the
+ends of the silk which stick out of the
+little ear of corn to be. Each thread
+of silk then carries a little of the powder
+down to the spot on the ear where
+it is attached and thus the grain of
+corn receives the fertilizing necessary
+to develop it into a ripe seed. If you
+leave the ear of corn alone the kernel
+will eventually become yellow and hard
+and can then be planted and will produce
+other corn plants. Man, however,
+finds the ear of corn a delightful
+food, if taken at a time when the seeds
+are fully grown but not yet ripened into
+perfect seeds. At this stage the grains
+of corn would not grow up again if
+planted, because they have not yet become
+perfect seeds.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Do Father and Mother Plants Always
+Live Together?</h2>
+
+<p>We come now to the kinds of plants
+on which the “father” and “mother”
+natures are on different plants of the
+same kind. At times they will grow
+side by side, at other times they will be
+in the same field, but very often they
+grow at quite a distance from each
+other. In some instances the nearest
+father tree will be even miles away
+from the mother tree of the same
+kind. But in any event the pollen
+from the father nature must reach
+the mother nature of the plant
+or tree before a perfect seed can
+be produced. In cases of this kind
+the father nature will be on one
+tree or plant and the ovary or mother
+nature on another. The wind helps out
+nature in some of these cases by blowing
+the pollen of the father plant to
+the ovary of the mother plant. In
+many other instances the bees and insects
+help.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Do Flowers Have Smells?</h2>
+
+<p>Where the bees do this it is because
+the bee has been visiting the flowers
+in his search for honey. They do not
+fly from flower to flower for the purpose
+of uniting the mother and father
+natures of plants, but they help the
+flowers incidentally while getting the
+honey for which they are searching.<span class="pagenum" id="Page177">[177]</span>
+In gathering his honey the busy bee will
+go all over the father flower and get
+his legs all covered with pollen powder.
+Sooner or later he comes to a
+mother flower of the same kind of plant
+or tree from which he has father pollen
+on his legs, and, still bent on gathering
+honey, he incidentally rubs the
+pollen powder on to the ovary of the
+mother flower and the fertilization
+takes place. The wonderful thing about
+this is that the father pollen of one
+kind of a plant will not fertilize the
+mother nature of another kind of plant.
+To illustrate this, if a bee carrying
+pollen on his legs from a walnut blossom
+visits the mother blossom of a
+hickory tree the pollen of the walnut
+would not affect the hickory blossom,
+but would still have the proper effect
+on the first walnut mother blossom he
+visited.</p>
+
+<p>This is how life in general is reproduced
+among the plants and trees.
+Life in the vegetable kingdom has no
+sense of feeling or any of the other
+senses, but this kind of life is still true
+to its own nature and is a wise thing
+in the plan of creation, because, since
+all seed will produce only plants like
+those from which the seed came, man
+can control the growth of the vegetables
+and fruits he needs as food.
+He knows when he plants corn that he
+will get corn in return, because perfect
+seed never makes a mistake. It would
+mix things up terribly for man if this
+were not so, because man might then
+plant one thing and find another thing
+growing. It would be a sad thing to
+plant wheat and find thistles growing.</p>
+
+<p>In order that seeds may grow they
+must be planted under conditions that
+suit the kind of vegetable life in the
+seed. Man has to study and learn
+what these conditions are.</p>
+
+<p>If a seed is planted too deeply the
+sun may not have a chance to warm
+the ground to that depth, and if it is
+planted too near the surface it may
+become too warm and be killed by the
+sun. When planted under the proper
+conditions the seed soon begins to grow.
+It grows upward toward the sun to
+get light and air, and it sends roots
+down into the ground to get food and
+moisture.</p>
+
+<p>The life in the vegetable kingdom
+is soon able to take care of itself.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">How Are Fishes Born?</h2>
+
+<p>The next step in the study of the
+reproduction of life brings us to the
+animal kingdom. The first thing we
+discover in this section is that in the
+animal kingdom father and mother natures
+are almost always separated. In
+plants and trees these parent natures
+are sometimes in the same flower, often
+separated, but on the same plant, and in
+other instances on different plants
+miles apart. What we must remember,
+then, is that in the case of plants it is
+given more or less to the chance of
+wind or other circumstances to bring
+the parent natures together.</p>
+
+<p>In the animal kingdom there are a
+few cases where the mother and father
+natures are found in the same living
+object, as in the oyster and clam families,
+one of the lowest forms of animal
+life. These have but one of the five
+senses—that of feeling. This class of
+animals—the cold-blooded animals—includes
+the fishes, and in most members
+of this class the father and mother natures
+are separated and in different
+bodies. Step by step from now on we
+enter higher forms of animal life, and
+through each step we find a greater
+difference between the father and
+mother natures, and in the animal kingdom
+we speak of the father and mother
+natures as “<i>male</i> and <i>female</i>.” In the
+animal kingdom, too, what we have
+previously called the seed is known as
+the <i>egg</i>. Seeds and eggs are the same
+so far as their usefulness is concerned,
+but we say eggs in the animal kingdom
+to distinguish from seeds in the vegetable
+kingdom.</p>
+
+<p>Fish have eggs, then, and it is from
+the eggs that little fish are born into the
+world and grow to be of eatable size.
+You recognize the eggs of the fish in
+the “roe,” which is eaten as food. Not
+all fish eggs are used as food, however.</p>
+
+<p>In the fish world the eggs are developed
+in the body of the female fish.<span class="pagenum" id="Page178">[178]</span>
+Each little round speck in a “shad roe”
+is one egg, and there are many thousands
+in a single “roe.” Each egg will
+produce a little fish, under favorable
+conditions. These eggs develop in the
+body of the female fish in winter. In
+the spring, which is the time in which
+most living things are born, and, therefore,
+the time for hatching out fish
+eggs, all of the fish swim from the deep
+water where they live in winter to the
+places where the water is shallow and
+warm, and in these shallow waters the
+female fish expels the eggs from her
+body where the sun can get at them
+and hatch them by warming them.
+After the female fish has thus laid the
+eggs, the male fish swims over the eggs
+as they lay in the water, and expels
+from his body over them a fluid which
+is white in appearance and which fertilizes
+the fish eggs. If any of this
+fluid fails to reach some of the eggs
+it is not possible for the sun to bring
+them to life.</p>
+
+<p>When the eggs are laid and fertilized
+the mother and father fishes swim away
+and they never see their children or
+recognize them as such, even if they
+meet them later in life. The parent
+fish do not act like other fathers and
+mothers, and they do not need to, because
+as soon as a baby fish is born he
+is able to find his own food and needs
+no help from father or mother to teach
+him how to find it or enable him to
+grow into a real fish.</p>
+
+<p>Of course, many of the tiny fish are
+eaten by other fish and not all the eggs
+which the mother fishes lay hatch into
+live fish, because, if they did, the
+waters would be so crowded with fish
+that there would not be any room for
+the water. A single female fish will
+lay millions of eggs in a year, and if
+each egg developed into a fish there
+would be far too many.</p>
+
+<p>This order of animals, which includes
+turtles, frogs, etc., is the cold-blooded
+class of animal life. They have only
+part of the five senses. They all can
+feel and some of the fishes can see and
+hear, but a great many of them, particularly
+those kinds which live on the
+bottom of the ocean, cannot either see
+or hear, and some members of the fish
+family cannot even swim.</p>
+
+<p>The thing to remember about fishes
+in connection with the reproduction of
+life is that the mother fish must select
+a place which is favorable to deposit
+the eggs, but after that her responsibility
+ceases. The father merely fertilizes
+the eggs, and then his responsibility
+ceases. The little fish look out
+for themselves as soon as they are born
+and never know what it is to have a
+father or mother to look after them.</p>
+
+<p>When we study the next higher form
+of animal life we find that the young
+ones have to be looked after, and that
+this becomes more necessary as we
+ascend the scale of animal life until we
+reach man, the most intelligent of all
+animals and yet the most helpless of
+all at birth.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">How Birds Are Taught to Fly.</h2>
+
+<p>The next step brings us to the birds.
+Before they can look after themselves
+the little birds must learn how to search
+for food and the kinds of food good
+for them. They have to learn the
+habits of their kind of life. The higher
+you go in the study of animal life the
+greater seem to be the dangers which
+surround the young animals and the
+longer it takes to teach them how to
+look after themselves and what to do
+for themselves.</p>
+
+<p>The bird family includes not only the
+robins, larks, sparrows and pigeons, but
+also the ducks, geese, and chickens, etc.
+We are all more or less familiar with
+birds’ eggs, and if not we know what a
+hen’s egg looks like. The eggs of the
+bird family are laid in nests, which is
+the first sign of home building in the
+animal kingdom.</p>
+
+<p>The birds are the first of the large
+class of warm-blooded animals. The
+egg here represents again the reproductive
+power. The eggs, too, form in
+the body of the female bird, but are
+laid in a nest which the parent birds
+build together. Now this is the first
+step away from the fish family. The
+fish looks for a suitable place to lay the
+eggs and then goes off and leaves them.<span class="pagenum" id="Page179">[179]</span>
+The birds, however, have to make a
+nest in which to deposit the eggs. The
+fish, as you remember, depended upon
+the warm sun shining on the shallow
+water to hatch out the eggs, thus depending
+on an outside force to supply
+the necessary warmth. In the bird
+family the mother bird must cover the
+eggs with her own body and keep them
+warm until they hatch out. Then, too,
+the father and mother birds feed the
+young until they are strong enough to
+fly and find food for themselves, and
+so the mother and father birds look
+after their babies until they are old
+enough to look after themselves. When
+this time arrives the old birds cease to
+bother about the young ones altogether.
+The fishes never act like parents after
+the baby fishes are born, because the
+little fish are able to look after themselves
+right away. The parent birds
+are a good deal like fathers and mothers
+for a time, but only so long as it takes
+them to teach their little bird children
+to look out for themselves. Then they
+forget the children completely.</p>
+
+<p>It requires but a few days and no parental
+care to hatch out a family of
+baby fishes and no attention at all after
+birth. It requires several weeks and
+much patience for the parent birds to
+hatch out their eggs, and it involves
+care and attention for several weeks to
+teach baby birds to take care of themselves.</p>
+
+<p>This being a father or mother in the
+animal kingdom becomes a greater responsibility
+in every step as we get
+closer to man, and when we reach man
+we find him to be the most helpless
+offspring of all at birth, and that it
+takes more time, care and attention to
+bring up a human child to maturity
+than any other animal.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Makes the Hollow Place at One
+End of a Boiled Egg?</h2>
+
+<p>This hollow place on the end of the
+boiled egg (sometimes it shows on the
+side) is the air which is put inside of
+the egg when it is formed so that the
+little chicken will have air to breathe
+from the time it comes to life within
+the egg until it becomes strong enough
+to break the shell and go out into the
+world. There is also food in the egg
+for him. When you boil the egg this
+pocket of air within the shell, which
+would have been used up by the chick
+if the egg had been set to hatch instead
+of being cooked for breakfast, begins
+to fight for its space and pushes the
+boiling egg back and forms the hollow
+place.</p>
+
+<p>The purpose of the air in the egg
+is a good thing to remember when we
+come to study the higher forms of animal
+life from the standpoint of how
+they reproduce themselves.</p>
+
+<p>The mammals are the next higher
+form of animals. The babies of this
+class of animals must be fed for several
+weeks or months before they are
+ready to come into the world.</p>
+
+<p>A little chicken is ready to come out
+of the egg almost as soon as it comes
+to life, and, therefore, needs only a
+little air and food before it is strong
+enough to peck its way out, but the
+babies of mammals begin to live months
+before they are ready to come into the
+world, and they need a great deal of
+air and food during this time. This
+class includes the dogs, horses, cows,
+cats and all other animals in the Zoo
+and in the woods. The name mammals
+means the same as “mamma,” and indicates
+an animal which must be fed
+from the body of a female mammal
+even after it is born.</p>
+
+<p>In this class the eggs are retained
+within the body of the female animal
+instead of being laid in a nest or some
+other place, as in animals of lower
+classes, after being fertilized by the
+male animal, so that the baby animal
+may secure its food and air from within
+the mother’s body after the life within
+the egg is begun.</p>
+
+<p>The mother’s body supplies the necessary
+warmth to develop the life of the
+little animal in the egg, just as the
+birds supplied this with their bodies.
+In the bird class it only takes a few
+hours to give the little bird sufficient
+strength to peek his way out, but in
+the mammal class it is a long time before
+the baby animal is strong enough<span class="pagenum" id="Page180">[180]</span>
+to come out into the world, and even
+after it is born the babies of mammals
+require a great deal of care and attention
+before they are able to look out
+for themselves. During this period the
+animal secures all of its food from the
+breast of the mother animal.</p>
+
+<p>Another reason why the eggs of
+mammals are retained within the bodies
+of the females is the need for protecting
+the young animals from enemies.
+In the animal kingdom each kind of
+animal preys upon another kind. They
+attack and devour each other and are
+constantly in danger. If, then, mammals
+laid eggs in nests and sat upon
+them to hatch them out, the mother
+animals sitting on the nests would be
+continually in danger of attack from
+their enemies. They would either have
+to flee and subject the nest and its contents
+to the danger of destruction or
+else stay and fight, and perhaps be destroyed.
+But by carrying her egg within
+her body the mother mammal is able
+to move about from place to place and
+protect her baby.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Is Man an Animal?</h2>
+
+<p>Men, women and children belong to
+the “mammal” class of animals. The offspring
+of the human family is the most
+helpless of all animals at birth. The
+young of most kinds of mammals can
+stand on their legs shortly after being
+born, but the human baby requires
+months before it can stand up. A
+baby horse can also walk within a few
+hours, but human children do not begin
+to walk until they are more than a
+year old.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Cannot Babies Walk as Soon as
+Born?</h2>
+
+<p>The human baby has a great many
+more things to learn than a horse baby
+before it is safe for him to go about
+alone. It takes time for the brain to
+develop, and if a baby could walk before
+the brain had even partially developed
+it would only get into trouble.</p>
+
+<p>This, then, is what we have learned
+about the reproduction of life and the
+reasons for its being different in different
+classes of life. First, we had
+the division of organic life into the
+vegetable and animal kingdoms. Life
+in the vegetable kingdom has none of
+the five senses, for plants cannot see,
+hear, feel, smell or taste. They cannot
+move from place to place, but remain
+where they grow until destroyed or removed.
+On the other hand, all animal
+life has at least one of the five senses—feeling.
+The oysters and clams belong
+to this class. Starting with this level
+of life in the animal kingdom we find
+that as we go on up through the different
+classes we find each class able to
+do things which make it superior to the
+class below it, until we reach the
+human mammal, who can do most of
+all. And, further, that since each
+class as we go up in the scale
+of life has greater ability to do
+things than the class beneath it, so
+in each case the task of the parents
+in preparing their offspring for their
+kind of life becomes greater, and the
+period during which the offspring is
+learning becomes longer and longer
+until we reach the human family, in
+which we find that parents have the
+greatest responsibility, and the children
+are the most helpless of all animals,
+but that in the final result man has a
+right, on account of his superior qualities,
+to be the ruler of the other creatures
+of the world.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Are Ball Bearings?</h2>
+
+<p>Some years ago a gentleman in trying
+to find some way to reduce the
+friction, which is constantly developed
+to a certain extent, even when the
+axle is oiled, discovered that if between
+the axle and the inside of the
+hub a circle of steel balls were arranged,
+so that the hub of the wheel
+did not touch the axle at all, but rested
+on the little balls which in their turn
+touched the axle, that a great deal of
+the friction was eliminated. This
+proved to be a wonderful invention,
+and when this combination is arranged
+and oiled, there is hardly any friction.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page181">[181]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak">Why a Gasoline Engine Goes</h2>
+
+<div class="container w40emmax" id="Fig181">
+
+<img src="images/illo181.jpg" alt="Simplified section of gasoline engine">
+
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 1.</span></p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+</div><!--chapter-->
+
+<p>As you know, gasoline is a very inflammable
+fluid, and will explode if placed too close to
+fire.</p>
+
+<p>This explosive quality is the basic principle
+of the gasoline engine. By admitting a small
+quantity of gasoline vapor into an enclosed
+cylinder, and exploding it by means of an
+electric spark, repeating this operation continuously,
+the engine is given a regular rotary
+motion.</p>
+
+<p>Look at <a href="#Fig181">Fig. 1</a>. Starting from the gasoline
+tank, the fluid is fed into the ‘carburetor’,
+which is a sort of atomizer. Here the gasoline
+is mixed with air, and broken up into a
+very fine spray, in which condition it will
+explode readily.</p>
+
+<p>The engine will not start of itself. Its
+fly-wheel must first be turned by hand, or by some other outside
+force, until the first explosion takes place. After this its action
+is automatic.</p>
+
+<p>As shown in <a href="#Fig181">Fig. 1</a>, the fly-wheel is being turned, and is drawing
+the piston down the cylinder, which in turn sucks gasoline vapor,
+(shown by little arrows) through the ‘intake valve’. This ‘intake
+valve’, and the ‘exhaust valve’ on the opposite side of the cylinder,
+are opened and closed at the proper time through the action of the
+gears shown in the illustration.</p>
+
+<p>Passing to <a href="#Fig182a">Fig. 2</a>, the fly-wheel in turning has drawn the piston
+to its lowest point, and is now shown forcing it up the cylinder.
+This compresses the gasoline vapor in the cylinder to a density at
+which its explosion produces the greatest amount of power. The
+intake and exhaust valves are both closed.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>WHAT CAUSES THE EXPLOSION<br>
+IN A GAS ENGINE</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p><a href="#Fig182b">Fig. 3</a> shows the explosion. The cylinder has been filled with compressed
+gas, and the piston has
+again started on its downward
+travel. The spark plug, set in
+the top of the cylinder, makes
+a spark every time an electrical
+current passes through it. A
+switch on the engine permits the current to pass to the spark plug
+only when the engine is at this position in its action. (<a href="#Fig182b">Fig. 3</a>.) The
+consequent explosion drives the piston downward with great force,
+turning the fly-wheel, which by its weight continues the rotary motion
+after the downward impulse of the piston has been expended.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig182c">Fig. 4</a> shows the fly-wheel, still turning, forcing the piston up and
+thus expelling the burned gases from the cylinder through the exhaust
+valve, held open for this purpose. From this position the engine<span class="pagenum" id="Page182">[182]</span>
+goes again to that of <a href="#Fig181">Fig. 1</a>, and through
+<a href="#Fig182a">2</a>, <a href="#Fig182b">3</a>, and <a href="#Fig182c">4</a>, continuously, exploding every
+second revolution, and giving a regular rotary
+motion to the fly-wheel.</p>
+
+<div class="container w60emmax">
+
+<div class="split3367">
+
+<div class="left3367">
+
+<img src="images/illo182a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig182a">
+
+</div><!--left3367-->
+
+<div class="right3367">
+
+<div class="split5050">
+
+<div class="left5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo182b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig182b">
+
+</div><!--left5050-->
+
+<div class="right5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo182c.jpg" alt="" id="Fig182c">
+
+</div><!--right5050-->
+
+</div><!--split5050-->
+
+</div><!--right3367-->
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--split3367-->
+
+<div class="split3367">
+
+<div class="left3367">
+
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 2.</span></p>
+
+</div><!--left3367-->
+
+<div class="right3367">
+
+<div class="split5050">
+
+<div class="left5050">
+
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 3.</span></p>
+
+</div><!--left5050-->
+
+<div class="right5050">
+
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 4.</span></p>
+
+</div><!--right5050-->
+
+</div><!--split5050-->
+
+</div><!--right3367-->
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--split3367-->
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>The illustrations show a one-cylinder motor,
+but these engines can be built with two or
+more cylinders, arranged to explode at different
+times, thus giving very smooth action
+to the fly-wheel and main shaft.</p>
+
+<p>Aeroplanes, almost all automobiles, various
+pumps and other machinery are driven by
+gasoline engines. The rotary motion can
+readily be transmitted by chains or gears to
+the propellor of an aeroplane or motor boat,
+or the wheels of an automobile. It is
+only in the past few years that the gasoline
+engine has reached its present high state of
+perfection.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page183">[183]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">THE BEGINNING OF AN AUTOMOBILE</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo183a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig183a">
+
+<p class="caption">CRANKCASE SHOWING BEARINGS.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">The heart of the automobile
+is the engine. It is
+built around the crankcase,
+which is its foundation or
+base.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo183b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig183b" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption">CRANKCASE WITH CRANKSHAFT
+AND FLY-WHEEL
+ADDED.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">The crankshaft serves the
+same purpose in an automobile
+as the pedals do on
+a bicycle.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">The fly-wheel on the end
+helps it to keep turning at
+an even speed.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo183c.jpg" alt="" id="Fig183c" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption long">Gasoline vapor is exploded in the cylinders. This pushes
+the piston down, and as the piston is connected to the
+crankshaft it starts the crankshaft turning.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">The piston and the rod that connect it to the crankshaft
+are just like the feet and limbs of any one riding a bicycle.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">Cylinders showing piston in place and connected to crankshaft.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo183d.jpg" alt="" id="Fig183d" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption long">The gears or “cog-wheels”
+are for running the
+fan, the pump and other
+parts.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page184">[184]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">THE HEART OF THE AUTOMOBILE</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo184a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig184a">
+
+<p class="caption long">Cylinder added to crankcase.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">The cylinders are next
+bolted down to the crankcase,
+the pistons and crankshaft
+having been connected,
+as shown in <a href="#Fig183c">Fig. 3</a>.
+A cover is placed over the
+gears to keep them clean.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo184b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig184b" class="blankbefore w15emmax">
+
+<p class="caption long">An oil pan or reservoir
+is attached to the bottom of
+the crankcase to hold oil
+for the engine.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo184c.jpg" alt="" id="Fig184c" class="blankbefore w15emmax">
+
+<p class="caption long">The carburetor furnishes
+the gasoline vapor for the
+cylinders. It is connected
+to the engine by a crooked
+pipe called the intake manifold.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">After the gasoline has
+been exploded a valve opens
+and allows the burned gases
+to escape through another
+pipe, called the exhaust
+manifold.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo184d.jpg" alt="" id="Fig184d" class="blankbefore w15emmax">
+
+<p class="caption long">Oil is poured in the spout
+which is at the left of the
+carburetor. It runs down
+into the reservoir and is
+pumped up through the
+engine a little at a time.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">Oil pump and filler added to motor.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page185">[185]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">THE POWER PLANT OF AN AUTOMOBILE</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo185a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig185a">
+
+<p class="caption long">The electric generator
+makes electricity to be used
+for starting the engine and
+lighting the car.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo185b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig185b" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption long">The magneto gives an
+electric spark, which explodes
+the gasoline in the
+cylinders.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">The water pump keeps water flowing around the cylinders to prevent them from
+getting too hot. This water comes back to the pump through the radiator at the front
+of the car. Wind blows through the radiator and cools off the water. The tire pump
+on up-to-date cars is run by the engine. It does not pump except when the gears, which
+are shown in the picture, are pulled together.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo185c.jpg" alt="" id="Fig185c" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption long">An electric motor starts
+the engine by turning the
+fly-wheel. This makes it
+unnecessary to get out and
+crank the car by hand.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page186">[186]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">SECOND STAGE OF CONSTRUCTION</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo186a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig186a">
+
+<p class="caption">The transmission is added.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">The transmission makes it possible to reverse the car. It also enables the driver
+to go into high-speed gear when on level roads and low-speed gear for starting and for
+pulling hills.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo186b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig186b" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption">Double-drop pressed steel frame.</p>
+
+<p class="caption">The frame on which the car is built.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo186c.jpg" alt="" id="Fig186c" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption">Addition of semi-elliptic and three-fourths-elliptic springs to frame.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">Large springs are placed at the front and rear of the frame. They make the car
+ride smoothly.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo186d.jpg" alt="" id="Fig186d" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption">Adding the front axle.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page187">[187]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">READY FOR THE WHEELS</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo187a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig187a">
+
+<p class="caption">Showing addition of full-floating rear axle.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo187b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig187b" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption long">Completed engine and transmission is next fastened to the frame and connected to
+the rear axle by the drive shaft.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo187c.jpg" alt="" id="Fig187c" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption">Showing addition of gasoline tank and gas lead to carburetor.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo187d.jpg" alt="" id="Fig187d" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption">Showing how steering gear is connected.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page188">[188]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">WHAT THE COMPLETED CHASSIS LOOKS LIKE</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo188a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig188a">
+
+<p class="caption">Wheels are next added to chassis.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo188b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig188b" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption">Completed chassis with radiator added.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">The water which keeps the engine from getting too hot is pumped around the
+cylinders and then through the radiator. The wind blows through the little openings
+in the radiator, and cools off the water. Then the water is pumped around the cylinders
+again.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo188c.jpg" alt="" id="Fig188c" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption">The steps and fenders are next attached.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page189">[189]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">THE MARVELLOUS GROWTH OF TWENTY YEARS</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo189a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig189a" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption">The finished car.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo189b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig189b" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption">GASOLINE AUTOMOBILE.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">The first American-built
+automobile, now in Smithsonian
+Institute, Washington,
+D. C., where this photograph
+was taken. The rude
+carriage that was a curiosity
+twenty years ago and
+less—the vehicle that vied
+with the two-headed calf
+and the wild man of Borneo
+at the county fairs—was
+the beginning of the greatest
+transportation aid since
+the birth of civilization.
+Because of it our standards
+of living have become
+higher. It has broadened
+the horizon of all of us.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">Built by Elwood Haynes, in Kokomo, Indiana, 1893-1894.
+Equipped with one-horse-power engine. Successful trial trip
+made at speed of six or seven miles an hour, July 4, 1894.
+Gift of Elwood Haynes, 1910. 262,135.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo189c.jpg" alt="Cartoon: panicking people and animals in street when antique car passes by" id="Fig189c" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption">When an automobile passed you twenty years ago.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page190">[190]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">HOW AUTOMOBILES HAVE IMPROVED</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo190a.jpg" alt="Haynes engine" id="Fig190a">
+
+<p class="caption">LEFT SIDE VIEW</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo190b.jpg" alt="Haynes engine" id="Fig190b" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption">RIGHT SIDE VIEW</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">A new exhibit in the Smithsonian Institute, officially known as “Exhibit Number 56,860,” is attracting
+a great deal of attention from visitors to the National Museum. It consists of a complete Haynes
+six-cylinder unit power plant, and has been given a position at the side of the original Haynes “horseless
+carriage,” where the striking contrast shows the remarkable improvement that has been made in
+motor design and construction during the past twenty-two years.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">The most important features of the power plant are shown clearly and comprehensively by having
+sections cut away from the various parts, so that the visitors to the Institute are enabled to see the
+mechanical construction, and the relation of the component devices.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">On the right side of the engine, the intake and exhaust manifolds are shown in their natural
+position. A full vertical section of the Stromberg carburetor gives a good idea of how the gasoline
+is mixed with the air and supplied to the cylinders. The Leece-Neville generator has its casing cut
+away to give a view of the windings and cores. Numerous windows have been cut into the crankcase
+to disclose the crankshaft construction and the oil reservoir. The transmission gears are also shown
+in this manner.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">Most of the electrical equipment is shown clearly on the left side of the motor. Here an interesting
+feature is the full vertical section of the American Simms high-tension dual magneto. A half section
+has been removed from the rear cylinder, and the piston as well, to give a glimpse of the interior
+construction. A large portion of the Leece-Neville starting motor casing has been cut away. The
+cover-plate on the switch controlling the starting motor has been replaced with a glass cover to display
+the method of completing the circuit from the battery to the motor. A skeleton selector switch is
+mounted at the rear of the transmission case, instead of its usual position on the steering wheel. The
+electric gear-shifting mechanism is made visible by using a glass plate for the top cover-plate on the
+transmission.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page191">[191]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Does the Heart Beat When the
+Brain Is Asleep?</h2>
+
+<p>Under ordinary conditions the heart
+beats are controlled by certain nerve
+cells which are located within the heart
+itself, and these cause the heart to beat
+even while the brain is asleep. This
+explains why the heart beats when the
+brain is asleep, and the fact that the
+brain when asleep does not exercise its
+functions, shows how necessary this
+arrangement and the control of ordinary
+heart beats is. If this were not
+so, we should not be able to live while
+asleep. It is just like the management
+of a great business in this sense. The
+general manager of a great business has
+control of the entire works, but there
+are occasions when he must be thinking
+of only one thing in connection with the
+business, and so he must have his organization
+so complete, that the parts
+which he cannot be thinking about at
+the time will do their work just the
+same. So he surrounds himself with
+competent assistants, who look after
+certain departments while he is busy
+or away or asleep, and if anything goes
+wrong while he is away, he calls on special
+forces to set things right. Now,
+the brain is the general manager of the
+whole body and has these nerve cells
+in the heart as a sort of assistant manager
+to look after the heart beats in
+ordinary conditions, and to keep the
+heart going while he is asleep. But, by
+reason of his office as general manager,
+the brain has a special way of sending
+orders to the heart through special
+nerves which run from the brain down
+each side of the neck to the heart. There
+are two pairs of these special nerves.
+One pair, if set in motion, will make
+the heart beat faster, and the other pair
+will make the heart beat more slowly.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Do Our Hearts Beat Faster When
+We Are Running?</h2>
+
+<p>When you start running, the brain
+knows at once that your legs and other
+parts of the body will need more blood
+to keep them going, and so the brain
+sends down orders through his special
+nerves which make the heart beat
+faster, to get busy, and they do. Then
+when you stop running, your heart is
+beating faster than necessary—there is
+really an oversupply of blood being
+pumped through your system for the
+time being, and that makes you uncomfortable,
+until the brain sends word
+through the other set of nerves to the
+heart to slow down the heart beat. It
+is better to stop running gradually, to
+give the heart a chance to get back to
+its normal beat gradually also.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Do I Get Out of Breath When
+Running?</h2>
+
+<p>This is also caused by your brain in
+its efforts to keep up your supply of
+good blood. We breathe to take air
+into the lungs, where the blood which
+has once been through the arteries and
+comes back on its return trip to the
+heart, is exposed to the air in the lungs,
+before going back into the heart. The
+air which we take into our lungs purifies
+the once used blood and makes it
+into good blood again. When you run
+the heart pumps blood into your arteries
+faster to enable you to run. Thus
+also, the arteries send much more blood
+back to the heart through the veins, and
+this must be purified by the lungs before
+going back into the heart. To attend
+to purifying this extra amount of
+spoiled blood the lungs need more air,
+and thus you are made to breathe in
+more air for the purpose. Unless you
+are in good training—your wind in
+good condition as we say—it is almost
+impossible for you to supply the lungs
+with enough air for the purpose, but
+whether you can do it or not, the lungs
+call upon you for more air, and cause
+you to try to get it, and that is what
+makes you get out of breath.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Does My Heart Beat Faster When
+I Am Scared?</h2>
+
+<p>The natural tendency of a scared
+creature is to run or fly. The effect of
+being scared has the same effect on the
+brain that your starting to run has. The
+brain is always as quick as you are, and
+knowing that when you are scared your
+actual or natural inclination is to run,
+it is merely getting you in shape so that
+you can move or run fast.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page192">[192]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Does Cold Make Our Hands Blue?</h2>
+
+<p>Your hands appear blue when cold
+because the veins which are near the
+surface are filled with impure blood
+which is purplish in color. Your hands
+become cold because there is not sufficient
+circulation of warm red blood going
+on to keep them warm. The blood
+in circulating through your body sends
+warm red blood through the arteries,
+and this is returned to the heart
+through the lungs by way of the veins.
+The veins carry only used-up blood or
+what is left of the good red blood when
+the arteries are through with it. Its
+color is a purplish blue.</p>
+
+<p>When your hands are blue it means
+that circulation of good red blood has
+practically stopped—the red blood is not
+flowing from the heart through the arteries
+in sufficient quantity and there
+is no color in the arteries, as the blood
+from the arteries has practically all
+gone into the veins. The veins are full
+to purplish blue blood, and this makes
+the hands look blue, because there are
+a great many veins in the hands close
+to the surface.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Do I Get Red in the Face?</h2>
+
+<p>Now, when you rub your cold blue
+hands together, you start the circulation
+going again, and that brings the red
+blood into the arteries, giving you the
+healthy red color again. When you run
+hard to get red in the face because
+you are causing an unusual amount of
+red blood to flow through your whole
+body by your violent exercise. Some
+people with an extraordinary amount of
+circulation are red in the face all the
+time. This is because of the presence
+of a great deal of blood in the arteries,
+or because the walls of their arteries
+are so much thinner than others that
+the red blood shows through more
+easily.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Is Yawning Infectious?</h2>
+
+<p>Yawning is infectious to the extent
+that other habits are. The desire to
+yawn which comes to us when we see
+some one else does so comes under the
+heading of suggestion. The power of
+suggestion is greater than many of us
+realize. We are great imitators of each
+other. When one of us is downhearted,
+we are apt to become happy
+and glad simply by being with other
+people who are happy and glad. If
+enough people one at a time tell a perfectly
+well man that he looks sick, he
+will actually feel ill, provided he does
+not suspect a game is being played on
+him. So a good actor carries his audience
+with him. He can make them
+laugh or cry almost at will, and if he
+yawns, his audience will begin yawning.</p>
+
+<p>Often, however, there is no acting
+connected with the yawning of the first
+person. Then the yawn is caused because
+the person is not sending enough
+good air into the lungs for purifying
+the blood, and the yawn is only nature’s
+way of making us take an exceptionally
+deep breath of air in at one time.
+This lack of sufficient good air in the
+lungs may not be due to the poor
+breathing, but to the amount of bad air
+in the room. In such cases it is quite
+likely that other people in the room
+yawn when one of them starts it because
+they all begin to feel the need of
+more good air at about the same time.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Makes Me Want to Stretch?</h2>
+
+<p>The necessity or desire to stretch
+comes to us because certain parts of the
+body are not receiving the proper
+amount of blood circulation and it is
+these parts that we stretch at such
+times. If you have ever been to a ball
+game, you know, of course, that it has
+become customary for the crowd, no
+matter how large, to stretch its legs
+and arms during the last half of the
+seventh inning. In fact, that has come
+to be a fixture at ball games and is universally
+known as the “stretch inning.”
+Now, it is not so much the result of a
+desire to encourage the home team as
+the natural following out of nature’s
+laws that originally started this practice.
+The end of the seventh inning at
+a ball game generally means that the
+crowd has been sitting quite still for
+the greater part of an hour and a half,<span class="pagenum" id="Page193">[193]</span>
+just long enough for the circulation to
+become poor in parts of the body, and
+the custom of stretching at a ball game
+thus comes from the necessity of getting
+a little more speed into the action
+of the heart to increase the blood
+supply.</p>
+
+<p>In other words, the stretching constitutes
+a mild form of exercise. You
+will notice the ball players themselves
+do not stretch themselves in the last
+half of the seventh inning. They are
+getting enough exercise without that.</p>
+
+<p>It is natural, however, for us to
+stretch as we wake up from sleep after
+having lain quietly in one position for
+one or more hours. It is nature’s way
+of causing the heart to work faster.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Happens When I Stretch?</h2>
+
+<p>What happens is simply this. When
+you stretch your arms and legs, you
+squeeze the arteries and veins which
+are a part of your arms and legs, much
+as happens when you pull on a piece of
+rubber tubing. The tubing becomes flat
+instead of perfectly round, and it is not
+so easy to send water through a flat
+tube as through a round one. Just so
+with the heart. It is the heart’s business
+to send blood through the arteries
+at all times, and when you make them
+flat the heart’s job becomes just a little
+harder, and it goes to work beating
+just a little faster to overcome this extra
+difficulty. By that time you are through
+stretching and the heart is busy pumping
+blood a little faster than ordinarily,
+and that is what makes you feel so
+good after you have stretched.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Can We Think of Only One Thing
+at a Time?</h2>
+
+<p>If you are asking the question intelligently,
+you must know that to think
+means to concentrate, and in that sense
+we can only think of one thing at a
+time, because it takes all of that part of
+the brain which is used for thinking for
+just one thing. To give close attention
+to any one subject means to turn
+the entire brain force practically in one
+direction. To let other things pass
+through the mind at the same time may
+appear not to interfere with the one
+thought, but they do, and our conclusions
+suffer accordingly.</p>
+
+<p>You can be doing something with
+one part of your body, while engaged in
+thinking of one thing, but only such
+things as are more or less mechanical
+as the result of habit, such as walking,
+or moving the arms—things which the
+parts have done so often that actual
+attention by the brain is not absolutely
+essential. Take for instance, the fact
+that a man in deep thought on one subject
+will sometimes walk up and down
+the room or along the sidewalk. He
+can do this walking and still think concentratedly,
+but if he stubs his toe on
+the leg of a chair or on a rough place in
+the walk, his thought is broken, because
+the brain immediately takes itself out
+of the thought and pays its attention to
+the toe that was stubbed.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Do I Turn White When Scared?</h2>
+
+<p>Simply because, when you are scared
+or frightened, the blood almost leaves
+your face entirely. Under normal conditions,
+the red blood which is flowing
+through the arteries of your face, gives
+the face a reddish tinge, and your face
+becomes white when you are frightened,
+because then the blood leaves the face.
+It is quite singular, but when you are
+really frightened, whatever the cause
+may be, the human system receives such
+a shock that the heart just about stops
+beating all together. When your heart
+stops beating of course the flow of the
+blood from the heart stops and then
+there is no supply of fresh red blood
+coming through the arteries under the
+skin of your face. Therefore you look
+white—the color your face would be if
+no blood ever flowed through your arteries
+and veins. Some people have
+faces so white they look as though they
+were scared all the time. This is not
+because they have no blood flowing
+through the veins and arteries in their
+faces, but because their supply of blood
+is less than other peoples, and sometimes
+because the walls of their arteries
+and veins are much thicker than
+the average that the color of the blood<span class="pagenum" id="Page194">[194]</span>
+does not show through. There are also
+many people who have so much blood
+in their systems all the time, and the
+walls of whose arteries are so thin, that
+they look at all times as though they
+might be blushing.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Makes Me Blush?</h2>
+
+<p>Anything that will make your heart
+send an extra supply of blood into the
+arteries and veins which supply your
+face with blood, will make you blush.
+Embarrassment will do this. So will
+anger generally, although sometimes
+people get so angry that the blood is
+driven out of their faces. In this case
+they are so angry that their heart has
+stopped beating, practically.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Occurs When We Think?</h2>
+
+<p>When we think the mind is acting on
+sensations; it is receiving, in conjunction
+with memories of sensations it has
+previously received. Sensations as they
+reach the mind arouse the mind to activity
+and, as soon as the sensation is
+received, the mind begins to compare
+the new sensation with sensations received
+at previous times, and by putting
+things together reaches a conclusion.</p>
+
+<p>When you are thinking you are really
+trying to call upon memory to help you.
+You know the thought of one thing
+calls up another, and this leads to something
+else. This association of ideas is
+the faculty which enables us to think
+consecutively and accurately. It is the
+business of the mind to receive the
+sensations that enter it and arrange
+them in their proper places. That memory
+of past sensations is the important
+part of thinking, is proven by the fact
+that when we have forgotten a thing
+we are unable to think what it was.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Can Animals Think?</h2>
+
+<p>For this reason if animals have memory
+they should be able to think. It is
+now believed that many animals have
+to a certain extent the power to remember.</p>
+
+<p>A dog will recognize his master even
+though he has not seen him for years.
+We might think he does this by his
+highly developed power of smell, but if
+his master has come from a direction
+opposite to that from which the dog
+first sees him, he could not have tracked
+him by his smell. A dog will recognize
+his master from quite a distance, so he
+must have to a certain extent the ability
+to remember or the power of association
+of ideas, which amounts to the
+same thing. Again, a horse that once
+belonged to the fire department, even
+though now hitched to a milk wagon,
+will have the impulse to run to the fire
+when he hears the fire gong. And an
+old war horse will prick up his ears as
+he used to when he hears the bugle call.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Do I Sneeze?</h2>
+
+<p>You sneeze sometimes when you look
+up at the sun or at a bright light. There
+does not seem to be any real good explanation
+of why looking at a bright
+light should make you sneeze. It is due
+to the connection there is between the
+nerves of the eyes and the nose. You
+generally blink if you look at a bright
+light suddenly, and the blinking process
+stirs the nerves inside of the nose to
+make you sneeze.</p>
+
+<p>You know, of course, that the start of
+the sneeze is inside of your nose. The
+nose is, besides being the organ of
+smell, the channel through which we
+take air into the lungs, when we breathe
+properly. The nose is lined with membranes,
+back of which are a net of very
+small nerves which are extremely sensitive.
+The membranes are placed there
+to catch and hold the impure particles
+of matter which come into the nose
+when we take in a breath of air, and
+sneezing is only one effective way of
+cleaning out the nose. It is brought on
+only when some particularly difficult
+job of nose-cleaning has to be done.
+Pepper up the nose will make you
+sneeze quickly, because pepper produces
+a very great irritation inside the
+nose, and the nose goes to work at once
+to get rid of it in the quickest possible
+manner as soon as the pepper comes in.
+Other things have the same effect.
+Sometimes a cold in the head causes
+you to sneeze. The sneeze in that event
+is merely nature’s effort to clean out the
+nose when other efforts have failed.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page195">[195]</span></p>
+
+<p>There are many suggestions for stopping
+a sneeze before it takes place, after
+you feel it coming on, such as putting
+the finger on each side of the nose, and
+many others. But a half sneeze does
+not remove the cause of the sneeze, so
+it is much better to sneeze it out, and
+many people enjoy the after effects of
+sneezing so much that they take snuff
+into the nose to produce it.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Happens When I Swallow?</h2>
+
+<p>The muscles of your throat act in the
+form of a ring when food passes into
+your throat. The food does not drop
+directly into your stomach. In other
+words, the action is not quite the same
+as when you drop a stone out of the
+window. When you do the latter, the
+stone hits the sidewalk or whatever is
+below at the time, with a smash. It
+would hardly do to have our food drop
+into the stomach, so the muscles of the
+throat are arranged to contract in rings
+which push or squeeze the food downward,
+and the food is passed from one
+ring of muscles to the other. It is just
+like pushing a ball down into the foot
+of a stocking that is apparently too
+small for it to drop down. You put the
+ball in the top of the stocking and then
+by making a ring of your fingers around
+the stocking you can push the ball
+down. When you swallow, you start
+the muscles of your throat to making
+these rings. The upper ring squeezes
+the food on to the ring below it and so
+on down to the stomach.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Makes the Lump Come In My
+Throat When I Cry?</h2>
+
+<p>The “lump” which comes up into
+your throat when you cry is caused by
+a sort of paralysis of the rings of muscles
+in your throat. The muscles of
+your throat can make these rings or
+waves upward also, but it is more difficult
+upward than downward—probably
+because of lack of practice, as we
+say. When you have put something
+into your stomach that makes you sick
+and causes you to vomit, the throat
+muscles take the matter from your
+stomach and bring it back to the mouth
+in the same way, except, of course,
+that this action begins at the bottom.</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes when you cry, or lose control
+of yourself in some other way (you
+know, of course, that in crying you always
+lose control of yourself, don’t
+you) practically the same effect is produced
+as when you have something in
+your stomach that should come out.
+Crying, or the thing that happens sometimes
+when we cry, makes the throat
+muscles act just as if we were vomiting,
+and as the action is an unnatural
+one, when the ring or wave reaches the
+top of the throat, we feel the lump or
+ball as we call it. We feel the lump
+because the throat has been made to
+go through the motion of eliminating
+something in an unnatural way, just as
+your arm will hurt if you pretend to
+have a ball or a stone in it, and in
+throwing the imaginary ball or stone,
+you put the same force into your movements
+as you would if you had an actual
+ball or stone in your hand and
+were seeing how far you could throw
+it.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Do We Stop Growing?</h2>
+
+<p>We eventually stop growing because
+certain of the cells of the body lose
+their ability of increasing in size and
+producing other cells. It is one of the
+marvels of the construction of the human
+body that this is so and one of
+the wisest provisions also. At first the
+cells of the body crave lots of food and
+increase in size, divide and then the
+parts go on growing until they become
+of a certain size, when they again divide
+and each part goes on growing,
+etc., and thus we grow. A growing
+boy needs more fond than a mature
+man, because he needs some of it to
+grow with, while the man only has to
+keep what growth he has going, i. e.,
+alive.</p>
+
+<p>We say this limit of growth is a wise
+provision of nature because if there
+were no limit to the size we might become,
+we would not know how large to
+build houses, barns, etc., or else we
+would have to build them so large to<span class="pagenum" id="Page196">[196]</span>
+start with that we would be lost in them
+for a long time. We would constantly
+be forced to change these things and
+there would be no basis to reckon from.
+Dogs might be as big as elephants and
+then they would be of no use to us,
+or of what use would a dog as big as
+an elephant be to a boy of five years.
+You see it would not do at all to have
+this rule changed.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Do We Grow Aged?</h2>
+
+<p>We age directly in accordance with
+the lives we lead. You can bend a wire
+back and forth a number of times at
+the same point without breaking it, but
+eventually it will break. Just so with
+the human body. You can use each
+part of it for its own purposes a number
+of times, but eventually the break
+will come. Or, you can fail to make
+a part of it perform its regular functions,
+and it will die—the break will
+come. The human body is the most
+wonderful machine in the world, but
+even it will eventually wear out. Every
+time you move your arm, leg or some
+other part of your body, you destroy
+some tissues. The body replenishes and
+builds up those tissues again for a certain
+time. When you bend a joint in
+your body, the body oils the joint naturally,
+but as you grow older, or rather,
+as you use the different parts of your
+body more and more, it brings nearer
+always the time, when the body cannot,
+of its own accord, build up again
+the tissues you have destroyed. That
+is why some people become very old at
+forty and others are still comparatively
+young at seventy. It requires a great
+deal of care and attention and the elimination
+of all abuse of the body to keep
+us young when we are old. The use of
+drink, lack of sufficient sleep and other
+abuses prevent the body from restoring
+the tissues which have been destroyed.
+Worry and sorrow age us very rapidly,
+because these things affect the nerves. If
+the nerves are not quiet we cannot get
+any rest and without rest we grow old
+very rapidly.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Causes Wrinkles?</h2>
+
+<p>Wrinkles come to us in several ways.
+An easy way to cause wrinkles is to
+scowl and frown and get into the habit
+of doing this. When you scowl or
+frown you pucker up the skin on your
+forehead into wrinkles and if you continue
+the habit the skin on your forehead
+makes the wrinkles permanent.
+You have given your skin the wrinkle
+habit. This acts just the same way as
+your arm would, if you tied it up in a
+sling and held it close to your side for
+a very long time—a number of weeks.
+When you took the sling off you would
+find your arm useless—a dead arm. It
+had developed the habit of doing
+nothing.</p>
+
+<p>In old people, however, wrinkles
+come more naturally. There it is the
+case of the skin not receiving the proper
+nourishment and attention to keep the
+circulation of the blood right. When
+people become old they are apt to lose
+the fat which has accumulated under
+their skins. If they had taken just the
+right amount of exercise all of their
+lives and kept their circulation perfect
+in all parts of the body, there would
+have been no fat there. But when the
+fat accumulates, it makes the skin grow
+larger, and then when the fat disappears
+and people get thin again, the
+skin is too large and makes the
+wrinkles.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Does Thunder Sour Milk?</h2>
+
+<p>Milk will sour in any kind of warm
+and moist temperature and, because
+just before and during a thunderstorm
+the air is generally quite warm and
+moist, it is only natural that it should
+turn sour. It is wrong, however, to
+say or think that thunder makes milk
+sour. Thunder is only a noise and
+noise cannot do anything but make itself
+heard. The fact that it is generally
+warm and moist, however, when
+it thunders, coupled with the fact that
+these conditions of the air sour milk
+very rapidly, have led people to connect
+the two in their minds and caused
+them to fall into the error of believing
+that the thunder is responsible for the
+change in the milk.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page197">[197]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Makes the Rings in the Water
+When I Throw a Stone Into It?</h2>
+
+<p>Every movement has a beginning.
+When a movement on the earth is once
+started it keeps on going until something
+stops it. If nothing stops it it
+will go on forever.</p>
+
+<p>When you shout you start air waves
+going in every direction, which keeps
+on going until stopped by something
+which has the power to break up their
+waves.</p>
+
+<p>When you throw a stone into the
+ocean you start a series of ripples
+or waves which spread out in every
+direction and if you dropped your
+stone into the exact middle of the
+ocean—half way from each side—in
+a perfectly calm sea undisturbed
+by other forces, your ring of ripples
+would go on getting larger until
+it landed on the beach or shore on each
+side of the ocean at the exactly the
+same time and there the beach or shore
+would stop it.</p>
+
+<p>The original ring of ripples is caused
+by the fact that when you drop a stone
+into the water it disturbs the water
+where it goes in and the water moves
+away from the stone to the sides, and
+as the stone goes down, over and up
+above it, and the whole body of the
+water is disturbed in such a way that
+makes the ripple appear on the surface
+and spread out in every direction. As
+the stone goes down into the water
+further and further the disturbance is
+repeated and ring after ring appears
+on the surface.</p>
+
+<p>Of course there are many disturbances
+in the water at all times. Many
+things may happen to break up your
+little ring of ripples before they touch
+the sides of the ocean—a ship—a fish—the
+wind—or one of many other things,
+and because this is true you would have
+difficulty in sending the waves made by
+your little pebble across the ocean, but
+you can take a dishpan from the kitchen
+and after filling it with water drop
+pebbles into it as nearly the middle as
+possible, and you will see the ripples
+or waves your pebble makes spread
+out from the point where the pebble
+entered the water in all directions.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Are There Many Languages?</h2>
+
+<p>Different languages developed in different
+parts of the world because there
+was no inter-communication between
+people in different communities, and
+each was really developing a language
+for itself. In doing so they developed
+their language without knowing that
+other communities were working out
+the same problems for themselves. So
+they first developed their own sign and
+gesture language and later on their
+word or sound language and kept on
+using it. While they may thus have
+developed the use of some of the same
+signs and sounds or combination of
+sounds to express one thing perfectly
+understandable to themselves, these
+sounds or combinations of sounds might
+mean something entirely different to
+another community, where that particular
+sound or combination of sounds
+may have been hit upon to mean something
+entirely different.</p>
+
+<p>Of course, not all languages were developed
+in this way. There are, you
+know, a great many languages used in
+the world. Some of them are offshoots
+of others, where part of a community
+moved to another part of the
+world, taking their language with them,
+but developing it further along new
+lines, and using new combinations of
+sounds for new words. Then also,
+there are many words which mean the
+same thing in different languages and
+are spoken with practically the same
+sounds. This is due to the movement
+of people from one nation to another
+and bringing their own words with
+them, so to speak. In many instances
+a stranger would come to another nation,
+and use his own word for expressing
+a certain thing and that would
+eventually be taken up and used as a
+better word, and the old word dropped.
+It is strange that this should be true,
+but this accounts for the fact that many
+words are the same in sound and meaning
+in numerous languages.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page198">[198]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Makes a Match Light When We
+Strike It?</h2>
+
+<p>The match lights when we rub it
+along a rough substance, because the
+rubbing produces sufficient heat on the
+end of the match to set fire to the head,
+as we call it, which is made of chemicals
+that light more easily than the
+stick of wood, which is the rest of the
+match. The fire thus started is hot
+enough and burns long enough to set
+fire to the wooden part of the match.</p>
+
+<p>To explain this more fully, let me
+say this. Rub your finger quickly along
+your coat sleeve or along the seat of
+your trousers, long a favorite place for
+men to strike matches, pretending that
+your finger is a match. You find the
+end of your finger becomes warm, don’t
+you? Not warm enough to set your
+finger on fire, of course, but if you had
+the same combination of chemicals on
+the end of your finger that there is on
+the match, you would set the chemicals
+afire and this would burn your finger,
+just as it sets fire to the wooden part
+of the match.</p>
+
+<p>It took a great many years to discover
+the combination of chemicals of
+which the head of the match is made.
+Before that discovery was made it was
+far from easy to light the light in the
+evening as it is now. It must have been
+a serious thing to let the fire go out in
+the furnace in those days.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Makes the Kettle Whistle?</h2>
+
+<p>The kettle whistles only when the
+water boils and the steam or gas which
+is the form the water turns into when
+boiling is trying to escape through the
+spout of the kettle. You see, when the
+water starts boiling, the inside of the
+kettle is at once filled with steam and
+more is coming out of the water all the
+time. This steam must get out some
+way, so it rushes for the spout of the
+kettle, and because so much of it is trying
+to get out of a comparatively small
+opening at once there is quite a pressure
+and this results in making the
+whistle out of the spout of the kettle.
+It is just the same process as when you
+whistle yourself. To whistle you fill
+your mouth with air and force it out
+through your lips, which you have
+closed excepting for a small opening,
+by the pressure you can bring to bear
+with the roof and sides of your mouth,
+and if you have learned to make your
+lips into the proper shape and apply
+the pressure steadily you can sound a
+very long note and make different notes
+by making the opening in your lips
+large or small. The kettle spout has
+only one size of opening so the sound
+is practically the same at all times
+though louder at sometimes than at
+others. This is caused by the varying
+pressure at which the steam in the kettle
+is being forced out.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Makes the Water From a Fountain
+Shoot Into the Air?</h2>
+
+<p>The water from the fountain shoots
+into the air because water anywhere
+will run down if given a chance. To
+produce a fountain you must have a
+source of water supply for the fountain
+which is higher than the openings of
+the fountain out of which the water
+shoots. The water comes out of the
+holes in the fountain for the same reason
+that it comes out of the faucet in
+the kitchen or bath room. In the latter
+case the water comes from the waterworks
+reservoir in which the level of
+the water is much higher than the
+opening in the faucet in your home.
+Being higher the water in the reservoir
+is trying to get away through the pipes
+all the time and all the pipes leading
+from the reservoir are full of this water
+trying to get away. Just as soon as
+you turn the valve in the faucet the
+water comes out and runs down into
+the bowl.</p>
+
+<p>If you were to turn the opening of
+the faucet up instead of down as it is,
+the water would shoot up instead of
+down. Not very much, it is true, but
+it would act much like the water from
+the fountain. The reason it does not
+shoot up high in the air like a fountain
+is because the opening in the faucet is
+the same size as the opening in the
+little pipe which leads the water from
+the street into the house. If you would<span class="pagenum" id="Page199">[199]</span>
+turn the opening of the faucet up and
+attach to it a pipe which made the
+opening much smaller (the size of the
+opening in the fountains), you would
+see the water shoot into the air just as
+it does from the fountain. When you
+reduce the size of the opening you increase
+the pressure of the water coming
+from the pipes in proportion to the
+reduction you have made in the size
+of the opening.</p>
+
+<p>Water from the fountain will not,
+however, shoot as high as the level of
+the water in the reservoir because, as
+soon as it leaves the pipes, it encounters
+the pressure of the air outside the
+pipes and the law of gravitation which
+pulls all things toward the center of
+the earth.</p>
+
+<p>It is not natural for water to shoot
+into the air as it does in a fountain.
+The only way water can go naturally
+is down, and it only goes up a little way
+from a fountain because of the pressure
+of the water in the pipes behind
+the openings in the pipes in the fountain.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Keeps a Balloon Up?</h2>
+
+<p>A balloon stays up in the air, because
+of the air in it, together with the weight
+of the balloon, is less than an equal bulk
+of the air in which it floats.</p>
+
+<p>In former days of ballooning the balloons
+were filled with hot air and were
+then found to rise and stay up until the
+air inside of the balloon became of the
+same temperature as that in which it
+floated. When this stage was reached,
+the balloon itself would fall because
+the material of which it was made was
+denser than air.</p>
+
+<p>Today balloonists fill their balloons
+with gas which is lighter than air, even
+when as cool as the air in which they
+rise and are thus able to stay up a long
+time.</p>
+
+<p>You, of course, have seen many of
+the red, white and blue paper balloons
+which are sent up on the Fourth of
+July. You will remember that father,
+or whoever it is that is sending them
+up, lights the oil-soaked knot of cloth
+that is attached to the balloon immediately
+below the opening at the bottom.
+He first lights this and then holds the
+balloon for a time with his hands.</p>
+
+<p>Soon, however, you will remember
+that the balloon starts upward with
+father still holding it. This is because
+the air inside the balloon is becoming
+heated. You will notice also that at
+first he has to hold out the sides of the
+top of the balloon with his hands or
+has some one help him do this, but that
+even so the balloon does not stand out
+round and full as it should. When the
+balloon starts to rise, however, you will
+notice that it is round and full. This
+is because the air in the balloon has
+become heated and is expanding. Soon
+the balloon is tugging to get away and
+father lets go and it rises and sails away
+with the wind. As long as the fire below
+it burns, and if the wind does not
+upset it so as to make the paper part
+catch fire, the balloon will stay up; but,
+when the fire burns out, the balloon will
+come down.</p>
+
+<p>The balloon merely rises because the
+air inside, and held there by the covering
+of the balloon, is warmer air and
+lighter than the air on the outside.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Did People of Long Ago Live
+Longer Than We Do Now?</h2>
+
+<p>When reading of people who lived
+long years ago and especially when
+reading about the length of their lives,
+we are told that in the old days people
+lived longer than they do now. Some
+of the early historical records speak of
+single individuals who lived hundreds
+of years. There is great doubt as to
+whether these statements are founded
+on fact. In thinking about this we
+must first take into consideration that
+these records of long ages were recorded
+at a time when man had no accurate
+ideas of the actual passage of
+long periods of time such as a year.
+They did not have our calendar as a
+basis for figuring at all. Learned men
+now tell us that the actual age of men
+who lived at the time these records of
+great ages were recorded probably lived<span class="pagenum" id="Page200">[200]</span>
+shorter lives than we do now, and that
+what they record as a period of one
+year was probably a much shorter period
+than one year.</p>
+
+<p>It is true beyond the question of a
+doubt that the people of today live
+longer on the average than people who
+lived ten, twenty or more years ago.</p>
+
+<p>In other words, the average period of
+life has increased steadily. This is due
+to the fact that we have taken great
+care of our bodies; have improved the
+conditions in which we live, and made
+them more sanitary; have learned to
+fight and check and eradicate diseases,
+which only a few years ago we could
+not prevent people dying of when they
+once contracted them, and we know
+from the records which we keep that
+actually people live longer on the average
+today than only a few years ago,
+and it is safe to say that they live longer
+now on the average than at any time
+in the world’s history.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Is There a Reason for Everything?</h2>
+
+<p>The world is so constructed that
+there must be a reason or cause for
+everything. There are so many forces
+in the world that man has not yet been
+able to locate the original cause of every
+one of them. Concerning other things,
+he sees the effects without having any
+knowledge of the forces which are
+their cause. Other things he has never
+even bothered to inquire about, but simply
+takes them for granted. But every
+force, which means, of course, everything
+in the world, must have had a
+beginning and therefore something or
+a combination of things must have
+caused it to begin, and the thing or
+things that caused it to be is the reason
+for its being. Every little while someone
+makes a discovery of some new
+force, and then we suddenly realize
+that this force has been in existence all
+the time although not known to man,
+and we discover through this the reason
+for many other things being as they
+are.</p>
+
+<p>The other thing or side of the question
+is also true. We cannot have a
+cause without an effect. You cannot
+do anything without causing something
+to happen and producing an effect on
+one or more other objects either animate
+or inanimate. You cannot move
+your hand without creating some disturbance
+in the air. When you make a
+noise, low or loud, you produce sound
+waves. When you burn a stick of
+wood, you create smoke, ashes and
+gases of various kinds. You change the
+whole nature of what was the piece of
+wood, and yet no particle of what made
+the stick of wood is ever destroyed or
+lost, but appears in some other thing in
+the air or on or in the earth.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Makes an Echo?</h2>
+
+<p>An echo is caused when the waves of
+air which you create when you shout
+are thrown back again when they are
+stopped by something they encounter
+and are turned back without changing
+their shape. Any kind of a sound
+wave will make an echo in this way.</p>
+
+<p>You see, you can have no sound of
+any kind without sound waves. You
+could not make a sound if there were
+no air. Now, when you shout, you
+start a series of sound waves that go
+out from you in every direction and
+they spread away from you in circles
+just like the rings of ripples that are
+caused when you drop a stone into a
+pool of water. You can prove this to
+yourself easily by having one, two,
+three or more of your friends stand
+around you in a large circle. You can
+place them as far away from you as
+your shout can be heard if you wish.
+When you shout, each of your friends
+will hear the shout at the same time,
+provided, of course, they are at equal
+distances from you.</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes these sound waves as
+they go away from you in circles strike
+objects that turn the waves back unbroken
+just as they came to them. The
+waves will bounce back just like a rubber
+ball from a wall against which it
+has been thrown and this is the echo.
+However, some things that the sound
+waves strike break up these waves entirely
+and others partially.</p>
+
+<p>No doubt you have sometimes noticed<span class="pagenum" id="Page201">[201]</span>
+when you shout you hear a distinct
+echo and that at other times,
+standing in the same place, you cannot
+hear any echo, although you shout in
+the same way. This is explained by the
+fact that at times conditions of the air
+are such that no echo is produced while
+at other times a perfect echo results.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What is a Whispering Gallery?</h2>
+
+<p>The possibilities of an echo have
+to be taken into account by the
+architects and builders of all public
+buildings, such as theaters, halls
+and churches, where anyone is to
+speak or entertain others. Unless
+they are very careful the walls and
+ceilings may be so arranged that when
+any one sings or speaks in the room,
+there is such an echo that it interferes
+with the music or speaking. It sometimes
+happens also that through some
+peculiarity in which the walls and ceiling
+of a building are constructed there
+will be certain places in the room where
+an echo can be heard, even a whisper,
+and which cannot be heard in other
+parts of the room at all. This is likely
+to occur in rooms where there is a
+dome-shaped ceiling. There will be
+certain spots in the room hundreds of
+feet apart, where if you stand on one
+spot and another person is on another
+definite spot clear across the room, the
+tiniest whisper can be heard, while the
+people in between cannot hear at all.
+This is called a whispering gallery. Of
+course, loud talking would produce the
+same effect. A whispering gallery is a
+gallery with an echo which can be
+heard from certain positions. There
+are a number of famous whispering galleries
+of the world. In the room beneath
+the great dome of our Capitol at
+Washington is an almost perfect whispering
+gallery. There are quite a number
+of points at which you can stand
+and hear the whispers across the room
+which is more than a hundred feet.
+These whispering galleries come accidentally,
+of course. It would be difficult
+to deliberately construct a building in
+such a way as to produce a whispering
+gallery.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Do We Get a Bump Instead of a
+Dent When We Knock Our Heads?</h2>
+
+<p>When you knock your head against
+a sharp corner, or if some one hits you
+on the head with anything with a sharp
+edge, you do receive a dent in your
+head, but it does not last. In other
+words, the head has one of the qualities
+of a rubber ball. You can press
+your finger against the sides of the
+rubber ball and push it in, but when
+you take your finger off the ball resumes
+its shape. Just so with your
+head—it resumes its shape after a
+blow.</p>
+
+<p>After doing this, however, a bump or
+lump is formed. I will endeavor to tell
+you how the bump is formed or rather
+what causes it to form. You cannot
+knock your head against anything that
+is harder than your head without causing
+some injury to the parts which received
+the bump. Now, what happens
+then is just what happens to any other
+part of your body when it is injured
+whether as a result of a bump, a cut or
+a bee or mosquito sting.</p>
+
+<p>As soon as the injury occurs the
+brain starts the “repair crew” to work.
+The result is that first a great supply
+of blood is rushed to the injured part
+with the result that the blood vessels
+are filled up and extended with blood.
+Certain parts of the blood cells find
+their way through the walls of the blood
+vessels at the part of the injury and
+other fluids from the body are piled up
+there, so to speak, to form a congestion.
+This “piling up or congestion”
+distends the skin and raises the bump.
+On the head where the layer of
+muscular structure is thinner and
+where there is less space between the
+bones of the skull and the outside skin,
+the bump will be larger and more
+noticeable, because a good deal of blood
+and other fluids are piled up in a comparatively
+small space, and so the skin
+gets pushed out further to accommodate
+this great congestion, whereas in
+other parts of the body the bump
+may be quite as large but not so noticeable.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page202">[202]</span></p>
+
+<div class="container w40emmax">
+
+<p class="caption">HOW MEN GO DOWN TO THE BOTTOM OF THE SEA</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo202a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig202a">
+
+<p class="caption">PUTTING ON THE SUIT.</p>
+
+<p class="caption">Socks, trousers and shirt in one, and a
+copper breastplate.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<div class="container w40emmax">
+
+<img src="images/illo202b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig202b">
+
+<p class="caption">PUTTING ON THE IRON-SOLED SHOES.</p>
+
+<p class="caption">They are purposely made heavy, to help the
+diver sink.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<h2 class="nobreak">The Deep Sea Diver</h2>
+
+</div><!--chapter-->
+
+<h3>What Does the Bottom of the Sea Look
+Like?</h3>
+
+<p>It looks very much like the land on
+which we live. There are mountains
+and valleys, rocks and crags, trees and
+grass, just the same as we see on land,
+except, of course, that there are no human
+beings to be seen. Instead of birds
+flitting about the tree-tops, fish swim
+about them, and where the squirrel and
+rabbit bound through the woods on
+land, the great king crab and sea turtle
+drag their unwieldy forms on the
+ocean’s bottom. Some of the scenes at
+the bottom of the sea are like fairyland,
+and in tropical waters are often as
+beautiful and spectacular as those we
+see in theatrical pantomimes. Delicately
+tinted sea-shells, great trees of
+snow-white coral, sea foliage of every
+tint and shape, and deep dark caverns,
+in which lurk the devil-fish and other
+odd looking fish.</p>
+
+<h3>The Diver’s Outfit.</h3>
+
+<p>The armor of to-day consists of a
+rubber and canvas suit, socks, trousers
+and shirt in one, a copper breastplate
+or collar, a copper helmet, iron-soled
+shoes, and a belt of leaden weights to
+sink the diver.</p>
+
+<div class="container w40emmax">
+
+<img src="images/illo202c.jpg" alt="" id="Fig202c">
+
+<p class="caption">ADJUSTING THE TELEPHONE.</p>
+
+<p class="caption">This enables the diver to talk at all times
+to those above him.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<div class="container w40emmax">
+
+<img src="images/illo202d.jpg" alt="" id="Fig202d">
+
+<p class="caption">PUTTING ON THE HELMET.</p>
+
+<p class="caption">It is made of tinned copper, with three
+glass-covered openings, to enable the diver
+to look out.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page203">[203]</span></p>
+
+<div class="container w40emmax">
+
+<p class="caption">TELEPHONING FROM THE BOTTOM OF THE OCEAN</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo203a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig203a">
+
+<p class="caption">TESTING THE TELEPHONE.</p>
+
+<p class="caption">Every precaution is taken to see that
+everything is in order before the diver goes
+down.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<div class="container w40emmax">
+
+<img src="images/illo203b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig203b">
+
+<p class="caption">THE FINAL TEST.</p>
+
+<p class="caption">The least error in the adjustment may mean
+death to the diver.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>The helmet is made of tinned copper,
+with three circular glasses, one in front
+and one on either side, with guards to
+protect them. The front eye-piece is
+made to unscrew and enable the diver
+to receive or give instructions without
+removing the helmet. One or more
+outlet valves are placed at the back or
+side of the helmet to allow the vitiated
+air to escape. These valves only open
+outwards by working against a spiral
+spring, so that no water can enter. The
+inlet valve is at the back of the helmet,
+and the air on entry is directed by
+three channels running along the top
+of the helmet to points above the eye-pieces,
+enabling the diver to always
+inhale fresh air. The helmet is secured
+to the breastplate below by a segmental
+screw-bayonet joint, securing attachment
+by one-eighth of a turn. The
+junction between the water-proof dress
+and the breastplate is made watertight
+by means of studs, brass plates and
+wing-nuts.</p>
+
+<p>A life or signal-line and also a modern
+telephone enables the diver to communicate
+at all times with those above
+him.</p>
+
+<p>The cost of a complete diving outfit
+ranges from $750.00 to $1,000.00. The
+weight of the armor and attachments
+worn by the diver is 256 pounds, divided
+as follows: Helmet and breastplate,
+58 pounds; belt of lead weights,
+122 pounds; rubber suit, 19 pounds;
+iron-soled shoes, 27 pounds each.</p>
+
+<p>The air which sustains the diver’s
+life below the surface is pumped from
+above by a powerful pump, which must
+be kept constantly at work while the
+diver is down. A stoppage of the pump
+a single instant while the diver is in
+deep water would result almost in his
+instant death from the pressure of the
+water outside.</p>
+
+<p>The greatest depth reached by any
+diver was 204 feet, at which depth there
+was a pressure of 88¹⁄₂ pounds per
+square inch on his body. The area exposed
+of the average diver in armor
+is 720 inches, which would have made
+the diver at that depth sustain a pressure
+of 66,960 pounds, or over 33 tons.</p>
+
+<p>The water pressure on a diver is as
+follows:</p>
+
+<table class="standard dontwrap">
+
+<tr>
+<td class="numbers">20</td>
+<td class="text"><span class="padr6">feet</span></td>
+<td class="intpart">8</td>
+<td class="fracpart">¹⁄₂</td>
+<td class="text">lbs.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="numbers">30</td>
+<td class="text"><span class="padr6">feet</span></td>
+<td class="intpart">12</td>
+<td class="fracpart">³⁄₄</td>
+<td class="text">lbs.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="numbers">40</td>
+<td class="text"><span class="padr6">feet</span></td>
+<td class="intpart">17</td>
+<td class="fracpart">¹⁄₄</td>
+<td class="text">lbs.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="numbers">50</td>
+<td class="text"><span class="padr6">feet</span></td>
+<td class="intpart">21</td>
+<td class="fracpart">³⁄₄</td>
+<td class="text">lbs.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="numbers">60</td>
+<td class="text"><span class="padr6">feet</span></td>
+<td class="intpart">26</td>
+<td class="fracpart">¹⁄₄</td>
+<td class="text">lbs.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="numbers">70</td>
+<td class="text"><span class="padr6">feet</span></td>
+<td class="intpart">30</td>
+<td class="fracpart">¹⁄₂</td>
+<td class="text">lbs.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="numbers">80</td>
+<td class="text"><span class="padr6">feet</span></td>
+<td class="intpart">34</td>
+<td class="fracpart">³⁄₄</td>
+<td class="text">lbs.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="numbers">90</td>
+<td class="text"><span class="padr6">feet</span></td>
+<td class="intpart">39</td>
+<td>&#160;</td>
+<td class="text">lbs.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="numbers">100</td>
+<td class="text"><span class="padr6">feet</span></td>
+<td class="intpart">43</td>
+<td class="fracpart">¹⁄₂</td>
+<td class="text">lbs.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="numbers">120</td>
+<td class="text"><span class="padr6">feet</span></td>
+<td class="intpart">52</td>
+<td class="fracpart">¹⁄₄</td>
+<td class="text">lbs.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="numbers">130</td>
+<td class="text"><span class="padr6">feet</span></td>
+<td class="intpart">56</td>
+<td class="fracpart">¹⁄₂</td>
+<td class="text">lbs.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="numbers">140</td>
+<td class="text"><span class="padr6">feet</span></td>
+<td class="intpart">60</td>
+<td class="fracpart">³⁄₄</td>
+<td class="text">lbs.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="numbers">150</td>
+<td class="text"><span class="padr6">feet</span></td>
+<td class="intpart">65</td>
+<td class="fracpart">¹⁄₄</td>
+<td class="text">lbs.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="numbers">160</td>
+<td class="text"><span class="padr6">feet</span></td>
+<td class="intpart">69</td>
+<td class="fracpart">³⁄₄</td>
+<td class="text">lbs.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="numbers">170</td>
+<td class="text"><span class="padr6">feet</span></td>
+<td class="intpart">74</td>
+<td>&#160;</td>
+<td class="text">lbs.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="numbers">180</td>
+<td class="text"><span class="padr6">feet</span></td>
+<td class="intpart">78</td>
+<td>&#160;</td>
+<td class="text">lbs.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="numbers">190</td>
+<td class="text"><span class="padr6">feet</span></td>
+<td class="intpart">82</td>
+<td class="fracpart">¹⁄₄</td>
+<td class="text">lbs.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="numbers">204</td>
+<td class="text"><span class="padr6">feet</span></td>
+<td class="intpart">88</td>
+<td class="fracpart">¹⁄₂</td>
+<td class="text">lbs.</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page204">[204]</span></p>
+
+<p>The dangers of diving are manifold,
+and so risky is the calling that there
+are comparatively few divers in the
+United States. The cheapest of them
+command $10.00 a day for four or five
+hours’ work, and many of them get
+$50.00 and $60.00 for the same term
+of labor under water.</p>
+
+<p>The greatest danger that besets the
+diver is the risk he runs every time he
+dives of rupturing a blood-vessel by
+the excessively compressed air he is
+compelled to breathe. He is also subject
+to attacks from sharks, sword-fish,
+devil-fish, and other voracious monsters
+of the ocean’s depths. To defend himself
+against them, he carries a double-edged
+knife as sharp as a razor. It is
+the diver’s sole weapon of defense.</p>
+
+<p>Just how far back the art of submarine
+diving dates is a matter of conjecture,
+but until the invention of the
+present armor and helmet, in 1839,
+work and exploration under water
+was, at best, imperfect, and could only
+be pursued in a very limited degree.</p>
+
+<h3>Feats of Divers.</h3>
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>THE GREATEST<br>
+DIVING FEAT</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>Millions of dollars’ worth of property
+has been recovered from the
+ocean’s depth by divers. One of the
+greatest achievements in this line was
+by the famous English diver, Lambert,
+who recovered vast treasure from the
+“Alfonso XII,” a Spanish mail
+steamer belonging to the Lopez Line,
+which sank off Point Gando, Grand
+Canary, in 26¹⁄₂ fathoms of water. The
+salvage party was dispatched by the
+underwriters in May, 1885, the vessel
+having £100,000 in specie on board.
+For nearly six months the operations
+were persevered in before the divers
+could reach the treasure-room beneath
+the three decks. Two divers lost their
+lives in the vain attempt, the pressure
+of water being fatal. The diver recovered
+£90,000 from the wreck, and
+got £4,500 for doing it.</p>
+
+<p>One of the most difficult operations
+ever performed by a diver was the
+recovering of the treasure sunk in the
+steamship “Malabar,” off Galle. On
+this occasion the large iron plates, half
+an inch thick, had to be cut away from
+the mail-room, and then the diver had
+to work through nine feet of sand. The
+whole of the specie on board this vessel—upward
+of $1,500,000—was saved,
+as much as $80,000 having been gotten
+out in one day.</p>
+
+<p>It is an interesting fact that from
+time to time expeditions have been
+fitted out, and companies formed, with
+the sole intention of searching for
+buried treasure beneath the sea. Again
+and again have expeditions left New
+York or San Francisco in the certainty
+of recovering tons of bullion
+sunk off the Brazilian coast, or lying
+undisturbed in the mud of the Rio de
+la Plata.</p>
+
+<div class="container w40emmax">
+
+<img src="images/illo204a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig204a">
+
+<p class="caption">The last look just before going down.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<div class="container w40emmax">
+
+<img src="images/illo204b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig204b">
+
+<p class="caption">Coming up after a successful trip.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>At the end of 1885, the large steamer
+Imbus, belonging to the P. &amp; O. Co.,<span class="pagenum" id="Page205">[205]</span>
+sank off Trincomalee, having on board
+a very valuable East-India cargo, together
+with a large amount of specie.
+This was another case of a fortune
+found in the sea, for a very large
+amount of treasure was recovered.</p>
+
+<p>Another wreck from which a large
+sum of gold coin and bullion was recovered
+by divers, was that of the
+French ship “L’Orient.” She is stated
+to have had on board specie to the value
+of no less than $3,000,000, besides
+other treasure.</p>
+
+<p>A parallel case to “L’Orient” is that
+of the “Lutine,” a warship of thirty-two
+guns, wrecked off the coast of Holland.
+This vessel sailed from the Yarmouth
+Roads with an immense quantity
+of treasure for the Texel. In the
+course of the day it came on to blow a
+heavy gale; the vessel was lost and went
+to pieces. Salvage operations by divers,
+during eighteen months, resulted in the
+recovery of £400,000 in specie.</p>
+
+<p>Humorous scenes do not play much
+of a part on the ocean’s bottom, and
+the sublime and awe-inspiring are far
+more in evidence there than the ludicrous,
+yet even beneath the waves there
+are laughable scenes at times. A diver
+had been engaged to inspect a sunken
+vessel off the coast of Cuba. Arriving
+on the scene he discovered a number
+of native sponge-divers, who descend
+to considerable depths, diving down
+from their canoes to the sunken vessel
+trying to pick up something of value.
+They paid little attention to the arrival
+of the wrecking outfit, and did not
+notice the diver descend, until suddenly
+what seemed to them to be a horrible
+human-shaped monster, with an immense
+head of glistening copper and
+three big, round, glassy eyes, came
+walking around the vessel’s bow and
+made a big salaam to them. That was
+enough. They shot surfaceward like
+sky-rockets, climbed frantically into
+their canoes and hurriedly rowed away.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Happens When Anything Explodes?</h2>
+
+<p>By explosives are meant substances
+that can be made to give off a large
+quantity of gas in an exceedingly short
+time, and the shorter the time required
+for the production of the gas the greater
+will be the violence of the explosion.
+Many substances that ordinarily have
+no explosive qualities may be made to
+act as explosives under certain circumstances.
+Water, for example, has caused
+very destructive boiler explosions when
+a quantity of it has been allowed to
+enter an empty boiler that had become
+red hot. Particles of dust in the air
+have occasioned explosions in saw
+mills, where the air always contains
+large quantities of dust. A flame introduced
+into air that is heavily laden with
+dust may cause a sudden burning of
+the particles near it, and from these the
+fire may be conveyed so rapidly to the
+others that the heat will cause the air
+to expand suddenly, and this, together
+with the formation of gases from the
+burning, will cause an explosion.</p>
+
+<p>It must not be thought, however, that
+fine sawdust or water would ordinarily
+be classed as explosives. The term is
+generally applied only to those substances
+that may be very easily caused
+to explode.</p>
+
+<p>The oldest, and most widely known,
+explosive that we possess is gunpowder,
+the invention of which is generally
+credited to the Chinese. It is a
+mixture of potassium nitrate, or saltpeter,
+with powdered charcoal and
+sulphur. The proportions in which these
+substances are mixed vary in different
+kinds of powder, but they usually do
+not differ much from the following:</p>
+
+<table class="standard dontwrap">
+
+<tr>
+<td class="text"><span class="padr6">Sulphur</span></td>
+<td class="numbers">10</td>
+<td class="text">per cent.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="text"><span class="padr6">Charcoal</span></td>
+<td class="numbers">16</td>
+<td class="text">per cent.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="text"><span class="padr6">Saltpeter</span></td>
+<td class="numbers">74</td>
+<td class="text">per cent.</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p>The explosive quality of gunpowder
+is due to the fact that it will burn with
+great rapidity without contact with the
+air, and that in burning it liberates large
+volumes of gas. When a spark is introduced
+into it, the carbon, charcoal,
+and sulphur combine with a portion of
+the oxygen contained in the saltpeter
+to form carbonic acid gas and sulphurous
+acid gas, and at the same time the
+nitrogen contained in the saltpeter is
+set free in the gaseous form. This action
+takes place very suddenly, and the<span class="pagenum" id="Page206">[206]</span>
+volume of gas set free is so much
+greater than that of the powder that
+an explosion follows.</p>
+
+<p>In the manufacture of gunpowder all
+that is absolutely necessary is to mix
+the three ingredients thoroughly and in
+the proper proportions. But to fit the
+powder for use in firing small arms and
+cannon it is made into grains of various
+sizes, the small sizes being used for the
+small arms with short barrels, and the
+large sizes for cannon. The reason for
+this is that if the powder is made in
+very small grains it all burns at once,
+and the explosion takes place so suddenly
+that an exceedingly strong gun is
+required to withstand the explosion,
+while if larger grains are employed the
+burning is slower and continues until
+the projectile has traveled to the muzzle
+of the gun. In this way the projectile
+is fired from the gun with as much
+force as if the explosion had taken place
+at once, but there is less strain on the
+gun.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Causes the Smoke When a Gun
+Goes Off?</h2>
+
+<p>Powder of this latter kind always
+produces a considerable quantity of
+smoke when it is fired, because there is
+a quantity of fine particles formed from
+the breaking up of the saltpeter and
+from some of the charcoal which is not
+completely burned. This smoke forms
+a cloud that takes some time to clear
+away, which is a very objectionable
+feature. In order to get rid of it, efforts
+were made to produce a substance
+that would explode without leaving any
+solid residue, and that could be used in
+guns. These efforts were finally successful,
+and there are now several
+brands of smokeless powder in use.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What is Smokeless Powder Made Of?</h2>
+
+<p>The most satisfactory forms of
+smokeless powder are all made from
+guncotton or nitrocellulose. This substance,
+which is made by treating cotton
+with a mixture of nitric and sulphuric
+acids, is a chemical compound, not a
+mixture like gunpowder; and when it
+is exploded it is all converted into
+gases, of which the chief ones are carbonic
+acid gas, nitrogen, and water-vapor.
+To cause the explosion of guncotton
+it is not necessary to burn it, but
+a mere shock or jar will cause it to decompose
+with explosive violence. Of
+course, such a violent explosive as this
+could not be used either in small arms
+or in cannon, but guncotton can be converted
+into less explosive forms which
+are suitable for use in guns, and the
+majority, of smokeless powders are
+made in this way. The methods used
+in producing the smokeless powders
+are kept secret by the various countries
+that use them.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What is Nitroglycerine?</h2>
+
+<p>Another very powerful explosive,
+which is closely related to guncotton, is
+nitroglycerine. This compound is made
+by treating glycerine with the same sort
+of acid mixture that is used in making
+guncotton. It explodes in the same
+way that guncotton does and yields the
+same products. It is an oily liquid of
+yellow color, and on account of its
+liquid form it is difficult to handle and
+use. The difficulty in handling nitroglycerine
+led to the plan of mixing it
+with a quantity of very fine sand called
+infusorial earth. When mixed with this
+a solid mass called dynamite is formed,
+which is easier to handle and more difficult
+to explode, but which has almost
+as much explosive force as nitroglycerine.</p>
+
+<p>A more powerful explosive than
+either nitroglycerine or guncotton is
+obtained by mixing them together.
+When this is done the guncotton swells
+up by absorbing the nitroglycerine and
+becomes a brownish, jelly-like substance
+that is known as blasting gelatin.
+This is generally considered the most
+powerful explosive obtainable.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Makes Nitroglycerine and Guncotton
+Explode So Readily?</h2>
+
+<p>Let us now consider for the moment
+what it is that makes guncotton, nitroglycerine,
+and blasting gelatin explode
+so readily. The explanation is found
+in the presence in them of nitrogen. As<span class="pagenum" id="Page207">[207]</span>
+you remember from what you learned
+about air, nitrogen is an extremely inactive
+element. It has no strong tendency
+to combine with other elements,
+and when it does enter into combination
+with them the compounds formed are
+almost always easily decomposed. In
+the compounds that have just been described
+a shock causes a loosening of
+the bonds that hold the nitrogen, and
+the whole compound goes to pieces just
+as an arch falls when the keystone is
+removed.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Is Silver?</h2>
+
+<p>Since the earliest time recorded in
+history, silver has been the most used
+of the precious metals, both in the arts
+and as a medium of exchange. Even
+in the prehistoric times silver mines
+were worked and the metal was employed
+in the ornamental and useful
+arts. It was not so early used as
+money, and when it began to be adopted
+for this purpose, it was made into bars
+or rings and sold by weight. The first
+regular coinage of either gold or silver
+was in Phrygia, or Lydia, in Asia
+Minor. Silver was used in the arts by
+the Athenians, the Phœnicians, the
+Vikings, the Aztecs, the Peruvians, and
+in fact by all the civilized and semi-civilized
+nations of antiquity. It is
+found in almost every part of the globe,
+usually in combination with other
+metals. The mines in South America,
+Mexico, and the United States are especially
+rich. Silver is sometimes found
+in huge nuggets. A mass weighing 800
+pounds was found in Peru, and it is
+claimed that one of 2,700 pounds was
+extracted in Mexico. The ratio of the
+value of silver and gold has varied
+greatly. At the Christian era it was 9
+to 1; 500 A.D. it was 18 to 1; but in
+1100 A.D. it was only 8 to 1. In 1893
+it was as high as 2,577 to 1. The subject
+has entered largely into American
+politics as a disturbing element, and in
+1896 the Democratic party, in its national
+convention, declared for the free
+coinage of the metals at 16 to 1. The
+Republican party adhered to the gold
+standard and declared against the free
+coinage of silver. Each party reaffirmed
+in 1900 this plank in its platform. In
+both years the Democrats were defeated.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Is Worry?</h2>
+
+<p>Worry is a feeling of fear, but is
+never of the present. It is always
+about something that may happen or
+that has happened. It is generally in
+the future, sometimes in the past, but
+never in the present.</p>
+
+<p>An animal that knows neither future
+nor past cannot worry. Babies, living
+only as they do in the present, cannot
+worry. All creatures, excepting human
+beings, live only in the present and
+therefore they do not worry, for such
+creatures cannot remember what happened
+in the past or guess what is going
+to happen.</p>
+
+<p>A human being after arriving at a
+certain age is given such powers that
+his mind can go back to the past and
+cast itself forward into the future as
+he thinks it will be, because he has
+imagination. As a matter of fact we
+live less in the present than in the past
+or future.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Do We Worry?</h2>
+
+<p>We worry because we are able
+through a power called self-consciousness
+to place ourselves through our
+minds for the time being. Either—back
+somewhere in the past without carrying
+our physical bodies with us; for if we
+could take our bodies with us, we
+would be in the present again, and
+then worry is impossible; or, we use
+our imagination and project the future
+entirely apart from our bodies, for we
+cannot project our bodies into the future,
+and if we could we would again
+be in the present. We worry over going
+to have an operation performed
+which may or not be dangerous, but
+quite necessary. We may still think we
+worry when the operation begins, but
+as soon as that occurs the time becomes
+the present, and though we may fear,
+we cannot worry in the present.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page208">[208]</span></p>
+
+<div class="container w50emmax" id="Fig208">
+
+<img src="images/illo208.jpg" alt="">
+
+<div class="illotext w35emmax">
+
+<div class="split3664">
+
+<div class="left3664">
+
+<p class="center">Back View of Shield</p>
+
+</div><!--left3664-->
+
+<div class="right3664">
+
+<p>Longitudinal Section through Shield &amp; Tunnel</p>
+
+</div><!--right3664-->
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--split3664-->
+
+<p class="center blankbefore75">Diagram showing method of tunnel construction by shield and compressed air.<br>
+Scale; ¹⁄₈ inch · 1 foot</p>
+
+<p class="noindent blankbefore75">Jacobs &amp; Davies Inc. 30 Church St. N.Y.
+<span class="righttext">Oct. 15. 1910.</span></p>
+
+</div><!--illotext-->
+
+<p class="caption">FIGURE 1.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<h2 class="nobreak">The Story in a Tunnel</h2>
+
+</div><!--chapter-->
+
+<h3>How a Tunnel Is Dug Under Water.</h3>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig208">Fig. 1</a>. On the left is a cross section
+showing, in diagram, the back view of
+a shield. The heavy black circle is the
+“tail” or “skin.” The small circles
+within the tail are the hydraulic rams
+which at a pressure of 5,000 pounds to
+the square inch force the shield forward.
+The square compartments within
+the shield are the openings through
+which the men pass to dig away the
+ground. In the middle of the shield
+is shown the swinging “erector” which
+picks up the iron lining plates and puts
+them in position.</p>
+
+<p>The view on the right is a longitudinal
+section of the tunnel showing
+the shield and the bulkhead wall across
+the tunnel with the air locks built into
+it. The front of the shield ahead of
+the doors is made with a sharp edge
+called the “cutting edge” and this makes
+it easier for the shield to advance in
+case all the ground in front has not been
+removed. This view shows how the
+tail overlaps the last portion of the
+iron lining.</p>
+
+<p>Some distance behind the shield
+comes the concrete bulkhead wall with
+the air locks contained in it. There are
+two shown in the view. The upper one
+is the emergency air lock, always kept
+ready so that in case of an accident the
+men have a means of escape even
+though the lower part of the tunnel is
+filled with rushing water or mud. The
+lower air lock is for the passage of men
+and materials during ordinary working.
+This view also shows that all the tunnel
+ahead of the bulkhead wall is under
+compressed air while the finished tunnel
+behind the bulkhead wall is under the
+ordinary or normal air pressure. When
+the tunnel is finished the air locks and
+bulkhead walls are removed.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page209">[209]</span></p>
+
+<div class="container w50emmax" id="Fig209">
+
+<p class="caption">FRONT VIEW OF A DRIVING SHIELD</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo209.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption long">This shows the front of one of the shields used on the Pennsylvania Railroad tunnels crossing the
+North River at New York. The cutting edge is clearly seen and the various compartments, each with
+its door, which divide up the front of the shield. These shields weighed about 200 tons each.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<h3 class="cntr"><b>HOW TUNNELS ARE BUILT.</b></h3>
+
+<p>These notes describe very generally
+the way in which tunnels are built
+through mud and gravel under parts
+of the sea or large rivers in such a way
+that the men who build them are protected
+and as safe as the carpenter who
+is building a house.</p>
+
+<p>The way these tunnels are built is
+called the “shield” way because the machine
+used is called a shield. It is given
+this name because it shields the tunnel
+builders from the water and the mud
+which are ready at every moment to
+overwhelm them and kill them.</p>
+
+<p>The shield was invented in 1818 by a
+great Engineer, Marc Isambard Brunel,
+who was a Frenchman living in England.
+The idea of the shield came to
+him as he saw how the sea worm which
+attacks the wooden piles of docks along
+the shore bores the holes it makes in
+the wood. The head of this worm is
+very hard and can bite its way through
+the hardest woods. As it goes through
+the wood its body makes a hard shelly
+coating which lines the holes which its
+head has made and prevents the hole
+from getting filled up. This is the
+general idea of a tunnel built by a
+shield.</p>
+
+<p>The first shield was used by Mr.
+Brunel to make a tunnel across the
+Thames River at London, England.
+This is still the biggest tunnel ever
+built by a shield, although not the longest,
+and is still used by railroad trains.
+This tunnel was begun in 1825 and was
+finished in 1843, and provides a history
+of almost unexampled and not-to-be-excelled
+courage in attacking difficulties
+and skill in defeating them.</p>
+
+<p>Since the days of Brunel many great
+improvements have been made in the
+shield and in the way of working it but
+the same idea is still there.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page210">[210]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">HOW THE SHIELD IS PUSHED FORWARD</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo210a.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption long">This shows the rear end or tail end of one of the smaller shields, used on the Hudson and Manhattan
+Railroad tunnels under the North or Hudson River at New York. It shows the skin, the hydraulic
+jacks within the skin and the piping and valves for working them. It also shows the doors leading to
+the front or “face.” The erector is not shown, but the circular hole in the middle shows where it
+would be attached.</p>
+
+<div class="split5050">
+
+<div class="left5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo210b.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption long">This shows one side of an air lock bulkhead
+wall with the air lock in place. The boiler-like
+appearance of the lock is clearly visible,
+as well as the door and the pressure gauge
+to tell the air pressure inside the lock.</p>
+
+</div><!--left5050-->
+
+<div class="right5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo210c.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption long">This is a rear view of one of the Pennsylvania Tunnel
+shields, taken after a length of tunnel had been
+completed. All the details of construction are shown,
+but in this case the erector is clearly seen also. The
+valves which control the erector and the rams which
+push the shield forward are seen near the top of the
+shield. The rods across the tunnel are turn-buckles used
+to keep the iron lining from getting out of shape in
+the soft mud. These are removed later. The floor and
+tracks in the bottom are temporary and are used for
+bringing materials to and from the shield.</p>
+
+</div><!--right5050-->
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--split5050-->
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page211">[211]</span></p>
+
+<p>After the days of Brunel’s shield another
+great help was given to tunnel
+builders by the invention of the use of
+compressed air to hold back the water
+which saturates the ground in which the
+tunnel is being built.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>WHO INVENTED THE COMPRESSED AIR METHOD</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>The first real invention of compressed
+air for this purpose was made by Admiral
+Sir Thomas Cochrane who, in
+1830, took out a patent for the use of
+compressed air to expel the water from
+the ground in shafts and tunnels and,
+by this means, to convert the ground
+from a condition of quicksand to one
+of firmness. This patent covers all
+the essential features of compressed air
+working.</p>
+
+<p>As suggested above, the thing which
+compressed air does in a tunnel is to
+push the water out from all the spaces
+which it fills in the ground, so that the
+men who are digging away the ground
+for the tunnel are working in firm dry
+ground instead of a mixture of earth
+and water which will run into and fill
+the hole they dig as soon as it is dug.</p>
+
+<p>Whenever a tunnel is being built below
+a body of water through ground
+which is porous, or in other words
+through any ground except solid rock
+or dense clay, the water fills every crevice
+and space in the ground and is exerting
+a pressure of about half a pound
+per square inch above the ordinary
+pressure of the air, (which is 15 pounds
+to the square inch) for every foot of
+depth below the surface of the water;
+so that supposing the tunnel is 40 feet
+below the water the water has a pressure
+of nearly 20 pounds per square
+inch on every square inch of the surface
+of the tunnel. This pressure causes
+the water to flow violently into any hole
+or opening that is made in the ground,
+and, unless the water is prevented from
+moving by some means or other, the
+opening made would be very quickly
+filled with water and also with ground
+as the rush of water will carry the sand,
+gravel or mud with it.</p>
+
+<p>By Cochrane’s invention the whole
+tunnel is filled with air under a pressure
+equal to the pressure of the water. This
+compressed air therefore balances the
+pressure of the water and holds it back
+from moving, and if the pressure of
+the air is made slightly greater than
+that of the water the water is driven
+back from the tunnels for a short distance
+so that when the tunnel is being
+dug the ground instead of being wet is
+quite dry.</p>
+
+<p>This explains the principles of the
+shield and compressed air way of making
+a tunnel.</p>
+
+<p>The following describes very shortly
+how these principles are put to actual
+use.</p>
+
+<p>Most tunnels which are built by
+shield and compressed air under rivers
+or arms of the sea are lined with cast
+iron plates to protect the railway or
+roadway which is in the tunnel.</p>
+
+<p>The tunnel is a circular tube, or shell,
+and the plates have flanges on all sides
+which are bolted together. This shell
+is put into place, plate by plate, by
+means of the shield which not only
+protects the workmen and the work
+under construction, but which helps to
+build the iron shell. In fact it corresponds
+to the sea worm which bores
+through the wood and lines the hole
+with a shell. In the case of the tunnel
+the shell is made of iron. The shield
+itself consists of a steel tube or cylinder
+slightly bigger in diameter than the tube
+or tunnel it is intended to build. The
+front edge of this shield is made up
+of a ring of sharp edged castings which
+form what is called the “cutting edge.”
+Just behind the cutting edge is a bulkhead
+or wall of steel, in which are openings
+which may be opened or closed at
+will. Behind this bulkhead are placed
+a number of hydraulic jacks or presses
+arranged around the shield and within
+it, so that by thrusting against the last
+erected ring of iron lining the whole
+shield is pushed forward. The rear end
+of the shield is a continuation of the
+cylinder which forms the front end,
+and this part, called the “tail,” always
+overlaps the last few feet of the built
+up iron shell.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page212">[212]</span></p>
+
+<div class="container w45emmax" id="Fig212a">
+
+<img src="images/illo212a.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption long">This is a photograph of a model of the Pennsylvania Tunnels to New York City, made for the Jamestown
+Tercentenary Exposition of 1907. It is given because it illustrates, as no photograph of actual
+work could do, the relationship between the shield, the tunnel itself and the air lock. This view shows
+the rear part of the shield on the extreme left, with the erector picking up an iron plate. It shows a
+man bringing a car with two of the iron plates up to the shield. Behind this man comes the bulkhead
+wall with the emergency air lock in the top and the ordinary air lock for passing in and out at the bottom.
+It also shows the upper platform to the emergency lock along which the men can get to the emergency
+lock in case of an accident.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<div class="container w45emmax" id="Fig212b">
+
+<img src="images/illo212b.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption long">This is another view of the same model, but showing the front view of the shield. The doors on
+the air locks are clearly shown.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<div class="container w50emmax" id="Fig213">
+
+<img src="images/illo213.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption long">This is a photograph taken in one of the Pennsylvania tunnels under the Hudson River. It shows
+the soft mud, through which the tunnel is being built, flowing in a thick stream through one of the doors
+of the shield. The mud under the Hudson, where these tunnels are, is so soft that often the shield was
+pushed through the mud with all the doors shut, so that no mud came into the tunnel and no digging
+had to be done, but the shield pushed its way bodily through the mud, the rings of iron lining being
+built up behind as usual. Generally, however, a certain amount of mud was brought in and had to be
+removed. This photograph shows how it looked.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>HOW THE SHIELD CUTS<br>THROUGH THE GROUND</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>The diagram, <a href="#Fig208">Fig. 1</a>, shows more
+clearly what is meant. From an inspection
+of <a href="#Fig208">Figure 1</a> it is clear that,
+when the openings in the shield bulkhead
+are closed, the tunnel is protected
+from an inrush of either water or earth;
+the openings in the bulkhead may be
+so regulated that control is maintained
+over the material passed through. After
+a ring of iron lining has been erected
+within the tail of the shield, the shield
+doors are opened and men go through
+them and dig out enough earth for the
+shield to go ahead. The rams are then
+thrust out thus pushing the shield
+ahead. Another ring of iron is built
+up within the tail for which purpose
+an hydraulic swinging arm, called the
+“erector,” is mounted on the shield face.
+This erector picks up the plates and
+puts them into position, one by one,
+while the men bolt them together. Excavation
+is then carried on again and
+the whole round of work repeated, gaining
+every time the jacks are rammed
+or thrust out a length equal to the
+length of one ring of iron lining. In
+carrying out this work in ground
+charged with water the shield is assisted
+by introducing compressed air as described
+before. To use the compressed
+air thick bulkhead walls of masonry are<span class="pagenum" id="Page213">[213]</span>
+built across the tunnel behind the shield
+and into the space between the shield
+and the bulkhead wall air is pumped,
+compressed to the same pressure as that
+of the water in the ground, or in other
+words the pressure of the air in pounds
+per square inch is about half the number
+of feet the tunnel is below the water
+surface. This dries the ground and
+simplifies enormously the difficulty of
+working in it. The diagram, (<a href="#Fig208">Fig. 1</a>)
+shows a bulkhead wall across the tunnel.
+In order to pass from the ordinary
+air outside the bulkhead into the compressed
+air inside it, all the men and
+the materials have to pass through the
+“air locks” which are built into the wall.
+They are called air locks because they
+are like the locks on a canal which raise
+the water from a lower to a higher level
+or lower it from a higher to a lower
+level as the case may be. The difference
+is that an air lock enables one to
+pass from air at a low pressure to one
+of a higher, or vice versa. An air lock
+is made like a large boiler with a door
+at each end. If we wish to enter the
+compressed air we enter the lock from
+the outside. The door at the end has
+been tightly closed to prevent the compressed
+air from rushing out. We close
+the door behind us and are now tightly
+shut in the boiler-like lock. We now
+open a valve and compressed air begins
+to flow quickly into the air lock
+and the air gets hotter and hotter, due
+to the compression of the air. Very
+likely an intense pain begins to make
+itself felt in the ears but by swallowing
+hard and blowing the nose it may
+be relieved. It is caused by the air
+pressure being greater on the outside
+of the ear drum than on the inside. If
+the delicate ear passages are choked,
+because of a cold or some such reason,
+it is unsafe to go further or the ear
+drum may burst. When the pressure
+in the air lock has reached that in the
+working chamber, the door leading to
+the shield may be opened and we can
+pass to the working space and note
+the work going on. There is no especial
+bodily sensation to be felt except
+a slight exhilaration and it is curious
+to find that one cannot whistle. On
+leaving the compressed air we enter the
+air lock by the door we left; a valve
+is turned and the air begins to escape
+and the pressure in the air lock begins
+to go down. As it does so the air becomes
+colder and colder and the whole
+lock is filled with a wet fog due to the
+chilling by expansion of the air. The
+air has to be allowed to escape very
+slowly, as bubbles of air and gas otherwise
+form in the blood vessels and tissues
+of the body giving rise to the very
+painful complaint known to tunnel
+builders as “the bends,” and in very
+serious cases to paralysis and even
+death. The higher the air pressure the
+more slowly must one come out into
+the ordinary air.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page214">[214]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage landscape">
+
+<p class="paghead">MAKING THE JOINTS WATER TIGHT</p>
+
+<div class="split5050">
+
+<div class="left5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo214a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig214a">
+
+<p class="caption long">This shows the erector building up the iron lining in one of the Pennsylvania
+tunnels at New York. It shows clearly how the iron plates are bolted together
+to make the rings of iron lining.</p>
+
+</div><!--leftsplit-->
+
+<div class="right5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo214b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig214b">
+
+<p class="caption long">The last, or closing, plate of each iron ring is called the “key,” and is much
+shorter than the others. This photograph shows the shield erector on one of the
+Pennsylvania tunnels picking up and putting into place a key plate. This picture
+gives an idea of the mud and dirt and wet in which the men who work in tunnels
+have to do their work.</p>
+
+</div><!--right5050-->
+
+</div><!--split5050-->
+
+<div class="split5050">
+
+<div class="left5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo214c.jpg" alt="" id="Fig214c" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption long">Wherever possible, every space and crevice outside the iron lining is filled
+with cement forced, in a liquid state, through the iron lining by compressed
+air. This photograph shows the operation of “grouting,” as it is called. The
+man at the left is in control of the grouting. He has the hose, through which
+the grout is forced, screwed to a pipe which passes through a hole made for
+the purpose in the iron lining plates and called a “grout hole.” The two men
+in the middle of the picture are attending to the “grouting machine” by which
+the work is done. Water and cement are fed into the small boiler-like tank,
+the tank closed and compressed air admitted thus blowing the liquid cement
+through the hose and behind the iron lining. When no more grout can be forced
+behind the iron lining all the space has been filled. The man on the right is
+the engineers’ inspector taking note of how much grouting is done, and seeing
+that the work is properly carried out.</p>
+
+</div><!--leftsplit-->
+
+<div class="right5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo214d.jpg" alt="" id="Fig214d" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption long">This shows the process by which the iron lining is made perfectly water-tight,
+so that, when the compressed air is taken off, no water at all can get
+into the tunnel. Two operations are shown here. One is called “grommetting
+the bolts,” the other is called “caulking the joints.” The two men on the left,
+hanging on to the wrench, are tightening up the bolts as tight as they can after
+having put on, underneath the washers at the head and nut of each bolt, a ring
+of spun yarn dipped in red lead and oil or tar or some such water-proof material.
+A few of these “grommets” may be seen at the feet of the third man from the
+left. The other four men are caulking the joints between the iron plates by
+driving into the joints a mixture of sal ammoniac and iron borings. This sets
+as hard as iron and if properly done makes a perfectly water-tight joint.</p>
+
+</div><!--right5050-->
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--split-->
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page215">[215]</span></p>
+
+<div class="container w45emmax" id="Fig215">
+
+<p class="caption">THE REMARKABLE ACCURACY OF ENGINEERING</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo215.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption long">Usually when crossing, with a tunnel, a wide river or estuary the tunnel is started from each shore
+and the shields are pushed through the ground until they meet somewhere about the middle of the river.
+This shows two of the Pennsylvania tunnel shields which have met far below the Hudson River. The
+white arrow shows where each shield ends. The platform of one shield on which the man stands
+corresponds exactly with the platform of the other shield. As may be imagined, it takes very careful
+and skillful engineering and surveying work, both before the work is begun and while it is being carried
+out, to enable tunnel shields to meet like this. This part of the art of tunnelling would take an article
+to itself.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>When the shield has been pushed
+across the entire length of the water
+way which has to be tunnelled, and the
+whole of the iron tube or shell is in
+place, a thick lining of concrete is
+placed inside the iron shell to protect
+it and make the tunnel stronger. As
+an added safeguard wherever the tunnel
+is in rock, gravel, strong clay or
+other ground which is not so soft that it
+does not close tightly in on the outside
+of the tube, liquid cement is forced by
+compressed air through holes made in
+the iron plates for this purpose. This
+liquid cement enters every pore or crevice
+in the surrounding ground and when
+it has set hard it still further protects
+the iron with a coating of cement.
+Pieces have been cut out of the iron
+lining of a tunnel built under the river
+Thames at London, England, in 1869,
+which showed that the iron at all places
+was as good as the day it was first put
+in forty years before, and iron put in
+the lining of the Hudson River Tunnel
+about 1878 when removed after thirty
+years was in perfect condition.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page216">[216]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage landscape">
+
+<p class="paghead">SHIELD AT END OF JOURNEY</p>
+
+<div class="split5050">
+
+<div class="left5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo216a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig216a">
+
+<p class="caption long">Sometimes, however, shields are not driven to meet one another, but end
+their journey at some shaft or in some other tunnel previously built, after having
+gone through thousands of feet of all kinds of ground, from the hardest rock,
+which had to be blasted out foot by foot before the shield could advance,
+through hard pan, gravel, boulders, piles, rip-rap, made ground and mud so soft
+that it flows like melted butter. Naturally, after an experience like this a shield
+does not look as spick and span as when it started in life. This photograph
+shows one of the shields of the Hudson and Manhattan Railroad in New York
+just reaching the end of its journey, battered and bent but still in the ring.</p>
+
+</div><!--leftsplit-->
+
+<div class="right5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo216b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig216b">
+
+<p class="caption long">This shows a piece of curved tunnel near Morton Street, on the Hudson
+and Manhattan Railroad, and is given because of the clear showing it gives of
+the iron lining. The track and floor are only the temporary roads for use
+during construction.</p>
+
+</div><!--rightsplit-->
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--split-->
+
+<div class="split5050">
+
+<div class="left5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo216c.jpg" alt="" id="Fig216c" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption long">Sometimes it is necessary to make borings of the ground below the tunnels.
+In some of these bore holes vast quantities of water are found at a much higher
+pressure than the tunnel compressed air. This picture shows a spouting bore
+hole in one of the Pennsylvania tunnels during construction.</p>
+
+</div><!--leftsplit-->
+
+<div class="right5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo216d.jpg" alt="" id="Fig216d" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption long">The last thing to do before laying the track is to put the concrete inside
+the iron lining. This picture shows this work going on and the wooden forms
+or ribs for holding up the concrete while it is setting.</p>
+
+</div><!--rightsplit-->
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--split-->
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page217">[217]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">THE LAND END OF A GREAT TUNNEL UNDER THE HUDSON</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo217.jpg" alt="" id="Fig217">
+
+<p class="caption long">This view is given to show how complicated an underground structure may have to be made to take
+care of the requirements of traffic. This view shows the three great reinforced concrete caissons sunk
+through the earth at Jersey City in order to contain the switches and crossings required to form the
+New Jersey connections of the uptown and downtown tunnels of the Hudson and Manhattan Railroad.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">These caissons were sunk under air pressure by excavating below them just as though they were
+tunnels turned up on end. In sinking these caissons the material passed through was water-logged made
+ground, and the hulls of two sunken canal boats were encountered and had to be cut into pieces small
+enough to be taken out through the locks.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">The usual passenger rushing at high speed in the trains between Jersey City and Newark and New
+York has little idea of the very complicated structure necessary to allow of his doing so.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">The information in this article was supplied by Jacobs &amp; Davies, Inc., Consulting Engineers, 30
+Church Street, New York, the Engineers for the Pennsylvania Railroad, Hudson River Tunnels, the Hudson
+and Manhattan Railroad, and many other tunnels in various parts of the world.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">The illustrations were kindly supplied by the Pennsylvania Railroad and the Hudson and Manhattan
+Railroad.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page218">[218]</span></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>DANGERS OF<br>
+TUNNEL BUILDING</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>This account of tunnelling by shield
+and compressed air is very short and
+gives no more than a bare statement of
+the principles and chief methods of
+such work. Nothing has been said of
+the engineering difficulties involved in
+the design of such work, nor of the
+delicate surveying work necessary if
+one should hope to start two shields a
+mile or two apart and have them meet
+as shown in <a href="#Fig215">Fig. 13</a> like two great glass
+tumblers placed rim to rim after having
+travelled through thousands of feet of
+every kind of ground. Nothing has
+been said of the men who work on
+this most arduous form of subterranean
+navigation, how they cheerfully face
+the dark and the water ever threatening
+above them and the unseen but not
+less deadly ally, and yet foe, the compressed
+air, with its dreaded result, the
+bends, or the men on the surface who
+keep the air compressors running without
+pause or stop day in and day out
+until the work is done so that their
+comrades below may work in safety.
+Nothing has been said of the curious
+accidents that are liable to occur as
+when the air pressure in the tunnel gets
+too high, overbalances the water pressure
+and blows a hole through the
+river-bed and forms a geyser in the
+river above. It gives no account of the
+special difficulties which arise when
+special conditions are found; for example,
+when the lower part of the tunnel
+is in rock and the upper part is in
+soft material. In fact it is nothing
+more than a bare outline but it hoped
+that some, who may not be clear in their
+minds as to how tunnels are built, may
+learn some of the first principles of
+this most romantic kind of work from
+this bald narrative.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Do My Teeth Chatter?</h2>
+
+<p>Your teeth chatter because when you
+are cold in a way that makes your
+teeth chatter the little muscles which
+close the jaw act in a series of quick
+little contractions which pull the jaw
+up, and then let it fall by its own
+weight. This is repeated many times
+and, as the action is quick, the chattering
+occurs. It is a peculiar thing that
+this occurs in spite of the will or brain,
+when, as a matter of fact, these muscles
+which operate the jaws are especially
+under the control of the brain. The
+chattering is really a spasm caused by
+the cold, and all spasms act independent
+of the will. Cold seems to act
+on the jaw muscles a good deal like
+some poisons which cause spasms.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Where Did All the Water in the Oceans
+Come From?</h2>
+
+<p>No, it did not come from the rivers
+which empty themselves into the
+oceans, because the oceans were there
+before the rivers existed. Part of it
+comes from the rivers now, but only a
+little in comparison to all the water
+there is in the ocean. I will try to tell
+you simply how all the water got into
+the ocean.</p>
+
+<p>There was a time when there was no
+water on the earth at all. That was
+when the earth was red hot, just as it
+is to-day on the inside, and at that
+time all the water we have to-day was
+up in the air in the form of gases.
+Strange as it may seem to you, if you
+take two gases, one called hydrogen
+and the other oxygen, and mix them
+the right way, they will turn into water,
+and if you had the right kind of chemical
+apparatus you could take water
+and turn it into these gases again.
+When, then, the earth was still all red
+hot, all of our water was up in the air
+in the form of these two gases. Then,
+later on, when the amount of heat on
+the earth was just right to make these
+gases mix together, the water came
+down out of the air in great quantities,
+and there was so much of it that it
+completely covered the whole earth and
+no land was visible. Later on, for
+various reasons, mountains were
+thrown up on the earth’s surface by
+great earthquakes, and every time a
+mountain or a high place was formed
+there had to be a hole or low place
+some place else, and the water ran into
+these low places and stayed there, and
+that uncovered more of the land, because
+there wasn’t enough water to fill
+all the holes and cover the land too,<span class="pagenum" id="Page219">[219]</span>
+and that is what makes our continents
+and islands and all of the land we see.
+There is now about three times as much
+earth covered with water as there is
+land. Of course, the sun is always
+picking up water through what is called
+evaporation, which means that it is
+taken into the air in the form of gases.
+Later it comes down again in the form
+of rain and falls into the oceans or on
+the land, where it sinks in, finally finding
+a stream or river, and sooner or
+later gets back into the ocean again.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Don’t the Water in the Ocean Sink
+In?</h2>
+
+<p>This is due to the fact that there is
+a kind of substance at the bottom of
+the ocean which the water cannot penetrate,
+in spite of the tremendous pressure
+which the great body of deep
+water exerts. In all places where the
+bottom of the ocean has a covering
+which water can sink into it does so,
+but there are such a few places where
+this is possible, by comparison, that the
+amount that gets out that way is not
+noticeable. This water, if it can keep
+on going, will eventually reach the inside
+of the earth, where it is red hot,
+and is turned into steam.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Where Does the Water in the Ocean
+Go at Low Tide?</h2>
+
+<p>To get to the answer of this you must
+know something about the tides. The
+tide is caused by the pull of the moon
+on the waters in the ocean. The moon
+revolves about the earth once each day
+and has the ability to draw up the
+waters in the ocean toward it, as we
+have seen in our study of the tides.</p>
+
+<p>Now, when it is high tide in one
+place it is low tide in another. The
+moon does not make more water, but
+only pulls it toward it from side to side.
+When it is low tide where we are the
+water has simply moved as a body toward
+the place where it is high tide.</p>
+
+<p>The tides act a good deal like a see-saw,
+except that they move from side to
+side instead of up and down. When one
+end of the see-saw goes up the other
+end goes down, and when the “down”
+end comes up the other end goes down.
+So the answer to your question really
+is that at low tide the water which made
+it high tide a few hours before has gone
+to some place where it is at that moment
+high tide.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Does the Ocean Look Blue at Times
+and at Other Times Green?</h2>
+
+<p>Sometimes when we look at the ocean
+from the pavilion or while on the sand
+of our favorite bathing beach the water
+in the ocean looks very beautifully blue,
+and on other days will look dark green
+from the same point. Why is it? If
+you will stop to think that at night when
+there is no moon or other light the
+water in the ocean looks black, I think
+you will soon be on the right track to
+answer the question yourself.</p>
+
+<p>When the sky is blue—the kind of
+blue we like to see in the sky when we
+are at the beach—the water in the
+ocean is blue, because the sea reflects
+the color of the sky, and when the sky
+is overcast and gray the color reflected
+by the sea will be gray also.</p>
+
+<p>But, say you, sometimes the water
+in the ocean is dark green, and yet
+the sky is never green. Quite true,
+and I will try to tell you what produces
+the green color. This happens sometimes
+where the water is shallow,
+either near the shore or out further
+where there is a sandbar or other shallow
+place. Sometimes at such points
+the sunlight strikes the water at such
+an angle that the rays go clear to the
+bottom and are reflected from that
+point—the bottom—to our eyes. In
+such a case the light will be changed
+through a combination of the color of
+the bottom at that point and the color
+of the sky itself at the time to make
+the color green as it is reflected to our
+eyes from the bottom.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Does Water Run?</h2>
+
+<p>Water runs because it has not enough
+of anything in it to make it stick together.</p>
+
+<p>In school language we call this sticking-together-thing<span class="pagenum" id="Page220">[220]</span>
+“cohesion.” The
+principle of cohesion makes all the difference
+there is, so to speak, between
+solids, liquids and gases. A brick, a
+stone, a stick of wood, or a piece of
+iron and all other solid substances have
+a certain amount of this property of
+cohesion, and the particles stick together,
+enabling us to build buildings
+and other things which become permanent
+structures. These solid substances
+are either naturally cohesive or else
+man, as in the case of the brick, has
+brought together certain things with
+little or no cohesion and made them
+stick together permanently. In the case
+of the brick, he takes a quantity of clay,
+which is cohesive only to a certain degree,
+bakes it in an oven and it becomes
+hard enough—more cohesive—so that
+he can pile one on top of the other
+and make a building. Then he puts
+sand, mixed with other things—lime
+and water—between the bricks to hold
+the bricks together, and makes a structure
+that will last. Two bricks have no
+natural cohesion for each other and,
+therefore, they can only be held together
+by something that has cohesion
+within itself and also for the bricks.
+The lime, sand and water make mortar
+which is cohesive when properly mixed,
+while in themselves neither lime nor
+sand have much cohesive property, and
+water has none at all.</p>
+
+<p>Liquids have little or no cohesion.
+Water has none, or very little. Syrup
+has a good deal more, but will run over
+the edge of a piece of bread and butter
+if you are not careful.</p>
+
+<p>Gases have no cohesive properties at
+all and, therefore, fly all over the place,
+through any opening they can find,
+either at the top of the room or under
+the crack of the door. They are always
+trying to get to some place else and will
+keep moving as long as not confined.
+Gases can move in any direction.</p>
+
+<p>Liquids, however, while they are inclined
+to be constantly on the move, can
+only go in one direction—down hill, and
+they go down fast or slow if there is a
+chance, in proportion to the amount of
+stick-together properties they have.
+Liquids can never go up of their own
+accord, excepting in the process of
+evaporation, and then only when
+changed into gases. A lake of water
+will dry up completely by evaporation
+unless fed by streams of water constantly
+flowing in, because evaporation
+is constantly taking place wherever
+water is exposed to the air.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Makes the Water Boil?</h2>
+
+<p>What we call boiling in the water
+we see when water is put over a hot
+fire long enough to make it boil, is the
+changing of the water from what we
+generally regard it—a liquid—into
+gases. Water consists of two gases—hydrogen
+and oxygen—in fact, two
+parts of hydrogen gas and one part of
+oxygen gas when mixed will always
+make pure water. Now, then, if liquid
+water is heated to a certain point or
+temperature it turns into the two gases,
+oxygen and hydrogen, and comes to
+the top of the water, which still remains
+in liquid form, in the form of a
+bubble and explodes into the air—not
+a very loud explosion, but still an explosion.
+The process of turning liquid
+water into gases is a gradual one, and
+that is why the water does not all turn
+into one large bubble at once and explode
+away. If you keep the fire going
+long enough, all the water in the vessel
+will explode away into the air, a few
+bubbles at a time. If you hold a cold
+plate over the vessel as the bubble explodes
+you can catch some of these
+gases in the form of bubbles on the
+under side of the plate, which are again
+liquid water. When the water becomes
+hot enough it turns into bubbles and as
+bubbles rise that is what makes the
+boiling you see. When the same gases
+then come together again in a certain
+proportion under proper temperature
+they turn into liquid water.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">At What Point of Heat Does Water Boil?</h2>
+
+<p>The boiling point of water is the
+temperature at which it begins to pass
+into the form of gases. This varies in
+different altitudes. At the sea level the
+boiling point is at 212° Fahrenheit. On
+the top of mountains, for instance,<span class="pagenum" id="Page221">[221]</span>
+water would boil at a much lower temperature.
+It would be possible to go
+high enough in a balloon so that the
+water would fly from the pan in the
+form of gas without making the water
+hot. Also, a mile below the level of
+the sea it would take many more degrees
+of heat to make the water boil.
+It is said that high up in a balloon
+you could not boil an egg hard in a
+pan of boiling water if you kept it in
+the boiling water for an hour or more,
+whereas we know that an egg will be
+hard-boiled if we keep it in boiling
+water down where we live for more
+than five minutes.</p>
+
+<p>The degree of heat at which water
+passes away into the form of gases is
+regulated by the pressure of the air
+on the water and other things about us.
+At the average level in the United
+States where people live the pressure of
+the air on everything is fifteen pounds
+to the square inch, and at this pressure
+water boils only after it reaches a temperature
+of 212° Fahrenheit. As we
+go up the mountains the pressure becomes
+less and less as we go up. At
+the top of Mount Blanc, which is 15,781
+feet high, water boils at 185° Fahrenheit.
+If we took a balloon from the top
+of the mountain we would come to a
+height where there was no air pressure
+at all.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Do We Mean by Fahrenheit?</h2>
+
+<p>The name Fahrenheit is used to distinguish
+the kind of scale most commonly
+used on thermometers in Great
+Britain and the United States. Gabriel
+Daniel Fahrenheit, a native of Dantzic,
+made the first thermometer on which
+this scale was used, and it is named
+after him. In this scale for thermometers
+the space between the freezing
+point and the boiling point is divided
+into 180 degrees—the point for freezing
+being marked 32 degrees and the
+boiling point 212 degrees.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Can’t We Swim as Easily in Fresh
+Water as in Salt Water?</h2>
+
+<p>Our bodies are heavier than fresh
+water, i. e., a bulk of fresh water equal
+to the size of our body would weigh
+less than our body, so that the first
+tendency is to sink to the bottom if
+we find ourselves in fresh water. If
+man had not learned to swim that is
+what he would always do, sink to the
+bottom; but having learned how to keep
+from sinking, he is able to swim in
+fresh water. However, we find that
+an amount of salt water equal to
+the bulk of a man in size is heavier
+than an equal amount of fresh water,
+although such a bulk of ordinary salt
+sea water will still weigh less than the
+man. A man will sink in salt water
+also if he has not learned to swim or
+float, but he can keep up with less effort
+in salt water, and also swim in it more
+easily. In a nutshell, then, the answer
+to this question is that salt water is
+heavier than fresh water. You can
+make salt water so full of salt that it
+becomes heavier than a man. Great
+Salt Lake in Utah is so salty that one
+cannot sink in it for this reason. You
+could drown yourself in it, of course,
+by keeping your head under water, but
+whether in shallow water or deep
+water you would not sink in Great Salt
+Lake.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Do We Say Some Water Is Hard
+and Other Water Soft?</h2>
+
+<p>What we call hard water contains
+certain salts which soft water does not
+contain. This salt in hard water is lime
+or some other salts which the water has
+picked up out of the ground as it
+passed through either coming up or
+going down. On the other hand, we can
+guess after having been told this much
+that if we can find any water that has
+not passed through the ground, and,
+therefore, not had a chance to pick up
+any salts, we will have soft water. From
+that point it is easy to guess, then, that
+rain water must be soft water, and so
+it is. The water in the cisterns, which
+is rain water, is soft water, and the
+kind we get out of the wells is hard
+water.</p>
+
+<p>We do not like to wash either our
+faces or our clothes in hard water,
+especially when it is necessary to use
+soap, because when we use soap with<span class="pagenum" id="Page222">[222]</span>
+hard water the soap undergoes chemical
+change which prevents its dissolving
+in the water. Therefore, you cannot
+easily do a good job of washing in hard
+water. On the other hand it is easy
+to dissolve the soap in pure rain water
+or soft water and that is the kind we,
+therefore, prefer for washing.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">How Does Water Put a Fire Out?</h2>
+
+<p>This is at first a puzzling question,
+because back in your mind is the
+thought that since hydrogen and oxygen
+are necessary to make a fire burn,
+it seems strange that water, which is
+composed of oxygen and hydrogen, will
+also put it out.</p>
+
+<p>A burning fire throws off heat, but if
+too much of the heat is taken from the
+fire suddenly the temperature of the
+fire is sent down so far below the
+point at which the oxygen of the air
+will combine with it that the fire cannot
+burn. We speak commonly as
+though water thrown on a fire drowns
+it. That is practically what happens.
+Scientifically what happens is that the
+water thrown upon the fire absorbs so
+much of the heat to itself that the temperature
+of the fire is reduced below
+the point where oxygen will combine
+with the carbon in the burning material
+and the fire goes out.</p>
+
+<p>To answer the unasked part of your
+question at the same time I will say
+that hydrogen and oxygen when combined
+as water will put the fire out
+rather than make it burn, more because
+when these gases take the form of
+water they are already once burned,
+and you know that anything, substance
+or gas, which has already been burned
+cannot be burned again. It required
+great heat to make oxygen and hydrogen
+combine and form water, and it
+also takes great heat to separate them
+again. So they are really burned once
+before they become water.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Where Does the Rain Go?</h2>
+
+<p>Eventually almost all of the rain that
+falls runs into the rivers and lakes
+and later finds its way into the ocean,
+where it is again taken up into the air
+by the sun’s rays. But many other
+things happen to parts of the rain
+which do not find their way into the
+ocean. In the paved street, of course,
+where the water cannot sink in, it flows
+into the gutter and thence into the
+sewer and on down to the river or
+wherever it is that the sewers are
+emptied. You see, it depends very
+much on what the earth’s surface is
+covered with at the place where the rain
+falls. When it strikes where there is
+vegetation a great deal of it stays in
+the soil at a depth of comparatively few
+feet. If it is soil where trees and other
+plants grow a great deal of it is sucked
+up from the ground by this vegetation
+and given back into the air through
+the leaves and flowers. Some of the
+rain keeps sinking on down into the
+earth until it strikes some substance
+like rock or clay, through which it
+cannot sink, and then it follows along
+this until it finds something it can get
+through and collects in a pool and
+forms an underground lake, and may
+cause a spring to flow. Then there are
+also worms and other forms of animal
+life in the earth which use up some of
+the water. But it all gets back into the
+air eventually to come down some time
+again in the form of rain.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Does Rain Make the Air Fresh?</h2>
+
+<p>The main answer to this question
+must be that the rain in coming down
+through the air drives the dust and
+other impurities which are in the air
+before it, and so cleans the air and
+makes it absolutely clean. In addition
+to this it is now stated that since very
+often rain is produced by electrical
+changes in the air, and that these electrical
+changes produce a gas called
+ozone, which has a delightfully fresh
+smell, it is this ozone that makes us
+say the air has become fresh.</p>
+
+<p>The air above our cities is almost
+constantly filled with smoke, containing
+various poisonous gases, and these are
+driven away by the falling rain.</p>
+
+<p>Then, too, there is always a greater
+or less accumulation of dirt, garbage<span class="pagenum" id="Page223">[223]</span>
+and other things in the cities which give
+off offensive smells constantly, but
+which we do not notice always because
+we become used to them. When the
+rain comes down it washes the streets
+and destroys these smells, and that
+makes the air fresh and delightful to
+take into the lungs.</p>
+
+<p>In the country the air is more nearly
+pure all the time, because the things
+which spoil the air in the city are not
+present.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Is a Train Harder to Stop Than to
+Start?</h2>
+
+<p>The answer is yes. It is harder to
+stop a train than to start it, or rather
+it takes more power. The speed of a
+train depends upon the motive power.
+When a train is stopped and you wish
+to start it, you must apply enough motive
+power to start it going. There
+must be enough power to move the
+weight of the train and overcome the
+friction of the wheels on the track. It
+is, of course, easier to move a thing
+that weighs less than a heavier one.
+If you throw a ball ten feet into the
+air, it will perhaps not sting your hand
+when you catch it on its return; but,
+if you throw it one hundred feet into
+the air, it will sting your hands when
+you catch it. Besides, it will come
+down faster the last ten feet of the
+way than the ball which you threw
+only ten feet into the air. This is because
+when movement is applied to
+anything you add power to it. The
+ball which comes down from one
+hundred feet in the air acquires more
+power in falling and it takes more
+power to stop it. A train in motion
+has not only the power of the weight
+of the train behind it, but also the additional
+weight which the movement
+of the train has given it. Therefore,
+it takes more power to stop it than to
+start it. To stop a train you must apply
+the same amount of power as is
+in the moving train because the power
+to stop any moving thing must always
+be at least as great as the power which
+is moving it.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Makes the Knots In Boards?</h2>
+
+<p>We find knots in the boards which
+we notice in a lumber pile or in any
+other place where boards happen to
+be, because the smaller limbs which
+grow away from the larger limbs of
+trees grow from the inside as well as
+the outside of the tree.</p>
+
+<p>When you see a knot in a board it
+means that before the tree was cut
+down and the log sawed up into boards,
+a limb was growing out from the inside
+of the tree at the spot where the
+knot occurs.</p>
+
+<p>You will also find that the wood in
+the knot is harder generally than the
+rest of the board. This is because
+more strength is required at the base
+of a limb and in the part of the limb
+which grew inside the tree than in
+other parts, for the limb must be strong
+enough to support not only the limb
+itself, but also the smaller limbs which
+grow out of it.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">How Many Stars Are There?</h2>
+
+<p>Man may never know how many
+stars there are. The best we can do
+is to figure on the number that can be
+seen with the largest telescopes which
+have been invented, for, of course, you
+know there must be many millions of
+them which to us are invisible. We
+have counted the stars so far as we
+can see them; or, rather, so far as we
+can photograph them. Astronomers
+have found that a photographic plate
+exposed to the stars will show more
+of them than can be seen by the naked
+eye. This is because the materials on
+a photographic plate are more sensitive
+to the light of the stars than the
+human eye. By this method man has
+been able in a way to count the stars
+he can see. It adds up to more than
+a hundred million of them. Astronomers
+found this out by taking photographs
+of the heavens at night, devoting
+one picture to each section, until
+the entire heavens had been covered,
+and then counting them.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page224">[224]</span></p>
+
+<div class="container w45emmax" id="Fig224">
+
+<p class="caption">WHERE PAINT COMES FROM</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo224.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">MAKING LEAD BUCKLES—THE FIRST STEP IN PAINT MAKING.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<h2 class="nobreak">The Story in a Can of Paint</h2>
+
+</div><!--chapter-->
+
+<p>Paint such as is most frequently
+used is the material used for painting
+buildings, such as houses, barns, stores,
+and many others which we need not
+mention here. This paint is used on
+these buildings mostly for two very important
+reasons—one being to beautify
+the buildings, the other being to protect
+them from the ravages of the
+weather, much in the same way that
+your clothes protect you from the
+weather.</p>
+
+<p>Paint such as we mention here may
+be regarded as the most simple and
+useful form. You have no doubt frequently
+seen the painter-man spreading
+paint on some building, or perchance,
+you have seen your father doing it, and
+have noticed that paint is a fluid substance
+looking something like cream,
+which is applied to the surface to be
+painted with a suitable brush and is
+brushed out smoothly. After the first
+coat is dry, other coats are put on in
+the same way until enough paint has
+been put on to thoroughly hide the unevenness
+of the lumber and making it
+of a uniform color.</p>
+
+<p>This paint is made by simply mixing
+together dry powder, which is usually
+called pigment, with a thin, yellowish
+liquid which is called linseed oil. In the
+earlier days, the painter-man mixed this
+paint himself whenever he desired to
+use it. In these more modern times, he
+usually buys this paint already prepared.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps a little history of the preparation
+of the package of a can of paint
+which he buys may be interesting to
+you.</p>
+
+<p>Let us imagine that the can of paint
+is white. In this case, the pigment which
+is used is a white powder and is made
+of either metallic lead or metallic zinc.
+The preparation of this fine white
+powder is very interesting and requires
+considerable time to perfect.</p>
+
+<p>Let us consider the pigment known
+as white lead first. This is produced by
+causing metallic lead, which is of a bluish-gray
+color and very heavy, to change
+from its original form by a process
+which is known as “corrosion.” This
+corrosion is brought about by first taking
+the metallic lead, which at this stage
+exists in large pieces known as “pigs.”
+These pigs of lead are melted in a furnace
+and then molded into small, thin
+shapes which are buckles.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page225">[225]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">HOW WHITE LEAD IS MADE</p>
+
+<div class="split5050">
+
+<div class="left5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo225a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig225a">
+
+<p class="caption">FILLING THE STACK WITH LEAD BUCKLES.</p>
+
+</div><!--left5050-->
+
+<div class="right5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo225b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig225b">
+
+<p class="caption">LEAD BEING TAKEN OUT OF THE STACKS.</p>
+
+</div><!--right5050-->
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--split-->
+
+<p class="caption long">The next step is to take an earthenware vessel, which resembles an ordinary stone
+crock, and first pour into it a small quantity of acetic acid, which is about the same as table
+vinegar. Then the crock or pot is filled up with the lead buckles.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">Where this white lead is made in a large way many thousands of these pots are placed
+in a building, the sides of which are walled up tight, the spaces between the crocks being
+filled in with tan bark. After the floor has been covered with a layer of these crocks, the
+layer is covered with boards, in order to provide a foundation for setting in the next layer
+of crocks and tan bark. The layer of boards also serves as a floor to keep the tan bark
+from falling into the open crocks on the tier below. This procedure is followed with
+tier after tier until the building is completely filled.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">Corrosion of the metallic lead in the pots now begins, because the tan bark generates
+some heat, becoming finally quite warm. This heat causes the acetic acid or vinegar to
+throw off vapor or steam, which attacks the metallic lead, causing it to decompose or
+corrode. This process goes on for many weeks (sometimes as much as fifteen or sixteen
+weeks), until those buckles of metallic lead have become a mass of white powder and
+nearly all trace of the original metallic lead has disappeared.</p>
+
+<div class="split5050">
+
+<div class="left5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo225c.jpg" alt="" id="Fig225c" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption">A LEAD BUCKLE AFTER CORROSION.</p>
+
+</div><!--left5050-->
+
+<div class="right5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo225d.jpg" alt="" id="Fig225d" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption">A LEAD BUCKLE BEFORE CORROSION.</p>
+
+</div><!--right5050-->
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--split-->
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page226">[226]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">HOW OXIDE OF ZINC IS OBTAINED</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo226a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig226a">
+
+<p class="caption">WASHING THE LEAD. SCREENS COVERED WITH CLOTH REMOVE ALL FOREIGN MATTER.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">After these many weeks have passed, the pots containing the white powder of carbonate
+of lead, as it is called, is taken out of the building where corrosion took place, and the
+white deposit is put through an elaborate system of refining, which is called “washing,”
+and, in fact, is really washed in water, and is then dried in very large copper pans.
+After being dried it is in the form of large white cakes, resembling pieces of chalk. These
+cakes are then passed through a mill, which grinds them to very fine powder, which is
+packed in barrels ready to be shipped and used by the paint-maker.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo226b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig226b" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption">FURNACE WHERE THE SULPHUR IS ROASTED OUT OF THE ORE.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">Now that we have followed through the process of making the white-lead powder,
+or pigment, let us take a little time to study the preparation of the other white powder,
+known to the paint trade as “oxide of zinc.” This is prepared in a manner quite different
+from that of the white lead.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">First the ore which is mined from the earth containing the metallic zinc is carefully
+selected by expert workmen and placed in a special kind of furnace, being mixed with
+hard coal, such as we use in our heating stoves.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page227">[227]</span></p>
+
+<div class="container w45emmax" id="Fig227">
+
+<img src="images/illo227.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">A ZINC SMELTER—THE MEN KEEP THEIR MOUTHS COVERED SO AS NOT TO INHALE THE VAPOR,
+WHICH IS POISONOUS</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">The burning of the coal causes an intensely high temperature, sometimes being several
+thousand degrees. This causes the zinc ore to be consumed as it were or to pass into a form
+of vapor. This vapor is carried through huge pipes which are several feet in diameter
+and extend for a long distance. While these vapors are passing through these pipes it
+becomes cooled. After becoming cooled it takes on the form of very fine white powder,
+coming from the pipes in much the same way that snow falls from the sky in the winter.
+This is collected and placed in barrels, after which it is ready for the paint-maker without
+further preparation.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>WHERE LINSEED OIL<br>
+COMES FROM</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>Since we have followed the preparation
+of the two important white pigments
+used in making our can of paint,
+it is now important that we devote a
+little thought to the liquid which is to
+be used. This is called “Linseed Oil.”
+Linseed oil is of a golden yellow color,
+resembling the appearance of thin syrup
+which we sometimes have on the table.
+This oil is taken from the seed of the
+flax plant. It might better be called
+“Flaxseed Oil,” yet it is not commonly
+known by that name, but is nearly always
+referred to as “Linseed Oil.”
+Flax is grown in many parts of the
+world, the most important places being
+the United States of America, Dominion
+of Canada, Ireland, India and
+the Argentine Republic. In the United
+States, the seed is sown early in spring,
+much the same as is done with other
+crops, and ripens and is harvested early
+in the fall of the year. The harvesting
+and separation of the seed from the<span class="pagenum" id="Page228">[228]</span>
+plant or straw is done very much in the
+same way that other crops, such as
+wheat and oats, are harvested. The seed
+is then taken to market and is ready for
+the extraction of the oil, which is done
+by men who are known as “oil
+crushers.”</p>
+
+<div class="container w40emmax">
+
+<img src="images/illo228a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig228a">
+
+<p class="caption">PRESSING OIL OUT OF FLAXSEED.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<div class="container w40emmax">
+
+<img src="images/illo228b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig228b">
+
+<p class="caption">REMOVING OIL CAKE FROM PRESS.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>The oil is extracted from the seed by
+a very simple process. Usually the
+seeds are heated by steaming them, after
+which they pass through a mill, being
+ground to a coarse mass, which is then
+placed in very powerful machines
+called “Hydraulic Oil Presses,” which
+squeeze the oil from the seed, leaving
+the remainder in the form of large
+cakes which are then ground to a mealy-like
+powder which is used as food for
+cattle and is very much prized.</p>
+
+<p>The oil which has been extracted by
+this process is put into large tanks
+where it is clarified and is then ready
+for the paint-maker. This oil is often
+referred to as “Vegetable Oil” and it
+has one very peculiar and very important
+characteristic which makes it useful
+and necessary for use in paint. This
+property is that of drying or becoming
+solid, losing all tendency to stickiness
+after it has been spread out thinly and
+exposed to the air for a short time.</p>
+
+<div class="container w40emmax">
+
+<img src="images/illo228c.jpg" alt="" id="Fig228c">
+
+<p class="caption">WHERE LEAD IS GROUND IN OIL.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<div class="container w40emmax">
+
+<img src="images/illo228d.jpg" alt="" id="Fig228d">
+
+<p class="caption">WHERE PAINTS ARE MIXED.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>Now that we have given attention to
+the preparation of the most important
+things used in the making of our can of
+paint, let us look a little to the manner
+in which they are put together, and the
+result.</p>
+
+<p>The oil is necessary in making paint
+in order to make it fluid, so that the
+paint may be brushed on to the wood<span class="pagenum" id="Page229">[229]</span>
+or other surface, and also so that the
+pigment or powdered material which
+has been put into the paint will have
+something to hold it to the surface. The
+oil or other liquid which may be used
+is usually called “Binder” by the paint
+man because it binds the pigment in the
+paint and to the surface on which it
+has been spread or applied.</p>
+
+<p>In a large paint factory, the two white
+pigments, lead and zinc, are mixed with
+linseed oil in large machines known as
+“Mixers” into a smooth paste which is
+then run through other machines called
+“Mills,” where the paste is ground very
+fine into large tubes where the paint is
+finished by mixing in enough more oil
+to make it of the proper thickness or
+consistency for brushing. In this state
+it can be used, but would not be
+entirely satisfactory because it would
+dry very slowly. For that reason, the
+paint-maker adds in a small amount of
+what is known as “Drier,” which causes
+the paint to dry much more rapidly
+after it is spread out on any surface.</p>
+
+<p>The paint-maker may also add in a
+small amount of thin liquid called “Turpentine,”
+which also aids in the drying
+and the working of the paint. Turpentine
+is a very thin liquid which looks
+like water, and it is derived from the
+sap of one species of pine which grows
+abundantly in the southern portion of
+the United States. The sap is taken
+from the tree by tapping the tree or
+making an incision called a box, at certain
+seasons. After the sap is collected
+it is put through a heating process
+called “distilling,” which separates the
+water-white liquid, called turpentine,
+leaving a large mass of heavy material
+which is commonly known as “Rosin.”
+This turpentine is very useful to the
+paint-maker and the painter. It is also
+used for many other purposes.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>WHAT MAKES THE DIFFERENT<br>
+COLORS OF PAINT</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>The paint which we have described
+is the most simple kind and is white.
+There are many other kinds of paint
+used, being of many different colors.
+All of these different kinds require different
+treatment and preparation and
+would require many large books to explain
+even in a brief way.</p>
+
+<p>The white paint which we have described
+may be colored or tinted to
+many different hues by adding suitable
+color pigments. These color pigments
+are of many kinds and are derived
+from many different sources. The
+vegetable kingdom is represented as
+well as the mineral and animal kingdoms.
+The linseed oil which we have
+already mentioned, is derived from the
+vegetable kingdom. This also applies
+to some few of the pigments. A very
+important instance which we might
+mention is a beautiful rich brown called
+“Vandyke Brown.” This is made from
+decayed vegetation which is found in
+swampy districts. There are many
+pigments derived from the mineral
+kingdom. White lead and zinc oxide
+have already been described as useful.
+Among colored pigments coming from
+this kingdom, we might mention yellow
+ochre, sienna, umber, cobalt blue, and
+many others.</p>
+
+<p>The animal kingdom supplies quite a
+number, one of which is a beautiful red
+known as “Carmine.” This is taken
+from a small insect or fly which is found
+in certain tropical climates. The production
+of carmine is very expensive
+and the product is highly prized.</p>
+
+<p>Another important development of
+the animal world is what is called “Bone
+Black.” This is made by taking ordinary
+animal bones, putting them into
+a suitable furnace and burning them,
+which really produces bone charcoal,
+which is refined by powdering and
+washing, and finally produces a beautiful
+black, such as used for painting fine
+coaches and carriages.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Does a Dog Turn Round and Round
+Before He Lies Down?</h2>
+
+<p>Away back in the history of the animal
+kingdom, when the ancestors of our
+domestic dog were wild, they slept in
+the woods or open. When they were
+ready to lie down, they first had to
+trample the grass about them flat to
+make a place to lie down. This became
+a habit and one of the instincts of the
+animal which has been transmitted to
+the dogs of today who keep it up. It
+is an inherited habit quite useless to
+the dogs of to-day.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page230">[230]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">How Is Light Produced?</h2>
+
+<p>You already learned that a substance
+called ether is found in all substances,
+filling the spaces between the molecules.
+When the molecules are made to vibrate,
+the ether naturally also vibrates.
+As soon as the vibrations become sufficiently
+rapid, they produce the sensation
+of light. These vibrations also
+produce heat. In heated bodies the
+molecules are always found to be in
+vibration, and a body may become so
+hot that it gives off light. We notice
+this when iron becomes red hot. Heat
+and light are found together in bodies
+in many instances. In fact, most of the
+light we have comes from bodies which
+are hot. The sun is so hot, that it is
+surrounded by the gases of many substances
+that exist as solids on earth.</p>
+
+<p>We have some bodies which produce
+light which is not accompanied by much
+heat. The glow-worm, or firefly, seems
+to make light with little or no heat;
+but we do not yet know how this is
+done. Almost all sources of artificial
+light require that heat be produced before
+light obtained. Only such vibrations
+of the ether which are sufficiently
+rapid produce enough light to enable
+us to see. For this reason, a piece of
+red hot iron, which is made luminous
+by heat and whose particles vibrate less
+rapidly produce little light.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Makes Rays of Light?</h2>
+
+<p>Whenever the ether is made to vibrate
+rapidly enough at any point, the
+vibrations go in straight lines from the
+source of light in all directions. A single
+line of vibrating particles in the
+ether, is known as a ray. A number
+of rays, that issue from one point, are
+said to form a pencil. A pencil of
+light may be produced by holding near
+a candle a screen, with a hole in it.
+Sometimes rays of light are brought
+together in a point, as may be done by
+means of a burning glass, and one of
+these bundles of rays is known as a
+convergent pencil.</p>
+
+<p>A bundle of rays that lie parallel to
+each other forms a beam. The rays
+that come to us from the sun are practically
+parallel and are called sunbeams.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Does a Nail Get Hot When I
+Hammer It?</h2>
+
+<p>When we are in the sunshine, or
+standing before a fire, we feel hot; when
+we take snow or ice in our hands, they
+feel cold. The thing which produces
+these sensations is called heat. When
+we feel heat, it is because heat is absorbed
+by our bodies, and when we feel
+cold, it is being thrown off by them.</p>
+
+<p>To answer this question, we must see
+how heat may be produced. If we
+draw a cord rapidly through our
+fingers, they feel hot, and if we rub
+a coin briskly with a cloth or our hands,
+it becomes warm; if we take a nail
+and hammer it on a hard substance,
+it becomes too warm for us to hold.
+In these instances heat is produced by
+retarding or checking the motion of a
+body. When we draw a cord through
+our fingers, it moves less easily; we
+retard its motion by gripping it and this
+is what makes the heat we feel. When
+we strike the nail with a hammer, the
+motion of the hammer is checked by
+the nail, and the faster we pound with
+the hammer, the hotter the nail becomes.
+From these experiments we learn that
+whenever the motion of a substance is
+checked, or retarded, heat is generated,
+and the substance made hot.</p>
+
+<p>In explaining this method of producing
+heat, it was at one time thought that
+all bodies contained a substance which
+produced the heat and that, when
+rubbed or hammered, this substance was
+thrown off. About the end of the 18th
+century, however, it was shown by Benjamin
+Thompson (Count Rumford),
+that substances when rubbed give off
+heat. From this we learned that heat
+is not a substance, because the quantity
+of any substance, present in a body,
+cannot be limitless. If it were a substance
+which produced the heat, the
+supply would sooner or later be exhausted,
+and rubbing could no longer
+produce heat.</p>
+
+<p>Heat produced by rubbing, or by
+striking substances together, is caused<span class="pagenum" id="Page231">[231]</span>
+as follows: If two substances are
+struck upon each other, the whole of
+those substances are checked, but the
+molecules of the substances are made
+to vibrate very rapidly, and these vibrations
+produce the heat we feel.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">How Do We Obtain Heat?</h2>
+
+<p>We get most of our heat from the
+sun. If the heat from the sun did not
+reach us, no living thing would exist
+on the earth. No plants or animals
+could live; the oceans and rivers would
+be solid ice.</p>
+
+<p>Another important source of heat, is
+chemical action. Chemical action is
+what causes fire. Even when it does
+not cause fire, it produces a great deal
+of heat. When we breathe to keep our
+bodies warm, it is a chemical action
+that occurs. Fire is the most important
+form of chemical action, as a
+source of heat.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Does a Glow-Worm Glow?</h2>
+
+<p>A glow-worm is a kind of beetle
+which may be found in the yards and
+hedges in the summer time. The name
+applies only to the female of the species
+which is wingless and whose body resembles
+that of a caterpillar somewhat
+and emits a shining green light from
+the end of the abdomen. The male of
+this species has wings but does not
+show any light as does the female and
+resembles an ordinary beetle. The male
+flies about in the evenings looking for
+the female and she makes her light glow
+in order that the male may find her.
+Glow-worms are found mostly in England.
+There are, however, some members
+of the same species of beetle common
+to the United States. We speak of
+them as fireflies or lightning bugs. The
+female of these also is the only one
+carrying a light, although unlike the
+glow-worm she has wings and can fly.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Do They Call It Pin Money?</h2>
+
+<p>This expression originally came from
+the allowance which a husband gave
+his wife to purchase pins. At one time
+pins were dreadfully expensive so that
+only wealthy people could afford them
+and they were saved so carefully that
+in those days you could not have looked
+along the pavement and found a pin
+which you happened to be in need of as
+you can and often do today.</p>
+
+<p>By a curious law the manufacturers
+of pins were only allowed to sell them
+on January 1st and 2nd each year and
+so when those days came around the
+women whose husbands could afford it,
+secured pin money from them and went
+out and got their pins.</p>
+
+<p>Pins have become so very cheap in
+these days that we are rather careless
+with them, but the expression has continued
+to live although today when
+used, it means any allowance of money
+which a husband gives a wife for her
+personal expenses.</p>
+
+<p>Pins were known and used as long
+ago as 1347 A. D. They were introduced
+into England in 1540. In 1824 an
+American named Might invented a
+machine for making pins which enabled
+them to be manufactured cheaply.
+About 1,500 tons of iron and brass are
+made into pins every year in the United
+States.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Do People Shake Hands With the
+Right Hand?</h2>
+
+<p>In the days of very long ago when
+all men were prepared to fight at any
+and all times because one could not
+know whether another approaching was
+a friend or an enemy, all men went
+armed. This was before the day of
+guns when the sword was the great
+weapon of defense.</p>
+
+<p>Upon occasion when one man approached
+another, each had to decide
+whether the other came on a peaceful
+mission or not.</p>
+
+<p>People in those days were mostly
+right handed as they are now and when
+fighting carried their swords in their
+right hands.</p>
+
+<p>If, then, a man wished to speak with
+a stranger or, as might easily be necessary,
+to one who may even be known
+to be unfriendly, he put out his right
+hand upon approaching to show that<span class="pagenum" id="Page232">[232]</span>
+he had no deadly or dangerous weapon
+in it. The other man could see this
+and knew from the extended open hand
+that no harm was intended and that
+the approach was peaceful. If, then,
+he was willing to meet the other, he also
+extended his right arm with the hand
+open to show him who was approaching
+that his fighting hand was empty also;
+and when they met each would grasp
+the hand of the other so that neither one
+could change his mind and assume a
+fighting attitude without the other having
+an equal warning.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">How Did the Custom of Clinking Glasses
+When Drinking Originate?</h2>
+
+<p>In the days of the Roman gladiators,
+before a duel with swords, it became the
+custom of each of the participants to
+drink a glass of wine before fighting.
+Just before the fighting commenced two
+glasses of wine were brought and the
+gladiators drank. These two glasses of
+wine were provided by the friends of
+either one or the other of the gladiators.
+To guard against treachery, through
+some over zealous friend of the fighters
+furnishing poisoned wine was necessary.
+So before drinking and to show
+there was no treachery, the gladiators
+came close together and poured wine
+from one glass into the other back and
+forth until the wine in the glasses was
+thoroughly mixed. If the wine in one
+glass then had been poisoned, the
+poisoned wine would thus be in both
+glasses, and if there had been any
+treachery, both gladiators would be
+poisoned if they drank. The wine was
+poured from one glass to the other to
+show that there was no treachery.</p>
+
+<p>This custom continued in use for a
+long time until the idea of drinking before
+a fight was abandoned. The custom,
+however, of showing friendliness
+in this way while drinking continued
+for a long time. Later it became a mere
+custom, however, to show a friendly
+spirit toward the one who was drinking
+with you, and when the danger of
+poisoned wine was past, the actual act
+of pouring the wine from one glass to
+another was changed to merely touching
+the glasses together. Thus today
+we have the friendly custom of touching
+glasses together long after the
+necessity of guarding against treachery
+while drinking has passed.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Cannot Fishes Live In the Air?</h2>
+
+<p>It is a curious thing isn’t it that if a
+boy falls into the water, he will drown
+if he cannot swim or someone does not
+help him out, and that if a fish falls
+out of the water onto the land, he will
+drown also, even though he knows how
+to swim, better than anything else he
+does. A boy cannot secure the air
+which he needs to live on if he is under
+the water, because there is not enough
+air for him there and a fish cannot secure
+enough air for him to live on when
+he is on land where the air is plentiful,
+because, the boy takes his air from the
+air itself and the fish gets his air out
+of the water.</p>
+
+<p>To live by breathing the air we find
+on or above the land, it is necessary to
+have lungs and fishes do not have lungs.
+In the case of the boy under the water
+he would have to have gills to enable
+him to make use of the air which is in
+the water to live by and he has no gills.</p>
+
+<p>A fish can only live a little while out
+of the water, but even so he can live
+longer out of the water than a boy can
+under the water.</p>
+
+<p>Lest you read sometime of the flying
+fish and think they must be able to live
+out of the water, I will tell you before
+you ask the question that the flying
+fish never stays out of the water for
+more than a few seconds at a time. His
+flying leaps amount to little more than
+long leaps from wave to wave. He
+swims along very fast in the water,
+coming right up to the surface and out
+into the air and the speed at which he
+has been swimming regulates the distance
+he will go when he shoots into
+the air, as he has no means of propelling
+himself through the air, but only
+into it. He has, however, wing-like
+fins, which he spreads out when in the
+air and which enables him to glide
+through the air and thus remain in the
+air longer.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page233">[233]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Makes a Fish Move in Swimming?</h2>
+
+<p>This is a puzzling question, I am sure.
+Of course, you at once cause several
+other questions as soon as you ask this
+one such as the following: Does the
+water in front of him move out of the
+way and then close in behind him? If so,
+where does it go in the meantime? Does
+the fish move the water forward or up
+or down or what does he do?</p>
+
+<p>The answer is, of course, in the
+movements of the fish’s tail. The fish
+in swimming is surrounded with water,
+top, bottom and all sides of him. The
+pressure of the water on the fish is the
+same at all points so that any motion
+made by him would have a tendency to
+make him move. As a matter of fact
+the tail in moving from side to side
+creates a current in the water from the
+head to the tail, or rather would produce
+an actual current if the fish remained
+perfectly still. Instead of making
+an actual current of water, the
+body of the fish is moved forward.</p>
+
+<p>As to whether the water ahead of him
+opens up first and then the water behind
+him is a more difficult question to answer.
+To the appearance it would seem
+as if the water moved at both ends and
+sides at once, but according to scientific
+theory, the water at the head of the fish
+is displaced first.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Are Birds’ Eggs of Different
+Colors?</h2>
+
+<p>This is a wise provision of nature to
+help the mother birds hide her eggs
+away from the eyes of her enemies. In
+the animal kingdom every kind of life
+is the natural prey of some other kind
+of animal. A bird will have enemies
+which try to catch her as food. A bird
+cannot fight back, so must fly away
+when danger threatens, in order to save
+her life. This means that she must
+leave the eggs in the nest for the time
+being. At certain times she must also
+leave her nest and search for food for
+herself. In order that the eggs so left
+alone may have a better chance of not being
+discovered, nature has arranged matters
+so that the eggs take the color very
+much of the surroundings in which they
+are laid. Eggs of some birds are spotted
+or look like pebbles, because the mother
+bird lays them in the sand. Some of
+them are green, almost the color of the
+materials from which the bird builds
+the nest, and so the colors have a real,
+and to the birds, a valuable purpose.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Does a Hen Cackle After Laying
+an Egg?</h2>
+
+<p>The hen cackles because she is glad.
+She is glad because she has just accomplished
+something, which she was
+put on earth to do. If you study the
+life on the earth carefully with this in
+mind, you will discover that all kinds
+of life give expression in some form
+of gladness, when they have performed
+the things they are on earth for. It’s
+the hen’s way of expressing herself and
+letting the chicken world know. The
+dog wags his tail when he is pleased;
+boys and girls jump up and down when
+they are pleased, whether they have
+been doing anything commendable or
+not. No doubt also the actual laying of
+the egg causes some discomfort to the
+hen and the corresponding feeling of
+gladness would come naturally after the
+discomfort disappeared.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Will Water Run Off a Duck’s
+Back?</h2>
+
+<p>The reason that water runs of a
+duck’s back, is that the feathers of
+ducks are oily and, as water and oil
+will not mix, the water runs off instead
+of soaking in. The feathers on a duck
+are so thick on the body of the duck,
+top and bottom, that even if it were not
+for the oil which is on the feathers the
+water would have some difficulty in
+soaking through the feathers. But the
+main reason why the feathers on a
+duck’s back cause water striking them
+to run off is that the duck has an oil
+gland which is constantly producing
+grease or oil and which the duck uses
+in giving his feathers a thin coating of
+oil to make them slick with oil and
+when any water strikes the duck it runs
+off. Other birds which live in the water
+a great deal have this oil gland for the
+same reason.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page234">[234]</span></p>
+
+</div><!--chapter-->
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<h2 class="nobreak paghead">THE STORY IN A STEEL RAIL</h2>
+
+<div class="container">
+
+<img src="images/illo234a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig234a">
+
+<p class="caption">A Blast Furnace.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">Molten iron is brought from the blast furnaces to the open-hearth furnaces, and
+dumped into a receptacle called a mixer, the capacity of which ranges from 400 tons to
+1000 tons, depending upon the number of furnaces to be served.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<div class="container">
+
+<img src="images/illo234b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig234b">
+
+<p class="caption">One-thousand-ton Mixer.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p class="center fsize90 blankbefore75">Pictures in this story by courtesy of Bethlehem Steel Co.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page235">[235]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">INSIDE OF OPEN HEARTH FURNACE</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo235a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig235a">
+
+<p class="caption">Charging Side of an Open-hearth Furnace.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">An open-hearth furnace consists of a long, shallow hearth, suitably enclosed in fire-brick,
+and bound together with steel binding. The furnace is heated by burning gas and
+air, which have previously been preheated, so that a temperature is obtained in the furnace
+ranging from 2900 to 3050 degrees Fahrenheit.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo235b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig235b" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption">Pouring Side of an Open-Hearth Furnace.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">The open-hearth process consists of the purification of iron by oxidizing out the
+impurities and burning out the carbon of the iron until a tough and ductile steel is
+produced, which can be made of any desired composition by the addition of the necessary
+quantities of alloys just previous to tapping and pouring. The impurities in the iron are
+oxidized by the slag lying on top of the metal, and the burning out of the carbon, which
+is a very slow operation, is hastened by the addition of iron ore, the oxygen of which
+combines with the carbon of the iron and passes off is a gas going up the stack.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">When an open-hearth furnace is ready for a charge, a variable amount of scrap,
+say 30 per cent of the total weight of material used for the heat, is charged into the
+furnace. With this scrap is charged sufficient lime or limestone to make the slag, as well
+as some iron ore to assist in reducing the carbon of the iron. In about two or three
+hours the required amount of molten iron is brought from the mixer in ladles, and poured
+into the furnace on top of the scrap, lime and ore.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page236">[236]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">MOLTEN STEEL BEING POURED LIKE WATER</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo236a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig236a">
+
+<p class="caption">Molten Steel Being Poured Into Ladle.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">When the scrap has all been melted, a test is taken to determine the amount of
+carbon remaining in the bath. Iron ore is added from time to time until the carbon in
+the bath has been reduced to the desired point, and the metal is sufficiently hot to pour.
+At this point “recarburizers” (consisting of Ferro-Manganese, Ferro-Silicon, and pig-iron,
+or coal) are added to get the required composition. The tap hole at the back of
+the furnace is opened, and the steel is allowed to run out into a ladle, the slag coming
+last and forming a blanket over the steel in the ladle.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo236b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig236b" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption">Crane Carrying Ingot and Soaking Pit Furnaces.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">The ladle is picked up by an electric crane and carried over cast-iron moulds, which
+are set on cars, the steel being poured into the moulds, resulting in steel ingots. A<span class="pagenum" id="Page237">[237]</span>
+sufficient amount of time is allowed for the steel to become chilled or set, when the
+cars are pushed under an electric stripper, where the moulds are removed from the ingots.
+After the ingots leave the stripper they are taken to the scales and weighed, and after
+weighing are put into the soaking pits. The pits get their name from the part they play
+in the heating of the steel for rolling. When the steel ingot is stripped the outside of
+the ingot is cool enough to hold the inside, which is still in a liquid state, and the steel
+is put into the soaking pits to allow the inside to settle into a solid mass, after which
+the ingot is reheated for rolling. The length of time in the soaking pits depends upon
+the size of the ingot, as the larger the ingot, the greater length of time is required to set.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">GETTING READY TO MAKE A RAIL</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">When the steel is ready for rolling it is taken from the pits by overhead electric
+cranes, and placed into a dump buggy at the end of a roller line, which leads to the
+blooming mill. The dump buggy derives its name from the fact that when the ingot is
+placed into same in an upright position, the buggy, in order to place the ingot into a
+horizontal position on the roller line, dumps over, in the same way as if one were to
+rock too far forward in a rocking-chair, the dump buggy operating on the same principle.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo237.jpg" alt="" id="Fig237" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption">Blooming Mill and Engine.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">The ingot travels down the movable-roller line to the blooming-mill rolls, which roll it
+down from a piece 19 inches by 23 inches to what is known as an 8 inch by 8 inch bloom,
+which is the size usually used in the manufacture of rails. The blooming mill derives its
+name from the fact that after an ingot is rolled in same it is no longer called an ingot,
+but a bloom.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">After leaving the blooming mill the bloom travels along another roller line to the
+shears, where it is cut into two or three pieces, the number of pieces depending on the
+size of the rail which is to be rolled. The blooms are then lifted over the roller line
+at the shears by a transfer crane, and placed on a traveling roller line which connects
+with the rear of the reheating furnace. This furnace is about 35 feet long, and is so
+constructed that when the bloom is pushed in at the rear of the furnace, another bloom
+drops from the front or discharge end of the furnace.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page238">[238]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">THE INGOT BECOMES A RAIL</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo238a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig238a">
+
+<p class="caption">The Ingot Becomes a Rail.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">The bloom dropping out, being sufficiently hot to roll into rails, travels along another
+roller line to the roughing or first set of rolls. Here the bloom is given five passes in
+the rolls, and is then transferred to the strand or second set of rolls, where it receives
+five additional passes; after this operation it is transferred to the finishing or third set
+of rolls, in which it is given one pass. The bloom has now been converted into a rail, and
+the rail travels on another roller line to the hot saw, where it is cut into 33-foot lengths,
+this being the standard length in this country for all rails. The rails when hot are cut
+by the hot saw to lengths of about 33 feet 6¹⁄₂ inches, the allowance of inches being
+made for shrinkage in cooling. It is difficult to believe that steel shrinks to this extent,
+but this is a fact, and while the rails are cooling on the hotbeds they have the appearance
+of being animated, as they move first one way and then the other. After the rails are
+on the hotbed a sufficient length of time to cool, they are taken from the hotbed and
+placed on a traveling roller line, which takes them to an endless chain conveyor. The
+statement that rails are put on hotbeds for cooling seems paradoxical, but the hotbeds
+are so called because the rails are placed on them while hot, and are left there until they
+have cooled.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">The endless-chain conveyor places the rails on another bed, from which they are
+picked up by an electric crane and distributed to the straightening presses, where all burrs
+(which have been caused by the hot-sawing operation) are removed before the rails are
+straightened. After straightening they are transferred to drill presses, where they have
+holes drilled into them for the accommodation of the splice bar, after which they are
+placed on the loading docks.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo238b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig238b" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption long">After being carefully examined by the railroad company’s inspectors they are picked
+up from the loading docks by electric magnets attached to a crane, and are placed in cars
+ready for shipment.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page239">[239]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Who Made the First Felt Hat?</h2>
+
+<p>The felt hat is as old as Homer. The
+Greeks made them in skull-caps, conical,
+truncated, narrow- or broad-brimmed.
+The Phrygian bonnet was
+an elevated cap without a brim, the
+apex turned over in front. It is known
+as the “cap of liberty.” An ancient
+figure of Liberty in the times of Antonius
+Livius, A.D. 115, holds the cap
+in the right hand. The Persians wore
+soft caps; plumed hats were the headdress
+of the Syrian corps of Xerxes;
+the broad-brim was worn by the Macedonian
+kings. Castor means a beaver.
+The Armenian captive wore a plug hat.
+The merchants of the fourteenth century
+wore a Flanders beaver. Charles
+VII, in 1469, wore a felt hat lined with
+red, and plumed. The English men
+and women in 1510 wore close woolen
+or knitted caps; two centuries ago hats
+were worn in the house. Pepys, in his
+diary, wrote: “September, 1664, got a
+severe cold because I took off my hat
+at dinner”; and again, in January, 1665,
+he got another cold by sitting too long
+with his head bare, to allow his wife’s
+maid to comb his hair and wash his
+ears; and Lord Clarendon, in his essay,
+speaking of the decay of respect due
+the aged, says “that in his younger days
+he never kept his hat on before those
+older than himself, except at dinner.”
+In the thirteenth century Pope Innocent
+IV allowed the cardinals the use of the
+scarlet cloth hat. The hats now in use
+are the cloth hat, leather hat, paper hat,
+silk hat, opera hat, spring-brim hat,
+and straw hat.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Is the Hottest Spot on Earth?</h2>
+
+<p>The hottest regions on earth is said
+to be along the Persian Gulf, where little
+or no rain falls. At Bahrein the
+arid shore has no fresh water, yet a
+comparatively numerous population contrive
+to live there, thanks to the copious
+springs which break forth from the
+bottom of the sea. The fresh water is
+got by diving. The diver, sitting in his
+boat, winds a great goat-skin bag
+around his left arm, the hand grasping
+its mouth; then he takes in his right
+hand a heavy stone, to which is attached
+a strong line, and thus equipped he
+plunges in, and quickly reaches the bottom.
+Instantly opening the bag over the
+strong jet of fresh water, he springs
+up the ascending current, at the same
+time closing the bag, and is helped
+aboard. The stone is then hauled up,
+and the diver, after taking breath,
+plunges in again. The source of the
+copious submarine springs is thought
+to be in the green hills of Osman, some
+500 or 600 miles distant.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Where Do We Get Ivory?</h2>
+
+<p>Ivory is a hard substance, not unlike
+bone, of which the teeth of most mammals
+chiefly consist, the dentine or
+tooth-substance which in transverse sections
+shows lines of different color running
+in circular arcs. It is used extensively
+for industrial purposes and is
+derived from the elephant, walrus, hippopotamus,
+narwhal, and some other
+animals. The ivory of the tusks of the
+African elephant is held in the highest
+estimation by manufacturers; the tusks
+vary in size, ranging from a few ounces
+in weight to 170 pounds. Holtzapffel
+states that he saw fossil tusks on the
+banks of rivers of Northern Siberia
+which weighed 186 pounds each. Ivory
+is simply tooth-substance of exceptional
+hardness, toughness, and elasticity, due
+to the firmness and regularity of the
+dentinal tubules which radiate from the
+axial pulp-cavity to the periphery of the
+tooth.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">How Did Trial by Jury Originate?</h2>
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>WHY JURIES HAVE<br>
+TWELVE MEN</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>A jury consists of a certain number
+of men selected according to law and
+sworn to inquire into and determine
+facts concerning a cause or an accusation
+submitted to them, and to declare
+the truth according to the evidence.
+The custom of trying accused persons
+before a jury, as practised in this country
+and England, is the natural outgrowth
+of rudimentary forms of trial in
+vogue among our Anglo-Saxon ancestors.
+The present system of trial by
+jury is the result of a gradual growth<span class="pagenum" id="Page240">[240]</span>
+under the English Common Law. There
+is no special reason why twelve is the
+usual number chosen for a complete
+jury except the necessity for limiting
+the number. In a grand jury the number
+according to law must not be less
+than twelve nor more than twenty-three,
+and twelve votes are necessary to find
+an indictment. The ancient Romans
+also had a form of trial before a presiding
+judge and a body of judices.
+The right of trial by jury is guaranteed
+by the United States Constitution
+in all criminal cases, and in civil
+cases where the amount in dispute
+exceeds $20. A petit or trial jury
+consists of twelve men, selected by
+lot from among the citizens residing
+within the jurisdiction of the court.
+Their duty is to determine questions of
+fact in accordance with the weight of
+testimony presented and report their
+finding to the presiding judge. An impartial
+jury is assured by drawing by
+lot and then giving the accused, in a
+criminal case, the right to dismiss a
+certain number without reason and certain
+others for good cause. Each of
+the jurymen must meet certain legal requirements
+as to capacity in general and
+fitness for the particular case upon
+which he is to sit, and must take an oath
+to decide without prejudice and according
+to the testimony. A coroner’s jury
+or jury of inquest is usually composed
+of from six to fifteen persons, summoned
+to inquire into the cause of sudden
+or unexplained deaths.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Can Animals Foretell the Weather?</h2>
+
+<p>Certain movements on the part of the
+animal creation before a change of
+weather appear to indicate a reasoning
+faculty. Such seems to be the case
+with the common garden spider, which,
+on the approach of rainy or windy
+weather, will be found to shorten and
+strengthen the guys of his web, lengthening
+the same when the storm is over.
+There is a popular superstition that it
+is unlucky for an angler to meet a single
+magpie, but two of the birds together
+are a good omen. The reason is that
+the birds foretell the coming of cold or
+stormy weather, and at such times, instead
+of searching for food for their
+young in pairs, one will always remain
+on the nest. Sea-gulls predict storms by
+assembling on the land, as they know
+that the rain will bring earthworms and
+larvæ to the surface. This, however,
+is merely a search for food, and is due
+to the same instinct which teaches the
+swallow to fly high in fine weather, and
+skim along the ground when foul is
+coming. They simply follow the flies
+and gnats, which remain in the warm
+strata of the air. The different tribes
+of wading birds always migrate before
+rain, likewise to hunt for food. Many
+birds foretell rain by warning cries and
+uneasy actions, and swine will carry hay
+and straw to hiding-places, oxen will
+lick themselves the wrong way of the
+hair, sheep will bleat and skip about,
+hogs turned out in the woods will come
+grunting and squealing, colts will rub
+their backs against the ground, crows
+will gather in crowds, crickets will sing
+more loudly, flies come into the house,
+frogs croak and change color to a dingier
+hue, dogs eat grass, and rooks soar
+like hawks. It is probable that many of
+these actions are due to actual uneasiness,
+similar to that which all who are
+troubled with corns or rheumatism experience
+before a storm, and are caused
+both by the variation in barometric pressure
+and the changes in the electrical
+condition of the atmosphere.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Nearest Approach Ever Made to Perpetual
+Motion in Mechanics.</h2>
+
+<p>An inventor has patented a double
+electric battery which seems to come
+exceedingly near to perpetual motion.
+Instead of using the zinc battery, he
+professes to have hit upon a solution
+which makes a battery seven times as
+powerful as the zinc battery, with absolutely
+no waste of material. The
+power of the battery grows gradually
+less in a few hours of use, but returns
+to its original unit when allowed to rest
+a few hours. He has two batteries so
+arranged that the power is shifted from
+one to the other every three hours. A
+little machine has been running for<span class="pagenum" id="Page241">[241]</span>
+some years in the patent office at New
+York. Certain parts of the mechanism
+are constructed of different expansive
+capacities, and the machine is worked
+by the expansion and contraction of
+these under the usual variations of temperature.
+In the Bodleian Library at
+Oxford there is an apparatus which
+has chimed two little bells continuously
+for forty years, by the energy of an apparently
+inexhaustible “dry-pile” of
+very low electrical energy. A church
+clock in Brussels is wound up by atmospheric
+expansion induced by the heat of
+the sun. As long as the sun shines this
+clock will go till its works wear out.
+Mr. D. L. Goff, a wealthy American,
+has in his hall an old-fashioned clock,
+which, so long as the house is occupied,
+never runs down. Whenever the front
+door is opened or closed, the winding
+arrangements of the clock, which are
+connected with the door by a rod with
+gearing attachments, are given a turn,
+so that the persons leaving and entering
+the house keep the clock constantly
+wound up.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Do Plants Breathe?</h2>
+
+<p>Plants, like animals, breathe the air;
+plants breathe through their leaves and
+stems just as animals do by means of
+their respiratory organs. When a
+young plant is analyzed it is found to
+consist chiefly of water, which is all removed
+from the soil; there is about 75
+per cent or more of this fluid present,
+and the rest is solid material. Of this
+latter by far the most abundant constituent
+is carbon, almost every atom of
+which is removed from the atmosphere
+by the vital action of minute bodies contained
+in the green leaves. The carbon
+is taken into the plant as carbonic acid
+gas. Plants also absorb oxygen, hydrogen,
+and nitrogen from the atmosphere
+in different quantities through their
+leaves, and also by means of their roots.
+These new products stored are in turn
+used in building up the different organs
+of the plant. Plants give off used-up
+moisture through their leaves, just as
+animals perspire through the pores of
+their skins. Calculations have been
+made as to the amount of water thus
+perspired by plants. The sunflower,
+only 3¹⁄₂ ft. high, with 5,616 square
+inches of surface exposed to the air,
+gives off as much moisture as a man.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Depth of Snow Is Equivalent to
+an Inch of Rain?</h2>
+
+<p>Newly fallen snow having a depth of
+about 11¹⁄₃ inches is equivalent to one
+inch of rain. A cubic foot of newly
+fallen snow weighs 5¹⁄₂ pounds and a
+cubic foot of fresh or rain water weighs
+62¹⁄₂ pounds or 1,000 ounces. An inch
+of rain means a gallon of water spread
+over every two square feet, or about a
+hundred tons to every acre. The density
+of snow naturally varies a good
+deal according to the speed with which
+it falls. Temperature, also, has much
+to do with its bulk. In cold, crisp
+weather, when the thermometer registers
+several degrees of frost, snow
+comes down light and dry; but in moist,
+cold weather, when the temperature is
+only just below thirty-two degrees, the
+snow falls in large, partially thawed
+flakes, and occupies much less space
+where it falls than that which reaches
+the earth during the prevalence of a
+greater degree of cold.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">How Are the Stars Counted?</h2>
+
+<p>Stars are counted by means of the
+telescope and photography. The Astronomer-Royal
+for Ireland, Sir Robert
+S. Ball, in one of his lectures mentioned
+a photograph which had been
+obtained by Mr. Isaac Roberts representing
+a small part of the constellation
+of the Swan. The picture is about as
+large as the page of a copy-book, and
+it is so crowded with stars that it
+would puzzle most people to count
+them; but they have been counted by a
+patient person, and the number is about
+16,000. Many of these stars are too
+faint ever to be seen in the greatest of
+telescopes yet erected. Attempts are
+now being made to obtain a number of
+similar photographs which shall cover
+the whole extent of the heavens. The
+task is indeed an immense one. Assuming
+the plates used to be the same size
+as that above mentioned, it would require
+at least 10,000 of them to represent<span class="pagenum" id="Page242">[242]</span>
+the entire sky. The counting of
+stars by the telescope was first reduced
+to a system by the Herschels, who introduced
+“star-gauges,” which were
+simply a calculation by averages. A
+telescope of 18 in. aperture, 20 ft. focus,
+and a magnifying power of 180, giving
+a field of view 15 in. in diameter, was
+used for the purpose. The process consisted
+in directing this instrument to a
+part of the sky and counting the stars
+in the field. This, repeated hundreds of
+times, gave a fair idea of the average
+number of stars in a circle of 15 in.
+diameter in all parts of the sky. From
+this as a basis it is possible to reckon
+the number of stars in any known area.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">How Is the Volume of Sound Measured?</h2>
+
+<p>Sound arises from vibrations giving a
+wave-like motion to the surrounding
+atmosphere, the wave gradually enlarging
+as it leaves the source of disturbance,
+while at the same time the
+motion of the air particles becomes less
+and less. The simplest method of determining
+the number of vibrations of a
+sound is by means of Savart’s apparatus.
+This consists of two wheels—a
+toothed or cog-wheel and a driving-wheel.
+They are so adjusted that the
+cog-wheel is made to revolve with great
+rapidity, its teeth hitting upon a card
+fixed near it. The number of revolutions
+is indicated by a counter attached
+to the axis of the cog-wheel. Suppose
+that sound is traveling in the air at the
+rate of 1,000 ft. per second, and that
+Savart’s wheel is giving a sound produced
+by 200 taps on the card per second,
+it follows that in 1,000 ft. there
+will be 200 waves or vibrations, and if
+there be 200 waves in 1,000 ft. each
+wave or vibration must be 5 ft. in
+length. The velocity of sound through
+air varies with the temperature of the
+latter, but is usually reckoned at 1,130
+ft. per second.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">At What Rate Does Thought Travel?</h2>
+
+<p>Thought travels 111 feet per second,
+or about a mile and a quarter per
+minute. Elaborate experiments have
+been made by Professors Heimholtz,
+Hersch, and Donders, to ascertain
+the facts on this question, the result
+of which was that they found the
+process of thought varied in rapidity
+in different individuals, children and
+old persons thinking more slowly than
+people of middle age, and ignorant
+people more slowly than the educated.
+It takes about two-fifths of a second to
+call to mind the country in which a well-known
+town is situated, or the language
+in which a familiar author wrote. We
+can think of the name of the next
+month in half the time we need to think
+of the name of the last month. It takes
+on the average one-third of a second to
+add numbers containing one digit and
+half a second to multiply them. Those
+used to reckoning can add two to three
+in less time than others; those familiar
+with literature can remember more
+quickly than others that Shakespeare
+wrote “Hamlet.” It takes longer to
+mention a month when a season has
+been given than to say to what season
+a month belongs. The time taken up
+in choosing a motion, the “will time,”
+can be measured as well as the time
+taken up in perceiving. If it is not
+known which of two colored lights is to
+be presented, and you offer to lift your
+right hand if it be red and your left if
+it be blue, about one-thirteenth of a
+second is necessary to initiate the correct
+motion.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Is the Largest Tree In the
+World?</h2>
+
+<p>In San Francisco, encircled by a circus
+tent of ample dimensions, is a section
+of the largest tree in the world—exceeding
+the diameter of the famous
+tree of Calaveras by five feet. This
+monster of the vegetable kingdom was
+discovered in 1874, on Tule River, Tulare
+County, about seventy-five miles
+from Visalia. At some remote period
+its top had been broken off by the elements,
+or some unknown forces, yet
+when it was discovered it had an elevation
+of 240 feet. The trunk of the tree
+was 111 feet in circumference, with a
+diameter of 35 feet 4 inches. The section
+on exhibition is hollowed out, leaving
+about a foot of bark and several
+inches of the wood. The interior is 100<span class="pagenum" id="Page243">[243]</span>
+feet in circumference and 30 feet in
+diameter, and it has a seating capacity
+of about 200. It was cut off from the tree
+about twelve feet above the base, and
+required the labor of four men for nine
+days to chop it down. In the center of
+the tree, and extending through its
+whole length, was a rotten core about
+two feet in diameter, partially filled
+with a soggy, decayed vegetation that
+had fallen into it from the top. In the
+center of this cavity was found the
+trunk of a little tree of the same species,
+having perfect bark on it, and
+showing regular growth. It was of
+uniform diameter, an inch and a half
+all the way; and when the tree fell and
+split open, this curious stem was traced
+for nearly 100 feet. The rings in this
+monarch of the forest show its age to
+have been 4,840 years.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Where Did the Term Yankees Originate?</h2>
+
+<p>This is a word said to be a corruption
+of Yengees, the Indian pronunciation
+of English, or of the French “Anglais,”
+when referring to the English
+Colonists. It was first applied to the
+New Englanders by the British soldiers
+as a term of reproach, later by the English
+to Americans generally, and still
+later to the people of the North by the
+Southerners.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">How Far Does the Air Extend?</h2>
+
+<p>It is, perhaps, generally known that
+enveloping the earth is a layer of air
+fifty or more miles in thickness. Just
+how thick this layer is we do not know,
+but we do know that it extends many
+miles from the earth. You may assure
+yourselves of this in a very simple manner
+by watching the shooting stars that
+may be seen on any clear night. These
+are nothing but masses of rocks that
+give off light only when they have been
+made red-hot by friction with the air
+in their rapid flight. The fact that we
+often see these stars while they are
+still many miles from the earth proves
+to us that the air through which they
+are passing extends to that height.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Makes Us Feel Hungry?</h2>
+
+<p>Hunger is a peculiar craving which
+we are accustomed to say comes from
+the stomach. It is the business of the
+stomach to change such food as we
+take into it in such a way that the rest
+of the organs of the body which we
+have for the purpose can make blood
+out of it. When you feel the sensation
+of hunger, it means that the blood-producing
+system is calling on the
+stomach to furnish more blood-making
+material. The stomach prepares
+the food for blood production by mixing
+with it certain juices which the
+stomach is able to supply. As soon
+as the stomach is then called upon to
+supply more blood-making material,
+it goes to work on what is in the
+stomach and begins mixing things. If,
+however, there is nothing in the
+stomach, the craving which we call
+hunger is produced. It is, therefore,
+then not altogether the stomach which
+makes us hungry, but the parts of our
+body which actually turn the food into
+blood after the stomach has prepared
+it.</p>
+
+<p>To prove this it is only necessary
+to say that the sensation of hunger will
+stop if food which is easily absorbed
+and, therefore, does not need the
+preparation which the stomach generally
+gives, is introduced into the system
+through other parts of the body,
+as, for instance, by injecting it into the
+large intestine, which is a part of the
+body, the food passes through after
+it leaves the stomach ordinarily.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Makes Us Thirsty?</h2>
+
+<p>Thirst is a sensation of dryness and
+heat which is generally communicated
+to us through the tongue and throat.
+The sensation of thirst can be artificially
+produced by passing a current
+of air over the membranes which
+cover the tongue and throat, but thirst
+is naturally due to a shortage of water
+in the body. The human body requires
+a great deal of water to keep it in condition,
+and when the supply becomes
+low a warning is given to us by making
+the membranes of the tongue and
+throat dry.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page244">[244]</span></p>
+
+<p>In connection with thirst, however,
+as in the case of hunger, where the
+warning is given by the stomach, thirst
+will be appeased by the introduction of
+water, either into the blood, the
+stomach or the large intestine, without
+having touched either the tongue
+or throat, which proves that it is not
+our tongue or throat that is thirsty,
+but the body itself.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Is Pain and Why Does It Hurt?</h2>
+
+<p>Pain is the result of an injury to
+some part of our bodies, or a disturbed
+condition—a change from the normal
+condition. Pain is caused by nerves
+in the body. The network of nerves
+coming in big nerves from the back
+bone or spinal chord branches out in
+all directions, and near the surface of
+the skin they spread out like the tiny
+twigs of a tree, covering every point
+of the body. Some parts of our bodies
+are more sensitive than others. That
+is because the nerves are then nearer
+the surface or else there are more
+nerves in that part. The heel is perhaps
+the least sensitive part of the
+body, as the nerves do not lie so near
+the surface there.</p>
+
+<p>Pain is not a thing which you can
+make a picture of or describe in
+words. Pain is a sensation of the brain
+caused by a disturbance of conditions
+in some part of the body. If you cut
+your finger, you cut certain veins or
+arteries and also the tiny nerves in the
+finger. The nerves immediately let the
+brain know that they are injured, and
+the brain sets to work to have the
+damage repaired. But there is a congestion
+right where the cut is. The
+veins being cut, the blood which would
+ordinarily flow through them back to
+the heart, pours out into the cut and
+the inside of your finger is thus exposed
+to the oxygen of the air, and the
+action of the air on the exposed part
+helps to make the pain. It is not your
+finger, however, that hurts. It is the
+shock that your brain gets when you
+cut your finger that hurts.</p>
+
+<p>A pain in your stomach is a pain
+caused by something else than a cut.
+If the stomach could always digest
+everything or any amount of stuff you
+put in it, you would not have a
+stomach pain. But sometimes you put
+things into your stomach through
+your mouth, of course, that the
+stomach cannot handle. Or, it may be
+a combination of a number of things
+that cause this unusual condition in
+your stomach. The stomach makes a
+special effort to get rid of this troublesome
+substance and generally succeeds
+eventually, but while the fight
+is going on, it pains or hurts you.</p>
+
+<p>Pain is the result of a disturbance
+of the nerves. It is just the opposite
+of gladness. We sometimes are so
+glad we feel good all over. Pain is
+just the opposite. You can prove that
+pain is not a real thing but only a sensation.
+Perhaps you have had toothache.
+You go to the dentist and
+he kills the nerve or takes it out. After
+that you cannot have the toothache in
+that tooth again, because there is no
+nerve there to telegraph to the brain,
+even though the cause of the hurt
+still exists. You cannot feel pain unless
+the brain knows about the injury.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Is the Horizon?</h2>
+
+<p>Of course you know what the horizon
+is. It is easiest to see the horizon
+at sea when out of sight of land. There,
+when you look in any direction from
+the ship to the place where the sea and
+the sky meet you see a line which, if
+you follow with your eye as you turn
+completely around, makes a perfect
+circle. It looks as though it marked the
+boundary of the earth. On land it is
+not easy to see as much of the horizon
+at one time, because of buildings and
+trees and hills in the woods and elsewhere,
+but if the land were perfectly
+smooth like the sea and there were no
+trees or buildings or hills in the way,
+you could see just as perfect a circle
+on land as on sea. This proves that
+the horizon is a movable circle. On
+land it is where the earth and sky appear
+to meet, and on water it is where
+sky and water appear to meet.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page245">[245]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">How Far Away Is the Horizon?</h2>
+
+<p>The actual distance of the horizon
+away from us depends altogether upon
+the height above the sea level from
+which we are looking as far as we can.
+The horizon is always as far away as
+we can see. At the seashore, where
+we are practically on a level with the
+water, we cannot see so far as when
+we are up on a bluff or hill overlooking
+the sea. The higher we go up
+straight from a given point the greater
+the distance we can see up to a certain
+point and the farther away the horizon
+will appear. The height of the person
+looking, of course, figures in this, because
+when you are at sea level it is
+only your feet really that are at sea
+level (if you are standing up straight)
+and the distance of the horizon is measured
+from the eye of the person looking.
+A boy or girl of ten would be,
+say, a little over four feet high, and
+the eyes of such a person would be
+about four feet above the level of the
+sea. At that height the horizon would
+be about two and a half miles away.
+If the eyes are six feet above sea
+level the distance of the horizon will
+be about three miles, so that practically
+every one sees a different horizon,
+that is, one that appears at
+a different distance. A hundred
+feet above the level of the sea
+the horizon will be more than thirteen
+miles away, while at 1000 feet
+altitude it would be 42 miles away,
+and if you could go a mile into the
+air the horizon would appear 96 miles
+from where you are. The higher you
+go the farther away the circle which
+apparently marks the joining of the
+earth and sky appears.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Can We See Farther When We
+Are Up High?</h2>
+
+<p>Remember that the earth is round
+and you will probably be able to answer
+the question yourself. This one,
+like most questions boys and girls ask,
+only requires a little thought. The
+earth, of course, as we have learned
+long ago, is a globe. When you look
+out on the land or the sea from a high
+place you can see more of the earth’s
+round surface before the curve of the
+earth’s surface takes things beyond
+the range of vision. If you are on a
+bluff 100 feet high at the seashore and
+looking toward a point where a ship
+is coming toward shore, you will be
+able to see the ship much sooner than
+if you were at the sea level. In exact
+words, you actually see more of the
+earth’s surface the higher up you are,
+because, as you go up your position in
+relation to the curvature of the earth’s
+surface changes.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Makes Lobsters Turn Red?</h2>
+
+<p>When a lobster is taken out of the
+lobster trap with which the fisherman
+traps him, he is green, but when he
+comes to the table as a choice morsel
+of food his shell is red. We know that
+he has been boiled and we know that
+he goes into the boiling water green
+and comes out red. This change in
+the color of the shell of the lobster is
+the result of the effect of boiling water
+on the coloring material in the
+shell. When the lobster is put in the
+boiling water the process of boiling
+produces a chemical change in the
+color material in the lobster’s shell.
+There is no particular reason why the
+lobster should turn red, excepting that
+that is the effect boiling water has on
+the coloring matter in the shell.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Do We Have to Die?</h2>
+
+<p>Death must come to all things that
+have life. All matter in the world is
+either living (animate) or dead (inanimate).
+Inanimate things do not
+change. They remain always the same.
+We can change the form and size of
+inanimate things, and particles of them
+even help to make up the bodies of the
+living things, but what they are made
+of always remains what it was.</p>
+
+<p>Death is one of the things that must
+occur if we are to continue to have
+more life. The whole plan of living
+things includes the ability to reproduce
+themselves. Every kind of life
+has the power to produce life like itself
+and this process of reproduction
+is continuous. If there were no death,
+then the world would soon be crowded
+with living things to the point where
+there would be neither room nor food.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page246">[246]</span></p>
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<div class="container w45emmax">
+
+<p class="caption">WHERE WINDOW GLASS COMES FROM</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo246.jpg" alt="Twelve men carrying a large sheet of plate glass" id="Fig246">
+
+<p class="center highline2 fsize80">Pictures herewith by courtesy of Pittsburgh Plate Glass Co.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<h2 class="nobreak">Making Plate Glass</h2>
+
+</div><!--chapter-->
+
+<h3>What Is the Difference Between Plate
+Glass and Window Glass?</h3>
+
+<p>How is plate glass made? These
+questions are asked very frequently.
+The two products are wholly unlike
+each other; and we wish to show
+wherein lies the difference. We shall
+tell how plate glass is made; and we
+hope to make it clear that great care,
+time and expense are involved in its
+manufacture.</p>
+
+<p>The raw materials may be said to be
+virtually the same in plate glass as in
+window glass; the main difference being
+that in plate glass greater care is
+exercised in selecting and purifying the
+ingredients. Window glass is made
+with a blow-pipe. The work requires
+skill on the part of the operator; but
+the process is quite simple and rapid.
+And the result is, naturally, a comparatively
+ordinary and indifferent product.
+On the other hand, the superb
+quality of plate glass is owing to the
+elaborate method of producing it.</p>
+
+<p>Commercial plate glass was first
+made in France somewhat more than<span class="pagenum" id="Page247">[247]</span>
+two hundred years ago; although glass
+in one form or another has been in use
+for many centuries. Apparently glass
+was known in Egypt fully four thousand
+years ago.</p>
+
+<div class="container w45emmax" id="Fig247">
+
+<img src="images/illo247.jpg" alt="Train entering tunnel or mine">
+
+<p class="caption">MINING SILICA</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>The materials used are silica (white
+sand), carbonate of soda (soda ash),
+and lime. Other materials, as arsenic
+and charcoal, are used in small proportions,
+but the main ingredients are the
+first three named.</p>
+
+<p>Probably it is little imagined that
+in the production of plate glass, mining
+is involved in two or more forms
+(namely silica and coal), also the quarrying
+of limestone, the chemical manufacture
+of soda ash on a large scale,
+the reduction and treatment of fire clay
+to its right consistency, an elaborate and
+expensive system of pot making; and
+the melting, casting, rolling, annealing,
+grinding and polishing of the glass.</p>
+
+<p>In special uses, as in beveled plates
+and mirrors, two more elaborate processes
+must be added—beveling and
+silvering—all of which are performed
+under the direction of experts aided by
+a large amount of labor and expensive
+machinery.</p>
+
+<p>Pots of fire clay take so important a
+part in the successful manufacture of
+plate glass that the subject deserves
+especial notice. The different clays
+after being mined are exposed to the
+weather for some time to bring about
+disintegration.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>THE CLAY MUST BE TRAMPLED<br>
+WITH BARE FEET</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>At the proper stage finely sifted raw
+clay is mixed with coarse, burned clay
+and water. This reduces liability of
+shrinkage and cracking. It is then
+“pugged,” or kneaded in a mill; kept
+a long time (sometimes a year) in
+storage bins to ripen; and afterwards
+goes through the laborious process of
+“treading.” Nothing has thus far been
+found in machinery by which the right
+kind of plasticity can be developed as
+does this primitive treading by the bare
+feet of men. The clay must be treaded,
+not once or twice, but many times.
+The building of pots is a slow, tedious
+and time-killing affair; but this is most
+essential.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>HOW MELTING<br>
+POTS ARE MADE</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>Without extreme care, some elements
+used in the making of the pots might be
+fused into glass while undergoing the
+intense heat of the furnace; or they
+might break in the handling. The average
+pot must hold about a ton of
+molten glass, and the average furnace<span class="pagenum" id="Page248">[248]</span>
+heat necessary is about 3,000° Fahrenheit.
+The work is not continuous.
+Each workman has several pots in hand
+at a time, and passes from one to another
+adding only a few inches a day
+to each pot, so that a proper interval
+for seasoning be given. After
+completion, comes the proper drying
+out of the pots; and this is another feature
+in which the greatest scientific care
+is required. No pot may be used until
+it has been left to season for at least
+three months, and even a year is desirable.
+And after all this trouble, the
+pot has but 25 days of usefulness. The
+pots form one of the heavy items of
+expense in plate glass manufacture;
+and upon their safety great things depend.</p>
+
+<div class="container w50emmax" id="Fig248a">
+
+<img src="images/illo248a.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">POT MAKING.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<div class="container w50emmax" id="Fig248b">
+
+<img src="images/illo248b.jpg" alt="">
+
+<div class="split5050">
+
+<div class="left5050">
+
+<p class="caption">MIXING THE CLAY.</p>
+
+</div><!--left5050-->
+
+<div class="right5050">
+
+<p class="caption">TRAMPLING THE CLAY.</p>
+
+</div><!--right5050-->
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--split5050-->
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page249">[249]</span></p>
+
+<div class="container w30emmax" id="Fig249a">
+
+<img src="images/illo249a.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">SKIMMING THE POT.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<div class="container w45emmax" id="Fig249b">
+
+<img src="images/illo249b.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">CASTING PLATE GLASS.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>HOW THE HUGE PLATES<br>
+OF GLASS ARE CAST</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>The pot, having been first brought to
+the necessary high temperature, is filled
+heaping full with its mixed “batch”
+of ground silica, soda, lime, etc.
+Melting reduces the bulk so much that
+the pot is filled three times before it
+contains a sufficient charge of metal.
+When the proper molten stage is
+reached the pot is lifted out of the
+furnace by a crane; is first carefully
+skimmed to remove surface impurities,
+and then carried overhead by an electric
+tramway to the casting table.
+This is a large, massive, flat table of
+iron, having as an attachment a heavy
+iron roller which covers the full width,
+and arranged so as to roll the entire
+length of the table. The sides of the
+table are fitted with adjustable strips
+which permit the producing of plates
+of different thicknesses. The pasty, or
+half-fluid glass metal is now poured
+upon the table from the melting pot,
+and the roller quickly passes over it,
+leaving a layer of uniform thickness.
+The heavy roller is now moved out of
+the way, and then by means of a stowing
+tool the red hot plate is shoved
+into an annealing oven. All of these
+stages of the work have to be performed
+with remarkable speed, and by
+men of long training and experience.
+The plates remain for several days in
+the annealing oven, where the temperature
+is gradually reduced from an intense<span class="pagenum" id="Page250">[250]</span>
+heat at first, until at the end of
+the required period it is no hotter than
+an ordinary room.</p>
+
+<div class="container w30emmax" id="Fig250a">
+
+<img src="images/illo250a.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">PREPARING THE GRINDING TABLE.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>When the plate is taken from the
+annealing oven it has a rough, opaque,
+almost undulating appearance on the
+surfaces. It is only the surface, however,
+for within it is as clear as crystal.
+First, it is submitted for careful inspection,
+so that bubbles or other defects
+may be marked for cutting out. It
+then goes to the cutter who takes off
+the rough edges and squares it into the
+right dimensions; and thence to the
+grinding room.</p>
+
+<div class="container w45emmax" id="Fig250b">
+
+<p class="caption">HOW THE GLASS PLATES ARE GROUND</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo250b.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">GRINDING THE PLATES</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>The grinding table is a large flat revolving
+platform made of iron, twenty-five
+feet or more in diameter. The
+plate must be carried from the annealing
+oven to the grinding machines, and
+thence to the racks, by men skilled in
+the art. Twenty men are required to
+carry the larger plates of glass, ten on
+each side, using leather straps and
+stepping together in perfect time. The
+lock-step is absolutely essential to prevent
+accident. The grinding table is
+prepared by being flooded with plaster
+of Paris and water; then the glass is
+carefully lowered, and a number of
+men mount upon the plate and tramp
+it into place until it is set. After this,
+greater security is obtained by pegging<span class="pagenum" id="Page251">[251]</span>
+with prepared wooden pins; and then
+the table is set in motion. The grinding
+is done by revolving runners.
+Sharp sand is fed upon the table, and a
+stream of water constantly flows over
+it. After the first cutting by the sand,
+emery is used in a similar manner.</p>
+
+<p>The plates are inspected after leaving
+the grinding room, and if any
+scratches or defects of any kind are
+found they are marked. Some of
+these can be rubbed down by hand.
+There are also, not infrequently, nicks
+and fractures found at this stage; and
+in such case the plate must again be
+cut and squared. Afterward comes
+the polishing, which is done on another
+special table. The polishing material
+is rouge, or iron peroxide, applied with
+water, and the rubbing is done by
+blocks of felt. Reciprocating machinery
+is so arranged that every part of
+the plate is brought underneath the
+rubbing surface.</p>
+
+<p>The grinding and polishing has taken
+away from the original plate half of its
+thickness, sometimes more. There is
+no saving of the material; it has all
+been washed away. When to this
+waste is added the fact that fully half
+of the original weight of lime and soda
+has been released by the heat of the
+furnace, escaping into the atmosphere
+in fumes and acids, one may begin to
+understand something of the cost of
+converting the rough materials of sand,
+limestone and soda into beautiful plate
+glass.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>HOW MIRRORS<br>
+ARE MADE</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>In preparing plate glass for mirrors
+great care must be exercised in the
+selection of the plates. This selection
+bears reference not only to surface defects,
+but to the quality in general; defects
+which cannot ordinarily be seen
+are magnified many fold after the glass
+has received a covering of silver.</p>
+
+<div class="container w30emmax" id="Fig251">
+
+<img src="images/illo251.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">BEVELING PLATES</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>In the process of beveling, the plate
+passes through the hands of skilled
+workmen of five different divisions,
+namely: roughers, emeriers, smoothers,
+white-wheelers and buffers; and different
+abrasive materials are used in
+the order indicated by the titles.
+These materials are sand, emery, natural
+sandstone imported from England,
+pumice and rouge.</p>
+
+<p>The roughing mill is a circular cast-iron
+disk about 28 inches in diameter,
+constructed so that the face or top of
+the mill revolves upon a horizontal
+plane at a speed of about 250 revolutions
+per minute. The sand is conveyed
+to the mill from above through
+a hopper simultaneously with a stream
+of water which is played upon the sand
+to carry it to the mill. The rougher
+places the edge of the plate upon the
+rapidly revolving mill, and the cutting
+of the bevel is done by the passage of
+the sand between the mill and the plate
+of glass. A bevel of any desired width
+may be produced. Pattern plates containing
+incurves, mitres, etc., require a
+practiced eye and great skill upon the
+part of the operator.</p>
+
+<p>When the plate leaves the rougher’s
+hands the surface of the bevel has been
+ground so deep by the coarse sand that
+polishing at this stage is impossible.
+Consequently, in order to produce a
+surface fine enough to render it susceptible
+of a high and brilliant polish it
+must go through the various treatments
+we have mentioned. The emerier uses
+a fine grade of emery on a mill similar
+in construction to a roughing mill,
+which takes away considerable of the
+coarse surface given by the first cutting.
+Then it goes to the smoother, who reduces
+the roughness slowly by using a
+fine sandstone from England; then it
+goes to the white-wheeler who operates<span class="pagenum" id="Page252">[252]</span>
+an upright poplar-wood wheel using
+powdered pumice stone as an abrasive;
+and then, as a last stage it reaches the
+buffer, whose method of operation is
+shown in the illustration. The buffer
+brings a high polish to the bevel by the
+use of rouge applied to thick felt which
+covers his wheel.</p>
+
+<div class="container w30emmax" id="Fig252a">
+
+<img src="images/illo252a.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">SILVERING MIRROR PLATES.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<div class="container w50emmax" id="Fig252b">
+
+<img src="images/illo252b.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption long">The two photographs here are of the same building taken under contrasting conditions. The first
+picture was taken through a window glazed with common window glass. It is an extreme example, to
+be sure, but of a sort not infrequently seen. The second view shows the same building taken through
+a window of polished, flawless plate glass. An observing person can see this startling contrast any day
+as he walks along a residence street. At intervals a front window will be seen which gives a twisted,
+distorted reflection of the houses or trees on the opposite side: this is window glass. The other kind—the
+window that gives a sharp brilliant reflection—is <i>plate glass</i>. It is practically impossible to obtain
+superior reflecting quality from window glass. It can only be had from surfaces which have been ground
+and polished.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>The plate, after leaving the beveling
+room, is again carefully examined for
+surface defects. These defects may consist
+of scratches caused inadvertently
+by permitting the surface of the plate
+to come into contact with the abrasive
+material. These scratches are removed
+by hand polishing, which must be skillfully
+done; otherwise the reflection will
+become distorted through over-polishing
+in a given area or spot. The plate
+is then taken to a wash table where the
+surface to be silvered is thoroughly
+washed with distilled water; after
+which it is taken to a table that is covered
+with blankets, and which is
+heated to a temperature of from 90°
+to 110°. The blanketing is to protect
+the plate from being scratched, and also
+to catch all of the silver waste. The silvering
+solution is nitrate of silver liquefied
+by a certain formula, and is
+poured over the plate; the fluid having
+an appearance which to the ordinary
+observer looks like nothing other than
+pure distilled water. Within a few
+minutes the silver, aided by a reactory,
+added prior to pouring, begins to precipitate
+upon the glass; the liquids remaining
+above, and thus preventing air
+and impurities from coming into contact<span class="pagenum" id="Page253">[253]</span>
+with the silver. Such contact
+would produce oxidation. After the
+silver is precipitated the plate is
+thoroughly dried, shellacked and
+painted; after which it is ready for
+commercial use.</p>
+
+<p>Until about 25 years ago, practically
+all mirrors were silvered with mercury.
+There have been two reasons for discouraging
+the use of mercury for silvering;
+one being its injuriousness to
+the health of the workmen. In some
+European countries stringent laws were
+enacted, stipulating that men should
+work only a certain number of hours.</p>
+
+<p>Other hygienic stipulations, added to
+the fact that the use of mercury was
+already very expensive, have tended to
+replace that process by the use of nitrate
+of silver.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Is the Sky Blue?</h2>
+
+<p>This question puzzled every one who
+thought of it for a long time. Even
+astronomers, the men who make a business
+of studying the skies, and other
+learned men, puzzled their brains about
+it and searched for the answer long
+ago, until finally, as always happens
+when a lot of people study a subject,
+Professor John Tyndall, a noted
+scientist of the last century, discovered
+the answer. The explanation follows:
+All the light we have is sunlight, which
+is pure white light. This white light
+is made up of rays of light of different
+colors. These rays are red, orange,
+yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet.
+It takes all of these different rays of
+light to make our white sunlight, and
+when you separate sunlight into its
+original rays you always produce the
+rays of light in the above colors and
+in the same order. This is only true,
+however, when the sunlight is passed
+through an object which does not absorb
+any of its rays. This is the arrangement
+of the different colors of
+light found in the rainbow. The rainbow
+is formed by sunlight passing into
+raindrops or vapor in such a way as
+to divide the sunlight into the different
+colored rays of light. When the rainbow
+is formed none of the rays are
+absorbed by raindrops or vapor
+through which the sunlight passes.
+Some of these rays of light are known
+as short rays and others as long rays.
+But when sunlight meets other things
+besides those which make a pure rainbow,
+these other objects have the
+ability to absorb some of the rays of
+colored light, and they throw off the
+remainder. When these rays have
+been thrown off those which have been
+absorbed make many different combinations,
+and thus are produced all of
+the different colors we know, the various
+tints and shades of color, according
+to composition and size.</p>
+
+<p>Now, then, to get back to the color
+of the sky, which is blue as we know.
+The sky or air which surrounds the
+earth is filled with countless tiny specks
+of what we may call dust—particles of
+solid things hanging or floating in the
+air. These specks are of just the size
+and quality that they catch and absorb
+part of the rays of light which form
+our sunlight and throw off the rest of
+the rays, and the part which has been
+absorbed forms the combination of
+color which makes our sky so beautifully
+blue. Sometimes you notice, of
+course, that the sky is a lighter or
+darker blue than at other times. This
+difference is due to the kind and condition
+of tiny specks in the air at the
+time, and to the direction or angle at
+which the sunlight strikes these tiny
+particles. This fact brings up a question
+which you have not asked, but
+which would come naturally as the result
+of your first.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Makes the Colors of the Sunset?</h2>
+
+<p>The direction of the sun’s rays when
+they meet these large and small particles
+in the air has a great deal to do
+with the combination of colors that
+result as these objects absorb part of
+the rays and throw off others. The sky
+is the most beautiful blue when the sun
+is high in the sky. But when the sun
+is setting the light has a greater distance
+to travel through the belt of air
+which surrounds the earth than when
+it is high up over our heads. You<span class="pagenum" id="Page254">[254]</span>
+know that if you stick a pin straight
+down into an orange it won’t go in very
+far before it is clear through the peel,
+but if you stick the pin into an orange
+along the edge it will go through a
+great deal more of the peel than the
+other way. That is the way it is with
+the sunset colors. The peel of the
+orange is a good representation of the
+belt of air which surrounds the earth.
+At sunset the light instead of coming
+straight down through the belt of air,
+thus meeting the eye through the shortest
+possible amount of air, strikes the
+air on a slant, and, therefore, travels
+through a great deal more air and closer
+to the earth to reach it, with the results
+that it meets a great many more of
+these little specks, besides all the smoke
+and other things that hang in the air
+near the ground, and we thus get many
+more colors, because some of the things
+in the air absorb some of the rays and
+others absorb very different rays when
+the light comes in this slanting way,
+and that is what makes the different
+colors in the sunset. For this reason
+sunsets are often richer and more beautiful
+in color when the air is not so
+pure, but has much dirt and other
+matter floating about in it.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Are There Two Sides to the Rainbow?</h2>
+
+<p>No, there is only one side to the
+rainbow. The rainbow is made by reflection
+of the rays of sunlight through
+drops of water in the air, but you can
+never see a rainbow unless you are
+between it and the sun. You could
+never see a rainbow if you were looking
+at the sun, and so if you are looking
+at a rainbow you can be certain
+that anyone on the other side of it could
+not see it, because they would have to
+be looking right at the sun. The rainbow
+is always opposite to the sun and
+there can never be two sides to it.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Do the Ends of the Rainbow Rest on
+Land?</h2>
+
+<p>The ends of the rainbow do not rest
+on anything. You see, the rainbow is
+only the reflection of the sun’s rays
+thrown back to us by the inside of the
+back of the raindrops, which are still
+in the sky after the rain. Of course,
+if any of the drops of water touched
+the ground they would cease to be raindrops
+and, therefore, could not reflect
+the rays of the sunlight. So, what we
+think of as the ends of the rainbow
+do not really exist at all. The rainbow
+is only a reflection of the rays of sunlight
+from countless drops of water in
+the air, which the sun’s rays must strike
+at a certain angle in order to reflect
+back the light so we can see it. Where
+the sun’s rays do not strike the drops
+of water at the right angle no light is
+reflected, and there is the end of the
+rainbow.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Causes the Different Colors of the
+Rainbow?</h2>
+
+<p>The colors of the rainbow, which are
+always the same, and are shown in this
+order—red, orange, yellow, green, blue
+and violet—are sunlight broken up into
+its original colors. It takes all of these
+colors in the proportions in which they
+are mixed in the rainbow to make the
+pure sunlight. These are known as the
+prismatic colors. As shown in another
+answer to one of your puzzling questions,
+the rainbow is caused by the rays
+of the sun passing into drops of water
+in the air and reflected back to us with
+one part of the drop of water acting
+on it in such a way as to break up the
+pure sunlight into these prismatic
+colors. When a rainbow appears at a
+time when there is a great deal of sunlight,
+you will generally see two rainbows.
+The inner rainbow is formed
+by the rays of the sun that enter the
+upper part of the falling raindrops,
+and the outer rainbow is formed by the
+rays that enter the under part of the
+raindrops. In the inner or primary
+bow, as it is called, the colors beginning
+at the outside ring of color are red,
+orange, yellow, green, blue and violet,
+and being exactly reversed in the outer
+or secondary bow. The secondary bow
+is also fainter. You may sometimes
+see smaller rainbows, even if it has not
+been raining, when looking at a fountain
+or waterfall. These are caused in
+exactly the same way.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page255">[255]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Makes the Hills Look Blue Sometimes?</h2>
+
+<p>This is due to the fact that when the
+hills look blue you are looking at them
+at a distance, and there is a long
+stretch of air between you and the hills.
+This air is filled with countless particles
+of dust and other things, and what
+you see is not really blue hills, but the
+reflection of the sun’s rays from the
+little particles in the air striking your
+eye. The color is due to the angle at
+which the light from the sun strikes
+these particles, and is reflected back to
+your eye and partially due to the character
+of the particles in the air.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Do the Stars Really Shoot Down?</h2>
+
+<p>The answer is “No.” We have come
+to use the expression “shooting stars”
+commonly, but we should probably be
+more correct if we said “shooting
+rocks,” for the things we refer to commonly
+as “shooting stars” are more
+like rocks than anything else. If any
+of the real stars were to fall into the
+air surrounding the earth we should
+all be burned up by the great heat developed
+long before it actually hit the
+earth, which it would undoubtedly
+destroy.</p>
+
+<p>The things that fall and leave a
+streak of light are really only pebbles,
+stones, rocks or pieces of iron and other
+substances that fall from some place
+into the earth’s air belt. When they
+strike the air at the speed at which
+they are falling the friction of the air
+makes a heat that causes them to become
+luminous, and by far the greater
+part of them is burned up before they
+get very near the earth. We call them
+meteorites. Sometimes, though rarely,
+one will manage to strike the earth,
+coming at such great speed and being
+so large that the air has not been able
+to burn it up completely, and it will
+strike the earth and sink deep down into
+the soil. In most museums can be seen
+such meteorites that have been dug up
+after striking the earth. These are
+constantly falling into the air surrounding
+the earth, but in the day-time their
+light is not strong enough to be seen
+while the sun is shining.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Will the Sky Ever Fall Down?</h2>
+
+<p>No, the sky can never fall down, because
+it is not made of the kind of
+things that fall. We have become used
+to thinking of it as the roof of the
+earth, a great dome-shaped roof, because
+in our little way of looking at
+things we compared the earth and what
+is above it with the houses in which
+we live. The sky is just space in which
+the heavenly bodies revolve in their
+orbits. We cannot really ever see sky.
+We see only the sun’s light reflected
+by the air belt which surrounds the
+earth. In this air belt are the clouds
+which do come closer to the land at
+times than at others, and this is apt
+to aid in giving us an incorrect impression
+of this.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Is the Milky Way?</h2>
+
+<p>The “Galaxy,” or “Milky Way,” as
+it is popularly called, is a luminous
+circle extending completely around the
+heavens. It is produced by myriads of
+stars, as can be seen when you look at
+it through a telescope. It divides into
+two great branches at one point, which
+travel for some distance separately and
+then reunite. It has also several
+branches. At one point it spreads out
+very widely into a fanlike shape.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Do They Call It the Milky Way?</h2>
+
+<p>The stars in the group are so numerous
+that they present to the naked eye
+a whiteness like a stream of milk. To
+produce this effect there are not hundreds
+of stars, nor thousands of them,
+but actually millions of them.</p>
+
+<p>When you stop to think that each one
+of these stars in the Milky Way is a
+sun like our own—some of them
+smaller, of course, but many of them
+much larger—you begin to realize how
+impossible it is for man to form any
+real idea of the magnitude and wonders
+of the earth. Here in the Milky Way
+are so many suns like our own sun<span class="pagenum" id="Page256">[256]</span>
+that they together as we look at them
+form the particles of a path which
+makes the circle of the heavens, and
+yet are so far away that to the naked
+eye each of them looks to us like only
+one of countless drops of milk in a
+very large stream of milk that goes
+around the whole sky.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Don’t the Stars Shine in the Day-time?</h2>
+
+<p>The stars do shine in the day-time.
+If you will go down into a deep well
+or the open shaft of a deep mine and
+look up at the sky, of which you can
+see a circular patch at the top of the
+well, you will be able to see the stars in
+the day-time. The moon also shines in
+the day-time, on some part of the earth.
+At certain times during the month you
+can notice that the moon rises before
+the sun sets, and sometimes in the
+morning you can still see the moon in
+the sky after the sun is up. Usually
+you cannot see either the moon or the
+stars in the day-time, because the light
+from the sun is so bright and strong
+that the light of the stars and moon
+are lost in the brightness of the sun’s
+rays. When the moon is visible before
+the sun sets or after the sun has risen
+it is because the light of the sun is not
+so bright and strong at the beginning
+or close of daylight. If you are fortunate
+enough some time to witness a
+total eclipse of the sun you will be able
+to see the stars in day-time without having
+to go down into a deep well or
+mine shaft.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">How Far Does Space Reach?</h2>
+
+<p>Space surrounds all earths, planets,
+suns, and extends for an infinite distance
+beyond each of them in all directions.
+It is impossible to measure
+in terms of human knowledge how far
+space extends. It is one of the things
+beyond the comprehension of the
+human mind, and for that reason man
+can never know in miles or the number
+of millions of miles how far it extends.
+Man has been able to measure the distance
+from the earth of some of the
+stars, and some of the nearest of them
+are millions of miles from the earth.
+Most of them are hundreds and even
+thousands of million miles away, and
+when we stop to think that space extends
+at least as far on the other sides
+of the stars as it does on this side, and
+even beyond that, we can readily understand
+that it is not only impossible to
+measure space, but also impossible to
+give in words any conception of what
+its limits might be.</p>
+
+<p>There is one word—infinite—which
+we are forced to use in speaking of the
+extent of space. Infinite means “without
+end,” unbounded, and so man has
+come to use the word “infinite” in describing
+the extent of space, and that
+is as near as any one can describe it.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Does Horse Power Mean?</h2>
+
+<p>The term “horse power” is used in
+describing the amount of power produced
+by an engine or motor. When
+man made the first engines he needed
+some term to use in describing the
+amount of power his engine could develop.
+Up to that time man had used
+the horse for turning the wheels of
+his machinery and the horse to him
+naturally represented the most powerful
+animal working for man. When
+engines came into use they replaced
+the horses because they were capable
+of developing many times the power
+of the horse. In finding an expression
+which would accurately convey to the
+mind of another the power of a particular
+engine, it was natural to say
+that this engine would do the work of
+five, ten or more horses, and as this
+described it accurately and in a way
+that was entirely clear, it became customary
+to describe the power of an
+engine as so many times the power
+of one horse.</p>
+
+<p>To-day we still cling to the term
+“horse power” in describing the
+strength of the engine, although the
+horse-power unit used to-day is greater
+than the power of an average horse.
+To speak of an engine of one horse
+power to-day means an engine that has
+the power to lift 30,000 pounds one
+foot in one minute.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page257">[257]</span></p>
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<div class="container w45emmax" id="Fig257">
+
+<p class="caption">WHERE OUR COAL COMES FROM</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo257.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">A COAL BREAKER.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">Coal is brought in mine cars from several mine shafts and slopes, dumped onto a conveyor that runs on the inclined
+framework shown at the right of the picture. At the top it is broken in rolls, sorted and sized as it slides through the
+different screens, pickers, etc., and is finally delivered into railroad cars.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<h2 class="nobreak">The Story in a Lump of Coal</h2>
+
+</div><!--chapter-->
+
+<h3>How Did the Coal Get Into the Coal
+Mines?</h3>
+
+<p>The heavy black mineral called coal,
+which we burn in our stoves and furnaces,
+and use to heat the boilers of
+our engines was formed from trees and
+plants of various sorts. Most of the
+coal was formed thousands of years
+ago at a time when the atmosphere that
+envelopes the earth contained a much
+larger proportion of carbonic acid gas
+than it does now, and the climate of
+all regions of the earth was much
+warmer than it now is. This period
+was known as the carboniferous age,
+that is, the coal-making age, and its atmospheric
+conditions, favored the
+growth of plants, so that the earth was
+covered with great forests, of trees,
+giant ferns, and other plants, many of
+which are no longer found on the earth.
+In the warm, moist, and carbon-laden
+atmosphere of that period the growth
+of all kinds of plants was rapid and
+luxuriant, and as fast as old trees fell
+and partially decayed, others grew up
+in their places. In this way, thick
+layers of vegetable matter were formed
+over the soil in which the plants grew.
+In many places, where these beds were
+formed, the surface of the earth became
+depressed and the water of the
+sea flowed over the beds of vegetable
+matter.</p>
+
+<p>Sediment of various kinds was deposited
+over the vegetable matter, and
+in the course of centuries the sediment
+was transformed into rock.</p>
+
+<p>After the formation of the covering
+of sediment, the decay of the vegetable
+matter was checked, but a slow change<span class="pagenum" id="Page258">[258]</span>
+of another kind was brought about by
+the pressure of the sedimentary deposits
+and the heat to which the plant remains
+were subjected. The hydrogen
+and oxygen which constituted the
+greater part of the plant substance was
+driven off and the carbon left behind.
+This change took place very gradually,
+through periods so long that we can
+only guess at their duration, but we
+know that many beds of coal were
+formed from layers of vegetable matter
+that were covered up many thousand
+years ago.</p>
+
+<div class="container w35emmax" id="Fig258a">
+
+<p class="caption">MINE WORKERS THAT NEVER SEE DAYLIGHT</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo258a.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">Underground stable constructed
+of concrete and iron,
+with natural rock roof to avoid
+danger of fire. Mules are
+only taken to surface when
+mines are idle.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>The coal first formed and submitted
+longest to pressure is known as hard
+coal, or anthracite. It is pure black, or
+has a bluish metallic luster. Its specific
+gravity is 1.46; which is about the
+same as that of hard wood. Anthracite
+contains from 90 to 94 per cent.
+of carbon, the remainder being composed
+of hydrogen, oxygen, and ash.</p>
+
+<div class="container w35emmax" id="Fig258b">
+
+<img src="images/illo258b.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">The Mules and their
+drivers.—An important
+part of the haulage system.
+Mules are kept in
+stables on surface at
+this mine and driven in
+every day through slope
+or drift.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>Hard coal may be called the ideal
+fuel and is especially adapted to domestic
+heating purposes. It burns
+without smoke and produces great heat.
+There is no soot deposit upon the walls
+of chimneys, and in good stoves or
+furnaces the small amount of gas given
+off by it is consumed. Anthracite is
+the least abundant of all the varieties
+of coal and is much more costly than
+the other varieties. For this reason it<span class="pagenum" id="Page259">[259]</span>
+is not much used in manufacturing.</p>
+
+<div class="container w40emmax" id="Fig259a">
+
+<p class="caption">HOW THE SLATE PICKERS WORK</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo259a.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">Boy slate pickers.
+Coal slides
+down the chutes.
+Boys pick out the
+slate and rock
+and throw into
+chute alongside.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<div class="container w35emmax" id="Fig259b">
+
+<img src="images/illo259b.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption long">Spiral slate pickers do
+work of many boys. Coal
+and rock start together at
+the top in the small inner
+spiral. The coal being
+lighter slides faster, and in
+going around is carried over
+the edge into the outer
+spiral, while the rock continues
+in the bottom.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>The coal formed later is very different
+in composition and is called bituminous
+or soft coal. Its name is derived
+from the fact that it contains a
+soft substance called bitumen, which
+oozes out of the coal when heat is applied
+to it. Soft coal contains from
+75 to 85 per cent. of carbon, some
+traces of sulphur, and a larger percentage
+of oxygen and hydrogen than
+anthracite. When soft coal is heated
+in a closed vessel or retort, the hydrogen
+and oxygen, in combination with
+some carbon, are driven off.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page260">[260]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">HOW A COAL MINE LOOKS INSIDE</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo260a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig260a">
+
+<p class="caption long">Shaft gate. One of the
+two cages in the shaft has
+just brought the men to the
+surface; the other is at the
+bottom. Safety gate resting
+on top of cage covers
+top of shaft when cage is
+down, as shown at right.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo260b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig260b" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption">Section showing Anthracite
+Seams. Coal is shown black;
+rock and dirt lighter; shaft
+tunnels and workings, white.
+Upper part of “Mammoth”
+seam is stripped and quarried.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo260c.jpg" alt="" id="Fig260c" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption">Lignite mine in Texas. Loaded mine cars ready to go to surface.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page261">[261]</span></p>
+
+<div class="container w40emmax" id="Fig261a">
+
+<p class="caption">HOW THE MINERS LOOSEN THE COAL</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo261a.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">Undercutting with
+pick. The man lying
+on his side cuts under
+the coal. A light charge
+of powder exploded in a
+drill hole near the roof
+breaks the coal down in
+large pieces.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>Soft coal is black, and upon smooth
+surfaces it is glossy. It lacks the bluish
+luster sometimes seen in hard coal and
+is much softer and more easily broken.
+When handled it blackens the hands
+more than hard coal does. In this kind
+of coal are frequently seen the outlines
+of leaves and stems of plants that enter
+into its formation. Occasionally,
+trunks of trees with roots extending
+down into the clay below the bed of
+coal have been found.</p>
+
+<div class="container w40emmax" id="Fig261b">
+
+<img src="images/illo261b.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">Undercutting in seam.
+A compressed air driven
+machine undercuts deeper
+and faster than the man
+with a pick.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>Soft coal has a specific gravity of
+1.27. It burns with a yellow flame
+which is larger than the flame from
+hard coal, but it does not emit so high
+a degree of heat. Combustion, generally
+imperfect, gives rise to offensive
+gases and to black smoke that concentrates<span class="pagenum" id="Page262">[262]</span>
+in the air and falls to the ground
+as soot, which blackens buildings, and,
+in winter, noticeably discolors the
+snow.</p>
+
+<p>The formation of lignite has been
+observed in the timbers of some old
+mines in Europe. In some of these
+mines wooden pillars have been supporting
+the rocks above for four hundred
+years or longer, and in that time
+the pressure of the rocks and other influences
+acting upon the wood of the
+pillars have caused it to become transformed
+into a brown substance resembling
+lignite. This fact tends to
+confirm the theory of coal formation
+stated at the beginning of this article.
+The proportion of carbon in lignite is
+never above 70 per cent., and the ash
+indicates the presence of considerable
+earthy matter. It is chiefly used in
+those forms of manufacture where a
+hot fire is not required. In Europe it
+is used, to some extent, in heating the
+houses of the poorer classes.</p>
+
+<p>Peat is regarded as the latest of the
+coal formations. In it, the change in
+the vegetable matter has not extended
+beyond merely covering it, and subjecting
+it to slight pressure.</p>
+
+<p>Peat is formed in marshy soils where
+there is a considerable growth of
+plants that are constantly undergoing
+partial decay and becoming covered by
+water. It consists of the roots and
+stems of the plants matted together and
+mingled with some earthy material.
+When freshly dug out of the bog or
+marsh in which it was formed there
+is always a quantity of water in it, the
+amount being greatest in the peat
+found nearest the surface and least in
+that at the bottom of the bed, where the
+peat is not very different in appearance
+from lignite.</p>
+
+<p>Peat is used for fuel where wood is
+scarce and coal is high in price. Recent
+experiments in saturating peat
+with petroleum, have shown that in this
+way a form of fuel may be produced
+for which considerable value is claimed.
+Its manufacture is confined to Southern
+Russia, where peat is plentiful and
+petroleum is cheap.</p>
+
+<h3>Why Does Firedamp Explode in a Safety
+Lamp Without Producing an Explosion
+of the Gas With Which the
+Lamp Is Surrounded?</h3>
+
+<p>The passing of the flame from the
+lamp to the outside air is prevented by
+the gauze. This splits the burning gas
+into little streamlets (784 to each
+square inch of gauze), which are cooled
+below the point of ignition, that is, are
+extinguished by coming in contact with
+the metal of the gauze, so that the
+flame does not pass outside the lamp.
+In some cases the explosion may be
+so great as to force the flame through
+the gauze and thus ignite the gas outside.</p>
+
+<h3>Are There Any Conditions Under Which
+it Would Not Be Safe to Use a Safety
+Lamp?</h3>
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>THE DANGERS<br>
+TO THE MINERS</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>The underground conditions affecting
+the safety of the lamp are exposure
+in air-currents of high velocity by reason
+of which the flame may be blown
+through or against the gauze, or exposure
+for too great a time to mixtures
+of air and gas which will burn within
+the lamp and thus heat the gauze. The
+dangerous velocity of air-currents begins
+at about 500 feet a minute, but
+varies with the type of lamp, some
+being much less sensitive to air-currents
+of high velocity than others.
+Other conditions under which the lamp
+is not safe concern the lamp itself or
+the one using it. The lamp is dangerous
+in the hands of inexperienced
+persons or when the gauze is dirty or
+broken. If the gauze is dirty, that
+portion absorbs the heat and may become
+hot enough to ignite the outside
+gas; naturally any holes in the gauze
+will pass the flame.</p>
+
+<p>The safety lamp when left too long
+in air containing much explosive gas
+may cause an explosion, and it is extinguished
+by certain unbreathable
+gases. The electric lamp burns safely
+regardless of the atmosphere, but gives
+no warning of poisonous or explosive
+gases. It is often used by rescue men
+wearing oxygen helmets to enter mines<span class="pagenum" id="Page263">[263]</span>
+full of poisonous gases after explosions.</p>
+
+<div class="container w30emmax" id="Fig263a">
+
+<p class="caption">THE LAMP WHICH SAVES MANY LIVES</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo263a.jpg" alt="" class="w15emmax">
+
+<p class="caption long">The safety lamp. The sheet iron bonnet or
+covering of the upper part protects the gauze
+within from strong currents of air, while the
+glass permits the light to be diffused. The
+above is a modern lamp similar to a bonnetted
+Clanny lamp.</p>
+
+</div><!--container 30em-->
+
+<p>The safety lamp is dangerous when
+there is a hole in the gauze that will
+permit the passage of flame to the outside,
+or when the gauze is dirty, so that
+any particular spot may be overheated,
+or when the velocity of the air is so
+great that the flame is blown through
+the gauze, or (generally) when in the
+hands of an inexperienced person.
+The unbonneted Davy lamp is not safe
+where the velocity of the air exceeds
+360 feet per minute. The velocity
+with which the air strikes a lamp carried
+against it is increased by the
+amount equal to the rate at which the
+fireboss travels. If he walks at the
+rate of, say, 4 miles an hour or 352
+feet a minute (on the gangways he will
+usually have to move faster than this
+to make his rounds on time) he will
+create by his own motion (and in still
+air) a velocity practically the same as
+that at which the unbonneted Davy is
+considered unsafe.</p>
+
+<div class="split5050">
+
+<div class="left5050" id="Fig263b">
+
+<div class="container w15emmax">
+
+<img src="images/illo263b.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">Open oil lamp commonly worn on hat. Wick
+is inverted in spout.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+</div><!--leftsplit-->
+
+<div class="right5050" id="Fig263c">
+
+<div class="container w15emmax">
+
+<img src="images/illo263c.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">Acetylene or carbide lamp for cap or hand.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+</div><!--right5050-->
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--split-->
+
+<h3>History of the Safety Lamp.</h3>
+
+<p>The safety lamp, the miner’s faithful
+and indispensable companion at his dangerous
+work, has been, heretofore, considered
+as the invention of the famous
+English scientist, Humphrey Davy,
+though the name of George Stephenson,
+of locomotive fame, has also been
+mentioned in this connection. Both
+came out with their inventions about
+the same time, but neither of them is
+the real inventor of the safety lamp; for
+there was, as proven by Wilhelm Nieman,
+a safety lamp in existence two
+years before Davy’s invention became
+known. It was not inferior to the
+latter, but rather surpassed it in illuminating
+power. Previous to this, all
+the precaution employed for the prevention
+of the threatening dangers of
+firedamp had been quite incomplete.
+One tried to thoroughly ventilate the
+mines by fastening a burning torch to
+a large pole, which was pushed ahead
+and exploded the gases. This was extremely
+dangerous work which, in the
+Middle Ages, was generally done by a
+criminal, in order that he might atone
+for his crimes, or by a penitent for the
+benefit of mankind. The attempt to
+substitute for the open light phosphorescent
+substances, encased in glass, was
+not much of a success. An improvement
+was the so-called steel mill, invented
+about 1750 by Carlyle Spedding,<span class="pagenum" id="Page264">[264]</span>
+manager of a mine. This steel mill
+consisted of a steel wheel which was
+put into rapid motion by means of a
+crank. By pressing a firestone against
+the fast revolving wheel, an incessant
+shower of sparks was produced giving
+a fairly good and absolutely safe illumination.
+However, the running expenses
+of his apparatus, which necessitated
+the continual services of one
+man, were very high; for instance, the
+expenditure for light in a coal mine
+near Newcastle in the year 1816
+amounted to about $200 per week.
+Nevertheless, the steel mill was very
+much appreciated and in use for a
+long time, only to be slowly supplanted
+by the safety lamp.</p>
+
+<div class="container w40emmax" id="Fig264">
+
+<img src="images/illo264.jpg" alt="" class="w20emmax">
+
+<p class="caption">ELECTRIC CAP LAMP AND BATTERY.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">The safety lamp when left too long in air
+containing much explosive gas may cause an
+explosion, and it is extinguished by certain unbreathable
+gases. The electric lamp burns
+safely regardless of the atmosphere, but gives no
+warning of poisonous or explosive gases. It is
+often used by rescue men wearing oxygen helmets
+to enter mines full of poisonous gases after
+explosions.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>THE MAN WHO INVENTED<br>
+THE SAFETY LAMP</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>At the beginning of the nineteenth
+century the existing coal mines were
+worked to the limit and the catastrophies,
+caused by firedamp, increased in
+an alarming manner. In fact the distress
+was so great that in 1812 a society
+for the prevention of mine disasters
+was formed at Sutherland, and the
+origin of the safety lamp can be traced
+back to the efforts and labors of this
+organization. Dr. William Reid
+Clanny, a retired ship’s surgeon, was
+probably the first to undertake the task
+(in the year 1808), which he successfully
+finished with energy and skill.
+He concentrated his efforts at first on
+the separation of the flames from the
+surrounding atmosphere, but he did not
+succeed till the latter part of 1812,
+when he constructed a lamp that
+seemed to meet all requirements. The
+report of this invention was submitted
+to the Royal Society of London, May
+20, 1813, and was printed in the minutes
+of that academy. The casing of
+this original safety lamp was closed at
+the top and bottom by two open water
+tanks; the air was pumped in by means
+of bellows and, passing in and out, had
+to go through both these reservoirs
+which acted as valves, so to speak.
+The lamp proved to be absolutely safe
+and was successfully introduced by the
+management of Herrington Mill pit
+mine. The clumsy parts of this apparatus
+were eliminated by its inventor by
+various improvements. The so-called
+steam safety lamp was completed in
+December, 1815, and installed in several
+mines. In the meanwhile, two
+competitors made their appearance.
+George Stephenson had finished his
+lamp October 21, 1815, and Davy published
+his first experiments November
+9, 1815, in the Transactions of the
+Royal Society of London. Clanny’s
+lamp, nevertheless, stood the test in
+the face of this competition, through its
+much superior illuminating power, and
+more particularly as it still continued to
+burn when the Davy and Stephenson
+lamps had gone out. To Clanny, therefore,
+belongs the distinction, in the history
+of invention, of having constructed
+the first reliable safety lamp.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page265">[265]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Is a Metal?</h2>
+
+<p>The oldest known metals in the
+world are gold and silver, copper, iron,
+tin and lead. They are to-day still the
+most useful and widely-used metals.
+Some of the properties by which we
+distinguish metals are the following:
+They are solid and not transparent;
+they have luster and are heavy. Mercury
+is an exception to the rule; it is
+a liquid, though yet a metal, and there
+is another, sodium, which is solid,
+though very light.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Is the Most Valuable Metal?</h2>
+
+<p>If you were guessing you would naturally
+say that gold is, of course, the
+most valuable of the metals. But
+you would be wrong. The proper
+answer to this is iron. We do not
+mean the pound for pound value,
+for you could get much more for a
+pound of gold than for a pound of iron.
+We mean in useful value—iron is in
+that sense the most valuable metal
+known to man. This is true because
+iron is of such great service to man
+in so many ways, and it is very fortunate
+that there is such a great
+amount of it available for man’s purposes.
+Iron is not generally found in
+a pure state in the mines. It is generally
+found compounded with carbon
+and other substances, and we obtain
+pure iron by burning these other substances
+out of the compound.</p>
+
+<p>Iron is put upon the market in three
+forms, which differ very much in their
+properties. First, there is cast-iron.
+Iron in this form is hard, easily fusible
+and quite brittle, as you will know if
+you ever broke a lid on the kitchen
+range. In the form of cast-iron it
+cannot be forged or welded.</p>
+
+<p>Next comes wrought-iron, which is
+quite soft, can be hammered out flat or
+drawn out in the form of a wire and
+can be welded, but fusible only at a
+high temperature. Third comes steel,
+the most wonderful thing we produce
+with iron. It is also malleable, which
+means that it is capable of being hammered
+out flat and can easily be welded,
+and this is the great property of steel—it
+acquires when tempered a very
+high degree of hardness, so that a
+sharp edge can be put on it, and when
+in that shape it will easily cut wrought-iron.
+Ordinarily we make wrought-iron
+and steel from iron that has been
+changed from its original state to cast-iron.</p>
+
+<p>The term cast-iron is generally given
+to iron which has been melted and cast
+in any form desired for use. Stoves
+are made in this way. The iron is
+melted and then poured into a mold;
+while the product out of which
+wrought-iron and steel are made is
+technically cast-iron, the term pig-iron
+is used in speaking of iron which is
+cast for this purpose.</p>
+
+<p>The process by which pig-iron is
+changed into wrought-iron is called
+<i>puddling</i>. The object of puddling,
+which is done in what is called a reverberatory
+furnace (which is a furnace
+that reflects or drives back the flame
+or heat) is to remove the carbon which
+is in the pig-iron. This is done partly
+by the action of the oxygen of the air
+at high temperature and partly by the
+action of the cinder formed by the
+burning furnace. When this has been
+done the iron is made into balls of a
+size convenient for handling. These
+are “shingled” by squeezing or hammering
+and passed between rolls by
+which the iron is made to assume any
+desired form.</p>
+
+<p>Now we come to steel, the most
+wonderful product or form in which
+we take advantage of the value of iron.
+Steel was formerly made from
+wrought-iron, so that you first had to
+get cast-iron, from which you made
+wrought-iron, and eventually got steel
+by changing the wrought-iron. Now
+we make steel direct from pig-iron.
+This is known as the Bessemer process.</p>
+
+<p>The most noticeable feature in the
+chemical composition of the different
+grades of iron and steel is found in the
+percentages of carbon they contain.
+Pig-iron contains the most carbon; steel
+the next lowest, and wrought-iron the
+least.</p>
+
+<p>Iron has been known to men from
+early historical times. The smelting of<span class="pagenum" id="Page266">[266]</span>
+iron ores is not any indication of advanced
+civilization either. Savage
+tribes in many parts of the world practiced
+the art of smelting, even before
+they could have learned it from people
+who had become civilized.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Is Gold Called Precious?</h2>
+
+<p>Gold is called one of the precious
+metals because of its beautiful color,
+its luster, and the fact that it does not
+rust or tarnish when exposed to the
+air. It is the most ductile (can be
+stretched out into the thinnest wire),
+and is also the most malleable (can be
+hammered out into the thinnest sheet).
+It can be hammered into leaves so thin
+that light will pass through them. Pure
+gold is so soft that it cannot be used
+in that form in making gold coins or
+in making jewelry. Other substances,
+generally copper, are added to it to
+make the gold coins and jewelry hard.
+Sometimes silver is also added to the
+gold with copper. The gold coins of
+the United States are made of nine
+parts of gold to one of copper. The
+coins of France are the same, while
+the coins of England are made of
+eleven parts of gold to one of copper.
+The gold used for jewels and watch-cases
+varies from eight or nine to
+eighteen carats fine.</p>
+
+<p>Another reason why gold is called
+a precious metal is that it is very difficult
+to dissolve it. None of the acids
+alone will dissolve gold, and only two
+of them when mixed together will do
+so. These are nitric acid and hydrochloric
+acid. When these two acids
+are mixed and gold put into the mixture
+the gold will disappear.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Do We Mean By 18-Carat Fine?</h2>
+
+<p>We often hear people in speaking
+of their watches say, “It is an 18-carat
+case.” Others speak of 14-carat
+watches or 22-carat or solid-gold rings.</p>
+
+<p>When you see the marks on a
+watch-case or the inside of a gold ring
+they read 18 K or 14 K, or whatever
+number of carats the maker wishes to
+indicate. A piece of gold jewelry
+marked 18 K or 18 carats means that
+it is three-fourths pure gold. In arranging
+this basis of marking things
+made of gold, absolutely pure gold is
+called 24 carats. Then if two, six or
+ten twenty-fourths of alloy has been
+added, the amount of the alloy is deducted
+from twenty-four, and the result
+is either 22, 18 or 14 carats fine,
+and so on. On ordinary articles made
+by jewelers the amount of pure gold
+used is seldom over 18 carats, or
+three-fourths. Weddings rings (and
+these are considered solid gold) are
+generally made 22 carats fine, that is,
+there are only two twenty-fourth parts
+of alloy in them.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Does Silver Tarnish?</h2>
+
+<p>Silver is a remarkably white metal,
+which is associated with gold as one of
+the precious metals. It is harder than
+gold and will not rust, although it will
+tarnish, which gold will not, when exposed
+to certain kinds of air.</p>
+
+<p>The silver tarnishes when it is exposed
+to any kind of air that has sulphur
+mixed in it. It ranks below gold
+as a precious metal for use in making
+ornaments and is not so costly, because
+there is a great deal more of it
+to be found in the world.</p>
+
+<p>While silver is somewhat harder
+than gold, it is still not sufficiently
+hard to use pure for making coins, so,
+as in the case of the gold coins, it is
+mixed with something else—copper—to
+harden it. Otherwise our dimes and
+quarters would wear out too rapidly.
+Our silver coins are made of nine parts
+of silver to one of copper. The coins
+of France are in the same proportion,
+while the silver coins of England are
+made of 92¹⁄₂ parts of silver to 7¹⁄₂
+parts of copper. German silver coins
+are made of three parts of silver and
+one of copper.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Do We Use Copper Telegraph
+Wires?</h2>
+
+<p>One of the characteristics which distinguishes
+copper is its color—a peculiar
+red. It stands next to gold and
+silver in ductility and malleability, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page267">[267]</span>
+comes next to iron and steel in tenacity—which
+means the ability of its
+tiny particles to hang on to each other.
+That is why copper wire bends instead
+of breaking when you twist it.
+But that is not the only reason, although
+an important part of the reason,
+why we use copper for telegraph
+wires. Copper is an extremely good
+conductor of electricity when it is pure.
+So are gold and silver, but we cannot
+afford to buy gold and silver wires for
+the telegraph, telephone and other
+wires, and if we used such wires the
+cost of the equipment would be so
+great that we could not afford to have
+telephones in our homes. But there is
+a great deal of copper in the world
+and it is very cheap, and so it makes
+an ideal element for use in things
+through which electricity is to pass.
+When you compound it with other substances
+it loses some of its conductivity.
+Copper is used extensively in
+many ways in the world. This book is
+printed, for instance, from copper
+electrotype plates. The whole business
+of electrotyping is based on the use of
+copper.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Is Lead So Heavy?</h2>
+
+<p>Lead is a white metal and is noted
+for its softness and durability. It has
+a luster when freshly cut, but becomes
+dull quite soon after the freshly-cut
+surface is exposed to the air. Lead is
+the softest metal in general use. It
+can be cut with an ordinary knife. It
+can be rolled out into thin sheets, but
+cannot be drawn out into wire.</p>
+
+<p>Lead is a very dense metal, that is,
+its particles are very compact and
+there is no room for air to circulate
+in between these particles. A piece of
+wood is lighter than a piece of lead
+of exactly equal bulk, because the little
+particles which make up the piece of
+wood are not very close together, and
+there is a lot of air in the ordinary
+piece of wood, while this is not true of
+the lead.</p>
+
+<p>A great deal of lead is used in making
+pipes for plumbing. This is because
+lead pipe is comparatively cheap,
+although you might not think so when
+you think of the general conclusions
+we have been brought to form about
+plumbers and everything connected
+with them. Lead pipe is easily bent
+in any direction also, and is particularly
+good for use in plumbing for that
+reason.</p>
+
+<p>Another wide use of lead is in making
+paints—white lead being the base
+used in making oil paints. The process
+of making white lead for paint is quite
+interesting and pictures of it are shown
+in “<a href="#Page224">The Story In a Can of Paint</a>”
+in another part of “The Book of Wonders.”</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Are Cooking Utensils Made of
+Tin?</h2>
+
+<p>Tin is the least important of the six
+useful metals. It is also inferior in
+many ways to the others in this group
+of elements, but is tougher than lead
+and will make a better wire, though
+not a really good one. It has a whiteness
+and a luster that are not tarnished
+by ordinary temperature and is cheap.
+That is why it is used in making cooking
+utensils, pans, etc., and for roofs.
+But the pans, roofs, etc., are not pure
+tin. They are thin sheets of iron
+coated with tin. Pure tin would not
+be strong enough for these purposes,
+so a sheet of iron is first taken to supply
+the strength and then covered with
+tin to improve the appearance of the
+tin pans and keep them from rusting
+rapidly.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Is Gravitation?</h2>
+
+<p>Gravitation is the result of the attraction
+which every body, no matter
+what its size, has for every other body.
+It is a strange force and difficult to
+explain in plain words. It is what
+keeps the heavenly bodies in their
+paths. Every one of the planets is
+held in its path by gravitation and
+every object on each of the planets is
+kept on the planet by gravitation. We
+can come nearer understanding gravitation
+by studying the effect of the attraction
+of gravitation on our own
+earth and the objects on it. When you<span class="pagenum" id="Page268">[268]</span>
+throw a ball or a stone into the air
+it is the attraction of gravitation that
+causes it to come back. If this were
+not so the stone would go on up and
+up and would keep on going forever.
+If it were not for this wonderful force
+you could jump into the air and just
+keep on going up with nothing to bring
+you back. The reason you do not pull
+the earth toward you is because the
+body or mass with the greater bulk
+has always the greater pulling power.</p>
+
+<p>This is a wonderful force. It cannot
+be produced nor can it be destroyed
+or lessened. It just is. It acts between
+all pairs of bodies. If other
+bodies come between any pair of
+bodies the attraction of gravity between
+the two outside bodies is neither
+lessened or increased, and yet each of
+the outside bodies will have an independent
+attraction or pull on the body
+which is in between.</p>
+
+<p>No particle of time is spent by the
+transmission of the force of gravity
+from one body to another, no matter
+how far apart they may be. The only
+effect that distance has on the attraction
+of gravitation is to lessen its
+force. Any body which is being pulled
+through gravity toward another body
+would fall toward the center of the
+attracting body if all the force of attraction
+from all other bodies were
+removed.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Is Specific Gravity?</h2>
+
+<p>Specific gravity is the ratio of
+weight of a given bulk of any substance
+to that of a standard substance.
+The substances taken as the standard
+for solids and liquids is water, and air
+or hydrogen for gases. Since the
+weights of different bodies are in proportion
+to their masses, it follows that
+the specific gravity of any body is the
+same as its density, and we now generally
+use the term “density” instead
+of specific gravity.</p>
+
+<p>To find, for instance, the specific
+gravity of a given bulk of silver, we
+must take an equal bulk of water and
+weigh it. Then we also weigh the silver.
+We find that the silver weighs
+ten and a half times as much as the
+water, and so the specific gravity of
+silver is 10.5. If you will bear in
+mind that water is the standard used
+for measuring the specific gravity of
+solids and liquids, and that air or hydrogen
+are used as standards for the
+gases, you will always know what the
+figures after the words specific gravity
+mean.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Do We See Stars When Hit On the
+Eye?</h2>
+
+<p>We do not really see stars, of
+course, when we are hit on the eye or
+when we fall in such a way as to bump
+the front of our heads. What we do
+see, or think we see, is light.</p>
+
+<p>To understand this we must go back
+to the explanation of the five senses—sight,
+hearing, feeling, tasting and
+touching. Now, each of these senses
+has a special set of nerves through
+which the sensations received by each
+of the senses is communicated to the
+brain and, as a rule, these special
+nerves receive no sensations excepting
+those which occur in their own particular
+field of usefulness. The eye
+then has nerves of vision; the nose,
+nerves of smell; the ear, nerves of
+hearing; the mouth, nerves of taste, and
+the entire body nerves of touch. As
+we have seen then, these special nerves
+are susceptible of receiving impressions
+or sensations only in their particular
+field. But, if you should be
+able to rouse the nerves of smell in
+an entirely artificial way and give them
+a sensation, they might easily act very
+much as though they smelled something.
+We find this often in the nerves
+of touch when we think we feel something
+when we do not.</p>
+
+<p>Now, when some one hits you in the
+eye, the nerves of vision are disturbed
+in such a way as to produce upon the
+brain the sensation of seeing light. In
+other words, you cannot affect the eye
+nerves without causing the sensation
+of light, and that is just what happens
+when some one hits you in the eye.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page269">[269]</span></p>
+
+<div class="container w40emmax">
+
+<img src="images/illo269a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig269a">
+
+<p class="caption">“ARGONAUT, JUNIOR.”</p>
+
+<p class="caption">Experimental Boat, 1894.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<div class="container w40emmax">
+<img src="images/illo269b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig269b">
+
+<p class="caption">“ARGONAUT THE FIRST.”</p>
+
+<p class="caption">Built 1896-1897.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<h2 class="nobreak">The Story in a Submarine Boat</h2>
+
+</div><!--chapter-->
+
+<h3>How Can a Ship Sail Under Water?</h3>
+
+<p>Up to a few years ago the stories
+we could tell about the ships that sail
+beneath the water were the creations
+of the minds of writers of fiction, like
+the author of “Twenty Thousand
+Leagues Under the Sea,” but to-day
+we can read of many actual trips beneath
+the water by the brave men who
+man our submarines. We never
+dreamed that the great story of Jules
+Verne would be realized in the little
+but very destructive ships of war
+which can be seen to-day in the naval
+ports of the nations of the world.</p>
+
+<p>We might have had these submarines
+long ago but for the fact that the men
+who were trying to invent them would
+not give up the secrets which they had
+discovered. Many men in different
+parts of the world worked on this
+problem and each discovered one or
+more things which were valuable in
+working out a solution, and if they had
+all gotten together and compared notes
+between them they could have produced
+a submarine boat almost as good as
+those we have to-day.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page270">[270]</span></p>
+
+<h3>How Does the Submarine Get Down
+Under the Surface?</h3>
+
+<p>The first essential in a vessel to enable
+it to navigate below the surface
+of the water is that it be made sufficiently
+strong to withstand the surrounding
+pressure of water, which increases
+at the rate of .43 of a pound
+for each foot of submergence.</p>
+
+<p>A boat navigating at a depth of 100
+feet would therefore have 43 pounds
+pressure per square inch of surface,
+or 6192 pounds for every square foot
+of surface. It will readily be seen,
+therefore, that the first essential is
+great strength. Therefore, the submarine
+boats are usually built circular
+in cross section with steel plating riveted
+to heavy framing, as that is the
+best form to resist external pressure.
+These boats are built for surface navigation
+as well, therefore they have a
+certain amount of buoyancy when navigating
+on the surface, the same as an
+ordinary surface vessel. When it is
+desired to submerge the vessel this
+buoyancy must be destroyed, so that
+the vessel will sink under the surface.</p>
+
+<p>Now, the submerged displacement of
+a submarine vessel is its total volume,
+and, theoretically, a vessel may be put
+in equilibrium with the water which it
+displaces by admitting water ballast
+into compartments contained within the
+hull of the vessel, therefore, if a vessel
+whose total displacement submerged
+was 100 tons, the vessel and contents
+must weigh also 100 tons. If it weighed
+one ounce more than 100 tons it would
+sink to the bottom. If it weighed one
+ounce less than 100 tons it would float
+on the surface with a buoyancy of one
+ounce. If it weighed exactly 100 tons
+it would be in what submarine designers
+specify as being “in perfect equilibrium.”</p>
+
+<p>It is possible to give a vessel a slight
+negative buoyancy to cause her to sink
+to, say, a depth of 50 feet and then
+pump out sufficient water to give her
+a perfect equilibrium, and thus cause
+her to remain at a fixed depth while at
+rest. In practice, however, this is seldom
+done. Most submarine boats navigate
+under the water with a positive
+buoyancy of from 200 to 1000 pounds
+and are either steered at the depth
+desired by a horizontal rudder placed
+in the stern of the vessel, or are held
+to the depth by hydroplanes, which
+hydroplanes correspond to the fins of a
+fish. They are flat, plane surfaces, extending
+out from either side of the
+vessel, and when the vessel has headway,
+if the forward ends of these planes
+are inclined downward, the resistance
+of the water acting upon the planes
+is sufficient to overcome the reserve of
+buoyancy and holds the vessel to the
+desired depth. If the vessel’s propeller
+is stopped, the boat, having positive
+buoyancy, will come to the surface.</p>
+
+<p>By manipulating either the stern rudders
+or the hydroplanes, the vessel may
+be readily caused to either come nearer
+to the surface or go to a greater depth,
+as the change of angle will give a
+greater or less downpull to overcome
+the reserve of buoyancy.</p>
+
+<p>The above description applies to navigating
+a vessel when between the surface
+of the water and the bottom.</p>
+
+<p>Another type of vessel which is used
+for searching the bottom in locating
+wrecks, obtaining pearls, sponges, or
+shellfish, is provided with wheels. In
+this type of vessel the boat is given a
+slight negative buoyancy, sufficient to
+keep it on the bottom, and it is then
+propelled over the water bed on wheels,
+the same as an automobile is propelled
+about the streets. This type of vessel
+is also provided with a diver’s compartment,
+which is a compartment with
+a door opening outward from the bottom.
+If the operators in the boat wish
+to inspect the bottom, they go into this
+compartment and turn compressed air
+into the compartment until the air
+pressure equals the water pressure outside
+of the boat; i. e., if they were submerged
+at a depth of 100 feet they
+would introduce an air pressure of 43
+pounds per square inch into the diving
+compartment. The door could then be
+opened and no water could come into
+the compartment, as the diving compartment
+would be virtually a diving
+bell. Divers can then readily leave
+the boat by putting on a diving suit
+and stepping out upon the bottom.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page271">[271]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">ONE OF THE FIRST PRACTICAL SUBMARINES</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo271a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig271a">
+
+<p class="caption">“PROTECTOR.” BUILT 1901-1902, BRIDGEPORT, CONN.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">This was the pioneer Submarine Torpedo Boat of the level-keel type, and was built
+in Bridgeport in 1901-1902. It was shipped to St. Petersburg, Russia, during the Russian-Japanese
+war. From St. Petersburg it was shipped to Vladivostok, 6000 miles across
+Siberia, special cars being built for its transport.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo271b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig271b" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption long">This picture illustrates the same vessel, also at full speed under engines, with the
+conning-tower entirely awash and with the sighting-hood and the Omniscope alone above
+water. Notwithstanding the limited areas exposed above the surface, still observation
+could be had well-nigh continuously either through the dead-lights in the sighting-hood
+or by means of the Omniscope.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">In neither condition is it necessary to have recourse to electrical propulsion—the boats
+can still be safely and speedily driven as here shown under their engines.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page272">[272]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">THE INSIDE OF A SUBMARINE</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo272a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig272a">
+
+<p class="caption">THE “G-1” RECENTLY DELIVERED TO THE UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">The largest, fastest submarine in the United States and the most powerfully armed
+submarine torpedo boat in the world.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">In addition to the usual fixed torpedo tubes arranged in the bow of the vessel, which
+requires the vessel herself to be trained, the (seal) “G-1” carries four torpedo tubes on
+her deck which may be trained while the vessel is submerged, in the same manner as a
+deck gun on a surface vessel is trained, and thus fired to either broadside, which gives
+many technical advantages.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo272b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig272b" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption long">The above view gives a general idea of the interior of a submarine torpedo boat
+and the method of operation when running entirely submerged with periscope only above
+the surface.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">The commanding officer is at the periscope in the conning tower directing the course
+of the submarine through the periscope, which is a tube arranged with lenses and prisms
+which gives a view of the horizon and everything above the surface of the water, the
+same as if the observer in the submarine was himself above water. The steersman is
+shown just forward of the commanding officer and steers the vessel by compass under
+the direction of the commanding officer, the same as when navigating above the surface.
+In the larger type boats the steersman also has a periscope which enables him to see what
+is going on above the surface. Below decks two of the crew are shown loading a torpedo
+into the torpedo tube; each torpedo is charged with gun-cotton and will run under its own
+power over a mile and will explode on striking the enemy. The crew live in the compartment
+aft of the torpedo room. Aft of this is the engine room, in which are located
+powerful internal combustion engines for running on the surface and electric motors
+for running submerged. The electric motors are driven by storage batteries located under
+the living quarters. Wheels are shown housed in the keel, which may be lowered for
+navigating on the bottom in shallow water. A diving compartment in the bow permits
+divers to leave the vessel when on the bottom, to search for and cut or repair cables or
+to plant mines.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page273">[273]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">A SUBMARINE SAILING CLOSE TO THE SURFACE</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo273a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig273a">
+
+<p class="caption long">A submarine running partly submerged with the conning tower hatch open, showing
+the remarkable steadiness of this type of boat in a semi-submerged condition, a thing
+no other craft could safely accomplish.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo273b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig273b" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption long">Another submarine running entirely submerged, periscope only showing. The flag
+is attached to top of periscope to show her position in maneuvers when periscope goes
+entirely under water.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page274">[274]</span></p>
+
+<div class="container w35emmax" id="Fig274">
+
+<img src="images/illo274.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">A PHOTOGRAPH TAKEN WITH THE PERISCOPE UNIVERSAL LENS.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<h3>AN ALL-SEEING EYE FOR THE SUBMARINE</h3>
+
+<p>Vision under water is limited to but
+a few yards at best, and hence a submarine
+boat, when submerged, would
+be as blind as a ship in a dense fog
+and would have to grope its way along
+guided only by chart and compass, were
+it not for a device known as a periscope,
+that reaches upward and projects
+out of the water, enabling the
+steersman to view his surroundings
+from the surface. Of course the height
+of the periscope limits the depth at
+which the craft may be safely sailed.
+Nor can the periscope tube be extended
+indefinitely, because the submarine
+must be capable of diving under a vessel
+when occasion demands. But when
+operating just under the surface, where
+it can see without being seen, the craft
+is in far greater danger of collision than
+vessels on the surface, because it must
+depend upon its own alertness and
+agility to keep out of the way of other
+boats. The latter can hardly be expected
+to notice the inconspicuous periscope
+tube projecting from the water
+in time to turn their great bulks out of
+the danger course.</p>
+
+<p>The foregoing article describes the
+type of periscope now in common use
+on submarines and one of the <a href="#Fig275">engravings</a>
+on this page clearly illustrates the
+principles of the instrument. A serious
+defect of this type of instrument is
+that the field of vision is too limited.
+The man at the wheel is able to see
+under normal conditions only that
+which lies immediately before the boat.<span class="pagenum" id="Page275">[275]</span>
+It is true that he can turn the periscope
+about so as to look in other directions,
+but this, of course, involves considerable
+inconvenience. On at least two
+occasions has a submarine boat been
+run down by a vessel coming up behind
+it.</p>
+
+<div class="container w25emmax" id="Fig275">
+
+<img src="images/illo275.jpg" alt="Sections of periscope">
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>SEEING IN ALL<br>
+DIRECTIONS AT ONCE</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>As long as the submarine has but a
+single eye it would seem quite essential
+to make this eye all-seeing; and since
+the two lamentable accidents just referred
+to, an inventor in England has
+devised a periscope which provides a
+view in all directions at the same time.
+This has been attempted before, but
+it has been found very difficult to obtain
+an annular lens mirror which
+would project the image down the periscope
+tube without distortion. The
+accompanying <a href="#Fig275">illustrations</a> show how
+this difficulty has now been overcome.
+While we will not attempt to enter
+into a mathematical explanation of the
+precise form of the mirror lens, it
+will suffice to state that it is an annular
+prism. The prism is a zonal section
+of a sphere with a conoidal central
+opening and a slightly concave base. All
+the surfaces, however, are generated
+by arcs of circles owing to the mechanical
+inconvenience of producing
+truly hyperboloidal surfaces. The lens
+mirror is shown in section at <i>A</i> in Fig.
+1. The arrows indicate roughly the
+course of the rays into the lens and
+their reflection from the surface <i>B</i>,
+which is preferably silvered. The tube
+is provided with two objectives <i>C</i> and
+<i>D</i> (Fig. 3) between which a condenser
+<i>E</i> is interposed at the image plane of
+the lens <i>C</i>. At the bottom of the periscope
+tube the rays are reflected by
+means of a prism <i>F</i> into the eyepiece.
+Two eyepieces are employed. One of
+lower power, <i>G</i>, is a Kelner eyepiece,
+the purpose of which is to permit inspection
+of the whole image, while a
+high-powered eccentrically placed Huyghenian
+eyepiece, <i>H</i>, enables one to
+inspect portions of the image. The
+two eyepieces are mounted in a rectilinear
+chamber, <i>I</i>, which may be rotated
+about the prism at the end of the periscope,
+thus bringing one or other of
+the eyepieces into active position. The
+plan view, Fig. 4, shows in full lines
+the high-powered eyepiece in operative
+position, while the dotted lines indicate
+the parts moved about to bring the
+low-powered eyepiece into use. A small
+catch, <i>J</i>, shown in Fig. 2, serves to
+hold the chamber in either of these
+two positions. The high-powered eyepiece
+is mounted on a plate, <i>K</i>, which
+may be rotated to bring the eyepiece
+into position for inspecting any desired
+portions of the annular image. The
+parts are so arranged that when the
+eyepiece is in its uppermost position,<span class="pagenum" id="Page276">[276]</span>
+as indicated by full lines in Fig. 2, the
+observer can see that which is directly
+in front of the submarine, and when
+the eyepiece is in its low position, as
+indicated by dotted lines, he sees objects
+to the rear of the submarine.
+With the eyepiece at the right or at
+the left he sees objects at the right or
+left, respectively, of the submarine.
+The high-powered eyepiece is slightly
+inclined, so that the image may be
+viewed normally and to equal advantage
+in all parts. Mounted above a
+plain unsilvered portion of the mirror
+is a scale of degrees which appears just
+outside of the annular image. A scale
+is also engraved on the plate <i>K</i> with
+a fixed pointer on the chamber, making
+it possible to locate the position of any
+object and rotate the plate <i>K</i> so as to
+bring the eyepiece <i>H</i> on it. The scale
+also makes it possible to locate the object
+with respect to the boat.</p>
+
+<div class="container w20emmax">
+
+<p class="caption">HOW WE LOOK THROUGH A PERISCOPE</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo276a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig276a">
+
+<p class="caption">THE PERISCOPE TOP.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<div class="container w20emmax">
+
+<img src="images/illo276b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig276b">
+
+<p class="caption">PERISCOPE IN GENERAL USE.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<div class="container w40emmax">
+
+<img src="images/illo276c.jpg" alt="" id="Fig276c">
+
+<p class="caption">THE UNIVERSAL OBSERVATION LENS.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>This improved periscope is applicable
+not only to submarine boats but
+for other purposes as well, such as
+photographic land surface work, in
+which the entire surroundings may be
+recorded in a single photograph. The
+accompanying <a href="#Fig274">photograph</a>, taken
+through a periscope of this type, shows
+the advantages of this arrangement
+and gives an idea of its value to the
+submarine observer when using the
+low-powered eyepiece. Of course, by
+using the other eyepiece any particular
+part of the view may be enlarged and
+examined in detail.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page277">[277]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage landscape">
+
+<p class="paghead">INSIDE OF A MINE-PLANTING SUBMARINE</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo277.jpg" alt="" id="Fig277">
+
+<p class="caption">MINE-PLANTING SUBMERSIBLE.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">A Lake type vessel designed for planting contact mines. In naval
+warfare it is sometimes of advantage to plant mines, either to defend
+harbors, or in some cases the mines are planted in the course of the
+approaching enemy. This is a vessel designed for that purpose. The
+enemy is seen approaching, and the mine-planting submarine runs in
+ahead of them in a submerged condition and drops a number of contact
+mines on their course; the enemy strikes the mine and is blown
+up. A number of vessels were blown up by contact mines of this type
+in the Russian-Japanese war.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page278">[278]</span></p>
+
+<h3>Accidents and Their Causes.</h3>
+
+<p>The accidents which submarine vessels
+must guard against are as follows:
+collision, foundering, explosions and
+asphyxiation. The first danger is,
+however, no greater than those to
+which vessels that run entirely on the
+surface of the water are exposed. The
+eye of the submarine places the commander
+on a practical level with the
+commander of other vessels, so that if
+a collision occurs it is due to the same
+lack of watchfulness which causes collisions
+on the surface of the water.</p>
+
+<p>The submarine boat is less liable to
+founder than an ordinary vessel, because
+she is built to withstand a greater
+pressure of water than other kinds of
+vessels. Of course, if a submarine
+springs a leak, she is in grave danger
+of sinking to the bottom, and there is
+less chance of the crew being rescued
+from a submarine, because no one but
+those on board know of the danger if
+the boat is under the water.</p>
+
+<h3>How Explosions May Occur.</h3>
+
+<p>In submarine vessels explosions may
+occur either through a collection of
+gases from the batteries or by reason
+of leaks in the pipes or tanks of the
+fuel supply system, or through the
+bursting of the air flasks belonging to
+the boat, or the air reservoirs in the
+automobile torpedoes. The greatest
+danger is from explosive gases and
+have been the cause of all explosions
+in modern submarine craft, and the
+greatest danger in this connection is
+the liability of a leak in the gasolene
+pipes or tanks. This gas is a heavy
+gas and so goes to the bottom of the
+vessel, where it is not so easily detected
+as a gas which rises. There is
+no certain way of guarding against
+leaks of gasolene. A leak may occur
+at any time in a pipe or tank of gasolene
+through some cause or other no
+matter how carefully inspected, and
+the gas from this is so active that it
+will go through the tiniest hole imaginable—even
+through a hole which
+water will not penetrate. The crew of
+a submarine is always subject to this
+danger unless the tanks are built outside
+the hull of the ship.</p>
+
+<h3>How the Air May Become Poisoned.</h3>
+
+<p>There is a constant danger of asphyxiation
+to the men in the submarine.
+A very small leakage of gas or the
+exhaust from an internal combustion
+engine may make the air so impure
+that those aboard will be overcome. A
+great deal of care must be taken to
+keep the air pure and to warn the crew
+at the first sign of danger from this.</p>
+
+<p>When submarines first came into
+practical use, it was found a good idea
+to take a number of little white mice
+down with the vessel to warn all if
+the air began to become impure. As
+soon as this occurred, the mice became
+distressed and squealed as loudly as
+they could, thus warning those aboard
+the ship of danger. The mice felt the
+impurity of the air quicker than the
+men, not because they had any special
+gift to discover when the air was bad,
+but because they breathe much more
+quickly than man—take shorter and
+many more breaths.</p>
+
+<p>Now, however, a chemical device has
+been invented which is affected in such
+a way as to ring a loud bell, if the air
+in the vessel becomes impure to such
+an extent that there is any danger.</p>
+
+<p>Breathing the same air over and over
+may fill the vessel with carbonic acid
+gas. There should be no great danger
+from this, however, as submarines are
+now built sufficiently large to provide
+enough actually pure air for each man
+aboard for forty-eight hours, and it is
+hardly conceivable that a submarine
+need be submerged more than half that
+length of time under any conditions.</p>
+
+<p>Of course, then, too, there is the
+danger of accident due to carelessness
+or ignorance. In other words, it is just
+as difficult to make a fool-proof submarine
+as a fool-proof anything else.
+Wherever anything is constantly dependent
+upon the continuous careful
+attention of human beings, there is constant
+danger of accident, whether it
+be on board a submarine, a railroad
+train, steamship or in connection with
+anything else.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page279">[279]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage landscape">
+
+<p class="paghead">A SUBMARINE UNDER THE ICE</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo279.jpg" alt="" id="Fig279">
+
+<p class="caption">UNDER-ICE SUBMARINE TORPEDO BOAT.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">Submarine designed to navigate submerged under the ice, in ice-bound
+countries. Vessels of this type could enter harbors and destroy
+the enemy’s shipping at will. A vessel of this type would also be
+of value in transporting mails, passengers and cargoes between ice-bound
+ports where navigation by surface vessels is closed for several
+months in the year.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page280">[280]</span></p>
+
+<h3>Story of How the Submarine Has Been
+Developed.</h3>
+
+<p>It is only within the past twenty
+years that man has been able to successfully
+navigate under the surface of
+the water.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>WHO MADE THE FIRST<br>
+SUBMARINE BOAT?</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>It has been a dream of inventors
+and engineers for the past three hundred
+years.</p>
+
+<p>During the reign of King James I.
+a crude submarine vessel was built of
+wood, and was designed to be propelled
+by oars extending out through holes
+in the side of the vessel, the water
+being prevented from coming in
+through the openings by goat skins tied
+about the oars and nailed to the sides
+of the boat, which made a water-tight
+joint, but at the same time gave flexibility
+to the oars, so that by feathering
+them on the return stroke they could
+be manipulated to give head motion.
+Very little, if any, success could have
+attended this effort.</p>
+
+<p>Nearly a hundred years later a man
+by the name of Day built a submarine
+and made a wager that he could descend
+to 100 yards and remain there
+24 hours. He built a boat and submerged
+it in a place where there was
+a depth of 100 yards. He succeeded
+in remaining the 24 hours, and according
+to latest advices is still there, as
+he never returned to the surface.</p>
+
+<p>There is very little information as
+to the construction of these early craft.
+The first really serious attempt at submarine
+navigation was made by a Connecticut
+man, a Dr. David Bushnell,
+who lived at Saybrook during the Revolutionary
+War. He built a small submarine
+vessel which he called the
+“American Turtle,” and with it he expected
+to destroy the British fleet, anchored
+off New York during its occupation
+by General Washington and the
+Continental Army.</p>
+
+<p>Thatcher’s Military Journal gives a
+description of this vessel and describes
+an attempt to sink the British frigate
+“Eagle” of 64 guns by attaching a torpedo
+to the bottom of the ship by
+means of a screw manipulated from
+the interior of this submarine vessel.</p>
+
+<p>A sergeant who operated the “Turtle”
+succeeded in getting under the
+British vessel, but the screw which was
+to hold the torpedo in place came in
+contact with an iron scrap, refused to
+enter, and the implement of destruction
+floated down stream, where its
+clockwork mechanism finally caused it
+to explode, throwing a column of water
+high in the air and creating consternation
+among the shipping in the harbor.
+Skippers were so badly frightened that
+they slipped their cables and went
+down to Sandy Hook. General Washington
+complimented Dr. Bushnell on
+having so nearly accomplished the destruction
+of the frigate.</p>
+
+<p>If the performance of Bushnell’s
+“Turtle” was such as described, it
+seems strange that our new government
+did not immediately take up his
+ideas and make an appropriation for
+further experiments in the same line.
+When the attack was made on the
+“Eagle,” Dr. Bushnell’s brother, who
+was to have manned the craft, was
+sick, and a sergeant who undertook
+the task was not sufficiently acquainted
+with the operation to succeed in attaching
+the torpedo to the bottom of the
+frigate. Had he succeeded the “Eagle”
+would undoubtedly have been destroyed
+and the event would have added the
+name of another “hero” to history and
+might then have changed the entire art
+of naval warfare. Instead of Bushnell
+being encouraged in his plans, however,
+they were bitterly opposed by the
+naval authorities. His treatment was
+such as finally to compel him to leave
+the country, but he returned after some
+years of wandering, and under an assumed
+name, settled in Georgia, where
+he spent his remaining days practicing
+his profession.</p>
+
+<p>Robert Fulton, the man whose genius
+made steam navigation a success, was
+the next to turn his attention to submarine
+boats, and submarine warfare
+by submerged mines. A large part of
+his life was devoted to the solution of
+this problem. He went to France with
+his project and interested Napoleon
+Bonaparte, who became his patron and
+who was the means of securing sufficient
+funds to build a boat which was<span class="pagenum" id="Page281">[281]</span>
+called the “Nautilus.” With this vessel
+Fulton made numerous descents, and
+it is reported that he covered 500
+yards in a submerged run of seven
+minutes.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>HOW SUBMARINES<br>
+WERE DEVELOPED</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>In the spring of 1801 he took the
+“Nautilus” to Brest, and experimented
+with her for some time. He and three
+companions descended in the harbor to
+a depth of 25 feet and remained one
+hour, but he found the hull would not
+stand the pressure of a greater depth.
+They were in total darkness during the
+whole time, but afterward he fitted his
+craft with a glass window 1¹⁄₂ inches
+in diameter, through which he could
+see to count the minutes on his watch.
+He also discovered during his trials
+that the mariner’s compass pointed
+equally as true under water as above
+it. His experiments led him to believe
+that he could build a submarine vessel
+with which he could swim under the
+surface and destroy any man-of-war
+afloat. When he came before the
+French Admiralty, however, he was
+met with blunt refusal, one bluff old
+French admiral saying: “Thank God,
+France still fights her battles on the
+surface, not beneath it,” a sentiment
+which apparently has changed since
+those days, as France now has a large
+fleet of submarines. After several
+years of unsuccessful efforts in France
+to get his plans adopted, Fulton finally
+went over to England and interested
+William Pitt, then chancellor, in his
+schemes. He built a boat there, and
+succeeded in attaching a torpedo beneath
+a condemned brig provided for
+the purpose, blowing her up in the
+presence of an immense throng. Pitt
+induced Fulton to sell his boat to the
+English government and not bring it to
+the attention of any other nation, thus
+recognizing the fact that if this type of
+vessel should be made entirely successful,
+England would lose her supremacy
+as the “Mistress of the Seas.”</p>
+
+<p>Fulton consented to do so, but would
+not pledge himself regarding his own
+country, stating that if his country
+should become engaged in war, no
+pledge could be given that would prevent
+him from offering his services in
+any way which would be for its benefit.</p>
+
+<p>The English Government paid him
+$75,000 for this concession. Fulton
+then returned to New York and built
+the “Clermont” and other steamboats,
+but did not entirely give up his ideas
+of submarine navigation, and at the
+time of his death was at work on plans
+for a much larger boat.</p>
+
+<p>Fulton had a true conception of the
+result of submarine warfare, and in a
+letter he says: “Gunpowder has within
+the last three hundred years totally
+changed the art of war, and all my
+reflections have led me to believe that
+this application of it will, in a few
+years, put a stop to maritime wars, give
+that liberty on the seas which has been
+long and anxiously desired by every
+good man, and secure to Americans
+that liberty of commerce, tranquillity,
+and independence which will enable
+citizens to apply their mental and corporeal
+facilities to useful and humane
+pursuits, to the improvement of our
+country and the happiness of the whole
+people.”</p>
+
+<p>After Fulton’s death spasmodic attempts
+were made by various inventors
+looking to the solving of the difficult
+problem, but no very serious efforts
+were put forth until the period of the
+Civil War, and then a number of submarine
+boats were built by the Confederates.
+These boats were commonly
+called “Davids,” and it was one of
+them that sank the United States
+steamship “Housatonic” in Charleston
+Harbor on the night of the 17th of
+February, 1864. This submarine vessel
+drowned four different crews, a
+total of thirty men, during her brief
+career. At the time she sank the “Housatonic”
+her attack was anticipated,
+and sharp lookout was kept at all
+times; but, notwithstanding their vigilance,
+she succeeded in getting sufficiently
+close to plant a torpedo on the
+end of a spar, and sink this fine, new
+ship of 1400 tons displacement.</p>
+
+<p>It will be seen from the above description
+that these vessels, while able
+to go under water, were not controllable.</p>
+
+<p>After the Civil War several other<span class="pagenum" id="Page282">[282]</span>
+inventors took up the problem of trying
+to design a submarine vessel that
+could be controlled as to maintenance
+of depth and direction under water.</p>
+
+<p>In Europe, Gustave Zede, Goubet
+and Drzwiezki, and in this country Mr.
+Baker and Mr. John P. Holland, built
+experimental vessels.</p>
+
+<p>In 1877 Mr. Holland built a small
+boat which was called the “Fenian
+Ram.” It is stated that this vessel was
+built with capital furnished by the
+“Clan-na-Gael,” with the idea of using
+it against the British fleet in an attempt
+to free Ireland.</p>
+
+<p>While some slight success was met
+with by these inventors, it was not until
+about 1897 that any real progress was
+made.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>THE FIRST SUCCESSFUL SUBMARINE<br>
+WITH HYDROPLANES</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>In 1893, Simon Lake, an American
+inventor, submitted plans to the
+United States Naval authorities at
+Washington for a submarine boat that
+would navigate between the surface
+and the bottom by the use of what he
+called “hydroplanes,” which were designed
+to cause the vessel to submerge
+on an even keel. Mr. Lake’s design of
+vessel was also provided with wheels
+to enable it to navigate on the water
+bed. It was also provided with a diving
+compartment to enable the crew to
+don diving suits and leave the vessel,
+in working on wrecks, cutting cables,
+planting mines, etc.</p>
+
+<p>In 1904 and 1905 he built a small
+vessel to demonstrate his principles
+and succeeded in successfully navigating
+the vessel on the bottom of New
+York Bay. He then built a larger vessel
+of about 50 tons displacement for
+further experimental purposes. This
+vessel was called the “Argonaut,” and
+was built in Baltimore in 1906 and
+1907. This boat was successful from
+the start and covered thousands of
+miles in the Chesapeake Bay and along
+the Atlantic Coast, New York Bay and
+Long Island Sound, and was the first
+successful submarine boat to navigate
+in the open sea and on the water bed
+of the ocean.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Holland had, in 1894, received
+a contract for a submarine vessel for
+the United States Navy, and her construction
+was started in 1895. This
+vessel was called the “Plunger.” This
+was the first official recognition given
+to a submarine boat in the United
+States.</p>
+
+<p>The Government of France had also
+given an order for a submarine boat
+which was under construction at this
+period.</p>
+
+<p>The “Plunger” was never submerged,
+her construction covering a period of
+several years, and she was finally
+abandoned. Mr. Holland had, however,
+in the meantime prepared the designs
+of another vessel which he called
+“The Holland.” This vessel was accepted
+by the United States Government
+in 1900, and a number of other
+vessels of this type were built. These
+vessels were known as submarines of
+the diving type. They were controlled
+by means of a horizontal and vertical
+rudder placed at the stern of the vessel
+and the boat was, by means of these
+rudders, inclined down by the bow,
+and driven under the water by the
+force of their screw propeller.</p>
+
+<p>England also built a number of submarines
+of the diving type.</p>
+
+<p>In 1901 Mr. Lake brought out a
+larger vessel of his type, which was
+controlled by hydroplanes, which vessel
+was sold to the Russian Government,
+was shipped across the Atlantic
+to Kronstadt, and from there by rail to
+Vladivostok, and was in commission
+off Vladivostok just before the close
+of the Russian-Japanese War.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Lake then received orders from
+the Russian and other Governments
+for a number of additional boats of
+the even keel type, to be controlled by
+hydroplanes.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Lake’s principles of control
+have been now generally adopted by
+all Governments, as providing the safest
+and most reliable means of control
+of the vessel when navigating under
+the surface.</p>
+
+<p>The United States Government has
+recently adopted this type to be built
+in their Navy Yards, and most other
+builders have adopted the hydroplanes
+as the means of maintaining depth
+when running beneath the surface.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page283">[283]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">CLEARING A CHANNEL OF BUOYANT MINES</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo283a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig283a">
+
+<p class="caption long">This is one of the services to which submarine boats of this type lend themselves with peculiar
+fitness. It is possible for them to carry on this work with deliberation and to success, under the very
+guns and searchlights of a vigilant foe, without the slightest danger of being detected.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">This would be accomplished preferably by the co-operation of two boats. They would take opposite
+sides in the channel, with a connecting rope extending out through the diving compartment. It is
+obvious that as they move along the rope will sweep the whole mine-field and gather in the connecting
+cables. This would be indicated at once to the operators in the diving compartment by the load
+upon the sweeping line. A grapple may then be attached to the rope and sent out of one boat and
+hauled into the other, and thus drag the mine so near that a diver could go out and destroy its
+electrical connections or cut it adrift. Should the latter operation be the aim, the grapple may be
+so fashioned as to accomplish this without the diver leaving the compartment. This latter method is
+one strongly recommended by some of the most prominent military authorities on submarine defense.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo283b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig283b" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption long">This picture indicates the manner in which the boats have traveled many miles over all kinds of
+bottom. In the present instance the boat is shown systematically searching the bottom with her diving
+door open and strong lights being used to facilitate a more perfect examination.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">There is no trim or equilibrium to maintain. When the propelling machinery stops the boat
+comes to rest. A cyclometer attached to these wheels gives a fairly reliable reading of the distance
+traveled under normal circumstances. As the currents do not carry her out of her course, and as
+her gauges give an absolute record of changing depths, it is possible to so navigate upon the bottom
+with remarkable precision. In shallow waters this method has many advantages.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page284">[284]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage landscape">
+
+<p class="paghead">A MACHINE WHICH MAKES THE DIVER’S TASK EASY</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo284.jpg" alt="" id="Fig284">
+
+<p class="caption">SHOWING TUBE HANDLING CARGO IN SUNKEN SHIP.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page285">[285]</span></p>
+
+<h3>Recovering Cargo or Submerged Objects
+Without the Aid of Divers.</h3>
+
+<p>The operating tube is <a href="#Fig284">here</a> shown
+within the body of a hulk and co-operating
+with the lifting derrick on the
+surface craft in the removal of the
+submerged cargo. A grab-dredge
+bucket of well-known construction is
+used, the jaws of which, when being
+lowered by one rope, open, and when
+strain is brought on the lifting rope,
+the jaws close. The working end of
+the tube is placed in the immediate
+neighborhood of the cargo to be lifted
+and, as the grab is being lowered from
+the boat above, the operator in the
+compartment controls the grab by
+means of the guide line shown attached
+to the small derrick boom, and
+leads it directly over the cargo to be
+lifted. The grab is then dropped and
+the signal sent to the vessel above to
+hoist. The moment the lifting line
+tautens the bucket grasps a load and
+fills itself with material in the manner
+common to this type of dredge.
+This method of directing intelligently
+and deliberately the dredge bucket may
+be applied as well to the removal of
+rock or any other obstruction or to
+any of those various services of kindred
+character familiar to submarine
+engineers. The great and prime advantage
+of the system is the fact that no
+divers are required, and the work is
+under the perfect control of an operator
+subject only to atmospheric pressure.
+In consequence, therefore, the
+only limit to the effective operating of
+this apparatus is the length of the tube,
+and, as has been said, this can be made
+long enough to reach depths denied to
+the diver simply by interposing additional
+sections.</p>
+
+<div class="container w40emmax" id="Fig285">
+
+<p class="caption">LIFE ABOARD A SUBMARINE</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo285.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">LIVING QUARTERS ABOARD A SUBMARINE.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page286">[286]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Where Do Sponges Come From?</h2>
+
+<p>Until within comparatively recent
+years, the sponge was regarded as a
+plant; it is now known to belong to the
+animal kingdom, and to the order spongida
+of the class of rhizopoda. Sponge
+is an elastic, porous substance, formed
+of interlaced horny fibers, which produce
+by their numerous inosculations,
+a rude sort of network, with meshes or
+pores of unequal sizes, and usually of
+a square or angulated shape. Besides
+these pores there are some circular holes
+of large size scattered over the surface
+of most sponges, which lead into sinuous
+canals that permeate their interior
+in every direction. The oscula, canals,
+and pores, communicate freely together.
+The characteristic property of the
+sponge is the facility with which it absorbs
+a large quantity of any fluid,
+more especially of water, which is retained
+amid the meshes until forced out
+again by a sufficient degree of compression,
+when the sponge returns to
+its former bulk. From this peculiarity,
+combined with its pleasant softness,
+arises the value of the sponge for the
+purposes to which it is applied. In domestic
+economy and in surgical practice,
+there is no other product that can
+be satisfactorily substituted for it.</p>
+
+<p>Sponge is an aquatic production, indigenous
+to almost every sea and shore.
+It is abundant and varied between the
+tropics, but becomes less so in temperate
+latitudes and continues to diminish in
+quantity, variety, and size, as it is traced
+into European and colder seas, until it
+almost disappears in the vicinity of the
+polar circles. Some sponges are known
+to be hermaphrodite, but that the individual
+at one period produces chiefly
+male elements, and later, chiefly female
+elements. Fertilization takes place in
+the body of the mother, and the egg
+here undergoes its early development.
+The embryo eventually bursts the maternal
+tissue and, passing into one of
+the canals, is caught by the current
+sweeping through the canal system and
+is discharged into the surrounding
+water through one of the large apertures
+on the surface of the sponge. In
+the Bahama Islands and along the coast
+of Florida, the breeding time of many
+sponges covers the period from mid-summer
+on through early Autumn.</p>
+
+<p>There is propagation sometimes by
+ciliated gemmules, yellowish and oval,
+arising from the sarcode mass, and carried
+out by the currents. These are
+mostly formed in the spring, and after
+swimming freely about for a time, become
+fixed and grow. In its natural
+state, the sponge is a very different
+looking object from the article of commerce.
+The entire surface is covered
+with a thin, slimy skin, usually of a
+dark color, and perforated to correspond
+with the apertures of the canals.
+The sponge of commerce is in reality
+only the home or the skeleton of the
+sponge.</p>
+
+<p>There are a few sponges that inhabit
+ponds and sluggish rivers; the others
+are marine. Of these, many of the
+calcareous and siliceous kinds inhabit
+the shores between tide-marks, preferring
+a site near the low ebb, where,
+nevertheless, they are daily alternately
+submerged, and left exposed to the atmosphere.
+The figured sponges with a
+fibrous texture, to whatever genus they
+belong, are denizens of deeper water,
+and are never left uncovered. They
+grow usually in groups, on rock shells,
+shellfish, corallines, and seaweeds, and
+either have no power of selection, or
+the quality of the site is indifferent to
+them.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">How Do Sponges Grow?</h2>
+
+<p>In their growth, some sponges assume
+a determinate figure or at least
+one whose variations are confined within
+certain limits. The greater number
+are irregular and variable, their shape
+depending in a great measure upon the
+peculiarities of their state, to which they
+easily accommodate themselves. They
+will incrust a shell, or a crab, a rock,
+or seaweed, following every projection
+and sinuosity. The offshoots will spring
+up with a more luxuriant growth in the
+deeper sheltered places until the original
+shape of the foundation they grow
+upon is lost to sight.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page287">[287]</span></p>
+
+<p>Sponges are unmoving and inirritable.
+They never remain rooted to the
+places of the germination, and are incapable
+either of contracting or dilating
+themselves or even of moving any fiber
+or portion of their mass. The functions
+which distinguish them as living
+beings are few, and faintly imaged.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">How Do Sponges Eat?</h2>
+
+<p>Although sponges lack the power of
+motion possessed by most animals, being
+nearly always attached, in one position
+or another, to some object, the
+study of their habits in captivity brings
+out many of their animal characteristics
+in a striking manner. Small specimens
+taken from the sea and placed in dishes
+of salt water may be kept alive for
+several hours if well cared for; and
+by using finely powdered coloring matter,
+such as carmine or indigo, the manner
+of their feeding may be readily observed.
+Sponges are more active in
+fresh sea water than in stale; they cannot
+be kept alive out of water and soon
+die if exposed to the air. Being unable
+to go in search of food, as a natural
+result, they can grow only in places
+where there is always an abundance of
+food suited to their wants. The great
+sponging grounds of the world are
+wholly confined within waters having
+a relatively high temperature during
+the entire year. The Old World
+sponges grow principally in the Mediterranean
+and the Red seas; the New
+World sponges are found about the Bahamas,
+southern and western Florida,
+and parts of the West Indies. The
+finest sponges come from the East, but
+one of the American species, the so-called
+“sheep’s wool,” stands high in
+favor.</p>
+
+<p>The commercial sponges are separated
+into six species, three of which
+are European and three American.
+They are all referred to a single genus
+called spongia, and though having much
+in common as regards structure, their
+texture varies to such an extent as to
+make them of very unequal value for
+domestic purposes.</p>
+
+<p>The Old World species may be arranged
+as follows, in order of their
+grade of excellence, beginning with the
+best quality: The Turkey cup sponge,
+Levant toilet sponge, the horse, honey
+comb, or bath sponge, and the Zimoca
+sponge. The American species include
+the sheep’s wool sponge, the yellow
+glove, violet, and grass, sponges. A
+very close relationship exists between
+the species of the two continents.</p>
+
+<p>All known regions in which useful
+specimens abound contribute to the
+world’s supply. The trade is extensive.
+The demands upon the fisheries are
+great. In the Mediterranean, the fishing
+is carried on in some places at a
+depth of forty fathoms. Divers,
+naked, or in armor, go down to the
+bottom and tear off the sponges from
+their places of growth. In some places
+drag dredges are employed.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">How Are Sponges Caught?</h2>
+
+<p>In the past quarter-century the
+sponge-fishery of the Florida coast has
+grown remarkably. Its headquarters
+is at Key West and several hundred
+sailing vessels are engaged in the industry.
+The fishing appliances consist of
+a small boat, a long hook, and a waterglass.
+The hook is in reality a three-pronged
+spear attached to a pole thirty-five
+feet long. In searching for sponge
+the fishers row about in the small boat.
+By holding the glass on the surface of
+the water the bottom is plainly seen
+and small objects are readily discerned.
+When a sponge is sighted the pole with
+the hook attached is shot down and the
+product deftly gathered. The boat-load
+is brought to the deck of the schooner,
+allowed to remain there a few hours,
+and then is carried down into the hold.
+On Friday nights, the fishing generally
+ends for the week, and the vessel sails
+for some spot on the neighboring coast
+where there are established crawls,
+or places for curing the catch. These
+crawls are about 8 x 10 feet square,
+their purpose being to hold the sponges
+while maceration and decomposition
+take place. The resulting refuse is
+carried off by the tide.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page288">[288]</span></p>
+
+<p>The fishermen go away for another
+catch and the sponges are left in the
+crawls until the end of the following
+week when a new cargo is brought in.
+The returning fishermen beat the decomposed
+sponges with clubs, removing
+the impurities. The water is squeezed
+out, then the sponges are allowed to
+dry on the ground.</p>
+
+<p>After drying, the hold of the large
+vessel is loaded to the utmost with the
+product and the voyage to Key West
+is made. Buyers from New York look
+over the sponges, and make offers for
+entire cargoes. The fishermen dispose
+of their goods rapidly and sail away
+for more. The buyers store the sponges
+in some dry building, and cause them
+to be bleached by lime. A popular manner
+of bleaching is to wash the sponges
+thoroughly in water, and then to immerse
+them in diluted hydrochloric acid
+to dissolve any of the calcareous substance.
+Having again been washed
+they are placed in another bath of dilute
+hydrochloric acid to which six per cent.
+of hyposulphite of soda, dissolved in
+a little warm water, has been added.
+In this bath the sponges remain for
+twenty-four hours, or until the bleaching
+process is completed. After bleaching,
+the sponges are pressed until their
+bulk is greatly reduced; they are then
+baled, and shipped to New York, which
+is the distributing point for the entire
+Florida product.</p>
+
+<p>Sponges are by far the most important
+fishery products of Florida, representing
+about one-third of the annual
+value of the fishing industry. In 1899,
+the yield was over 350,000 pounds of
+sponges of which the first value was
+nearly $400,000.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Does Yeast Make Bread Rise?</h2>
+
+<p>There is a lot of sugar in the dough
+from which bread is made. Sugar contains
+three things—carbon, hydrogen
+and oxygen. When sugar is fermented
+it amounts practically to burning it. To
+make good bread from the dough it is
+necessary to ferment the sugar which is
+in the ingredients from which it is
+made. Yeast, which is a simple living
+plant, has the power to ferment sugar.
+When sugar ferments, two things are
+produced. One thing is the formation
+of carbonic acid gas. A great deal of
+this carbonic acid gas is caught in the
+dough in the form of large or small
+bubbles and some of it escapes into the
+air. The other part tries to escape into
+the air also but cannot, and causes the
+dough to rise, which makes the bread
+light, as we say. The holes you see in
+the bread after it is baked are the little
+pockets where the carbonic acid gas
+was retained in the dough. These bubbles
+of gas all through the dough act
+like a lot of little balloons and lift the
+dough up with themselves as they try to
+get to the top and escape into the air.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Is Yeast?</h2>
+
+<p>Yeast is a living plant that is used
+for the purpose of causing fermentation.
+The yeast we use in baking bread
+is an artificial yeast—really a dough
+made of flour and a little common yeast
+and made into small cakes and dried.
+If kept free from moisture it retains
+the power of causing fermentation for
+some time. The flour and other matter
+in a cake of yeast are only used to keep
+the yeast in a form where it can be
+preserved. It is necessary to add water
+to start fermentation and that is why
+we add hot water when we stir in the
+yeast for a baking.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Is a Moth Attracted By a Light?</h2>
+
+<p>It seems to be a strange contradiction
+of the nature of living things that a
+moth should fly deliberately into a light
+or dash itself to death against the glass
+surrounding a strong light. This is
+contrary to the usual law of nature
+which gives the living thing an instinct
+to protect itself against enemies.</p>
+
+<p>For a long time we thought that
+moths did not deliberately burn themselves
+up by flying right into a light, but
+our naturalists have proven that not only
+moths but certain birds, bees, flies and
+butterflies, burn themselves up by flying
+into the flame of a light or fire.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page289">[289]</span></p>
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<div class="container w30emmax">
+
+<p class="caption">HOW MAN LEARNED TO MAKE A FIRE</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo289a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig289a">
+
+<p class="caption">SAWING</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">This was probably man’s first method of producing
+fire. By rubbing two sticks together in
+this way sufficient heat was produced to set fire
+to easily burnable material such as dried grass,
+etc.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<div class="container w20emmax">
+
+<img src="images/illo289b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig289b">
+
+<p class="caption">DRILLING</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">An improvement came when
+man learned that by twirling a
+dry stick in a hole in another
+piece of dry wood the fire could
+be started more quickly.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<h2 class="nobreak">How Man Discovered Fire</h2>
+
+</div><!--chapter-->
+
+<p>Fire was probably one of man’s first,
+if not the first, great discoveries, and
+has been one of his greatest servants
+as well as one of his greatest dangers.
+We do not know who discovered fire,
+or what nation first used it. It is, however,
+one of the signs that distinguishes
+man from the other animals. Not any
+of the lower animals was acquainted
+with the use of fire, while probably
+the earliest races of mankind seem to
+have been acquainted with it.</p>
+
+<p>Mythology tells us wonderful stories
+of the origin of fire: according to these
+tales it was stolen from the sun, or the
+gods, and given to man; and Pandora,
+the first woman, was sent down to earth
+to punish man for his theft.</p>
+
+<p>The most popular of these stories is
+the legend of Prometheus. According
+to this legend, fire, in the early days,
+was under the exclusive control of the
+gods. Prometheus, brother of Atlas,
+the god who supported the world on his
+shoulders, determined that the use of
+fire should be given to the people. He
+decided by some means to send a spark
+of fire to the earth, believing that one
+spark caught by man would start a
+burning flame that would never go out.</p>
+
+<p>With this idea in mind, Prometheus
+visited Zeus, the great ruler, to carry
+out his purpose, for Zeus controlled fire.
+While Zeus was not looking, Prometheus
+“stole some brands of fire from
+the hearth, which he hid in the stalk
+of a fennel and sent it down to the
+earth.” Through this Prometheus
+gave to man his first knowledge of
+fire.</p>
+
+<p>But while this story of fire may or
+may not be true, the use of fire rests entirely
+with man and his ingenuity.
+Through his ingenuity man was able to
+subject fire to his will; making it perform
+certain of his labors; and to a
+certain extent making it his servant;
+although it always did and always will
+get beyond his control at times.</p>
+
+<p>Our ancestors were not satisfied with
+preserving the fire which the gods gave
+them; they tried and succeeded in producing
+it. One day one of them discovered
+that by rubbing two sticks together
+rapidly, the friction would create
+a fire. It was a most useful discovery.
+Before long the whole of mankind had
+learned this trick; others improved on
+this crude method until step by step
+men learned that by striking two pieces<span class="pagenum" id="Page290">[290]</span>
+of flint or other hard mineral together,
+quicker action was obtained.</p>
+
+<div class="container w30emmax">
+
+<img src="images/illo290a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig290a">
+
+<p class="caption">DRILLING WITH BOW STRING</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">Man’s ingenuity soon taught him that if he tied
+one end of a string to something and wrapped
+it around his drilling stick, one end of which was
+in a hole as in the first drilling picture, he could
+increase the rapidity of making fire.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<div class="container w20emmax">
+
+<img src="images/illo290b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig290b">
+
+<p class="caption">DRILLING WITH HELP</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">With some other to hold the
+drilling stick while he operated
+the string he was able to produce
+fire more quickly than
+he had ever done before.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>All kinds of methods were devised
+to increase knowledge of producing fire.
+The early Greeks found out how to
+catch the rays of the sun on a burning-glass
+and produce fire; the Romans
+achieved the same results through the
+use of mirrors.</p>
+
+<div class="container w25emmax">
+
+<img src="images/illo290c.jpg" alt="" id="Fig290c">
+
+<p class="caption">PLOWING</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">This is another method man used for
+rubbing two pieces of wood together. In
+following this plan he usually used one
+stick of bamboo and rubbed it back and forth
+in a slot he had made in another piece of
+bamboo.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<div class="container w25emmax">
+
+<img src="images/illo290d.jpg" alt="" id="Fig290d">
+
+<p class="caption">FLINT AND PYRITES</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">In some places it was discovered that if
+you struck a piece of hard stone, like flint,
+against another, a spark was produced which
+could be caught on a bunch of dry grass or
+moss and so start a fire.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>In about A.D. 900, an Arab, named
+Bechel, discovered phosphorus, but it
+took almost 800 years more for Haukwitz
+to learn that when phosphorus was
+brought into friction with sulphur, fire
+would result. In another hundred
+years the world was benefited by the
+invention of the friction match—and
+since that time about one-half the people
+have been carrying matches about
+with them, able thus to start a fire
+easily any time.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>FIRE A MARK OF<br>
+CIVILIZATION</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>Fire and man’s knowledge of it have
+had much to do with man’s progress in
+civilization. Before man had fire, his
+life and movements were much like
+those of other animals. When man had
+learned to make a fire he was free to
+move and live anywhere and, therefore,
+people began to cover more territory.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page291">[291]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">THE FLINT AND STEEL METHOD OF MAKING FIRE</p>
+
+<div class="split6040">
+
+<div class="left6040">
+
+<img src="images/illo291a.jpg" alt="Tinder box" id="Fig291a">
+
+</div><!--leftsplit-->
+
+<div class="right6040">
+
+<img src="images/illo291b.jpg" alt="Striking flint with steel" id="Fig291b">
+
+</div><!--rightsplit-->
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--split-->
+
+<p class="caption">THE INTRODUCTION OF THE FLINT AND STEEL METHOD</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">Because fire was so important to him, man kept on trying to make this task easier. He
+finally contrived a tinder box when iron and steel became known. The tinder box is where
+he kept his flint and the piece of steel which he struck upon the flint. He also kept in the
+box pieces of cloth or paper on which he caught the sparks so produced.</p>
+
+<div class="split5050">
+
+<div class="left5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo291c.jpg" alt="" id="Fig291c" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption">PISTOL TINDER BOX</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">This is a picture of a tinder box in the
+form of a pistol. It enabled man to produce
+sparks in greater numbers and more
+rapidly.</p>
+
+</div><!--leftsplit-->
+
+<div class="right5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo291d.jpg" alt="" id="Fig291d" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption">PRODUCING SPARK WITH FLINT AND STEEL</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">This shows the method for striking the
+piece of steel against the flint to make the
+sparks fall on the cloth or paper in the
+box.</p>
+
+</div><!--rightsplit-->
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--split-->
+
+<div class="container w50emmax">
+
+<div class="split6436">
+
+<div class="left6436">
+
+<img src="images/illo291e.jpg" alt="" id="Fig291e" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption">A COMPLETE TINDER BOX SET</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">This picture shows a very complete tinder box set
+used by the wealthy people in the old days. A man carried
+this outfit with him just as today he carries
+matches.</p>
+
+</div><!--leftsplit-->
+
+<div class="right6436">
+
+<img src="images/illo291f.jpg" alt="" id="Fig291f" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption long">This tinder box set is very neat
+and compact. It is said still to be
+used among the Himalayan tribes
+where it was discovered.</p>
+
+</div><!--rightsplit-->
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--split-->
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page292">[292]</span></p>
+
+<div class="container w15emmax">
+
+<p class="caption">THE FIRST MATCHES</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo292a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig292a">
+
+<p class="caption">THE OXYMURIATE MATCH</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">This match, the first, was introduced
+in 1505. It was a slip
+of wood tipped with a chemical
+mixture. To light it it was necessary
+to stick its head into a
+bottle containing acid.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<div class="container w30emmax">
+
+<img src="images/illo292b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig292b">
+
+<p class="caption">PROMETHEAN MATCH</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">This was a paper cigarette dipped in a mixture of
+sugar and potash. Rolled within the paper was a tiny
+glass bulb filled with sulphuric acid. To light the match
+you pressed the bulb with pincers hard enough to break
+the bulb. This released the acid which set fire to the
+paper.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<h3>What Would We Do Without Matches?</h3>
+
+<p>If one were to ask the man in the
+street what invention of the nineteenth
+century is his most constant and invaluable
+ally he might be mystified for
+the moment, but the undoubted answer
+would surely come in the single word
+“Matches.” These familiar objects,
+apart from their luxurious use by
+smokers, are the indispensable servants
+of mankind from the moment of rising
+in the morning till the household is
+wrapped in sleep, and it is to them we
+turn when disturbed in the hours of
+darkness.</p>
+
+<div class="container w30emmax">
+
+<img src="images/illo292c.jpg" alt="" id="Fig292c">
+
+<p class="caption">FIRST LUCIFER MATCH</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">Invented by John Walker in 1827. It consisted of
+a stick of wood tipped with sulphur and then with a
+chlorate mixture. To ignite it the match was drawn
+rapidly through a folded piece of sandpaper.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<div class="container w15emmax">
+
+<img src="images/illo292d.jpg" alt="" id="Fig292d">
+
+<p class="caption">MODERN SAFETY MATCH</p>
+
+<p class="caption long cntr">The first practical match was
+made less than a century ago.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>No doubt “familiarity breeds contempt,”
+and it is difficult to imagine
+how man would fare, bereft of his box
+of matches. It might help the world
+to realize how much it owes to the inventors
+of the Lucifer Match, were it
+possible to cut off the supply of these
+magic fire producers for only one brief
+day. It requires no very vivid imagination
+to picture the consternation and
+confusion that such a step would produce,<span class="pagenum" id="Page293">[293]</span>
+and there is a grim humor in
+wondering how the primitive methods
+of obtaining a light would serve the
+public convenience in these days of
+strenuous hustle.</p>
+
+<p>Seeing that fire has been employed
+by man since prehistoric days, one
+would expect that easy means of obtaining
+it would have been devised in
+the early ages. We find, however, that
+until the beginning of the nineteenth
+century nothing in the nature of a
+match was available, and the crudest
+methods were still in use. We know
+from Virgil that in the reign of the
+Emperor Titus fire was obtained by
+rubbing decayed wood with a roll of
+sulphur between two stones, but it is
+not till Saxon times that we have evidence
+of the use of the tinder box with
+its flint and steel. That this latter was
+still regarded as something remarkable,
+as late as the fifteenth century, is
+proved by its representation in the collar
+of the Order of the Golden Fleece,
+which was founded in 1429. Burning
+glasses had, of course, been employed
+from the most primitive times, but one
+can imagine the despair of an early
+Briton who had to wait for a sunny
+day before he could boil his kettle.</p>
+
+<p>Incredible as it may seem, it was not
+a time well within the memory of many
+people living to-day that matches in
+anything approaching the form now
+familiar were offered to the public.
+The way for their manufacture had
+been prepared by two discoveries; one
+by a German who isolated phosphorus
+in 1669; the other by a Frenchman who
+produced chlorate of potash in 1786.
+From this latter date the production of
+fire was much facilitated, and a few
+years before Queen Victoria came to
+the throne, John Walker—a chemist of
+Stockton-on-Tees—produced the first
+friction matches of which there is any
+certain record. These, called “Congreves,”
+were sold in boxes of fifty for
+2/6, and their success soon led others
+to experiment in match manufacture,
+so that improvements were rapidly invented
+and factories sprang up in all
+parts of the country.</p>
+
+<p>It would be a difficult task to compute
+accurately the value to the human
+race of the introduction to general use
+of this little article. At the present
+writing, in America the consumption of
+matches amounts to over a billion of
+matches a day.</p>
+
+<h3>How Matches Are Made.</h3>
+
+<p>To-day matches are in such demand
+that the ingenuity of man has devised
+a machine which makes complete
+matches without the help of the human
+hand.</p>
+
+<p>At the very start of operations a man
+feeds blocks of wood into the jaws of
+the machine, and thenceforth the mechanical
+monster does its own work.
+Seizing the block from the man’s hand,
+the machine grips it between rollers
+and forces it against rows of keen-edged
+cutters, which are so arranged
+that there is little or no waste. Each
+of these cutters (and there are usually
+forty-eight in a machine) severs a piece
+of wood of exact size and shape. At
+the same moment a plate rises from beneath,
+which thrusts these little pieces
+of wood into a moving flexible cast-iron
+band, or rather into small holes in this
+band, from which the embryo matches
+project like bristles. This traveling
+band is about 700 feet in length, and follows
+a serpentine course in its journey,
+which occupies about an hour from
+start to finish, the speed being regulated
+according to temperature so that the
+matches may be quite dry when they
+reach the boxes.</p>
+
+<p>When the band arrives at the finishing
+point, a steel bar punches out the
+matches stuck in its surface and they
+fall into the inside boxes placed ready
+to catch them. These boxes are kept
+continually shaking, to that no spaces
+are left and the matches fill them completely.
+As the inside boxes fill, a steel
+arm presses them forward into their
+covers, and they are passed along a
+trough in dozens, quickly wrapped in
+paper and sealed by a machine. Quick-fingered
+girls then wrap twelve of these
+dozen packages and we have the gross
+packages of boxes so familiar in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page294">[294]</span>
+stores. It will be seen, that in spite
+of the marvellous machines which do so
+much, there is still plenty of work for
+human hands.</p>
+
+<h3>How Match Boxes Are Made.</h3>
+
+<p>The machines for making the wooden
+box which contain the matches are in
+themselves wonderful. First, a section
+of the trunk of an aspen tree, about
+30 inches in length, is made to revolve
+in what is known as a peeling machine.
+After a few revolutions the rough
+outer surface is removed, and thin rolls
+of smooth-surfaced wood are peeled off
+or veneered. The machine at the same
+time scores the wood ready for folding
+by the boxmaking machine. Cut into
+skillets, i. e., into pieces of the size required
+for box covers or insides, the
+ends are next dipped in pink dye to
+cover the edge of the wood which is
+not covered by the label. The skillets
+then go to the box machines, which fold
+and label them, and after half an hour
+in a cleverly devised drying chamber
+they are ready for use. In one room
+alone sixty machines are labelling and
+folding the skillets to the number of
+several thousand gross a day. To see
+these machines take a strip of wood,
+push it forward to receive the pasted
+label, fold it, fasten the joint, wipe off
+the superfluous paste, and, finally, toss
+the finished “outside” into a receiving
+basket, is as fascinating an example of
+mechanical ingenuity as the industrial
+world can afford.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Are Matches Poisonous?</h2>
+
+<p>A non-poisonous “strike anywhere”
+safety match, made from selected,
+clear, strong cork pine is now made in
+this country, and is the first satisfactory
+non-poisonous match. It is also the
+first match to be endorsed by the country’s
+recognized leaders and authorities
+in fire prevention and the conservation
+of human life and property.</p>
+
+<p>The Hughes-Esch Anti-White Phosphorus
+Match Bill, which became a law
+during the administration of President
+Taft, was drafted by the attorneys of
+the American Association of Labor
+Legislation, and is the most drastic that
+our National Constitution will permit.
+It would be unconstitutional to absolutely
+prohibit the manufacture of
+white phosphorus matches, but the
+Hughes-Esch bill obtains the same result,
+viz.: absolute prohibition by means
+of excessive taxation. No match manufacturer
+in these days of keen competition
+can afford to pay a tax of ten
+cents on each box of white phosphorus
+matches made, and place his factory
+under government surveillance, for this
+tax of ten cents is over three times as
+much as his present selling price to
+the wholesale trade.</p>
+
+<p>As soon as man learned to make fire
+and light, he began to appreciate how
+much more comfortable he could be if
+he could keep his lights burning and
+to have his light independent of his
+fire, because it was at times very uncomfortable
+to sit by a fire on a hot
+night simply because he wished to use
+the light which it made. The first
+schemes devised for lighting purposes
+merely were the camp-fire torch and
+the rushlight. With these as a basis,
+man was enabled to fashion more convenient
+forms of lighting. He invented
+the candle and the lamp, and
+grown “enlightened,” boxed his light
+in iron and in other metals.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Did Candles Come Before Lamps?</h2>
+
+<p>The candle is in appearance a primitive
+affair, yet there is little doubt that
+its predecessor was the lamp. Those
+old Egyptian tombs, which have unlocked
+many mysteries, held lamps, and
+through them evidence of ancient
+burial customs. Lamps played a part
+in the solemn feasts of the Egyptians,
+who on such occasions placed them before
+their houses, burning them
+throughout the night. Herodotus, in
+one of his numerous references to
+Xerxes, alludes to the hour of lamp-lighting,
+and evidences abound regarding
+the use of lamps among the ancient
+Greeks. Lamps, indeed, are pictured
+upon some of their oldest vases, indicating
+the symbolic significance which
+attached to them.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page295">[295]</span></p>
+
+<div class="container w30emmax">
+
+<img src="images/illo295.jpg" alt="" id="Fig295">
+
+<p class="caption long">A French watch tower of the fifteenth
+century in time of siege. The tower is
+lighted by means of beacons and is protected
+by dogs. Ruins of such a tower can still
+be seen at Godesberger on the Rhine.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Were the Earliest Lamps?</h2>
+
+<p>It is probable that the earliest lamps
+were nothing more than convenient
+vessels, filled with oil and fired by
+means of rushes. Among the Romans
+pine splinters, the torch and the flambeau,
+supplied light until the fifth century
+before Christ, and even when the
+Roman began to use the lamp, it was
+by no means common, finding a place
+only in the homes of the rich, or on
+special festival days.</p>
+
+<p>The custom of burning funeral lights
+beside the dead before interment is a
+very old one. Gregory, interpreting its
+significance for the Christian, says that
+departed souls, having walked here as
+the children of light, now walk with
+God in the light of the living. The
+Roman, Pliny, refers to the use of the
+pith of brittle rushes in making funeral
+lights and watch-candles, which were
+probably the ancient prototype of the
+old rushlight of England. Again, in
+speaking of flax, Pliny states that the
+part of the reed that is nearest to the
+outer skin is called tow, and is good
+for nothing but to make lamp-matches
+or candlewicks.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Were the Lamps of the Wise and
+Foolish Maidens Made Of?</h2>
+
+<p>When lamps had come into general
+favor, better attention was given to
+their form and construction. The first
+seem to have been made of baked clay,
+moulded by hand into elongated vessels
+to contain the oil, and provided at
+one end with a lip to admit the wick.
+These are the lamps which artists have
+pictured in the hands of the wise and
+foolish virgins, though in the opinion
+of some scholars they were merely rods
+of porcelain and iron, covered with
+cloth and steeped in oil. Another early
+type, which was less common, presents
+a simple disc with an aperture in the
+centre for the oil, and a hole for the
+wick, at one or both of the sides.</p>
+
+<p>Under the Empire, when the light
+of the lamp had become general, the
+better ones were made of bronze, ornamented
+with heads, animals, and other
+decorations, attached to the handles,
+while as life in Rome partook more of
+luxury and extravagance, gold, silver,
+or Corinthian brass were the materials,
+the designs being more elaborate and
+complicated. Many and beautiful examples
+of these ancient lamps have
+been unearthed from the ruins of Herculaneum
+and Pompeii.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">When Were Street Lamps First Used?</h2>
+
+<p>Dark must have been the lives of
+those people who, until comparatively
+recent times, lived, in the absence of
+sunlight, by the feeble, uncertain light
+of the primitive illuminants borne by
+these lamps. And as for street lighting—that
+was a luxury but seldom indulged
+in, and then, not for public
+benefit, but to enhance the glory of a
+potentate, or grace the obsequies of
+some great man. Even Rome, at the
+height of her luxury and beauty, rarely
+exhibited more than one or two lanterns
+in her streets. These were suspended<span class="pagenum" id="Page296">[296]</span>
+over the baths and places of public
+resort. Occasionally, however, the
+streets were illuminated during festivals
+and other public occasions, while
+the Forum was sometimes lighted for
+a midnight exhibition. With these glittering
+exceptions, and that memorable
+one when, to satisfy the homicidal impulses
+of a bad emperor, the bodies of
+Christians were made living torches,
+Rome was a city of darkness.</p>
+
+<div class="container w20emmax">
+
+<p class="caption">THE FIRST STREET LIGHT IN AMERICA</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo296a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig296a">
+
+<p class="caption long">The first street light in
+America. Early in 1795 several
+large cressets were placed
+on the corners of Boston’s
+most frequented street. Pine-knots
+were placed in these fire
+baskets by the night watchman.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<h2 class="minor">When Were Candles Introduced?</h2>
+
+<p>Historical records indicate the prevalent
+use of candles in the earliest days
+of Rome, but these candles were of the
+simplest sort—mere string or rope
+which had been smeared with pitch or
+wax. In the early Christian centuries
+it was the custom to dip rushes in pitch
+and coat them with wax, a method of
+candle-making that was long continued,
+for it was not until the fourteenth century
+that dipped tallow candles were
+introduced. In the Middle Ages wax
+candles provided the usual means of
+illumination, and these were made, not
+by common craftsmen, but by monks,
+or by the servants of the rich. Until
+the fifteenth century their use was confined
+to churches, monasteries and the
+houses of nobles, but the demand for
+them had become so great that the
+chandlers of London obtained an act
+of incorporation. As late as the
+eighteenth century the candles were
+made by dipping the wicks into melted
+wax or tallow, but about this time an
+ingenious Frenchman conceived the
+idea of casting them in metal moulds.</p>
+
+<div class="container w20emmax">
+
+<img src="images/illo296b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig296b">
+
+<p class="caption">A part of the “Amende Honorable”
+of Jacques Coeur before Charles VII
+of France.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<div class="container w30emmax">
+
+<img src="images/illo296c.jpg" alt="" id="Fig296c">
+
+<p class="caption">A pagan votive lamp of bronze, now
+in the museum at Naples.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>It is only within a modern period
+that the state or city has assumed responsibility
+in the matter of public
+lighting, which for the most part had
+been left to the good will and public
+spirit of citizens. But in England a<span class="pagenum" id="Page297">[297]</span>
+proclamation was issued to the effect
+that every individual should place a
+candle in each of the lower windows
+of his house, and keep it burning from
+nightfall until midnight.</p>
+
+<div class="container w30emmax">
+
+<p class="caption">THE FIRST OIL LANTERN</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo297a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig297a">
+
+<p class="caption long">The first “Réverbère”—oil lantern—with
+a metal reflector, used to light the
+streets of Paris. It was invented by
+Bourgeois de Châteaublanc in 1765, and
+used until the introduction of gas.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>Paris was the first city to improve
+upon this method of street lighting, and
+in 1658 huge, vase-like contrivances,
+filled with resin and pitch, were set up
+in the principal thoroughfares. The
+improvement proving, as may readily
+be seen, both dangerous and expensive,
+the falct, so-called, were replaced by
+the lantern. This was at first simply
+a rude frame, covered with horn or
+leather, within which a candle burned.
+For more than one hundred years this
+was the extent of the illumination
+which the authorities could provide.
+But of course it was understood that
+no honest man would venture abroad
+without his torch or flambeau, and as
+London, Berlin, Vienna, and all leading
+cities of Europe, were in like case, the
+darkness of Paris could be borne.</p>
+
+<div class="container w15emmax">
+
+<img src="images/illo297b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig297b">
+
+<p class="caption long">Argand got his first suggestion
+for his burner—invented
+in 1780—from this
+style of alcohol lamp, then
+in general use throughout
+France.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>But progress had been made, and
+early in the eighteenth century the Corporation
+of London entered into contract
+with a certain individual to set
+up public lights, giving him permission
+to exact a sum of six shillings from
+every householder whose actual rent
+exceeded ten pounds. In the middle of
+the same century the Lord Mayor and
+Common Council applied to Parliament
+for power to light the streets of London
+better. From the granting of this
+permission dates improvement in public
+lighting.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Where Did the Word “Gas” Originate?</h2>
+
+<p>A Belgium chemist, Van Helmont,
+coined the word “gas” in the first half
+of the seventeenth century. The
+Dutch word “geest,” signifying
+“ghost,” suggested the term to him,
+and his superstitious neighbors
+hounded him into obscurity for talking
+of ghosts.</p>
+
+<div class="container w25emmax">
+
+<img src="images/illo297c.jpg" alt="" id="Fig297c">
+
+<p class="caption long">Hanging lamp from Nushagak in Southern
+Alaska. It is suspended from the
+framework of the tent by cords. Oils
+and fats from northern animals give a
+clear and steady light, and Eskimo lamps
+are frequently praised by travelers.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page298">[298]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">WHAT THE BIG TANK NEAR THE GASWORKS IS FOR</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo298.jpg" alt="" id="Fi298">
+
+<p class="caption">SIX MILLION CUBIC FOOT GAS HOLDER.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">Almost every boy and girl has seen the big tank near the gas works, and most of them have wondered
+what was in it and what it is for. This big tank is a “holder” in which the gas is stored after it is
+manufactured.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">The giant holders are reservoirs from which gas is constantly being taken and the quantity on storage
+constantly replenished, as the ordinary gas plant never ceases manufacturing its product.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">There is little or no danger of an interruption of the supply by reason of accident, as gas plants
+are always equipped with duplicate apparatus for emergencies.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page299">[299]</span></p>
+
+<h3>When Illuminating Gas Was Discovered.</h3>
+
+<p>The first practical demonstration of
+the value of gas made from coal for
+lighting was made by a Scotchman—Robert
+Murdock—who in 1797, after
+some years of experimenting, fitted up
+an apparatus in the workshop of Boulton
+and Watt, in Birmingham, England,
+which successfully lighted a portion
+of that establishment. The advantages
+of this kind of lighting were
+so apparent that its use was rapidly
+extended, although in many instances
+the people were afraid of it. For a
+time this kind of lighting was confined
+to street lights. One of the first great
+structures to be lighted by gas was
+Westminster Bridge in London, and
+great crowds gathered to watch the
+burning jets nightly. It was difficult
+to remove from the minds of the people
+the belief that the gas-pipes were
+filled with fire and the jets were only
+openings through which the flame in
+the pipes escaped. People sometimes
+touched the pipes expecting to find
+them hot, and when the pipes were put
+in buildings they made sure that they
+were placed several feet from the
+walls lest the fire in them set fire to
+the buildings.</p>
+
+<p>The use of illuminating gas for
+lighting private houses developed quite
+slowly because of this fear of the fire
+in the gas-pipes. This was not entirely
+unwarranted, however, because
+at first the plumbers did not know, as
+they do now, how to prevent leakage
+of gas from the pipes. The methods of
+joining the pipes were oftentimes imperfect
+and, not realizing the dangers
+which would follow leaks, causing explosions,
+the workmen were often careless
+in installing the pipes.</p>
+
+<p>The first American house in which
+gas was used for lighting was the
+home of David Mellville at Newport,
+R. I. Baltimore, Maryland, was the
+first American city to use gas for lighting.
+It was introduced there in 1817.</p>
+
+<h3>How Does Gas Get Into the Gas Jet?</h3>
+
+<p>If you hold a cool drinking glass
+over a burning gas jet for a moment,
+a film of moisture will form on the
+inside of the glass and remain until
+the tumbler becomes warm, and then
+disappear. Now, then, you will remember
+that water is a mixture of oxygen
+and hydrogen, and that when hydrogen
+is burned in the air, water is
+formed. It is also true that whenever
+water is formed by burning anything,
+hydrogen is present in it. You see,
+therefore, that the gas used for lighting
+purposes must contain hydrogen.</p>
+
+<p>Let us now learn something more
+about what gas is made of. Wet a
+piece of glass with a little fresh lime
+water and hold this over the lighted
+gas jet. In a few moments a change
+takes place in the water. The water
+turns somewhat milky. This indicates
+the presence of carbonic acid gas, and
+the formation of carbonic acid gas,
+when burning is going on, means the
+presence of carbon.</p>
+
+<p>From these two experiments we
+gather that the gas in the jet contains
+hydrogen and carbon. All kinds of
+illuminating gas contain these two substances.
+Sometimes there are small
+quantities of other substances present,
+but the value of gas for lighting depends
+on hydrogen and carbon.</p>
+
+<p>We have already learned about hydrogen,
+but it would be well to re-learn
+about carbon.</p>
+
+<p>Carbon is an element, and an extremely
+important one, for a large part
+of the composition of every living thing
+is carbon. It is found in more compounds
+than any other element. Almost
+pure carbon can easily be obtained by
+heating a piece of wood, in a covered
+utensil, until it is turned into charcoal.
+Charcoal, which is black, is composed
+almost entirely of carbon. It is a very
+interesting product in all ways; in connection
+with gas we are particularly
+interested in the fact that carbon will
+burn when heated in the air or in
+oxygen.</p>
+
+<p>Charcoal is very much like hard coal,
+both being formed in practically the
+same way. Ages of years ago many
+large forests of trees were buried
+under a layer of soil and rocks, during
+changes that occurred in the earth’s
+surface, and the hot inside earth slowly
+heated the wood, until almost nothing
+was left but the carbon.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page300">[300]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">WHERE THE GAS IS TAKEN FROM THE COAL</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo300a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig300">
+
+<p class="caption">GENERATOR HOUSE AND 175-FT. STACK.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">In the process of gas making, coal is placed in the generator and heated to an incandescent state,
+then from the top or bottom steam is admitted and forced through the heated coal, producing a crude
+water gas which is passed on to the carbureter. In this shell enriching oil is produced, but as the
+oil and the water gas do not effectually unite, they are passed on to the superheater, where, as its name
+implies, they are subjected to a high temperature which thoroughly gasifies them into a permanent gas.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo300b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig300b" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption">AN INTERIOR VIEW OF GENERATOR HOUSE.</p>
+
+<p class="fsize90 blankbefore75">* Pictures on Gas Manufacture by courtesy of the Consolidated Gas, Electric Light and Power Co.
+of Baltimore.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page301">[301]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">ILLUMINATING GAS MUST BE SCRUBBED</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo301.jpg" alt="" id="Fig301">
+
+<p class="caption">SHAVING SCRUBBERS.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">After passing into the scrubbers the gas is cooled, passed into the scrubbers, and by
+contact with wooden slat trays, made up like screens; a large portion of the tar is removed
+from the gas, the tar passing off to large receptacles.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page302">[302]</span></p>
+
+<p>Soft coal was formed in much the
+same manner, but the process was not
+so completely finished. Mixed with the
+carbon in soft coal we find quite a good
+deal of other substances, of which hydrogen
+forms the principal part. This
+is what makes soft coal valuable in the
+making of illuminating gas.</p>
+
+<p>When soft coal is heated in a closed
+receptacle a gas is formed which will
+burn. To show this we have only to
+take an ordinary clay pipe, put a little
+piece of coal in the bowl, close the top
+with wet clay, and put the bowl part
+of the pipe in the fire. When it is quite
+hot, a gas will be found coming out
+of the stem of the pipe, which will,
+when lighted, burn.</p>
+
+<h3>The Story In a Gas Jet.</h3>
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>HOW ILLUMINATING<br>GAS IS MADE</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>Soft coal is heated in large tubes of
+fire clay called retorts, and the gas that
+is formed is then collected in a large
+tank and sent through pipes to our
+homes after being purified. The part
+of the coal that is left consists largely
+of carbon and is what we call coke.</p>
+
+<p>While the gas that comes directly
+from coal will burn if lighted, it is not
+a desirable gas to burn in our homes,
+because it contains a number of substances
+that should be eliminated before
+it is used for lighting.</p>
+
+<h3>How the Gas Is Purified.</h3>
+
+<p>From the clay retorts the gas passes
+through horizontal pipes containing
+water. This cools it and takes out of
+it most of the tar and water vapor
+that are driven off with the gas when
+formed. These substances settle in the
+water. The gas then goes through a
+series of curved pipes, which are air
+cooled. These pipes constitute what
+is known as an atmospheric condenser.
+From these the gas goes into a series
+of receptacles containing wooden slat
+trays, made up like screens. These receptacles
+are called the scrubbers, and
+they take out of the gas the last traces
+of tar and some of the other compounds
+found present. The removal of
+the sulphur is very important, for
+burning sulphur gives off a gas which
+is not only extremely impure to breathe,
+but also injurious to the health.</p>
+
+<p>From the scrubbers the gas goes on
+through pipes to the purifiers—boxes
+which contain wood shavings coated
+with iron rust upon which the sulphur
+is deposited by chemical action. At the
+same time the lime absorbs a small
+quantity of carbonic acid gas, which is
+formed with the other gases. From
+the purifiers the gas passes into the
+great iron tanks, in which it is stored
+until needed.</p>
+
+<p>The gas in the tanks consists chiefly
+of hydrogen, a number of compounds
+of hydrogen and carbon, and a small
+amount of a compound of carbon and
+oxygen containing less oxygen than
+carbonic acid gas, known as carbon
+monoxide. The hydrogen and carbon
+monoxide burn with a very pale flame,
+which gives but little light and much
+heat. The light-giving quality of the
+gas is found in the compounds of carbon
+and hydrogen. When these burn,
+the particles of carbon are heated white
+hot and glow very brightly, making a
+luminous flame.</p>
+
+<p>There are, of course, some impurities
+in the purified gas. These are compounds
+containing sulphur and ammonia.
+The quantities of these substances,
+however, are so small that they
+are harmless; but the compounds taken
+out in the process of purifying the gas
+are saved, as considerable use is made
+of them. The water used for washing
+the gas is heavily charged with ammonia
+and is, in fact, the chief source
+of the ammonia sold by druggists.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page303">[303]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">HOW THE IMPURITIES ARE TAKEN FROM THE GAS</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo303a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig303a">
+
+<p class="caption">PURIFYING BOXES.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">The principal impurity to be removed is sulphur, and this is accomplished by passing the gas through
+large iron rectangular boxes filled with wood shavings coated with iron rust upon which the sulphur is
+deposited by chemical action.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo303b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig303b" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption">STATION METER HOUSE, SHOWING CONSTRUCTION OF TWO NEW 13-FT. METERS.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page304">[304]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">HOW THE METER MEASURES THE GAS</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo304a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig304a">
+
+<div class="split4060">
+
+<div class="left4060">
+
+<p class="caption">Fig 1</p>
+
+</div><!--leftsplit-->
+
+<div class="right4060">
+
+<p class="caption">Fig 3</p>
+
+</div><!--rightsplit-->
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--split-->
+
+<img src="images/illo304b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig304b" class="blankbefore">
+
+<div class="split4060">
+
+<div class="left4060">
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 2.</p>
+
+</div><!--leftsplit-->
+
+<div class="right4060">
+
+<p class="caption">Fig 4</p>
+
+</div><!--rightsplit-->
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--split-->
+
+<p class="caption long">Gas first enters inlet pipe <i>A</i> (<a href="#Fig304a">Fig. 3</a>)
+passing along <i>A1</i> into covered valve chamber <i>B</i> up
+through orifice <i>O</i>. It then passes down through two of the valve ports at the same time, ports
+<i>C</i> and <i>D1</i> (<a href="#Fig304b">Fig. 2</a>). Before <i>C1</i> 
+(<a href="#Fig304a">Fig. 3</a>) has gotten to its extreme opening, the valve on the
+opposite side has moved to allow gas to pass down port <i>D</i>. On every quarter turn of tangent
+<i>P</i>, one port is opening to receive gas which passes down through the valve ports into the
+chambers below (see arrows on <a href="#Fig304b">Fig. 2</a>), which shows the gas passing into chamber <i>F</i>. The
+pressure being greater on the outside of the diaphragm, forces the diaphragm inward and expels
+the gas from the inside of <i>D2</i> through <i>D</i> and passes over the cross-bar into the fork channel
+(see <a href="#Fig304a">Fig. 1</a>). On the other side gas is passing down through 
+port <i>D1</i> (<a href="#Fig304b">Fig. 2</a>) entering diaphragm
+<i>D3</i>, the pressure being greater on the inside of <i>D3</i> therefore forces the diaphragm outward and
+expels the gas from the outside of diaphragm <i>D3</i>; out through port <i>C1</i> into fork channel same
+as shown in (<a href="#Fig304a">Fig. 1</a>). All exhaust gas from the chambers below is checked from entering the
+chamber <i>B</i> by the slide valve <i>G</i> and <i>G1</i> 
+(<a href="#Fig304b">Fig. 2</a>). Instead of passing into chamber <i>B</i> it passes
+over the cross-bars between <i>D1E1</i> and <i>C1E1</i> into the fork channels, then to outlet pipe <i>N</i>
+(<a href="#Fig304a">Fig. 3</a>) to house pipe.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long"><span class="smcap">Note</span>: All gas registered must pass through outlet <i>N</i>.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page305">[305]</span></p>
+
+<p>In addition to coal gas made in the
+way just described, there is another
+form of illuminating gas, in the manufacture
+of which coal is indirectly employed.
+This gas, known as water gas,
+because it is formed by the decomposition
+of water, is produced by passing
+steam over red hot carbon, in the form
+of hard coal or coke. When this is
+done, the hydrogen in the steam is set
+free and the oxygen combines chemically
+with the carbon, to form the carbon
+monoxide, that was mentioned as
+being present, in small proportions, in
+ordinary coal gas. This carbon monoxide
+is poisonous, if much of it is
+breathed, and as it has no odor it is
+difficult to detect when escaping. A
+number of deaths have resulted from
+water gas for this reason, and in some
+states the laws forbid its use for lighting
+purposes.</p>
+
+<p>When water gas is used it must be
+enriched with some other substances
+before it will yield much light. You
+have already learned that neither hydrogen
+nor carbon monoxide burns
+with a bright flame, and you will see
+that water gas must have something
+added to it to fit it for lighting purposes.
+The substance usually added
+is the vapor of some light, volatile oil,
+like gasoline. This vapor is composed
+of compounds of carbon and hydrogen,
+and when it is mixed with the water
+gas it forms a gas that yields a very
+satisfactory light; and that may be produced
+more cheaply than common coal
+gas.</p>
+
+<p>There remains one more form of illuminating
+gas which has been the subject
+of much discussion in recent years,
+namely, acetylene. This is a compound
+of carbon and hydrogen, in which
+there is twelve times as much carbon
+as hydrogen. It has not been discovered
+recently, for it was known early
+in the nineteenth century, but its possible
+use for lighting purposes was not
+considered then.</p>
+
+<p>Attention was directed to it a few
+years ago by the discovery of a substance
+called calcium carbide. This is
+a compound of carbon and the metal
+calcium, formed by heating to a very
+high temperature a mixture of coal and
+lime. It has the peculiar property of
+decomposing, when treated with water.
+The calcium present combines with the
+oxygen and half the hydrogen of the
+water, to form common slacked lime
+or calcium hydrate, while the carbon
+and the remainder of the hydrogen combine
+to form acetylene gas.</p>
+
+<p>The gas formed in this way needs
+no purifications before burning; it can
+be produced in small generators, and
+the production can be checked at any
+time. When burned in the proper
+form of burner it yields the brightest
+of all gas flames. For these reasons it
+is adapted for use in small villages and
+for lighting single houses. It is also
+frequently used in magic lanterns,
+where a strong and steady light is
+necessary. But the cost of producing
+acetylene in large quantities is greater
+than that of coal gas, and it seems extremely
+unlikely that it will ever be
+much used for lighting large cities and
+towns.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">How the Light Gets Into the Electric
+Light Bulb.</h2>
+
+<p>The incandescent lamp was invented
+in 1879 and the patents were granted
+to Thomas A. Edison. There were,
+however, a number of electrical men
+who were working on the idea at this
+time who deserve a great deal of credit
+for developing the lamp.</p>
+
+<p>The incandescent lamp, which is used
+chiefly for house lighting, consists of a
+glass bulb from which the air has been
+exhausted by pumps and chemical
+processes—in which there is a thin filament
+of tungsten metal wound on what
+is called an arbor (as shown in <a href="#Page306">Fig. 4</a>).
+This filament opposes high resistance
+to the passage of the current of electricity,
+and, consequently, is heated to
+incandescence when a current passes
+through it. The removal of the air
+from the bulb prevents the tungsten
+metal from burning up, as it would do
+if oxygen were present.</p>
+
+<p>The filaments of the first lamps were
+made of vegetable fibre. The next development
+was the cellulose process,
+which is still used in carbon and metallized
+lamps, although a number of processes
+are used now which improve the
+filament considerably.</p>
+
+<p>The discovery that tungsten metal
+could be used in incandescent lamps
+was made in 1906. The first tungsten
+lamp manufactured in America was
+made in 1907.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page306">[306]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">THE DEVELOPMENT OF INCANDESCENT LAMPS</p>
+
+<div class="split3367">
+
+<div class="left3367">
+
+<img src="images/illo306a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig306a">
+
+<p class="caption">Edison’s first lamp with a
+filament of bamboo fibre.</p>
+
+</div><!--left3367-->
+
+<div class="right3367">
+
+<div class="split5050">
+
+<div class="left5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo306b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig306b">
+
+<p class="caption">The carbon lamp—the oldest
+form of incandescent
+lamp.</p>
+
+</div><!--left5050-->
+
+<div class="right5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo306c.jpg" alt="" id="Fig306c">
+
+<p class="caption">Standard Mazda lamp—the
+highest development of the
+incandescent lamp.</p>
+
+</div><!--right5050-->
+
+</div><!--split5050-->
+
+</div><!--right3367-->
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--split3367-->
+
+<div class="split5050">
+
+<div class="left5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo306d.jpg" alt="" id="Fig306d" class="blankbefore lamp">
+
+<p class="caption">The Tantalum lamp developed
+just before the
+Mazda lamp.</p>
+
+</div><!--left5050-->
+
+<div class="right5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo306e.jpg" alt="" id="Fig306e" class="blankbefore lamp">
+
+<p class="caption">Improved Mazda lamp for
+lighting large areas—the most
+efficient lamp ever made.</p>
+
+</div><!--right5050-->
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--split5050-->
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page307">[307]</span></p>
+
+<p>The filaments of the first tungsten
+lamps were composed of two or three
+short pieces of wire. In 1910, however,
+a lamp with a continuous tungsten filament
+was invented which increased the
+strength of the lamp wonderfully.</p>
+
+<p>Mazda is a trade name given to all
+metal filament lamps made by the prominent
+American lamp manufacturers.</p>
+
+<p>The reason that the Mazda lamp is
+so much more efficient than the carbon
+filament lamp is because the tungsten
+filament can be burned at a much higher
+temperature than the present carbon
+filament, without seriously blackening
+the bulb.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">How Does an Arc Light Burn?</h2>
+
+<p>In the arc light a current of electricity
+is made to leap across from the
+tip of one rod of carbon to the tip of
+another that is held a short distance
+from the first. In passing across the
+current does not follow a straight path,
+but makes a curve, or arc, whence
+comes the name “arc light.”</p>
+
+<p>In this form of light the carbons are
+not enclosed in a space from which air
+is excluded, consequently there is some
+destruction of the carbon. The light
+is due to the fact that the air between
+the tips of the carbon rods opposes a
+high degree of resistance to the current,
+so that the rods become intensely
+hot at their tips. The high degree of
+heat causes a slow burning of the carbon
+at the tips, and the small particles
+that burn are heated white hot before
+they are consumed, thus producing
+light.</p>
+
+<p>In order to keep the light from an
+arc light uniform in strength, it is
+necessary to keep the tips of the carbon
+rods always the same distance apart.
+This is practically impossible, and, as
+a result, the arc light does not produce
+light that is well adapted for reading
+or for other purposes that require constant
+use of the eyes. The light produced
+by the arc light is very powerful,
+however, and for that reason it is much
+used for street lighting.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Are X-Rays?</h2>
+
+<p>It was discovered by Professor Conrad
+Roentgen in 1895, that if a current
+of electricity be passed through
+a certain form of glass bulb, from which
+most of the air has been exhausted, a
+disturbance is produced in the ether
+that bears some resemblance to light
+waves. For want of a better name to
+give to a disturbance which was not
+well understood, Roentgen called his
+discovery the X-Ray, but it is now frequently
+called in his honor the Roentgen
+ray. The nature of this disturbance is
+not yet known, but as it does not affect
+the eye it is not light. These rays are
+produced with a glass vacuum tube and
+a battery from which a current of electricity
+is sent through the tube. The
+wires of the battery are connected with
+two electrodes, one of which consists
+of a concave disk of aluminum, and the
+latter of a flat disk of platinum. The
+X-rays are discharged in straight lines
+as shown in the figure. The most striking
+properties of the X-ray is its power
+to penetrate many substances that are
+impermeable to light. All vegetable
+substances, and the flesh of animals,
+are penetrated by it very readily. Glass,
+metals, bones, and mineral substances
+generally are opaque to it. Consequently,
+when a limb, or even the body
+of an animal, is exposed to X-rays they
+pass through the fleshy parts, but are
+stopped by the bones. Certain substances
+have the property of glowing,
+or becoming fluorescent, when exposed
+to the X-ray, and when screens of paper
+are coated with these substances they
+form a convenient means of detecting
+the presence of X-rays. By holding
+the hand between a tube that is giving
+off X-rays and a screen of this kind,
+the bones of the hand will be outlined
+in shadow on the screen, and the rest
+of the surface will glow with a greenish
+light. If a bullet or other piece of
+metal has become imbedded in the body,
+it may easily be located, if it is not in
+a bone, and the extent of an injury
+to a bone or a joint may be plainly
+shown. For this reason the X-ray is
+now widely used by surgeons.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page308">[308]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">How Man Learned to Fight Fire.</h2>
+
+<p>When you see the modern fire engine
+racing through the streets, gongs ringing,
+with the firemen hanging on and
+the police clearing the track, you should
+remember that it has taken man a long
+time to learn as much as he has about
+fighting fire.</p>
+
+<p>No sooner did man learn to make fire
+than he found it necessary to learn how
+to put it out.</p>
+
+<p>The first fire apparatus of record is
+found in Rome. The Gauls burned the
+city in 390 B. C., each citizen was ordered
+to keep in his house a “machine
+for extinguishing fire.” This consisted
+of a syringe.</p>
+
+<p>The first record of an actual machine
+for putting out fire is by Hero of Alexandria.
+This contrivance, a “siphon
+used in conflagrations,” was used in
+Egypt about a hundred and fifty years
+before Christ.</p>
+
+<p>The first record of what we would
+call a fire department is also found in
+Rome. A disastrous fire, occurring in
+the reign of Augustus called his attention
+to the benefit of a regular fire brigade
+would bring. So he organized
+a fire department. It consisted of
+seven companies of a thousand men
+each.</p>
+
+<p>The first real fire engines were used
+in 1633 at a big fire on London Bridge.
+The first fire hose was invented by
+the two Van der Heydes in 1672. One
+of the earliest engines used consisted
+of a tank drawn by two horses, which
+threw a stream an inch in diameter to
+a height of eighty feet. An improved
+engine was invented in 1721 by Newsham,
+of London, and the first engine
+used in the United States was made by
+Newsham. The first steam fire engine
+was invented by John Braithwaite, of
+London, in 1829.</p>
+
+<p>Fire alarms came into use in medieval
+times. It was the custom, in many of
+the towns to have a watchman stationed
+on a high building whose duty it was
+to look for fires. As soon as he saw
+one, he gave warning by blowing a
+horn, firing a gun, or ringing a bell.</p>
+
+<p>The first London fire department consisted
+of ten men of each ward.</p>
+
+<p>The first municipal American fire
+department was created in Boston in
+1678. The fire engine was a hand pump
+bought in England.</p>
+
+<p>The first leather fire hose was made
+in America in 1808 in Philadelphia.
+Rubber hose was first made in England
+at about 1820.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">How Did Man Learn to Cook His Food?</h2>
+
+<p>The primitive man lived on raw food—raw
+flesh, roots, fruits and nuts.
+There must have been a time when he
+lived thus because there was a time
+when he had no fires and no knowledge
+of how to make a fire. There are no
+records, however, to show when man
+learned that cooked food was best.</p>
+
+<p>It must have come about almost simultaneously
+with his knowledge of
+fire, for the art of cooking goes
+back to the first knowledge of fire.
+We do not know either how man
+learned to make a fire. The earliest
+nations of which we have any record
+seem to have been acquainted with fire
+and certain methods for producing it.
+Not only one but all early nations seem
+to have been possessed of this knowledge.
+Occasionally travellers have reported
+that people have been found who
+were unacquainted with either fire or
+cooking, but investigation has always
+proven these reports unauthentic. Cookery
+has always been found in practice
+where people knew about fire.</p>
+
+<p>It is strange how man has lost track
+of the beginning of his knowledge of
+fire and cookery, because fire represents
+the beginning of man’s culture and
+cookery goes hand in hand with it.</p>
+
+<p>There are many legendary accounts
+of how man learned the value of cooked
+food, all of which are based upon the
+accidental burning or roasting of animals
+or birds. Perhaps, therefore,
+Charles Lamb’s “Roast Pig” story,
+which we read with much laughter in
+our school readers, was quite accurate
+from a historical standpoint. According<span class="pagenum" id="Page309">[309]</span>
+to the story a man’s house burned
+and he cried more over the fate of his
+pet pig than about the loss of his house.
+He kept his pig in the house you will
+remember and as soon as the fire died
+away he rushed into the debris to look
+for his pet pig, hoping still to rescue
+him. He found him in a corner and
+made haste to pick him up and carry
+him into the open air. But the poor
+pig had been roasted to a turn and was
+still hot. The man’s fingers went right
+into the well done roast pig and were
+burned. With a cry he withdrew his
+fingers and put them into his mouth to
+blow on them and thus he secured his
+first taste of roast pig, which he found
+so much to his taste that he repeated the
+operation of licking his fingers.</p>
+
+<p>While this is but a story, it is quite
+likely historically correct as to this discovery
+of the value of cooked food
+to some of the early nations. No doubt
+Fire and Cookery were developed together.</p>
+
+<p>When man had learned to make fire,
+he found that it often got beyond his
+control. Here and there he would set
+the woods on fire quite without intention
+perhaps, but with damaging results.
+He would watch the conflagration and,
+when it was passed, he would find the
+baked bodies of deer or other animals
+which had been overcome by the fire
+and learned that baked meats were good
+to the taste and more easily digestible
+than raw meats.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Does a Sponge Hold Water?</h2>
+
+<p>A sponge will hold water because it
+has, on account of the plan on which
+it is grown the power of capillary attraction.
+The sponge is made up of little
+hair like tubes. If you take a glass
+tube, open at both ends and immerse
+one end in a vessel of water, you will
+find that the water will rise in the tube
+to a level higher than the surface of
+the water in the vessel. The smaller
+the hole through the glass tube, the
+higher the water will rise. This is
+caused by the cohesion of the water
+against the inside surface of the hole
+in the tube and causes a pull upward.
+The water is pulled up into the tube because
+the surface of the tube has a
+greater cohesive attraction for the
+water than for the air which was in it
+and the air is forced out partly. Some
+liquids, such as mercury will not rise
+in the same way, but is depressed in a
+glass tube, since it cannot adhere to
+glass. Mercury however will run or
+rise in a tin tube, just as water in a
+glass tube, because it adheres to the tin.</p>
+
+<p>Now a sponge is merely a lot of
+capillary tubes which have the same
+power of pulling up the water as the
+glass tube. The tubes in a sponge are
+so fine that the water will rise to the
+entire length of the tubes. In addition,
+this adhesive quality of water to the inside
+of the tubes in the sponge is so
+strong, that the sponge can be taken
+entirely out of the water and the water
+will remain in it.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Is the Right Hand Stronger Than
+the Left?</h2>
+
+<p>The right hand is stronger than the
+left only in case you are right-handed.
+If you have the habit of being left-handed,
+your left hand becomes
+stronger. If you are truly ambidextrous,
+your strength will be the same
+in both hands.</p>
+
+<p>We get our strength by moving the
+various parts of the body, i. e., by using
+them. When a little baby stretches his
+arms and legs and kicks, he is only
+exercising naturally, making the blood
+circulate.</p>
+
+<p>You can prove that the fact that
+your right hand is stronger than your
+left because of the greater use or exercise
+you give it, by tying your right arm
+close to your side and keeping it in
+that condition without using it for several
+weeks. When you remove the
+bands which held it tight, you will find
+your arm has lost its strength and that
+now your left hand is stronger. If,
+however, you are left-handed and tie
+that hand down for the same length
+of time, your right hand would be the
+stronger. This shows that the strength
+we have in our arms and legs, and
+other parts of the body, is developed
+by using them and giving them rational<span class="pagenum" id="Page310">[310]</span>
+exercise. Of course, it is possible to
+over-use a part of the body, but you
+will notice that nature always gives us
+a warning by making us tired before
+we come to the point where further
+use of that particular part of the body
+would cause injury.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Do My Muscles Get Sore When I
+Play Ball In the Spring?</h2>
+
+<p>They do this because you have probably
+not been exercising the particular
+muscles which you employ in throwing
+a ball enough in the winter to keep you
+in good condition. Muscles which have
+been developed through use or work
+need more work to keep them in condition.
+In a sense certain of the muscles
+which you employ in playing ball
+have been treated during the winter
+very much as if you had tied them
+down, as we suggested you might do
+with your arm. You have not been
+using them—they have not been doing
+enough work, and they begin to lose
+their strength when for any period they
+have not been used enough. The soreness
+that you feel is the natural condition
+that arises when you begin to use
+a muscle that has been idle for some
+time.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Does a Barber’s Pole Have Stripes?</h2>
+
+<p>In early years the barber not only cut
+hair and shaved people, but he was
+also a surgeon. He was a surgeon to
+the extent that he bled people. In early
+times our knowledge of surgery was
+practically limited to blood letting. A
+great many of the ailments were attributed
+to too much blood in the body,
+and when anything got wrong with a
+man or woman, the first thing they
+thought of was to reduce the amount of
+blood in the body by taking some of it
+out.</p>
+
+<p>The town barber was the man who
+did this for people and his pole represented
+the sign of his business.</p>
+
+<p>The round ball at the top which was
+generally gilded represents the barbering
+end of the business. It stood for
+the brass basin which the barber used
+to prepare lather for shaving customers.</p>
+
+<p>The pole itself represents the staff
+which people who were having blood
+taken out of their bodies held during
+the operation. The two spiral ribbons,
+one red and one white, which are
+painted spirally on the pole, represented
+the bandages. The white one stood for
+the bandage which was put on before
+the blood was taken out and the red one
+the bandage which was used for binding
+up the wound when the operation
+was completed.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">How Was the Flag Made?</h2>
+
+<p>The design of our flag was outlined
+in a congressional resolution passed on
+June 14, 1777, which stated “that the
+flag of the thirteen United States be
+thirteen alternate stripes red and white;
+that the union be thirteen stars, white
+in a blue field, representing the new
+constellation.” After Vermont and
+Kentucky had been admitted to the
+Union, Congress made a decree in 1794
+that after May 1, 1795, “the flag of the
+United States be fifteen stripes alternate
+red and white and that the Union be
+fifteen stars white on a blue field.” This
+made the stars and stripes again equal
+and it was the plan to add a new stripe
+and a new star for each new state admitted
+to the Union. Very soon, however,
+it was realized that the flag would
+be too large if we kept on adding one
+stripe for each new state admitted to
+the Union, so on April 4, 1818, Congress
+passed a resolution reducing the
+number of stripes to thirteen once more
+to represent the original colonies, and
+to add only a new star to the field when
+a new state was admitted to the Union.
+At this time there were twenty states in
+the Union. Since that time none of
+the flags of the United States have more
+than thirteen stripes while a new star
+has been added for each state until
+now we have forty-eight stars, representing
+the forty-eight states.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Are Some Guns Called Gatling
+Guns?</h2>
+
+<p>A gatling gun is a kind of gun invented
+by Richard Jordan Gatling in<span class="pagenum" id="Page311">[311]</span>
+1861 and 1862 and so it receives its
+name from its inventor. The original
+gatling gun had ten parallel barrels and
+was capable of firing 1,000 shots per
+minute when operated by hand power.
+It was discharged by turning a crank
+and would shoot in proportion to the
+rapidity with which the crank was
+turned. It was at first not a huge success
+but has from time to time been
+improved so that the crank is now
+turned by electric power and about fifteen
+hundred shots per minute can be
+fired with it.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">How Did Hobson’s Choice Originate?</h2>
+
+<p>As used today, this expression means
+a choice with only one thing to choose.
+Tobias Hobson was a livery stable
+keeper at Cambridge, England, during
+the reign of King Charles I. He kept
+a stable of forty horses which he hired
+out by the hour or day, and was famous
+in his day so far as a livery stable
+keeper could be.</p>
+
+<p>When you went to Hobson to hire a
+horse, you had the privilege of looking
+over all the horses in the stable to decide
+which one you would like to drive,
+but he always made you take the one
+in the stall nearest the door. In this
+way all the horses in the stable were
+worked in turn and while you might
+pretend to choose your own horse, you
+really had no choice—you had to take
+the one nearest the door or none. As
+soon as a horse was hired, the other
+horses in the stable were moved up,
+each one to the stall next towards the
+door so there was always a horse in
+the stall nearest the door.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Do They Call It a Honeymoon?</h2>
+
+<p>The word Honeymoon which is commonly
+used to describe the first few
+weeks after marriage, has always meant
+the first month or moon after marriage,
+but does not have any reference to the
+month or moon excepting as that describes
+a certain period of time.</p>
+
+<p>The word originated in an old custom
+quite common among newly married
+couples among the ancient Teutons of
+drinking a kind of wine made from
+honey during the first thirty days after
+being married.</p>
+
+<p>In these days newly married couples
+generally take a trip away from home
+for a short or longer period after their
+wedding day and this is called the
+honeymoon whether it is but a few days
+or three months or more. The custom
+of drinking wine made from honey has
+been abandoned so that the word is
+now used in an entirely different sense
+than formerly.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Is a Horseshoe Said to Bring Good
+Luck?</h2>
+
+<p>The luck of the horseshoe comes from
+three lucky things always connected
+with horseshoes. These consist of the
+following facts: It is the shape of a
+crescent; it is a portion of a horse; it
+is made of iron.</p>
+
+<p>Each of these has from time immemorial
+been considered lucky. Anything
+in the shape of a crescent was always
+considered a thing to bring luck.
+From the earliest times, too, at least
+since the world knew something of the
+qualities of iron, iron has been regarded
+as a thing to give protection
+and incidentally that would involve
+good luck. And lastly the horse, since
+the days of English mythology, has been
+regarded as a luck animal. When, then,
+we had a combination of the three—the
+crescent, the iron and the horse in
+one object, it became a true lucky sign
+in the eyes of the people.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Some Wonders of the Human Body.</h2>
+
+<p>There are said to be more than two
+million little openings in the skins of
+our bodies to serve as outlets for an
+equal number of sweat glands. The
+body contains more than two hundred
+bones. It is said that as much blood
+as is in the entire body passes through
+the heart every minute, i.e., all the blood
+in the body goes in and out of the
+heart once every minute. The lung
+capacity of the average person is about
+325 cubic inches.</p>
+
+<p>With every breath you inhale about<span class="pagenum" id="Page312">[312]</span>
+two-thirds of a pint of fresh air and
+exhale an equal amount if you breathe
+normally.</p>
+
+<p>The stomach of the average adult
+person has a capacity of about five pints
+and manufactures about nine pounds of
+gastric juice daily.</p>
+
+<p>There are over five hundred muscles in
+the body all of which should be exercised
+daily to keep you in the best condition.
+The average adult human heart weighs
+from eight to twelve ounces and it beats
+about 100,000 times every twenty-four
+hours. The perspiration system in the
+body has only very small ducts or pipes,
+but there are about nine miles of them.
+The average person takes about one ton
+of food and drink each year. We
+breathe about eighteen times a minute,
+which amounts to about 3,000 cubic
+feet an hour.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Where Did the Expression “Kick the
+Bucket” Originate?</h2>
+
+<p>The expression originally came from
+the method used in stringing a hog
+after killing it. The pig after being
+slaughtered was hung by the hind
+legs. A piece of bent wood was passed
+in behind the tendons of each of the
+hind legs and the pig hung up by this
+stick of wood much like we hang up
+clothes with a clothes hanger today.
+The piece of wood was called a bucket.
+The “bucket” part of the expression
+does not, therefore, refer to a bucket at
+all but to this bent piece of wood. All are
+not agreed on this explanation, however,
+as it does not explain where the
+“kick” comes in. Many investigators
+hold to the belief that a man named
+Bolsover was the first to “kick the
+bucket” literally and that the expression
+came from the manner of his
+death. He stood on a pail or bucket
+while arranging to hang himself by tying
+a rope around his neck and to a
+beam which he could not reach without
+standing on the bucket. When
+ready he kicked the bucket out from
+under his feet and so succeeded in carrying
+out his own wishes and in so doing
+coined a famous expression which
+still means “to die.”</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">How Did the Word “News” Originate?</h2>
+
+<p>The word “News” which was created
+to describe what newspapers are supposed
+to print, came from the four
+letters which have for ages been used
+as abbreviations of the directions of
+the compass. In this N stands for
+North, E for East, S for South and W
+for West, and in illustrating the points
+of the compass the following diagram
+has long been used:</p>
+
+<div class="container w05emmax" id="Fig312">
+
+<img src="images/illo312.jpg" alt="Directions of compass">
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>The earliest newspapers always
+printed this sign on the front pages of
+their papers in every issue. This was
+done to indicate that the paper printed
+all the happenings from four quarters
+of the globe.</p>
+
+<p>Later on some enterprising newspaper
+man who may have forgotten the
+original significance of the letter in the
+diagram, arranged the letters N. E. W.
+S. in a straight line at the head of the
+paper and that is how what we read in
+the papers came to be known as news.</p>
+
+<p>Almost one-half the whole number of
+newspapers published in the world are
+published in the United States and Canada.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Who Made the First Umbrella?</h2>
+
+<p>No one knows who made the first
+umbrella but we know that Jonas Hanway
+of London was the first man to
+carry one over his head to keep off the
+rain.</p>
+
+<p>Umbrellas seem to have been known
+as far back as the days of Ninevah and
+Persepolis, for representations of them
+appear frequently in the sculptures of
+those early days. The women of ancient
+Rome and Greece carried them
+but the men never did.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Hanway is said to be the first
+man who walked in the streets of London
+with an open umbrella over his
+head to keep off the rain. He is said
+to have used it for thirty years before
+they came into general use for this purpose.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page313">[313]</span></p>
+
+<div class="container w50emmax">
+
+<p class="caption">HOW MAN LEARNED TO TELL TIME</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo313.jpg" alt="" id="Fig313">
+
+<p class="caption long">The first picture shows what was probably man’s first method of telling time. The
+principle was the same as that of the sun-dial. It provides to-day an accurate method of
+telling time.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">Of course, man in the early days needed to find some other means of noting the
+passing of time at night, for then the sun cast no shadow for him. His ingenuity taught
+him to make a candle which was light and dark in alternate rings, and as each section
+burned he made a mark to record the passing of a certain length of time. Before candles
+were invented he used a rope in which he tied knots at equal spaces apart and which he
+burned as shown in the third picture.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<h2 class="nobreak">The Story in a Time Piece</h2>
+
+<h3>What Is Time?</h3>
+
+</div><!--chapter-->
+
+<p>Time, as a separate entity, has not
+yet been defined in language. Definitions
+will be found to be merely explanations
+of the sense in which we use
+the word in matters of practical life.
+No human being can tell how long a
+minute is; only that it is longer than a
+second and shorter than an hour. In
+some sense we can think of a longer
+or shorter period of time, but this is
+merely comparative. The difference
+between 50 and 75 steps a minute in
+marching is clear to us, but note that
+we introduce motion and space before
+we can get a conception of time as a
+succession of events, but time, in itself,
+remains elusive.</p>
+
+<p>In time measures we strive for a uniform
+motion of something and this
+implies equal spaces in equal times; so
+we here assume just what we cannot
+explain, for space is as difficult to define
+as time. Time cannot be “squared”
+or used as a multiplier or divisor. Only
+numbers can be so used; so when we
+speak of “the square of the time” we
+mean some number which we have
+arbitrarily assumed to represent it.
+This becomes plain when we state that
+in calculations relating to pendulums,
+for example, we may use seconds and
+inches—minutes and feet—or seconds<span class="pagenum" id="Page314">[314]</span>
+and meters—and the answer will come
+out right in the units which we have
+assumed. Still more, numbers themselves
+have no meaning till they are
+applied to something, and here we are
+applying them to time, space and motion;
+so we are trying to explain three
+abstractions by a fourth! But, happily,
+the results of these assumptions and
+calculations are borne out in practical
+human life, and we are not compelled
+to settle the deep question as to whether
+fundamental knowledge is possible to
+the human mind.</p>
+
+<h3>What Was Man’s First Division of
+Time?</h3>
+
+<p>Evidently, man began by considering
+the day as a unit and did not include
+the night in his time-keeping for a
+long period. “And the evening and
+the morning were the first day,” Gen.
+i, 5; “Evening and morning and at
+noonday,” Ps. lv, 17, divides the day
+(“sun up”) in two parts. “Fourth part
+of a day,” Neh. ix, 3, shows another
+advance. Then comes, “are there not
+twelve hours in a day,” John xi, 9. The
+“eleventh hour,” Matt. xx, 1 to 12,
+shows clearly that sunset was 12
+o’clock. A most remarkable feature
+of this 12-hour day, in the New Testament,
+is that the writers generally
+speak of the third, sixth and ninth
+hours, Acts ii, 15; iii, 1; x, 9. This
+is extremely interesting, as it shows
+that the writers still thought in quarter
+days (Neh. ix, 3) and had not yet
+acquired the 12-hour conception given
+to them by the Romans. They thought
+in quarter days even when using the
+12-hour numerals! Note, further, that
+references are to “hours”; so it is evident
+that in New Testament times they
+did not need smaller subdivisions.
+“About the third hour” shows the
+mental attitude. That they had no conception
+of our minutes, seconds and
+fifth-seconds becomes quite plain when
+we notice that they jumped down
+from the hour to nowhere, in such expressions
+as “in an instant—in the
+twinkling of an eye.”</p>
+
+<p>Before this the night had been divided
+into three watches (Judges
+vii, 19). Poetry to this day uses the
+“hours” and the “watches” as symbols.</p>
+
+<p>This twelve hours of daylight gave
+very variable hours in latitudes some
+distance from the equator, being long
+in summer and short in winter. The
+amount of human ingenuity expended
+on time measures so as to divide the
+time from sunrise to sunset into twelve
+equal parts is almost beyond belief. In
+Constantinople, to-day, this is used, but
+in a rather imperfect manner, for the
+clocks are modern and run twenty-four
+hours uniformly; so the best they can
+do is to set them to mark twelve at
+sunset. This necessitates setting to the
+varying length of the days, so that the
+clocks appear to be sometimes more
+and sometimes less than six hours
+ahead of ours. A clock on the tower
+at the Sultan’s private mosque gives the
+impression of being out of order and
+about six hours ahead, but it is running
+correctly to their system. Hotels in
+Constantinople often show two clocks,
+one of them to our twelve o’clock noon
+system. Evidently the Jewish method
+of ending a day at sunset is the same
+and explains the command, “let not the
+sun go down upon thy wrath,” which
+we might read, “do not carry your
+anger over to another day.”</p>
+
+<p>This simple line of steps in dividing
+the day and night is taken principally
+from the Bible because every one can
+easily look up the passages quoted and
+many more, while quotations from
+books not in general use would not
+be so clear.</p>
+
+<h3>How Did Man Begin to Measure Time?</h3>
+
+<p>Now, as to the methods of measuring
+time, we must use circumstantial
+evidence for the prehistoric period. The
+rising and the going down of the sun—the
+lengthening shadows, etc., must
+come first, and we are on safe ground
+here, for savages still use primitive
+methods like setting up a stick and
+marking its shadow so that a party
+trailing behind can estimate the distance
+the leaders are ahead by the
+changed position of the shadow. Men
+notice their shortening and lengthening
+shadows to this day. When the shadow<span class="pagenum" id="Page315">[315]</span>
+of a man shortens more and more
+slowly till it appears to be fixed, the
+observer knows it is noon, and when
+it shows the least observable lengthening
+then it is just past noon. Now, it
+is a remarkable fact that this crude
+method of determining noon is just the
+same as “taking the sun” to determine
+noon at sea. Noon is the time at which
+the sun reaches his highest point on
+any given day.</p>
+
+<div class="container w45emmax" id="Fig315">
+
+<img src="images/illo315.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption long">The Sun-dial is only an improvement on the stick which cast a shadow which enabled
+man to tell the time of day at any hour. The shadow moves around the dial, falling on
+the numbers on the circle.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<h3>How Is the Time Calculated at Sea?</h3>
+
+<p>At sea this is determined generally
+by a sextant, which simply measures the
+angle between the horizon and the sun.
+The instrument is applied a little before
+noon and the observer sees the sun
+creeping upward slower and slower till
+a little tremor or hesitation appears,
+indicating that the sun has reached his
+height—noon. Oh! you wish to know
+if the observer is likely to make a
+mistake? Yes, and when accurate local
+time is important, several officers on a
+large ship will take the meridian passage
+at the same time and average their
+readings, so as to reduce the “personal
+error.” All of which is merely a greater
+degree of accuracy than that of the
+man who observes his shadow.</p>
+
+<p>The gradual development of the
+primitive shadow methods culminated
+in the modern sun-dial. The “dial of
+Ahas” (Isa. xxxviii, 8), on which the
+sun went back ten “degrees,” is often
+referred to, but in one of the revised
+editions of the Bible the sun went back
+ten “steps.” This becomes extremely
+interesting when we find that in India
+there still remains an immense dial built
+with steps instead of hour lines.</p>
+
+<p>In a restored flower garden, within
+one of the large houses in the ruins of
+Pompeii, may be seen a sun-dial of the
+Armillary type, presumably in its original
+position. It looks as if the plane
+of the equator and the position of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page316">[316]</span>
+earth’s axis must have been known to
+the maker.</p>
+
+<p>Both these dials were in use before
+the beginning of our era and were
+covered by the great eruption of Vesuvius
+in 79 A.D., which destroyed
+Pompeii and Herculaneum.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>THREE GREAT STEPS<br>
+IN MEASURING TIME</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>Modern sun-dials differ only in being
+more accurately made and a few “curiosity”
+dials added. The necessity for
+time during the night, as man’s life became
+a little more complicated, necessitated
+the invention of time machines.
+The “clepsydra,” or water-clock, was
+probably the first. A French writer
+has dug up some old records putting it
+back to Hoang-ti 2679 B.C., but it appears
+to have been certainly in use in
+China in 1100 B.C., so we will be satisfied
+with that date. In presenting
+a subject to the young student it is
+sometimes advisable to use round numbers
+to give a simple comprehension
+and then leave him to find the overlapping
+of dates and methods as he
+advances. Keeping this in mind, the
+following table may be used to give an
+elementary hint of the three great steps
+in time measuring.</p>
+
+<p>Shadow time, 2000 to 1000 B.C.</p>
+
+<p>Dials and water-clocks, 1000 B.C. to
+1000 A.D.</p>
+
+<p>Clocks and watches, 1000 to 2000
+A.D.</p>
+
+<p>Gear-wheel clocks and watches have
+here been pushed forward to 2000
+A.D., as they may last to that time,
+but no doubt we will supersede them.
+At the present time science is just about
+ready to say that a time measurer consisting
+of wheels and pinions—a driving
+power and a regulator in the form of
+a pendulum or balance, is a clumsy contrivance
+and that we ought to do better
+very soon.</p>
+
+<p>It is remarkable how few are aware
+that the simplest form of sun-dial is
+the best, and that, as a regulator of our
+present clocks, it is good within one
+or two minutes. No one need be without
+a “noon-mark” sun-dial; that is,
+every one may have the best of all dials.
+Take a post or any straight object
+standing “plumb,” or best of all the
+corner of a building. In the case of
+the post, or tree trunk, a stone (shown
+in solid black) may be set in the
+ground; but for the building a line
+may often be cut across a flagstone of
+the footpath. Many methods may be
+employed to get this noon mark, which
+is simply a north and south line: Viewing
+the pole star, using a compass (if
+the local variation is known) or the
+old method of finding the time at which
+the shadow of a pole is shortest. But
+the best practical way in this day is to
+use a watch set to local time and make
+the mark at 12 o’clock.</p>
+
+<div class="container w30emmax" id="Fig316">
+
+<img src="images/illo316.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="illocredit">Drawing by James Arthur.</p>
+
+<p class="caption">A form of Sun-dial that is as good to-day
+as any dial for determining noon.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>On four days of the year the sun is
+right and your mark may be set at 12
+on these days, but you may use an
+almanac and look in the column marked
+“mean time at noon” or “sun on meridian.”
+For example, suppose on the
+bright day when you are ready to place
+your noon mark you read in this column
+11.50, then when your watch
+shows 11.50 make your noon mark to<span class="pagenum" id="Page317">[317]</span>
+the shadow and it will be right for all
+time to come. Owing to the fact that
+there are not an even number of days
+in a year, it follows that on any given
+yearly date at noon the earth is not at
+the same place in its elliptical orbit, and
+the correction of this by the leap years
+causes the equation table to vary in
+periods of four years. The centennial
+leap years cause another variation of
+400 years, etc., but these variations are
+less than the error in reading a dial.</p>
+
+<h3>How Did Men Tell Time When the Sun
+Cast No Shadows?</h3>
+
+<div class="container w50emmax" id="Fig317">
+
+<p class="caption">WATER CLOCKS FOR TELLING TIME</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo317.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="illocredit">Photo by James Arthur.</p>
+
+<div class="split3367">
+
+<div class="left3367">
+
+<p class="caption long">This picture shows the
+hour-glass or sand-glass. It
+is really a type of water-clock,
+being based on the
+same principle. The upper
+glass bulb was filled with
+sand and this sand fell
+through a little hole between
+the two bulbs. When
+the sand had all gone
+through, the glass was
+turned upside down and
+the operation repeated.</p>
+
+</div><!--leftsplit-->
+
+<div class="right3367">
+
+<p class="caption">TIME-BOY OF INDIA.—WATER-CLOCK.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">The Water-clock consisted of a large vessel filled with
+water, on the surface of which was placed a smaller vessel,
+really a gong, with a hole in the bottom. The water gradually
+filled the smaller vessel, and it sank. The Time-boy
+sat beside the Water-clock and as soon as the vessel sank
+he fished it out, emptied it, struck the gong one or more
+times and set it on the water again.</p>
+
+</div><!--rightsplit-->
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--split-->
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>During the night and also in cloudy
+weather the sun-dial was useless, and
+we read that the priests of the temples
+and monks of more modern times
+“went out to observe the stars” to make
+a guess at the time of night. The most
+prominent type after the shadow devices
+was the “water-clock” or “clepsydra,”
+but many other methods were
+used, such as candles, oil lamps, and in
+comparatively late times, the sand-glass.
+The fundamental principle of all water-clocks
+is the escape of water from a
+vessel through a small hole. It is evident
+that such a vessel would empty
+itself each time it is filled in very nearly
+the same time. The reverse of this has
+been used, as shown in the <a href="#Fig317">picture</a> of
+the Time-boy of India. He sat in front
+of a large vessel of water and floated
+a bronze cup having a small hole in its<span class="pagenum" id="Page318">[318]</span>
+bottom in this large vessel, and as the
+water ran in through the hole the cup
+sank. The boy then fished it up and
+struck one or more blows on it as a
+gong. This he continued and a rude
+division of time was obtained—while
+the boy kept awake!</p>
+
+<div class="container w25emmax" id="Fig318a">
+
+<img src="images/illo318a.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="illocredit">Drawing from description by James Arthur.</p>
+
+<p class="caption">The “Hon-woo-et-low,” Canton, China.
+Copper jars dropping water.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>The most interesting of all water-clocks
+was undoubtedly the “copper jars
+dropping water,” in Canton, China,
+where it can still be seen. Referring
+to the <a href="#Fig318a">picture</a> herewith and reading the
+four Chinese characters downwards the
+translation is “Canton City.” To the
+left and still downwards, “Hon-woo-et-low,”
+which is, “Copper jars dropping
+water.” Educated Chinamen inform
+me that it is over 3000 years old.
+The little open building or tower in
+which it stands is higher than surrounding
+buildings. It is, therefore, reasonably
+safe to state that the Chinese had
+a weather and time station over 1000
+years before our era.</p>
+
+<div class="container w25emmax" id="Fig318b">
+
+<img src="images/illo318b.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="illocredit">Photo by James Arthur.</p>
+
+<p class="caption">TOWER OF THE WINDS.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">This tower is located at Athens, Greece.
+It was built about 50 B.C. It is octagonal
+in shape and had at one time sun-dials on
+each of its eight sides. On top was a
+bronze weather vane from which it derived
+its name.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>A PRIMITIVE TWELVE-<br>HOUR CLOCK</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>It is a 12-hour clock, consisting
+of four copper jars partially built in
+masonry forming a stair-like structure.
+Commencing at the top jar each one
+drops into the next downward until the
+water reaches the solid bottom jar. In
+this lowest one a float, “the bamboo
+stick,” is placed and indicates the height
+of the water, and thus in a rude way
+gives the time. It is said to be set
+morning and evening by dipping the
+water from jar 4 to jar 1, so it runs
+12 hours of our time. What are the
+uses of jars 2 and 3, since the water
+simply enters them and drips out again?
+No information could be obtained, but
+I venture an explanation and hope the<span class="pagenum" id="Page319">[319]</span>
+reader can do better, as we are all of
+a family and there is no jealousy.
+When the top jar is filled for a 12-hour
+run it would drip out too fast during
+the first six hours and too slow during
+the second six hours, on account of the
+varying “head” of water. Now, the
+spigot of jar 2 could be set so that it
+would gain water during the first six
+hours, and lose during the second six
+hours, and thus equalize a little by
+splitting the error of jar 1 in two parts.
+Similarly, these two errors of jar 2
+could be again split by jar 3 making
+four small variations in lowest jar, instead
+of one large error in the flow of
+jar 1. This could be extended to a
+greater number of jars, another jar
+making eight smaller errors.</p>
+
+<p>The best thing the young student
+could do at this point would be to grasp
+the remarkable fact that the clock is
+not an old machine, since is covers only
+the comparatively short period from
+1364 to the present day. Compared
+with the period of man’s history and
+inventions it is of yesterday. Strictly
+speaking, as we use the word clock,
+its age from De Vick to the modern
+astronomical is only about 540 years.
+If we take the year 1660, we find that
+it represents the center of modern improvements
+in clocks, a few years before
+and after that date includes the
+pendulum, the anchor and dead beat
+escapements, the minute and second
+hands, the circular balance and the hair
+spring, along with minor improvements.
+Since the end of that period, which
+we may make 1700, no fundamental
+invention has been added to clocks and
+watches. This becomes impressive
+when we remember that the last 200
+years have produced more inventions
+than all previous known history—but
+only minor improvements in clocks!
+The application of electricity for winding,
+driving, or regulating clocks is not
+fundamental, for the time-keeping is
+done by the master clock with its pendulum
+and wheels, just as by any
+grandfather’s clock 200 years old. This
+broad survey of time measuring does
+not permit us to go into minute mechanical
+details.</p>
+
+<div class="container w30emmax" id="Fig319">
+
+<p class="caption">THE FIRST MODERN CLOCK</p>
+
+<div class="container nomargins w20emmax">
+
+<img src="images/illo319.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="illocredit">Drawing by James Arthur.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p class="caption long">Modern clocks commence with De Vick’s
+of 1364, which is the first unquestioned
+clock consisting of toothed wheels and containing
+the fundamental features of our
+present clocks. References are often quoted
+back to about 1000 A.D., but the words
+translated “clocks” were used for bells and
+dials at that date; so we are forced to consider
+the De Vick clock as the first till more
+evidence is obtained. It has been pointed
+out, however, that this clock could hardly
+have been invented all at once; and therefore
+it is probable that many inventions
+leading up to it have been lost to history.
+That part of a clock which does the ticking
+is called the “escapement,” and the oldest
+form known is the “Verge.”</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page320">[320]</span></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>EARLIEST CLOCKS HAD<br>
+NO DIALS OR HANDS</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>Scattered references in old writings
+make it reasonably certain that from
+about 1000 A.D. to 1300 A.D. bells
+were struck by machines regulated
+with this verge escapement, thus showing
+that the striking part of a clock
+is older than the clock itself. It seems
+strange to us to say that many of the
+earlier clocks were strikers only, and
+had no dials or hands, just as if you
+turned the face of your clock to the
+wall and depended on the striking for
+the time.</p>
+
+<div class="container w25emmax" id="Fig320">
+
+<img src="images/illo320.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="illocredit">Photo by James Arthur.</p>
+
+<p class="caption">ENGLISH BLACKSMITH’S CLOCK.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>A good idea of the old church
+clocks may be obtained from the <a href="#Fig320">picture</a>
+herewith. Tradition has followed
+it down as the “English Blacksmith’s
+Clock.” It has the very earliest application
+of the pendulum. The pendulum
+is less than 3 inches long and is
+hung on the verge, or pallet axle, and
+beats 222 per minute. This clock may
+be safely put at 250 years old, and
+contains nothing invented since that
+date. Wheels are cast brass and all
+teeth laboriously filed out by hand.
+Pinions are solid with the axles, or
+“staffs,” and also filed out by hand.
+It is put together, generally by mortise,
+tenon and cotter, but it has four
+original screws all made by hand with
+the file. How did he thread the holes
+for these screws? Probably made a
+tap by hand as he made the screws.
+But the most remarkable feature is the
+fact that no lathe was used in forming
+any part—all staffs, pinions and pivots
+being filed by hand. This is simply
+extraordinary when it is pointed out
+that a little dead center lathe is the
+simplest machine in the world, and he
+could have made one in less than a day
+and saved himself weeks of hard labor.
+It is probable that he had great skill
+in hand work and that learning to use
+a lathe would have been a great and
+tedious effort for him. So we have a
+complete striking clock made by a man
+so poor that he had only his anvil,
+hammer and file. The weights are
+hung on cords as thick as an ordinary
+lead-pencil and pass over pulleys having
+spikes set around them to prevent
+the cords from slipping. The weights
+descend 7 feet in 12 hours, so they
+must be pulled up—not wound up—twice
+a day. The single hour hand is
+a work of art and is cut through like
+lace. Public clocks may still be seen
+in Europe with only one hand. Many
+have been puzzled by finding that old,
+rudely made clocks often have fine
+dials, but this is not remarkable when
+we state that art and engraving had
+reached a high level before the days
+of clocks.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page321">[321]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">THE LARGEST CLOCK IN THE WORLD</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo321.jpg" alt="" id="Fig321">
+
+<p class="illocredit">Courtesy of Colgate and Company.</p>
+
+<p class="caption">THE HANDS OF THE LARGEST CLOCK IN THE WORLD—ON THE ROOF OF THE COLGATE FACTORY.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">This big clock faces the giant office buildings of down-town New York. Its dial is
+38 feet in diameter and can be read easily at a distance of three miles, so that passengers
+on the incoming liners pick out the clock as one of their first sights of New York.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">The next largest clock (on the Metropolitan Tower) is 26¹⁄₂ feet in diameter; the
+Westminster clock of London, 22¹⁄₂ feet.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">The great clock weighs approximately 6 tons. The minute hand, 20 feet long, travels
+at its point 23 inches every minute; more than one-half mile each day.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">The bed of this clock is 4 feet in length, the wheels and gears being made of bronze
+and pinions of hardened steel. The time train occupies about one-third of the bedplate,
+and has a main time wheel measuring 18¹⁄₃ inches in diameter. This train is equipped with
+Dennison’s double three-legged gravity escapement, which was invented by Sir Edmund
+Becket, chiefly for use on the famous Westminster clock, installed in the Parliament
+Buildings, in London, England. The use of this escapement is most advantageous for a
+gigantic clock of this kind as it allows the impulse given the pendulum rod to be always
+constant, and therefore does not permit any change of power or driving force of the clock
+to affect its time-keeping qualities.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">It requires about 600 pounds of cast-iron to propel this time train, and the clock is
+arranged to run eight days without winding. The gravity arms of the escapement are
+fastened at a point very near the suspension spring, and the arms are fitted with bronze
+roller beat pins.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">The dial contains 1134 square feet, or about one thirty-fifth of an acre. The numerals
+consist of heavy black strokes, 5 feet 6 inches long and 30 inches wide at the outer end,
+tapering to a point at the inner end. The circumference of the dial is approximately 120
+feet. The distance from center to center of numerals is 10 feet, and the minute spaces
+are 2 feet.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">The background on dial is painted white, and in the daytime the black numerals show
+up distinctly. At night the numerals, or hour marks, are designated by a row of incandescent
+bulbs placed in a trough 5 inches wide and 5 inches deep. The hands at night
+are outlined with incandescent electric lights, there being 27 lamps on the hour hand and 42
+lamps on the minute hand.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page322">[322]</span></p>
+
+<div class="container w35emmax" id="Fig322">
+
+<p class="caption">THE MACHINERY WHICH RUNS A BIG CLOCK</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo322.jpg" alt="Internal machinery of tower clock">
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>This <a href="#Fig322">picture</a> shows the machinery
+necessary to operate a large modern
+tower clock.</p>
+
+<p>The mechanism is held in place and
+confined entirely within a cast-iron
+structure which is firmly bolted to the
+floor. The wheels are composed of
+bronze, the pinions of steel (hardened)
+and the gears are machine cut. At the
+front of the clock is a small dial which
+enables one to tell exactly the position
+of the hands on the outside dials, and
+there is also a second hand to permit
+of very close regulation and adjustment.</p>
+
+<p>Three ways are provided for the
+regulation. First by a knurled screw
+at the top of bed frame. Second by a
+revolving disc at the bottom of the
+pendulum ball. Very often by either
+of these two methods it is impossible
+to bring the clock to fractional seconds,
+and in order to permit of a nicety of
+adjustment there is a cup fitted at the
+top of the ball so that by inserting or
+taking out lead pellets, the rating can
+be brought to absolute time.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page323">[323]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">THE CLOCK IN INDEPENDENCE HALL</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo323a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig323a">
+
+<p class="caption">INDEPENDENCE HALL, PHILADELPHIA</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo323b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig323b" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption">NEW YORK CITY HALL</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page324">[324]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Where Does the Day Begin?</h2>
+
+<p>To understand this subject we must
+first appreciate that a day as we think
+of it is a division of time made by man
+for the purpose of his own reckoning.
+So far as the beginning of day is concerned,
+it begins at a different place
+in the world every hour; yes, every
+minute and every second in the day.
+As, however, the distance in feet
+where the day begins from one minute
+to another is so short that we can
+hardly notice it in such short measurements
+of time, we will look at the
+answer to the question from hour
+to hour. When you understand the
+subject from that point you can yourself
+see that the day actually begins at
+a different point of the earth every
+minute and every second of time.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">How Much of the Earth Does the Sun
+Shine on at One Time?</h2>
+
+<p>The sun is shining on some part of
+the earth all the time and the shining
+of the sun makes the difference between
+day and night. Wherever the
+sun is shining it is day-time, and where
+the sun is not shining it is night-time.</p>
+
+<p>To illustrate we will make use of an
+ordinary orange and a lighted gas jet.
+Let us take a long hat-pin and stick
+it through the orange from stem to
+stem. Now hold the orange by the
+ends of the hat-pin up before the
+lighted gas jet. You will notice that
+one-half of the orange is lighted, while
+the other half is dark. Of course, it is
+the half of the orange away from the
+light that is dark. Now, revolve the
+orange slowly on the hat-pin axis toward
+the light. When you have turned
+the orange half way round the part that
+was formerly dark is now lighted up
+and the other part is now dark.</p>
+
+<p>Now examine closely and you will
+see that just one-half of the orange
+is lighted at one time and the other half
+is dark. You revolve the orange in
+front of the light slowly and a portion
+of the surface of the orange is always
+coming into the light, while a corresponding
+portion of it on the opposite
+side is constantly going into the dark.
+In other words, whatever the speed at
+which you revolve the orange toward
+the light, one-half of it is always light
+and the other half is always dark.</p>
+
+<p>This is exactly what happens in the
+relation of the earth to the sun every
+day. One-half of the earth, which is
+continually revolving on its axis, is facing
+the sun, and is, therefore, in the
+daylight, while the other half of the
+earth’s surface is in darkness, because
+the light from the sun does not strike
+any portion of it. If the earth did not
+revolve one-half of it would always be
+in day-time, while the other half would
+be continually having night-time. As
+the earth is always moving or revolving
+the half where it is day-time is
+constantly changing, so that the day is
+beginning on one-half of the earth’s
+surface every second of the day.
+Actually, of course, then, if you live on
+the east side of town day begins with
+you a little sooner than with your chum
+who lives on the west side of town.
+We have come to measure the beginning
+of day as sunrise and the beginning
+of night as sunset, wherever we
+happen to be.</p>
+
+<p>For convenience in setting clocks and
+in measuring time we do not take into
+consideration these very slight differences
+in the rising and setting of the
+sun, but set our clocks all alike in different
+parts of the same town or city
+to avoid confusion. In fact, in order
+to overcome the difficulties and confusions
+arising in reckoning the time of
+the clock in different localities, and
+still keep the beginning of what we
+call day-time constant with the hands
+of the clock, we have agreed upon what
+we call standard time. We agreed upon
+this system of fixing standard time because
+the actual sun time by which
+people set their clocks up to a few
+years ago led to so many mistakes in
+catching trains, keeping engagements
+and other misunderstandings where the
+question of time was involved. Then
+when this system of standard time was
+adopted the confusion became even
+worse, and the mistakes and misses
+more numerous, because some people
+insisted on setting their clocks to standard
+time and others insisted on sticking<span class="pagenum" id="Page325">[325]</span>
+to the old sun time schedule. So
+you could never tell by looking at the
+clock what time it really was unless
+they put a sign on the clock saying what
+kind of time they were going by.
+Finally, however, most of the people
+came to appreciate that it would be a
+good idea to use one uniform system
+of setting the clocks and of having
+them in harmony in a sense with the
+other clocks in the world, and the adoption
+of the standard time plan became
+universal. To make this system practical
+and effective, certain points about
+equally distant from each other were
+selected, at which point</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Where Is the Hour Changed?</h2>
+
+<p class="noindent">the hour would change for all points
+within that zone. Under this system all
+timepieces in any one zone point to
+the same hour. So the clock time
+changes only as you go east or west.
+All points on a north and south line
+have the same time as the zone in which
+it is located.</p>
+
+<p>For convenience in adjusting the
+time in America the country was divided
+into four east and west zones.
+The first zone takes in everything on
+a straight north and south line east
+of Pittsburg, and is called Eastern
+time. The second zone extends from
+Pittsburg to Chicago, and is called Central
+time; the third zone extends from
+Chicago to Denver, and is called Mountain
+time; while the fourth zone extends
+from Denver to the Pacific
+Ocean. These selections were made
+because the sun actually rises about one
+hour later in Pittsburg than in New
+York; one hour later in Chicago than
+in Pittsburg; one hour later in Denver
+than in Chicago, and one hour later on
+the Pacific Coast than in Denver.
+Under this plan when it is nine o’clock
+in New York it is only eight o’clock
+at Pittsburg and all points in the Central
+zone; seven o’clock in all points in
+the Mountain zone; six o’clock in Denver
+and five o’clock in San Francisco.
+As you keep travelling westward you
+drop one hour of the clock time in
+every zone, and as under this system
+the earth’s east to west distance is
+divided into twenty-four such zones,
+if you went west entirely around the
+world you would lose a whole day of
+clock time.</p>
+
+<p>If, however, you went around the
+world from west to east in the same
+manner you would gain a whole day.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Where Does the Day Change?</h2>
+
+<p>This system of agreeing on fixed
+places where the hour changes made it
+necessary to also fix a point where for
+the purposes of the calendar the day
+also changes. This imaginary north
+and south line is fixed upon at 180
+degrees west longitude, which would
+cut the Pacific Ocean in two. This line
+makes it possible for a person to travel
+all day before approaching this line
+and then find himself after crossing it
+travelling all the next day with the
+same name for the day of the week.
+Thus he could spend all of Sunday
+travelling toward the International Day
+Line, as this is called, and after crossing
+it spend another Sunday, which
+would be the next day, going away
+from it. This would give him the novel
+experience of having two Sundays on
+successive days. The same thing would
+happen if he were travelling to the
+Day Line on Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday,
+Thursday, Friday or Saturday.
+He would live through two succeeding
+days of the same name in the
+same week, one right after the other.
+This would be in going westward.</p>
+
+<p>If you were traveling eastward and
+crossed the International Day Line on
+Sunday at midnight you would lose a
+day completely out of the week, for
+when you woke up the next morning it
+would be Tuesday.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Do We Cook the Things We Eat?</h2>
+
+<p>We have several reasons for doing
+this. The first and most important
+reason to us is that the application of
+heat to food makes it more easy to
+digest. Other reasons are that when
+cooked our food is more palatable; the
+process of cooking kills all microbes,
+which, if taken into our bodies alive,
+would give us diseases, and also it is
+easier for us to chew food that has
+been cooked.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page326">[326]</span></p>
+
+<div class="container w35emmax" id="Fig326">
+
+<p class="caption">WONDERS PERFORMED BY ELECTRIC LIFT MAGNET</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo326.jpg" alt="" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption long">This picture shows the construction of a successful electric lift magnet. This device,
+by means of magnetic attraction, fastens itself to practically all kinds of iron and steel
+without the aid of slings, cables or chains.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<h2 class="nobreak">The Story in a Magnet</h2>
+
+<h3>What Makes an Electro Magnet Lift
+Things?</h3>
+
+</div><!--chapter-->
+
+<p>The working parts of an electric lift
+magnet are as follows:</p>
+
+<p><i>A Shell.</i>—This is a steel casting
+heavily ribbed on the top for strength,
+and also to assist in radiating the heating
+effect from the coil.</p>
+
+<p>It is usually made circular in shape,
+the outside rim forming one pole, while
+the lug in the center forms the other.
+The coil fits in between these poles,
+thus making a magnet similar to the
+ordinary horseshoe type.</p>
+
+<p><i>A Bottom Plate.</i>—The under side of
+the magnet is closed by a very tough
+and hard non-magnetic steel plate, in
+order to protect the coil.</p>
+
+<p>As well as being non-magnetic, this
+plate also has sufficient strength to resist
+the severe wear to which a magnet
+is necessarily subjected.</p>
+
+<p><i>A Terminal Box.</i>—A one-piece
+heavily-constructed steel casting bolted
+to the top of the shell, containing and
+protecting the brass sockets into which
+the wires from the coil terminate,
+forms the Terminal Box.</p>
+
+<p>The sockets are made to receive
+plugs placed on the end of the conductor
+wire, by which the magnet is
+connected with the generator.</p>
+
+<p><i>A Coil.</i>—This consists of a round
+insulated wire which is passed, while
+being wound, through a cement-like
+substance, heavily coating each individual
+strand.</p>
+
+<p>A low voltage of current is then
+passed through the coil, a sufficient
+length of time, to thoroughly dry out
+and bake the coating. This renders
+the magnet absolutely fireproof, eliminating
+all danger of short circuiting of
+the coil.</p>
+
+<p>When finished it is well taped to
+protect the outside wire from becoming
+chafed.</p>
+
+<p>The coil is made slightly smaller
+than the inside dimensions of the shell
+and the remaining space is filled with
+an impregnating compound, which
+hardens to the consistency of pitch.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page327">[327]</span></p>
+
+<p>This renders the coil thoroughly
+waterproof; also forms a cushion to
+prevent injury from the severe jars
+and shocks, received when dropping a
+magnet on its load.</p>
+
+<p><i>A Controller.</i>—The rapidity with
+which it is necessary to turn current
+on and off while operating a magnet,
+creates what is called a “back kick.”
+Unless this is dissipated quickly it is
+very destructive to the coil.</p>
+
+<p>A special controller dissipates this
+back kick through a set of resistance
+coils placed in the controller. By
+means of an automatic arrangement,
+connection with these coils is made
+instantly upon breaking the current between
+the magnet and generator.</p>
+
+<p>A system of control used prevents
+undue heating of the coil. This enables
+the magnet to lift as large a load after
+a long steady run as at the start.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Is a Lodestone?</h2>
+
+<p>A lodestone is a variety of the mineral
+named magnetite which is a natural
+magnet. The name magnet comes
+from the name of the mineral magnetite
+and this in turn derived its
+name from the fact that it was first
+discovered in Magnesia. The word
+magnet really means the “Stone of
+Magnesia.”</p>
+
+<p>A lodestone is one of the mysteries
+of nature. Its properties can more
+nearly be understood if we examine
+an artificial magnet, which is generally
+made in the form of either a straight
+bar or a shoe. An artificial magnet
+is made of iron. If you drop a bar
+magnet into a box of iron filings, the
+filings attach themselves to the bar. If
+you examine it closely you observe
+that most of the filings attach themselves
+to the ends of the bar. Therefore
+we call the ends of the bar the
+poles of the magnet.</p>
+
+<p>If you suspend a magnetic needle at
+its center of gravity so that it is absolutely
+free to turn, you will soon
+find one end of the needle pointing
+north and the other south of course.
+The end which is pointed toward the
+north is called the north pole and the
+other the south pole. If you have a
+horse-shoe magnet, you can demonstrate
+this for yourself. Rub the end
+of your magnet over a sewing needle
+and oil the needle so that when you
+lay it on the surface of a glass of water
+it will float. Then look at it closely.
+You will see the needle slowly turn
+until finally it becomes quite still. If
+you have a compass at hand so that
+you know surely which is north and
+which is south, you will find one end
+of the needle pointing north and the
+other south. You can then place the
+end of your magnet against the outside
+of the glass and draw the needle
+toward your magnet. Your horse-shoe
+magnet has its north and south poles
+close together.</p>
+
+<p>If you have a bar magnet and the
+end of the needle with the eye in it is
+pointing north, you can drive the needle
+on the surface of the water away from
+you by touching the outside of the
+glass opposite that end of the needle
+with the north pole of your magnet.
+On the other hand, if you reverse the
+experiment and place the south pole
+of your magnet to the side of the
+glass, the needle will come toward the
+magnet. In other words then the like
+poles of a magnet repel each other and
+the unlike poles attract each other.</p>
+
+<p>Another interesting way to show
+this is to take two lodestones or
+two magnets and let a lot of iron
+filings attach themselves to the ends
+of them. Then when you have done
+this, point the two north poles of the
+magnets or lodestones at each other
+close together. You will be intensely
+interested in seeing how quickly the
+mysterious something that is in the
+magnets makes the filings on the two
+ends of the magnet try to get away
+from each other. On the other hand
+when you put a north and south pole
+together, they form a union of the
+iron filings.</p>
+
+<p>Another strange thing about a magnet
+is that if you break it in two, each
+half will be a complete magnet in itself
+with a north and south pole also,
+and this is true no matter how many
+times you break it into pieces. From
+this we learn that each tiny particle or
+molecule throughout the bar is a magnet
+by itself.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page328">[328]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">WHAT A LODESTONE IS</p>
+
+<div class="container w30emmax">
+
+<img src="images/illo328a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig328a">
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p class="caption long">This is a picture
+of a complete electro
+magnet. The magnet
+is attached to the
+arm of a crane by
+the loop in the center
+and when the
+magnet then comes
+in contact with any
+kind of iron or steel
+it lifts it as soon as
+the current is turned
+on. By making the
+electric current
+stronger, greater
+weight can be lifted.
+Many tons of material
+can be lifted at
+one time. An electro
+magnet will do the
+work of many men
+at much less cost.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo328b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig328b" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption long">In this picture we see the magnet lifting a great weight of miscellaneous pieces of
+scrap iron. As many as twenty tons can be lifted and transferred from one place to
+another at one time.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page329">[329]</span></p>
+
+<p>Some things can be magnetized
+while others cannot. Many substances
+have not the property of magnetizing
+other substances when they have once
+been attracted by a magnet. These
+are called magnetic substances. They
+remain magnetized only as long as
+they are in touch with the magnet;
+other substances when once magnetized
+become permanent magnets. Steel and
+lodestone have this faculty. A compass
+needle is an artificial magnet
+which becomes a permanent magnet
+when rubbed with a magnet.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Is Electricity?</h2>
+
+<p>If you pass a hard rubber comb
+through your hair, in frosty weather,
+a crackling sound is produced, and the
+individual hairs show a tendency to
+stick to the comb. After being drawn
+through your hair a few times, you may
+notice that the comb has become
+charged with electricity. This electricity
+is produced by friction. Not only rubber
+but many other substances become
+electrified by friction, such as a bar
+of sealing wax rubbed with flannel, or
+a glass rod rubbed with silk, will show
+the same qualities, and these simple experiments
+teach us many of the fundamental
+facts about electricity.</p>
+
+<p>Some simple experiments will be
+found instructive and interesting. Rub
+with flannel a stick of sealing wax until it
+is electrified and then bring it close to a
+pith ball which should be hung by a silk
+thread. The pith ball will at once be
+attracted to the sealing wax, and, if
+brought quite close, the ball will adhere
+to the wax for a few moments, and then
+fly away from it. The ball will now
+be repelled by the sealing wax instead
+of being drawn toward it. Now take a
+glass rod, rub it with a silk cloth after
+drying it thoroughly. When the pith
+ball is brought close to the glass rod
+it also will at first be attracted toward
+the glass and, if brought in contact with
+the glass, the pith ball will adhere as
+before. It will also then fly away in
+the same way it did from the sealing
+wax. Repeat these experiments with
+the sealing wax now and you will find
+the ball will be attached, as it was at
+first, but if it touches the wax it will
+again adhere for a moment and then
+fly away. By using the sealing wax and
+glass rod alternately and bringing them
+into contact with the pith ball, you discover
+that when it is attracted by one,
+it is repelled by the other, and that, after
+it has been in contact with either for a
+few moments it is no longer attracted
+by it.</p>
+
+<p>We learn thus that the electricity in
+the glass and the sealing wax are not
+the same. To distinguish the two kinds
+of attraction, we say the glass is
+charged with positive, or vitreous electricity,
+while the charge on the sealing
+wax is called negative, or resinous electricity.</p>
+
+<p>When the pith ball was touched with
+the sealing wax, it became filled with
+negative electricity, and was then no
+longer attracted by the wax, but was
+repelled by it and attracted by the glass
+rod; but when the ball had been filled
+with positive electricity, it was repelled
+by the glass and attracted by the wax.
+We conclude from these facts that
+bodies filled with the same kind of electricity
+repel each other, while bodies
+filled with opposite kinds of electricity
+attract each other.</p>
+
+<p>When two substances are charged, as
+we say, with electricity of opposite
+kinds and are brought into contact,
+and left so for some time, the two
+charges disappear, one appearing to
+neutralize the other. From this, we
+conclude, and rightly, that any substance
+not electrified, contains equal
+amounts both positive and negative electricity.
+When, therefore, we rub a
+piece of glass with silk, we are not
+creating electricity, but only separating
+the different kinds. The positive electricity
+adheres to the glass, and the
+negative remains behind, on the silk.
+In the same manner, when we electrify
+sealing wax with flannel the negative
+kind remains in the sealing wax and the
+flannel becomes charged with the positive.
+Whenever a body is electrified
+by friction, both kinds of electricity are
+produced; it is impossible to produce
+one kind without the other.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page330">[330]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">WHAT ELECTRICITY IS</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo330a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig330a">
+
+<p class="caption long">Magnets are particularly valuable in lifting
+raw material in a steel mill. The red-hot
+pig-iron, from which steel is made, can
+be handled easily in this way, whereas it
+would be impossible to handle same by
+hand. Sometimes great quantities of iron
+are broken up by the magnet. A weight of
+many tons is lifted by the magnet and
+allowed to fall on the material to be
+broken up. The weight falls as soon as
+the current is turned off.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo330b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig330b" class="blankbefore">
+
+<div class="illotext w15emmax">
+
+<p class="center">Weight of wheel, 8160 lbs.</p>
+
+</div><!--illotext-->
+
+<p class="caption">Pieces of machinery which cannot be lifted by men on account of their great weight
+and shape are handled easily.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page331">[331]</span></p>
+
+<p>You must rub the entire glass rod
+or bar of sealing wax to electrify the
+whole of it. If only a part of the glass
+rod or sealing wax is rubbed, only that
+part becomes electrified, as may be
+shown by trying to attract a pith
+ball with the part that has not been
+rubbed.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>WHAT GOOD AND BAD<br>
+CONDUCTORS OF ELECTRICITY ARE</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>If, however, the charged part of the
+sealing wax is brought into contact with
+a metal rod resting on, say, a drinking
+glass, the rod becomes charged, not
+only where it is brought into contact,
+but all over its surface. Substances
+over which electricity flows readily are
+called conductors of electricity. All
+metals are of this kind. Things like
+glass and sealing wax over which electricity
+does not flow readily, are called
+non-conductors, or insulators. Water,
+the human body, and the earth are good
+conductors and rubber, porcelain, most
+resins, and dry air are non-conductors.</p>
+
+<p>You have already learned that substances
+charged with opposite kinds of
+electricity attract each other, and substances
+charged with the same kind repel
+each other. We will try to discover why
+substances charged with either kind of
+electricity attract small light objects,
+such as pith balls, when these latter are
+not charged with electricity. As we
+have discovered, all substances which
+have remained undisturbed have both
+kinds of electricity present in them, in
+equal amounts. Now, when an uncharged
+body is brought near a charged
+body, the two kinds of electricity in the
+uncharged body have a tendency to
+separate. The kind opposite in character,
+to that on the charged body, is
+attracted toward the charged body, and
+the other kind is repelled. Thus, if our
+bar of sealing wax, charged with, let
+us say, negative electricity, is brought
+near a pith ball, the positive electricity
+in the ball is attracted to the side nearest
+the scaling wax, and the negative electricity
+is repelled to the farther side. As
+the positive electricity on the pith is
+nearer to the scaling wax than the negative,
+its attraction for the negative
+charge, on the sealing wax, is stronger
+than the repulsion between the negative
+electricities of the two objects, and consequently,
+the ball is attracted to the
+sealing wax. If the charged sealing
+wax is brought near a good conductor,
+which is supported on some non-conducting
+substance, such as glass, silk,
+or rubber, over which electricity will
+not flow, a much more complete separation
+of the two kinds of electricity occurs
+on the conductor than on the pith
+ball. If the charged sealing wax is
+brought near one end of a metal rod so
+placed, the charge of negative electricity
+upon the sealing wax will attract
+the positive electricity on the metal, to
+that end, and will repel the negative
+electricity to the other end. When a
+pith ball, hung by the silk thread, is
+brought close to either end of the metal
+rod, when the charged sealing wax is
+near the other end, the pith ball will be
+attracted toward the rod; but will not
+be attracted if placed close to the middle
+of the rod. This proves that the metal
+rod is electrified only in the parts nearest
+to and farthest away from the
+charged body. The two kinds of electricity
+neutralize each other at the parts
+in between.</p>
+
+<p>If now we take two conductors and
+place them end to end, we have for all
+practical purposes, a single conductor.
+It has the decided advantage, however,
+of being easily separated into two
+parts. When an electrified substance is
+brought close to one end of such a conductor,
+a charge of one kind is attracted
+to the near portion of the conductor,
+and a charge of the opposite kind is
+repelled to the farther part. By separating
+the two parts of the conductor,
+we learn that one of the ends, which
+have been in contact, is charged with
+positive and the other with negative
+electricity.</p>
+
+<p>This act of separating the two kinds
+of electricity upon a conductor by
+means of a charge upon another body
+which is not permitted to come into
+contact with the conductor, is called induction,
+and two charges of electricity<span class="pagenum" id="Page332">[332]</span>
+produced in this way are known as induced
+charges.</p>
+
+<p>There are other ways in which a
+charge of electricity may be induced
+upon a conductor. One end of the conductor
+may be connected with the earth
+by means of some good conducting material,
+and the charged substance
+brought close to the other end. A
+charge, opposite in character to the initial
+charge, is attracted to the end of
+the conductor that is near the charged
+body, and the electricity of the opposite
+kind is repelled, through the conductor
+to the earth. By securing the connection
+with the earth, while the charged
+body is near the conductor, a charge is
+obtained upon the conductor, that is
+opposite in character to the initial
+charge. This method of charging conductors,
+by induction, is practically the
+same as the one first described, for the
+earth is a conductor of electricity, and
+corresponds to the more distant part of
+the two-piece conductor.</p>
+
+<p>An instrument, known as the electrophorus,
+is especially designed for the
+production of electric charges by induction
+in the manner just described. This
+instrument consists of a brass plate,
+on an insulating handle of glass, and a
+disk of sealing wax, fitted into a brass
+dish, whose edges rise somewhat higher
+than the surface of the wax. In using
+the electrophorus the brass dish, or sole,
+is placed upon some support that will
+conduct electricity, and the sealing wax
+disk is then rubbed vigorously with a
+piece of flannel, or catskin, which electrifies
+the sealing wax, with negative
+electricity. The brass plate is then
+taken by the glass handle and brought
+close to the charged sealing wax. The
+charge of negative electricity on the
+wax attracts a charge of positive electricity
+to the under surface of the plate
+and repels a negative charge to its upper
+surface. If the charged plate is
+now brought into contact with the edge
+of the brass dish the negative charge,
+on the back of the plate, flows away,
+through the legs of the dish, to the
+earth, but the positive charge remains
+on the under surface, where it is bound,
+by the attraction of the negative charge
+on the disk of sealing wax. If the brass
+plate is now removed, it will be found
+to be charged with positive electricity.</p>
+
+<p>The negative charge upon the sealing
+wax is not reduced or diminished by
+its action in charging the brass plate,
+and it is possible to charge the plate
+an indefinite number of times by means
+of one charge on the sealing wax.</p>
+
+<p>The charges of electricity, produced
+in any of the ways that have been
+described, are necessarily small, and
+the disturbance produced, when they
+are destroyed by bringing oppositely
+charged conductors together, is very
+slight, merely a little snapping noise
+and, perhaps, a small spark, that seems
+to leap from the positively charged conductor
+to the negatively charged one,
+when they come very close together. By
+the use of electrical machines of various
+kinds, in some of which the electricity
+is produced by friction, and in
+others by induction, conductors may be
+charged with much larger quantities of
+electricity, and the disturbance produced
+by their discharge is greatly increased.
+The noise produced is louder
+and the spark much brighter, and leaps
+from one conductor to the other, while
+they are much farther apart. It is possible
+to produce still larger charges of
+electricity upon conductors if they are
+arranged so as to form what are called
+condensers.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Is a Leyden Jar?</h2>
+
+<p>One of the commonest forms of condenser
+is the Leyden jar, which is so
+named because it was invented at Leyden,
+in Holland. This is a glass jar, upon
+the outside of which is fastened a coating
+of tinfoil, that covers the bottom of
+the jar and extends two-thirds of the
+way up the sides. Inside the jar there is
+a similar coating of tinfoil, and through
+the top of the jar, which is usually
+made of wood, extends a metal rod. On
+the upper end of the rod, there is a
+metal ball, and, at the lower end, is
+attached a chain which runs down to
+the bottom of the jar and rests upon
+the inner tinfoil coating.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page333">[333]</span></p>
+
+<p>In using the Leyden jar, the ball on
+the metal rod that runs through the top
+of the jar is connected with an electrical
+machine, and the jar is supported upon
+some conducting material, through
+which electricity may be conveyed from
+the outer coating of tinfoil to the earth.
+If the inner coating of tinfoil is now
+charged with positive electricity, by
+means of the electrical machine, it induces,
+upon the outer coating of foil, a
+charge of negative electricity, which is
+bound by the attraction of the positive
+charge on the inside of the jar. At
+the same time, the positive electricity,
+on the outer coating of foil, is repelled,
+through the conducting support, to the
+earth.</p>
+
+<p>The charge that can be communicated
+to the coating of the foil, inside the
+Leyden jar, is greatly increased by the
+presence of a charge of the opposite
+kind of electricity, on the coating on the
+outside of the jar. Each of these
+charges attracts the other, through the
+glass of the jar, and serves to bind or
+hold it. If either coating of foil is removed,
+the charge on the other coating
+tends to fly off the tinfoil, and will immediately
+do so, if a conductor is
+brought near. It is because the negative
+effects of the initial charge, inside the
+jar, and of the induced charge outside
+the jar, make it possible to communicate,
+to each coating of foil, a larger
+charge than it could otherwise be made
+to receive, that a Leyden jar is called
+a condenser.</p>
+
+<p>When a Leyden jar is disconnected
+from the electrical machine, two opposite
+charges of electricity are present on
+it, one inside and the other on the outside.
+If the two coats of tinfoil are now
+connected, by means of a condenser,
+they will at once neutralize each other,
+and the jar will be discharged. A jar
+may be discharged, by simply taking
+hold of the tinfoil on the outside of the
+jar, with one hand, and touching the
+metal rod, running through the top of
+the jar, with the other. If you do this,
+there will be a sudden flow of electricity
+through your body, your muscles will
+give a sudden jerk, and you will feel a
+peculiar tingling sensation. In other
+words, you will have received a shock.</p>
+
+<p>It is not necessary, for the hand that
+does not grasp the jar, actually to touch
+the rod that runs through the top. If
+the hand is brought toward the rod,
+rather slowly, you will see a spark leap
+across the space between the rod and
+your hand, while your hand is still some
+distance from the rod. The greater the
+distance, across which the spark leaps,
+the brighter will be the spark, and the
+stronger the shock produced. This
+distance is sometimes spoken of as the
+length of the spark, and it indicates
+the size of the charges on the tinfoil
+coatings of the jar.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Who Discovered Electricity?</h2>
+
+<p>It may seem difficult to believe, that
+the tiny spark and weak snapping noise
+that are produced when a Leyden jar is
+discharged, are, in many respects, the
+same as lightning and thunder, but it
+is nevertheless true. This was proved
+by Benjamin Franklin, about the middle
+of the 18th century, in the following
+way. One afternoon, when a thunder
+shower was approaching, he sent up a
+kite, to the string of which he fastened
+a large metal key; and to the key, a
+ribbon of non-conducting silk, which he
+held in his hand. When the rain had
+been falling long enough to wet the
+string thoroughly, it become a good
+conductor of electricity, and Franklin
+found that the key had become charged
+with electricity transmitted from the
+clouds, along the wet kite string. The
+non-conducting silk ribbon, that formed
+the continuation of the kite string, from
+the key to his hand, was employed to
+prevent him from receiving shocks from
+the passage of the electricity, through
+his body, to the earth.</p>
+
+<p>Up to this point, your attention has
+been directed in charges of electricity.
+You have been told how they may be
+produced, what some of their leading
+properties are, and what effects they
+produce, when they are discharged.
+The subject that will now be explained
+to you is that of electric currents.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page334">[334]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Is an Electric Current?</h2>
+
+<p>By an electric current, is meant a
+flow of electricity along a conductor.
+The flow of electricity, through your
+body, when you receive an electric shock,
+is a current, but it lasts only for an instant,
+and it is difficult to learn much
+about its nature. By the use of various
+devices, it is possible to produce currents,
+that will continue as long as we
+want them, so that we are enabled to
+study their properties quite thoroughly.</p>
+
+<p>One of the oldest and simplest forms
+of apparatus, for producing electric currents,
+is that which is known as the
+voltaic cell. This form of apparatus
+may very easily be constructed. Pour
+some water into a glass jar, and add a
+little sulphuric acid. Now place in the
+water a strip of clean zinc and one of
+clean copper. Do not let the strips of
+metal touch in the water, but connect
+them outside the water by means of a
+piece of wire. When this has been done,
+a current of electricity will be sent up
+along the wire and through the water
+between the two strips of zinc and copper.
+This current is said to flow along
+the wire from the copper, which is
+called the positive pole of the cell, to
+the zinc, which is called the negative
+pole. In the liquid in the cell (i.e., the
+jar), the current travels from the zinc
+to the copper, thus completing what is
+called the electric circuit. Whenever
+the circuit it broken, that is, whenever
+there is a gap made in the wire connecting
+the poles, or anything else is
+done to destroy the completeness of the
+path, along which the current travels,
+the current ceases; consequently, when
+it is desirable to stop the current, all
+that is necessary is to cut the wire connecting
+the two strips of copper and
+zinc.</p>
+
+<p>The production of a current of electricity,
+by means of an apparatus of this
+sort, depends upon the chemical action
+of the acid in the water upon the strip
+of zinc. As long as the acid continues
+to act upon the zinc, the current is produced,
+and when the acid ceases to act
+upon the zinc, the current ceases to flow.
+If the zinc is clean, the chemical action
+of the acid ceases, whenever the circuit is
+broken, and consequently, when the cell
+is not being used to produce a current,
+the zinc is not destroyed by the acid.
+But if the zinc is not clean, small electric
+currents are set up, within the
+liquid, between the zinc and the impurities
+on its surface, and around the points
+where these impurities lie the acid acts
+upon the zinc and dissolves it. This action
+of the acid upon the zinc, when
+the circuit is broken, is known as local
+action, and it is very desirable to prevent
+it, as far as possible. For this
+purpose the zinc is often rubbed with
+mercury, which soaks into the zinc and
+forms a film on its surface, upon which
+the impurities float. This treatment of
+the zinc is known as amalgamation, and
+it serves to prevent almost all the
+local action, due to impurities of the
+zinc.</p>
+
+<p>Many other substances, besides zinc
+and copper, have been found capable
+of yielding an electric current, when
+placed in a suitable liquid, and many
+other fluids, besides water that contains
+a little sulphuric acid, have been employed
+to act upon the zinc and copper,
+or the substances used in their stead.
+Numerous cells of different kinds have,
+therefore, been devised, but, in all of
+them, the current is produced by chemical
+action. Most of them contain a
+liquid of some sort, which is called the
+exciting fluid, and two solid substances,
+which are called the elements of the
+cell. One of these elements is always
+much more susceptible to the chemical
+action of the exciting fluid, than the
+other, and this one is known as the positive
+element. The other element, upon
+which the exciting fluid may have no
+action, is called the negative element.
+In cells in which the elements are zinc
+and copper, the zinc is always the positive
+element. This may seem strange
+to you, for you have already learned
+that the zinc is the negative pole of
+the cell, but, to avoid confusion, you
+must fix well in your mind the fact
+that the zinc is not the positive element<span class="pagenum" id="Page335">[335]</span>
+of a voltaic cell, but its negative pole,
+and that the copper, which forms the
+negative element is the positive pole of
+the cell. The currents produced by the
+various forms of voltaic cells, vary considerably
+in strength, but none of them
+are very strong. In order to obtain a
+stronger current, a number of cells must
+be used together. Such a collection of
+cells forms a voltaic battery, and in
+some instances, as many as fifty thousand
+cells have been used in a single
+battery.</p>
+
+<p>We have already learned in our study
+of water that it may be separated into
+its elementary gases by sending an
+electric current through it. The effect
+is a chemical one. Water, however, is
+not the only substance that is decomposed
+by electricity; almost all chemical
+compounds may be decomposed by the
+passage of a current through them, provided
+a current of sufficient strength
+is used.</p>
+
+<p>Another effect of the current is its
+heating effect. It has been found that
+the passage of an electric current,
+through any body, is always productive
+of a certain amount of heat. The
+amount of heat produced depends upon
+the strength of the current of electricity,
+and the resistance to its passage that
+is offered by the body through which it
+travels. This amount is increased by
+increasing either the strength of the
+current or the resistance of the conductor
+along which it travels. We have
+already learned, that some substances
+allow electricity to pass over them very
+readily, and are therefore called conductors,
+while substances through which
+electricity does not flow readily are
+known as non-conductors. No substance
+is a perfect non-conductor, for
+electricity can be made to pass through
+any substance, if the current is sufficiently
+powerful. Neither is any substance
+a perfect conductor, for all substances
+offer some resistance to the passage
+of an electric current. Those substances
+that are ordinarily considered
+good conductors offer varying degrees
+of resistance to electric currents. For
+example, a copper wire offers less resistance
+than an iron wire of the same
+length and diameter.</p>
+
+<p>The resistance of a body depends not
+only upon its material, but also upon its
+length and size. In conductors of the
+same material, the resistance is directly
+proportional to the length of the conductor,
+and inversely proportional to
+the square of its diameter. This is not
+surprising, for an electric current bears
+a strong resemblance to a current of
+water, in many of its properties, and
+you know that it is harder to force
+water through long, narrow pipes, than
+through short, wide ones.</p>
+
+<p>From what has been stated about resistance,
+you may see, that a current
+will produce more heat, in passing
+through a long fine wire, than through
+a shorter and thicker one, and that,
+of two conductors of the same length
+and size, but of different material, one
+may be heated much more by a current
+than will another.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>HOW MAGNETS<br>
+ARE MADE</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>A third effect of the electric current,
+which has not previously been mentioned
+is its magnetizing effect. It is
+upon this, that some of the most important
+effects of electricity depend.</p>
+
+<p>By coiling a wire around a bar of
+iron or steel, and then sending an electric
+current through it, the piece of
+iron, or steel, is made to show magnetic
+properties. By this is meant, as you
+doubtless know, that the iron will now
+attract other pieces of iron, or steel,
+to it. The strength of this attraction
+depends upon the strength of the current,
+and upon the number of turns of
+wire around the bar. By increasing
+either the strength of the current, or
+the number of turns in the coil of wire,
+around the bar of iron, the strength
+of its magnetic attraction is increased.
+When the current is stopped, the magnetic
+properties of the iron disappear
+almost completely. A magnet, that depends
+upon a current of electricity for
+its magnetic power, is called an electro-magnet.</p>
+
+<p>Besides electro-magnets there are
+others, which are called permanent
+magnets. Electro-magnets are composed
+of soft iron, the softer the better,<span class="pagenum" id="Page336">[336]</span>
+and, as soon as the current of electricity
+ceases to flow around them, their
+magnetic properties disappear. Permanent
+magnets, on the contrary, are made
+of steel, and their magnetism is independent
+of the action of a current of
+electricity. No coil of wire is wound
+around them, and no current is employed
+to maintain their magnetic properties.
+A piece of steel may be made
+to become a permanent magnet, by passing
+a current of electricity, for a considerable
+time, through a coil of wire
+wound around it, or by allowing a
+piece of steel to remain for some time
+in contact with a strong magnet. When
+a current of electricity passes through
+a coil of wire, wound around a bar of
+steel, it takes longer to magnetize the
+steel than it would to magnetize iron,
+but, when the current ceases, the magnetism
+does not all disappear from the
+steel. A portion of it remains, and the
+steel becomes permanently magnetic.</p>
+
+<p>If a thin bar of steel is magnetized,
+and is then suspended by its middle, so
+that it can spring freely, it will be found
+that one end tends to point toward the
+north, and the other toward the south.
+Whenever the bar is swung out of this
+position, it swings back to it, and if
+the north end is turned entirely around
+to the south, it does not remain, but
+swings back to its former position. This
+shows that there is a difference in the
+magnetism at the two ends of the magnet.
+To indicate this difference, the
+north-seeking end of a magnet is called
+the positive pole of the magnet, and
+the south-seeking end is known as the
+negative pole.</p>
+
+<p>By suspending two bar magnets, in
+the manner described, it can be shown
+that the positive and negative poles of
+the magnets act like positive and negative
+charges of electricity. Poles of the
+same kind repel, and poles of opposite
+kinds attract, each other.</p>
+
+<p>Permanent magnets are usually made
+in two forms, either straight or horseshoe
+shaped. A compass needle, as
+has been shown, is an example of a
+straight magnet. The horseshoe variety,
+which has a little bar of iron, called
+the keeper, laid across the poles is a
+common toy. Electro-magnets are seldom
+seen, except in electrical instruments
+or machinery. The <a href="#Page328">pictures</a>
+shown on the <a href="#Page330">following pages</a> give us
+a bird’s-eye view of some of the wonders
+performed by these electro-magnets.
+Tons and tons of material are
+picked up and held securely by one of
+these magnets as easily as you can
+hold on to an apple.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Does a Bee Have a Sting?</h2>
+
+<p>The bee’s sting is given him as a
+weapon of defence. Primarily it is for
+the sole purpose of enabling him to
+help defend the hive from his enemies.
+Sometimes when he is attacked away
+from the hive he uses his sting to defend
+himself. When he does so, he injects
+a little quantity of poison through
+the sting and that is what causes the
+inflammation.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">How Does a Honey Bee Live?</h2>
+
+<p>The bee lives in swarms of from 10,000
+to 50,000 in one house. In the wild
+state the house or hive is located in a
+hollow tree generally. These swarms
+contain three classes of bees, the perfect
+females or queen bees, the males or
+drones, and the imperfectly developed
+females, or working bees. In each hive
+or swarm there is only one perfect female
+or queen whose sole mission is to
+propagate the species. The queen is
+much larger than the other bees. When
+she dies a young working bee three
+days old is selected as the new queen.
+Her cell is enlarged by breaking down
+the partitions, her food is changed to
+“royal jelly or paste” and she grows
+into a queen bee. The queen lays 2,000
+eggs per day. The drones do not work
+and after performing their duty as
+males are killed by the working bees.
+The female bees do the work of gathering
+the honey. They collect the honey
+from the flowers, they build the wax
+cells, and feed the young bees. When
+a colony becomes overstocked, a new
+colony is sent out to establish a new
+hive under the direction of a queen
+bee.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page337">[337]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<h2 class="pagheading">THE BEGINNING OF A STEAMSHIP</h2>
+
+<img src="images/illo337a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig337a">
+
+<p class="caption long">Probably no form of construction is so interesting to everyone as the construction of
+a huge steamer, a wonderful “city” afloat, with its thousands of passengers, its thousand
+officers and crew, the tremendous stores of provisions and water, and the precision with
+which the great ship plows its way from one shore to the other.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">This picture shows the first work in building a modern steamer, laying the keel and
+center plate, upon which the massive hull is constructed. The rivets are driven by
+hydraulic power, noiselessly but firmly. In the new “Britannic”—largest of all British
+steamers and the newest (1915) modern leviathan—over 270 tons of rivets—nearly three
+million in all—were required to give staunchness to the steel-plated hull. The cellular
+double bottom is constructed between the bottom and top of the center plate.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo337b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig337b" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption">A LONGER VIEW OF THE ABOVE OPERATION.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page338">[338]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">THE CRADLE OF A STEAMSHIP CALLED A “GANTRY”</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo338.jpg" alt="" id="Fig338">
+
+<p class="caption">VIEW NEAR THE BOW.</p>
+
+<p class="caption">The “ribs” of the “Britannic,” showing the deck divisions, in outline. The huge “gantry”
+or cradle of steel, in which “Britannic” was built, cost $1,000,000.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page339">[339]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">THE DOUBLE BOTTOM OF MODERN STEAMSHIPS</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo339a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig339a">
+
+<p class="caption">THE “BRITANNIC” OF THE WHITE STAR LINE. VIEW OF THE DOUBLE BOTTOM PLATED.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo339b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig339b" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption">THE HUGE STEEL SKELETON OF THE “BRITANNIC” BEFORE THE PLATES WERE PLACED ON IT.</p>
+
+<p class="caption">The plates are seen piled in the foreground. The largest of them are 36 feet long and
+weigh 4¹⁄₄ tons each.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page340">[340]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">THE SHIP READY TO LAUNCH</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo340a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig340a">
+
+<p class="caption">NOT A “SKYSCRAPER,” BUT A FLOATING HOTEL IN PROCESS OF CONSTRUCTION.</p>
+
+<p class="caption">THE HULL ITSELF IS 64′ 3″ DEEP, AND FROM THE KEEL TO THE TOP OF THE FUNNELS IS 175
+FEET. THE NAVIGATING BRIDGE IS 104′ 6″ ABOVE THE KEEL.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo340b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig340b" class="blankbefore">
+
+<div class="illotext w10emmax">
+
+<p class="center fsize80">WHITE STAR<br>
+ROYAL MAIL STEAMER<br>
+“BRITANNIC”</p>
+
+</div><!--illotext-->
+
+<p class="caption">READY TO LAUNCH.</p>
+
+<p class="caption">The “Britannic” on the ways at Belfast (Harland &amp; Wolff’s). The largest gantries ever
+constructed to hold a ship.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page341">[341]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">THE MACHINERY USED IN LAUNCHING A SHIP</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo341a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig341a">
+
+<p class="caption">FORWARD LAUNCHING GEAR (HYDRAULIC).</p>
+
+<p class="caption">The ship went from the ways into the water in 62 seconds and was stopped in twice her
+own length.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo341b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig341b" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption">THE HUGE HULL LEFT THE WAYS EASILY AND CREATED ONLY A SMALL SPLASH.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page342">[342]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">A CLOSE VIEW OF A SHIP’S RUDDER</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo342a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig342a">
+
+<p class="caption">“BRITANNIC” HELD UP JUST AFTER THE LAUNCH.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo342b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig342b" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption">“BRITANNIC.” THE 100-TON RUDDER. THE (CENTER) TURBINE PROPELLER SHAFT AND ONE OF
+THE “WING” PROPELLER SHAFTS.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page343">[343]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">WHAT A SHIP’S PROPELLER LOOKS LIKE</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo343a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig343a">
+
+<p class="caption">THE COMPLETED SHIP</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo343b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig343b" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption long">The center (the turbine) propeller, 16′ 6″ in diameter, cast of one solid piece of
+manganese bronze, 22 tons in weight. The “Britannic” like “Olympic,” is propelled by
+two sets of reciprocating engines, the exhaust steam from these being reused in the low-pressure
+turbine, effecting great economy in coal. The two “wing” propellers are
+23′ 6″ in diameter and weigh 38 tons each.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page344">[344]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">WHAT A SHIP’S TURBINE LOOKS LIKE</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo344a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig344a">
+
+<p class="caption long">The turbine motor, 130 tons in weight (Parsons type). The steam plays upon the blades
+with such power that they develop 16,000 horse-power and revolve the propeller (turbine)
+165 times a minute. The motor is 12 feet in diameter, 13′ 8″ long, the blades (numbering
+thousands) ranging from 18 to 25¹⁄₂ inches in length.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo344b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig344b" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption">THE IMMENSE TURBINE MOTOR FULLY ENCASED—WEIGHT 420 TONS.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page345">[345]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">HOW A FUNNEL APPEARS BEFORE IT IS IN PLACE</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo345.jpg" alt="" id="Fig345">
+
+<p class="caption">One of the four immense funnels—without the outer casing. Each is 125 feet above the
+hull of the ship and measures 24′ 6″ by 19′ 0″.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page346">[346-<br>347]</span>
+<a id="Page347"></a></p>
+
+<div class="illopage landscape">
+
+<p class="paghead">WHAT A GREAT STEAMSHIP WOULD LOOK LIKE IF SPLIT END TO END</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo346.jpg" alt="" id="Fig346">
+
+<img src="images/illo347.jpg" alt="" id="Fig347">
+
+<p class="caption long">This view will give some idea of the interior arrangement
+of the huge White Star Line triple-screw steamer “Britannic.”
+Many features undreamed of a dozen years ago have been
+introduced in the passenger quarters of this ship. As many
+decks are necessary to provide the required space for state-rooms,
+public apartments, promenades, etc., several passenger
+elevators have been installed, which are a great convenience
+for those who find the use of stairs irksome. There is a fully
+equipped Gymnasium, a children’s Play Room for the younger
+passengers, a Squash Racquet Court, a Swimming Pool with
+sea-water, and the Turkish Bath establishment.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">There are accommodations for over 2500 passengers as
+well as a crew of 950. The view shows how the ship is divided
+into numerous water-tight compartments, so that should several
+of these sections become flooded the rest of the ship would
+remain intact.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">The lifeboats, of which there are sufficient to carry all on
+board, are handled by a new device, by means of which the
+boats can be launched, when filled, with greater ease and
+safety than hitherto. Each of the great davits can handle
+several boats and they are long enough to carry the boats
+clear of the side of the ship, should any accident cause her
+to list to one side.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">The “Britannic” is nearly 900 feet in length, and with her
+gross tonnage of 50,000 is the largest British steamer in the
+world.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page348">[348]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Is Water Made Of?</h2>
+
+<p>Every kind of substance in the world
+is made up of tiny portions, each of
+which is distinctly just what the whole
+mass is, but which are so small you
+cannot see them. A pile of sand, or a
+cupful of sugar or salt consists of a
+great many small grains. A cup of
+water too is made up of what we would
+call small grains of water, or what we
+would call grains of water if we could
+think of them in the same way as we
+do sugar or salt or sand. These particles
+are so small that they could not
+be seen separately, even if the particles
+did not have the ability to stick so close
+together that we could not distinguish
+them even if they were large enough
+to be seen.</p>
+
+<p>The word used in describing these
+tiny particles in any substance, water,
+sugar, sand, salt or anything else is
+molecule.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Is a Molecule?</h2>
+
+<p>The word molecule means “smallest
+mass,” which indicates the very smallest
+division that can be made of any
+substance without destroying its identity.
+Every substance is made up of
+molecules, and in many cases the molecules
+of one substance will mix with
+those of another substance, while in
+other cases they will not. When you
+dissolve sugar in water or melt lead or
+change water into steam, the physical
+body of the substance is changed, but
+the molecules remain as they were.
+They are only changed in so far as
+their relations to each other and to
+those of another substance are concerned.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">How Do We Know a Thing Is Solid,
+Liquid or Gas?</h2>
+
+<p>The relations of the molecules in any
+substance to each other is what determines
+whether a substance is a solid, a
+liquid or a gas. A gas is a substance
+in which the molecules are constantly
+moving rapidly about among each other,
+but always in straight lines. A liquid
+substance is one in which the molecules
+are also constantly moving about
+but which do not move in straight lines.
+Solids are substances in which the
+molecules stick together in one position
+by the power of cohesion which they
+have. Cohesion means the power of
+sticking together.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">How Big Is a Molecule?</h2>
+
+<p>We do not as yet know all there is
+to be learned about molecules. We
+know through the wonders of chemistry
+that small as a molecule is, it is
+still made up of smaller particles called
+atoms. An atom is the smallest division
+of anything that can be imagined.
+We have found by chemistry
+that even a molecule is capable of being
+divided, i.e., it is made up of still
+smaller particles, but molecules are
+small enough. An eminent scientist,
+Sir William Thomson, has given us
+probably the nearest approach to a correct
+way of saying something of the
+size of a molecule. “If a drop of water
+were magnified to the size of the
+earth, the molecules would each occupy
+spaces greater than those filled
+by small shot and smaller than those
+occupied by cricket balls.”</p>
+
+<p>To get at what water is made of we
+must separate it through chemistry
+into its parts or atoms. When we do
+this we find that a molecule of water
+is made of three atoms or parts. Two
+of these are exactly alike and consist
+of a gas called hydrogen, and the other
+part is another gas called oxygen, concerning
+which gases we have already
+learned much in the answers to other
+questions in this book. In other words,
+when we separate water, which is a
+liquid, into its parts, we change the relations
+of the molecules in the water
+which move in irregular lines, into parts
+which move in straight lines and,
+when the molecules of a substance, as
+we have already seen, move in straight
+lines, the substance becomes a gas. On
+the other hand, when you freeze water,
+it becomes a solid (ice), and in doing
+that you fix the molecules in the water
+so that they stick to each other.</p>
+
+<p>Men thought for a long time that
+water was an element like oxygen and
+hydrogen, i. e., that its molecules could<span class="pagenum" id="Page349">[349]</span>
+not be separated in its parts and was,
+therefore, considered one of the
+things which could not be divided up,
+but this was due to the fact that it requires
+a great amount of power to
+break up the molecules of water.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Is an Element?</h2>
+
+<p>An element is any substance whose
+molecules cannot be broken up and
+made to form other substances. You
+can take one or more elements and
+make a compound, which is what water
+is. A compound is a substance in
+which the molecules are made up of
+at least two kinds of elements or elementary
+substances.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN<br>
+ELEMENTS AND COMPOUNDS</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>The things we find in the world are
+known as either compounds or elements.
+An element, as we have already
+learned, is something in which
+the molecules cannot be broken up.
+A compound is, therefore, a substance
+in which the molecules are
+made of molecules of one or more elements
+and is either gas, liquid or solid,
+according to the relations which these
+molecules have to each other. We
+have so far discovered less than eighty
+real elements in the world, although
+since we find a new one every little
+while, there are probably many more
+as yet undiscovered.</p>
+
+<p>Not all elements are gases, of course.
+Solids like copper, gold, iron, lead and
+a number of others are elements.
+Among liquids we have mercury, and
+of the gases we find hydrogen, nitrogen
+and oxygen, which are the three
+wonderful gases about which we are
+about to learn something, and these
+three are also the world’s most important
+gases. Ammonia is an element,
+but, while we think of it as a liquid, the
+real ammonia is really a gas. Our
+household ammonia is really a compound
+of ammonia with something
+else.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Is Hydrogen Gas?</h2>
+
+<p>Hydrogen is one of the elementary
+substances in the form of a gas. It
+has no color or taste or odor, so we
+can neither see, smell nor taste it. It is
+the lightest substance known to the
+world. We have by the aid of chemistry
+been able to catch and retain it
+in sufficient quantities to weigh it and
+have found it to be lighter than anything
+else in the world. It is soluble
+in water and some other liquids, but
+only slightly so. It refracts light very
+strongly and will absorb in a very remarkable
+manner with some metals
+when they are heated. It burns with
+a beautiful blue flame and very great
+heat. When burned it combines with
+oxygen in the air and forms water.
+Hydrogen is not poisonous but, if inhaled,
+it prevents the blood from securing
+oxygen, and so the inhaling of
+hydrogen will cause death. Hydrogen
+is not found free in the air except in
+small quantities like oxygen and nitrogen
+and is, therefore, secured by separating
+compounds by known methods.
+It can be secured by the action which
+diluted sulphuric acid has on zinc or
+iron, by passing steam through a red-hot
+tube filled with iron trimmings, by
+passing an electric current through
+water and in other ways. Hydrogen is
+absolutely necessary to every form of
+animal or vegetable structure. It is
+found in all acids.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Is Oxygen?</h2>
+
+<p>Oxygen was discovered in 1774. It
+is an elementary substance in the form
+of a gas which is found free in the
+air. It is colorless, tasteless and odorless
+and, like hydrogen, cannot therefore
+be seen, tasted or smelled. It is
+soluble in water and combines very
+readily with most of the elements. In
+most cases when oxygen combines with
+other things the process of combining
+is so rapid that light and heat are
+produced—this combination is called
+combustion. Where the process of
+combining with other substances acts
+slowly the heat and light produced at
+one time are not enough to be noticed.
+Where metals tarnish or rust or animal
+or vegetable substances decay, the
+same thing chemically is taking place
+as when you light a fire and produce
+light or heat—you are making the oxygen<span class="pagenum" id="Page350">[350]</span>
+combine with the substance in the
+material which is burning. When iron
+is rusting or vegetables decaying, the
+action is so slow that no heat or light
+is produced, but the result is the same
+if some outside force does not stop
+the action. The fire will burn until
+everything burnable which it can reach
+is burned out, and in the case of the
+piece of iron rusting, the action will
+go on slowly until the whole piece of
+iron is destroyed—or burned out. Like
+hydrogen, no vegetable or animal life
+can live without oxygen continually
+given it. Oxygen will destroy life and
+will sustain it.</p>
+
+<p>All of our body heat and muscular
+energy are produced by slow combustion
+going on in all parts of the body,
+of oxygen carried in the blood after it
+enters the lungs. In sunlight oxygen
+is exhaled by growing plants.</p>
+
+<p>Oxygen is the most widely distributed
+and abundant element in nature.
+It amounts to about one-fifth of the
+volume of the air belt of the earth;
+about ninety per cent of all the weight
+of water is oxygen. The rocks of the
+earth contain about fifty per cent of
+oxygen and it is found in most animal
+and vegetable products and in acids.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Is Nitrogen?</h2>
+
+<p>Nitrogen is the third of the world’s
+wonderful and important gases. It is
+also without color, taste or smell. It
+will not burn or help other substances
+to burn and it will not combine easily
+with any other element. It will unite
+at a very high degree of heat with
+magnesium, silica, and other metals.
+About 7.7 per cent of the weight of the
+air is nitrogen, so that it is a very important
+part of the air we breathe and
+it is absolutely necessary in making
+all animal and vegetable tissues. When
+united with hydrogen, it produces ammonia,
+and with oxygen one of the
+most important acids—nitric acid. It is
+found free in the air and is thus
+easily secured. Nitrogen, while very
+important to all kinds of life, is known
+as the quiet gas. It stays quietly by
+itself unless forced to combine under
+great power with other things, and,
+even under those conditions, will combine
+rarely. We find a good deal of
+nitrogen in the blood but, while we
+need the nitrogen which is found in the
+blood, it does nothing particularly to
+the blood or the rest of the body. The
+nitrogen which the body uses is valuable
+to the body only when found in
+a compound. This nitrogen which the
+body needs is secured through vegetable
+products such as the wheat
+from which our bread is made, and
+which are said to secure their nitrogen
+through the aid of microbes which
+are able to force the nitrogen of the
+air into a compound. Some day perhaps
+we shall know all there is to know
+about nitrogen, which is the least
+known of these three wonderful and
+necessary gases.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Are Some Things Transparent and
+Others Not?</h2>
+
+<p>Transparency is produced by the way
+rays of light go through substances
+or not. When light strikes a substance
+that is almost perfectly transparent,
+it means that the rays of light
+go through it almost exactly as they
+come in. We think quickly of glass
+when we think of something readily
+transparent. Water is almost equally
+as transparent. When the sunlight is
+shining on one side of a pane of ordinary
+window glass, it causes every
+thing on that side of the window to
+reflect the light which strikes it in all
+directions. When these rays of light
+strike the window pane, they go right
+through and that is how we are able
+to see the trees and grass and everything
+else through a clear window
+pane. The same reason applies also to
+the water.</p>
+
+<p>Some kinds of window glass (the
+frosted kind) we cannot see through—they
+are not transparent. The surface
+of a frosted window pane is so
+made that when the light rays strike
+it the rays are twisted and broken,
+and do not come through as they entered
+the glass.</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes the water is almost perfectly
+transparent. When water is
+perfectly clear, it is quite transparent.<span class="pagenum" id="Page351">[351]</span>
+When you look at or into water that
+is not transparent, you will know that
+there are particles of solid matter
+floating about in it which twist and
+mix the light rays. If the water is not
+too deep you can see the bottom sometimes
+even when there are some particles
+of solid substances floating about
+in it, but the deeper the water the
+more of these solid particles there are
+generally in it, so that it is impossible
+in most waters to see the bottom if
+the water is deep. In some places,
+however, the water is so free from
+floating particles that the bottom of
+the ocean can be seen at quite considerable
+depths.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Is the Sea Water Salt?</h2>
+
+<p>All water that comes into the oceans
+by way of the rivers and other streams
+contains salt. The amount is so very
+small for a given quantity of water
+that it cannot be tasted. But all this
+river water is poured into the oceans
+eventually at some point. After it
+reaches the oceans, the water is evaporated
+by the action of the sun.
+When the sun picks up the water in
+the form of moisture, it does not take
+up any of the solid substances which
+the water contained as it came in from
+the rivers, and while there is about as
+much water in the ocean all the time
+and about as much also in the air in
+the form of moisture also, the ocean
+never gets fuller; the solid substances
+from the river waters keep piling up
+in the ocean and float about in the
+water there. The salt which is in the
+river water has been left behind by
+the sun when it evaporated the water
+in the ocean for so long that the
+amount of salt has become very noticeable.
+The moisture which the sun
+takes into the air from the ocean is
+eventually turned back to the earth
+again in the form of rain. This process
+of evaporation and precipitation
+in the form of rain is going on all the
+time. When the water which is in the
+form of rain strikes the earth, it is
+pure water. It sinks into the ground
+and on the way picks up some salt,
+finds its way into a river sooner or
+later, and then evidently gets back
+into the ocean. All this time it has
+been carrying the tiny bit of salt which
+it picked up in going through the
+ground. But when it reaches the
+ocean again and is taken up by the
+sun, it leaves its salt behind and so
+the salt from countless drops of water
+is constantly being left in the ocean
+as it goes up into the air. This has
+been going on for countless ages and
+the amount of salt has been increasing
+in the ocean all the time, so that
+the sea is becoming saltier and saltier.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Does Salt Make Me Thirsty?</h2>
+
+<p>The blood in our body contains
+about the same proportion of salt as
+the water in the ocean normally. When
+the supply is normal we do not feel
+that we have too much salt in our
+systems, but when you take salt into
+your mouth the percentage of salt in
+the body is increased, and the being
+thirsty, or the desire to drink water
+afterwards is caused by the demand
+of the human system that the salt be
+diluted. The system calls for water or
+something to drink in order that it may
+counteract the too great percentage of
+salt in the system. Other things also,
+when taken into the body in too great a
+proportion, cause us to become thirsty.
+Thirst is merely nature’s demand for
+more water on account of the necessity
+of reducing the percentage of some
+substance like salt, or merely a necessity
+for having more water in the
+body.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Are Diamonds Made Of?</h2>
+
+<p>We learned the definition of an element
+in our study of water and other
+substances. Many things which were
+at one time thought by our wisest men
+to be elements were later found to be
+compounds of other substances. Water
+is one of these which we have learned
+is really not an element at all, but compounded
+from two gaseous elements,
+hydrogen and oxygen.</p>
+
+<p>One of the most important elements
+in the world is the one out of which
+diamonds are formed. Not because
+diamonds are so valuable, but because<span class="pagenum" id="Page352">[352]</span>
+the element referred to, carbon, is
+found in every tissue of every living
+thing, both animal and mineral. This
+carbon is one of the most useful of all
+elements, but is found in and used by
+living things always in combination
+with some other substance. Carbon is
+combustible, forming carbonic acid gas,
+from which the earth’s vegetation secures
+its necessary carbon, which is
+very great in amount.</p>
+
+<p>When heat is made to act in certain
+ways on the tissues of animal and vegetable
+life we get charcoal, lampblack
+and coke. Carbon will combine with
+more other substances than any of the
+other known elements. Its wonders lie
+in the fact that under various treatments
+it produces altogether different
+looking things, although remaining as
+pure carbon. Our diamonds, for instance,
+are pure carbon, but our lead
+pencils, that is, the part we write with,
+are also pure carbon, and the coal we
+burn is carbon also. It would be hard
+to say which of these three forms
+of pure carbon is most valuable to
+the world. A great many rich people
+might say diamonds, while the poor
+people would surely say coal, especially
+if you asked them in winter, while the
+people who write books, and newspaper
+reporters, would probably say lead-pencils.
+However, it would be better to
+choose diamonds, for if you have them
+you can always trade them for coal or
+lead-pencils. A very small diamond
+will buy quite a lot of either coal or
+lead-pencils. Carbon is one of the
+solid elements which are not metals. A
+great many of the important elements
+in the group of solids are metals.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Causes Dimples?</h2>
+
+<p>A dimple is a dent or depression in
+the skin on a part of the body where
+the flesh is soft. The fibers which
+lay in the tissue under the outside
+skin help to hold the skin firm.
+These fibers which are, of course,
+small run in all directions and are of
+different lengths. Now and then these
+fibers will just happen to grow short
+in one spot or the other and pull the
+skin in, forming a little depression, but
+producing a very pleasing effect.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Does the Dark Cause Fear?</h2>
+
+<p>Fear is an instinct. We are by nature
+afraid of the things we do not
+know all about. That is why knowledge
+is so valuable; when we know
+about a thing we are sure of our
+ground. When we are where it is light
+we can see what is there; when it is
+dark our imagination becomes active
+and because we do not know for certain
+what is there in the dark before
+us, we imagine things.</p>
+
+<p>Fear of the dark, however, cannot
+be said to be entirely natural. It comes
+naturally only when we have come to
+the age when we begin to imagine
+things. Animals have no imaginative
+powers and they do not fear the dark.
+Some people say that the fear of the
+dark is bred in us, but little babies do
+not fear the dark. If they are properly
+trained they will go to sleep in
+the dark and will prefer the dark. As
+they grow older children begin to fear
+the dark, but that is because their
+imagination is coming to life and because
+parents so often make the mistake
+at this stage of training their
+children of either encouraging the feeling
+of fear that darkness brings for
+the convenient means of punishment it
+provides through threatening to put
+the light out, or because they do not
+take the pains to show that there is no
+reason for fear.</p>
+
+<p>Most children who fear the darkness
+are really taught to do so permanently
+by parents or servants. When a boy
+or girl first begins to imagine things
+in the dark, many parents run quickly
+to the child and say, “Don’t be afraid”
+or “There is nothing to be afraid of,”
+and in doing this they perhaps mention
+the word “fear” for the first time.
+Repetition of this will always cause
+the child to associate the word “fear”
+with “darkness.” As a matter of fact
+when the boy or girl first shows fear
+of the darkness, parents should go to
+them and quiet their fears, but talk
+about anything else but fear and direct
+the child’s mind away from any
+thought of fear.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page353">[353]</span></p>
+
+<div class="container w45emmax">
+
+<img src="images/illo353a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig353a">
+
+<p class="caption">ANCIENT EGYPTIAN ROPE.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<h2 class="nobreak">The Story in a Coil of Rope</h2>
+
+</div><!--chapter-->
+
+<p>How many have ever given a
+thought to the question of where rope
+comes from and how it is made, or
+realize what a variety of uses it is put
+to, and how dependent we are upon
+it in many of the everyday affairs of
+life? But let us suppose for a moment
+that the world were suddenly deprived
+of its supply of this very commonplace
+material, and of its smaller relatives,
+cords and twine. We should then begin
+to realize the importance of a seemingly
+unimportant thing, and to appreciate
+the difficulty in getting along
+without it.</p>
+
+<p>Ancient civilized peoples had their
+ropes and cordage, made from such
+materials as were available in their respective
+countries. The Egyptians are
+said to have made rope from leather
+thongs, and our <a href="#Fig353b">illustration</a> will be
+found interesting in this connection.
+This is from a sculpture taken from a
+tomb in Thebes of the time of the
+Pharaoh of the Exodus.</p>
+
+<div class="container w45emmax">
+
+<img src="images/illo353b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig353b">
+
+<p class="caption">EGYPTIANS MAKING ROPE.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>While this scene is said by the best
+authority to represent the preparation
+of leather cords for use in lacing sandals,
+it has been supposed by some to
+be a representation of rope making. In
+any event the process is undoubtedly
+the same as that used in making rope.</p>
+
+<p>The scene is depicted with the true
+Egyptian faculty for showing details,
+making words almost unnecessary to
+an understanding of their pictorial records.
+We see the raw material in the
+shape of the hide, and also two well-made
+coils of the finished product.
+One of the workmen is cutting a strand
+from a hide by revolving it and cutting
+as it turns. Any one who has not tried
+it will be surprised to see what a good,
+even string can be cut from a piece of
+leather in this way.</p>
+
+<p>Another man is arranging and paying<span class="pagenum" id="Page354">[354]</span>
+out the thongs to a third, who is
+evidently walking backward in time-honored
+fashion, twisting as he goes.</p>
+
+<p>Coming down to more recent times
+we find that rope-making had been going
+on for centuries with probably very
+little change, up to the time of the introduction
+of machinery and the establishment
+of the factory system.</p>
+
+<div class="container w25emmax" id="Fig354a">
+
+<img src="images/illo354a.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">HACKLING.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>HOW ROPE WAS LONG<br>
+MADE BY HAND</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>In the early days to which we have
+referred, all the yarn for rope-making
+was spun by hand in the time-honored
+way. We are able to represent to our
+readers by the photographs shown, this
+now almost lost art. The material
+shown in the pictures is American
+hemp, which because the earlier machines
+were not adapted to working
+this softer fiber, continued to be spun
+by hand long after manila was spun
+chiefly on machines.</p>
+
+<div class="container w30emmax" id="Fig354b">
+
+<img src="images/illo354b.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">NATIVE PHILIPINO SCRAPING THE FIBER FROM
+THE LEAF STOCK.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>The hemp was first hackled, as is
+also shown by our <a href="#Fig354a">photograph</a>, the
+hackle or “hechel” being simply a board
+having long, sharp steel teeth set into
+it. This combed out the tow or short,
+matted fiber, leaving the clean, straight
+hemp. This “strike” of hemp the spinner
+wrapped about his waist, bringing
+the ends around his back and tucking
+them into his belt, thus keeping the
+material in place without knot or twist,
+and allowing the fibers to pay out
+freely.</p>
+
+<div class="container w30emmax" id="Fig354c">
+
+<img src="images/illo354c.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">DRYING THE FIBER.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<div class="container w30emmax" id="Fig354d">
+
+<img src="images/illo354d.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">SCENE IN AN EGYPTIAN KITCHEN SHOWING
+USE OF A LARGE ROPE TO SUPPORT A SORT
+OF HANGING SHELF.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>The workman in our <a href="#Fig354a">picture</a> is
+Johnny Moores, an old-time expert
+hand-spinner, who can walk off backward
+from the wheel with his wad of<span class="pagenum" id="Page355">[355]</span>
+hemp, spinning with each hand a thread
+as fine and even as can be asked for.
+In the <a href="#Fig355">photograph</a>, in order to show
+the process more clearly, one large
+yarn is being spun.</p>
+
+<div class="container w40emmax" id="Fig355">
+
+<p class="caption">AN OLD FASHIONED ROPE WALK</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo355.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">HAND
+SPINNING.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>The large wheel, usually turned by a
+boy, is used to convey power to the
+“whirls,” or small spindles carrying
+hooks upon which the fiber is fastened.
+These whirls, revolving, give the twist
+to the yarn as the spinner deftly pays
+out the fiber, regulating it with skillful
+fingers to preserve the uniformity and
+proper size of the yarn. As he goes
+backward down the long walk through
+the “squares of sunlight on the floor”
+he throws the trailing yarns over the
+“stakes” placed at intervals along the
+walk for the purpose.</p>
+
+<p>The spinning “grounds” were
+usually arranged with wheels at either
+end, so that spinners reaching the
+farther end, could go back to their starting
+point spinning another set of yarns.</p>
+
+<p>Then in the case of small ropes, the
+strands could be made by attaching two
+or more yarns to the “whirl” and twisting
+them together, reversing the motion
+to give the strands a twist opposite to
+that given the yarns. These strands
+were twisted together, again reversing
+the motion, making a rope. Thus it
+will be seen that, reduced to its lowest
+terms, rope-making consists simply of
+a series of twisting processes. The
+twisting of the yarns into the strand
+is known as “forming” or putting in the
+“foreturn.” The final process is “laying,”
+“closing” or putting in the
+“after turn.” Horse-power was used
+in old times for forming and laying
+rope which was too large to be made
+by hand.</p>
+
+<p>How all this work is now done in a
+modern rope factory by ingeniously devised
+machinery we shall now see.</p>
+
+<p>The opening room where the fiber is
+made ready for the preparation machinery
+is a reminder of the days when
+all rope-making processes were hand
+work. The bales are first opened up—in
+the case of Manila this means cutting
+the straw matting put on to protect the
+fiber in shipment. Then the hanks
+which are packed in various ways—sometimes
+doubled, sometimes twisted—are
+taken out and straightened and
+the band at the end of the hank removed.</p>
+
+<p>No machinery has yet been perfected
+for doing the work just described but
+the first of the preparation processes, a
+short step beyond, tells quite a different
+story. Here the hanks of such
+fibers as require a special cleaning
+treatment are placed on fast working
+hackling machines which comb away
+most of the snarls, loose tow and dirt.</p>
+
+<p>At this point hard fibers—Manila,
+Sisal and New Zealand—are usually
+oiled to soften them and to make them
+more workable for the operations that<span class="pagenum" id="Page356">[356]</span>
+follow. The oil, furthermore, acts as
+a preservative. It is a matter of importance
+to the buyer, however, that the
+fiber should not be too heavily oiled,
+for that merely increases the weight
+and cost of the rope without improving
+its quality.</p>
+
+<p>The wonder of modernism in rope-making
+is nowhere more striking than
+in the preparation room. To pass
+from one end, where the raw hemp is
+received just as it left the hands of the
+native Filipino laborer with his crude
+methods, down through the long rows
+of machines to the draw frames from
+which the sliver is delivered in a form
+that can be likened to a stream of
+molten metal, is to cover decades of inventive
+genius and mechanical development.</p>
+
+<p>The mechanism performs its work so
+accurately that at first glance the man
+feeding the fiber into the machine and
+all the other men, busy about their various
+duties, would appear to be playing
+very minor parts in modern rope
+making. In reality, expert workmanship
+and watchfulness are very important
+factors. Good rope depends no
+more upon scientific machine processes
+than upon ceaseless attention to the
+little details, and this is especially true
+in the preparation room.</p>
+
+<p>Before taking up the distinctly modern
+machines so largely used now in the
+final processes of rope-making—the
+forming of strands, laying of common
+ropes and closing of cable-laid goods—we
+will describe the rope-walk where
+much of this work is still best carried
+on.</p>
+
+<div class="container w40emmax" id="Fig356">
+
+<p class="caption">HUGE BALES OF RAW ROPE MATERIAL</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo356.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">MANILA HEMP IN WAREHOUSE.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>For making tarred goods in all but
+the smaller sizes the walk has certain
+advantages not afforded by newer
+methods. It also provides efficient
+equipment for turning out the largest
+ropes, which would otherwise require
+special machinery.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page357">[357]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage landscape">
+
+<p class="paghead">A MODERN ROPE WALK</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo357.jpg" alt="" id="Fig357">
+
+<p class="caption">INTERIOR OF ROPE WALK, PLYMOUTH CORDAGE CO.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page358">[358]</span></p>
+
+<p>The long alleys or grounds where the
+work takes place are usually laid out
+in pairs, one for forming, the other for
+laying and closing. Each ground has
+a track to accommodate the machines
+used and an endless band-rope which
+conveys the power.</p>
+
+<div class="container w40emmax" id="Fig358a">
+
+<img src="images/illo358a.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">NEAR VIEW OF MACHINE IN ROPE WALK.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>HOW ROPE IS<br>FORMED AND TWISTED</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>At the head of the forming ground
+stand frames holding the bobbins of
+yarn. The yarns for each strand first
+pass through a plate perforated in concentric
+circles. This arrangement
+gives each yarn the correct angle of delivery
+into a tube where the whole mass
+gets a certain amount of compression.</p>
+
+<p>As the top truck is forced ahead by
+the twisting process, the ropemaker by
+means of greater or less leverage on the
+“tails”—the loose ropes shown in our
+<a href="#Fig358a">picture</a>—preserves a correct lay in the
+rope. The stakes on which the strands
+rest are removed one by one to allow
+the top truck to pass, and then replaced
+to support the rope until the laying is
+finished and the reeling in of the rope
+begun.</p>
+
+<p>The closing process on cable-laid
+goods is like the laying except that the
+twist is reversed. The work now being
+with three complete ropes—frequently
+very large—a heavier top truck is necessary,
+and this must often be ballasted,
+as shown in our <a href="#Fig358b">illustration</a>, to
+keep down the vibration which would
+otherwise tend to lift the truck off the
+track.</p>
+
+<div class="container w40emmax" id="Fig358b">
+
+<img src="images/illo358b.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">NEAR VIEW OF MACHINE IN ROPE WALK.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>Modern rope-making ingenuity
+reaches its high-water mark in the compound
+laying-machine where the two
+operations of forming the strands and
+laying them into a rope are combined.
+Up to a certain point this method is
+more economical than that in which the
+forming and laying are unconnected.
+Fewer machines are required for a
+given output—hence, less floor space
+and fewer workmen. The time-saving
+element also enters in.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page359">[359]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">PREPARING THE FIBER IN ROPE MAKING</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo359a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig359a">
+
+<p class="caption">OPENING BALES OF MANILA FIBER FOR PREPARATION.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo359b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig359b" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption">PREPARATION ROOM.</p>
+
+<p class="caption">Here the fiber is carefully cleaned and combed by a series of fine tooth machinery through
+which it passes.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page360">[360]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">COUNTLESS SLIVERS STREAM FROM THE ROPE MACHINE</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo360a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig360a">
+
+<p class="caption">FORMATION OF SLIVER—FIRST BREAKER.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">The hanks of
+fiber are fed by
+hand into this
+machine several
+at a time, where
+it is grasped by
+steel pins fitted
+to a slowly revolving
+endless
+chain. A second
+set of pins
+moving more
+rapidly draws
+out the individual
+fibers
+and combs them
+into a continuous
+form.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">The operations which follow are very similar. A number of “ropings” are allowed to
+feed together into a first slowly revolving set of pins and are drawn out again by a high
+speed set into a smaller sliver, the pins becoming finer on each succeeding machine until
+the draw frame is reached.
+Here the fiber is pulled
+from a single set of pins
+between two rapidly moving
+leather belts called
+aprons. On all of these
+machines the fiber passes
+between rollers as it goes
+onto and leaves the pins
+and the sliver is given its
+cylindrical form by being
+drawn through a circular
+opening.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">A finished sliver must
+conform to the special size
+desired for spinning.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo360b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig360b" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption">SPREADER.</p>
+
+<div class="split5050">
+
+<div class="left5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo360c.jpg" alt="" id="Fig360c" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption">SECOND BREAKER.</p>
+
+</div><!--leftsplit-->
+
+<div class="right5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo360d.jpg" alt="" id="Fig360d" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption">DRAW FRAME.</p>
+
+</div><!--rightsplit-->
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--split-->
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page361">[361]</span></p>
+
+<div class="container w30emmax" id="Fig361">
+
+<p class="caption">A ROPE MACHINE THAT IS ALMOST HUMAN</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo361.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">FOUR-STRAND COMPOUND LAYING-MACHINE.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>The compound laying machine must,
+however, be stopped each time that the
+supply of yarn on any bobbin is so low
+as to call for a fresh one. This would
+occur so frequently in the case of the
+larger ropes as to offset the advantages
+just mentioned, hence the machine is
+used on a limited range of sizes only.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page362">[362]</span></p>
+
+<p>As can be seen in the <a href="#Fig361">picture</a>, the
+machine contains a vertical shaft with
+upper and lower projecting arms which
+support the bobbin-flyers—four in
+number in this particular case. The
+bobbins within each flyer turn on separate
+spindles, allowing the yarns to pass
+up through small guide plates and
+thence into a tube.</p>
+
+<p>Each flyer is geared to revolve on its
+own axis, thus twisting its set of yarns
+into a compact strand. At the same
+time all the flyers revolve with the main
+shaft in an opposite direction and form
+a rope out of the strands as the latter
+come together in a central tube still
+higher up.</p>
+
+<p>The rope is drawn through this tube
+by a series of pulleys which exert a
+steady pull and so keep the proper twist
+in the rope. From these pulleys the
+finished product is delivered onto a
+separately-driven coiling reel, an automatic
+device registering meanwhile on
+a dial the number of fathoms run.</p>
+
+<p>The small reel, seen near the head
+of the main shaft, holds the small heart
+rope which is fed into the center of
+certain four-strand ropes to act as a
+bed for the strands.</p>
+
+<p>Pure Manila rope is the very best
+and the most satisfactory for all around
+use. The character of good Manila
+fiber is such as to impart to a properly
+made rope such necessary factors as
+strength, pliability, and wearing qualities.</p>
+
+<p>Regular 3-strand Manila rope is universally
+used for all general purposes.</p>
+
+<p>For certain special uses, however,
+and particularly where the rope is to be
+used for any kind of sheave work, a
+4-strand type of construction will be
+found the most suitable, as such a rope
+presents a much firmer, rounder, and
+greater wearing surface than the ordinary
+3-strand. There are many different
+types of 4-strand rope.</p>
+
+<p>The <a href="#Fig362">picture</a> shown on this page represents
+a coil of 4-strand Manila called
+“Best Fall.” This rope is made of
+carefully selected fiber; is 4-strand with
+heart, and is harder twisted than ordinary
+goods. Best Fall is adapted for
+heavy hoisting work, as on coal and
+grain elevators, cargo and quarry hoists
+and for pile-driver hammer lines.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>AN AVERAGE COIL<br>OF ROPE—1200 FEET</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>The standard length coil of rope is
+1,200 feet, although extra long lengths
+are every day made for such purposes
+as oil-well drilling, the transmission of
+power, etc., etc.</p>
+
+<div class="container w40emmax" id="Fig362">
+
+<img src="images/illo362.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">SECTION, CROSS SECTION AND COIL, FOUR AND
+THREE-FOURTH INCHES CIRCUMFERENCE. SECTION
+AND CROSS SECTION ONE-HALF ACTUAL</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page363">[363]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">DIFFERENT KINDS OF KNOTS</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo363.jpg" alt="" id="Fig363">
+
+<p class="caption">KNOTS.</p>
+
+<p class="caption blankbefore75">From Knight’s American Mechanical
+Dictionary.</p>
+
+<table class="standard fsize90">
+
+<tr>
+<td class="counter">1.</td>
+<td class="text">Simple over hand knot.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="counter">2.</td>
+<td class="text">Slip-knot, seized.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="counter">3.</td>
+<td class="text">Single bow-knot.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="counter">4.</td>
+<td class="text">Square or reef knot.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="counter">5.</td>
+<td class="text">Square or bow-knot.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="counter">6.</td>
+<td class="text">Weaver’s knot.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="counter">7.</td>
+<td class="text">German or figure-of-8 knot.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="counter">8.</td>
+<td class="text">Two half-hitches, or artificer’s knot.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="counter">9.</td>
+<td class="text">Double artificer’s knot.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="counter">10.</td>
+<td class="text">Simple galley-knot.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="counter">11.</td>
+<td class="text">Capstan or prolonge knot.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="counter">12.</td>
+<td class="text">Bowline-knot.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="counter">13.</td>
+<td class="text">Rolling-hitch.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="counter">14.</td>
+<td class="text">Clove-hitch.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="counter">15.</td>
+<td class="text">Blackwall-hitch.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="counter">16.</td>
+<td class="text">Timber-hitch.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="counter">17.</td>
+<td class="text">Bowline on a bight.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="counter">18.</td>
+<td class="text">Running-bowline.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="counter">19.</td>
+<td class="text">Catspaw.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="counter">20.</td>
+<td class="text">Double running-knot.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="counter">21.</td>
+<td class="text">Double-knot.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="counter">22.</td>
+<td class="text">Sixfold-knot.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="counter">23.</td>
+<td class="text">Boat-knot.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="counter">24.</td>
+<td class="text">Lark’s head.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="counter">25.</td>
+<td class="text">Lark’s head.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="counter">26.</td>
+<td class="text">Simple boat-knot.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="counter">27.</td>
+<td class="text">Loop-knot.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="counter">28.</td>
+<td class="text">Double Flemish knot.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="counter">29.</td>
+<td class="text">Running knot, checked.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="counter">30.</td>
+<td class="text">Croned running-knot.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="counter">31.</td>
+<td class="text">Lashing-knot.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="counter">32.</td>
+<td class="text">Rosette.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="counter">33.</td>
+<td class="text">Chain-knot.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="counter">34.</td>
+<td class="text">Double chain-knot.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="counter">35.</td>
+<td class="text">Double running-knot with check-knot.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="counter">36.</td>
+<td class="text">Double twist-knot.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="counter">37.</td>
+<td class="text">Builder’s knot.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="counter">38.</td>
+<td class="text">Double Flemish knot.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="counter">39.</td>
+<td class="text">English knot.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="counter">40.</td>
+<td class="text">Shortening knot.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="counter">41.</td>
+<td class="text">Shortening knot.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="counter">42.</td>
+<td class="text">Sheep-shank.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="counter">43.</td>
+<td class="text">Dog-shank.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="counter">44.</td>
+<td class="text">Mooring-knot.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="counter">45.</td>
+<td class="text">Mooring-knot.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="counter">46.</td>
+<td class="text">Mooring-knot.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="counter">47.</td>
+<td class="text">Pig-tail, worked on the end of a rope.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="counter">48.</td>
+<td class="text">Shroud-knot.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="counter">49.</td>
+<td class="text">Sailor’s bend.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="counter">50.</td>
+<td class="text">A granny’s knot.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="counter">51.</td>
+<td class="text">A weaver’s knot.</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page364">[364]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">HOW TO SPLICE A ROPE</p>
+
+<div class="container w30emmax">
+
+<img src="images/illo364.jpg" alt="" id="Fig364">
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p class="caption">ENGLISH SPLICE.</p>
+
+<p class="caption">For transmission rope.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">The successive operations for splicing a
+1³⁄₄-inch rope by this method are as follows:</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">1. Tie a piece of twine (9 and 10, figure
+6) around the rope to be spliced, about six
+feet from each end. Then unlay the strands
+of each end back to the twine.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">2. Butt the ropes together, and twist each
+corresponding pair of strands loosely, to
+keep them from being tangled, as shown
+(<i>a</i>) figure 6.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">3. The twine 10 is now cut, and the strand
+8 unlaid, and strand 7 carefully laid in its
+place for a distance of four and a half feet
+from the junction.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">4. The strand 6 is next unlaid about one
+and a half feet, and strand 5 laid in its place.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">5. The ends of the cores are now cut off
+so they just meet.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">6. Unlay strand 1 four and a half feet,
+laying strand 2 in its place.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">7. Unlay strand 3 one and a half feet,
+laying in strand 4.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">8. Cut all the strands off to a length of
+about twenty inches, for convenience in
+manipulation. The rope now assumes the
+form shown in <i>b</i>, with the meeting-points
+of the strands three feet apart.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">Each pair of strands is now successively
+subjected to the following operations:</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">9. From the point of meeting of the
+strands 8 and 7, unlay each one three turns;
+split both the strands 8 and 7 in halves, as
+far back as they are now unlaid, and “whip”
+the end of each half strand with a small
+piece of twine.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">10. The half of the strand 7 is now laid
+in three turns, and the half of 8 also laid
+in three turns.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">The half strands now meet and are tied
+in a simple knot, 11 (<i>c</i>) making the rope
+at this point its original size.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">11. The rope is now opened with a marlin-spike,
+and the half strand of 7 worked
+around the half strand of 8 by passing the
+end of the half strand through the rope,
+as shown, drawn taut, and again worked
+around this half strand until it reaches the
+half strand 13 that was not laid in. This half
+strand 13 is now split, and the half strand
+7 drawn through the opening thus made, and
+then tucked under the two adjacent strands
+as shown in <i>d</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">12. The other half of the strand 8 is now
+wound around the other half strand 7 in
+the same way. After each pair of strands
+has been treated in this manner, the ends
+are cut off at 12, leaving them about four
+inches long. After a few days’ wear they
+will all draw into the body of the rope or
+wear off, so that the locality of the splice
+can scarcely be detected.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page365">[365]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="minor" id="Ref05">Why Do We Go to Sleep?</h2>
+
+<p>First, of course, we sleep to rest
+our body and brain. During our waking
+hours many, if not all, parts of
+our bodies are active all the time, and
+with every movement we exhaust or
+spend some of our strength. Take the
+case of your arm, for instance. You
+may be able to move it up and down
+fifty or a hundred or more times without
+getting tired, according to how
+strong you are, but sooner or later
+you will not be able to move it any
+more—it is tired—the life has all gone
+out of it and it needs rest, in order
+that it may become strong again.
+Every time you move your arm you
+destroy certain parts of its tissues,
+which can only be replaced during
+rest. Every activity of your body has
+the same experience, and the constant
+work of the brain in directing the
+various movements and activities of
+the body, tires it out too. As soon as
+this condition occurs, the brain tells
+the other parts of the body that it is
+time to rest, and even if we try to
+keep awake and go on with our work
+or play, or whatever it is we are doing,
+we find sooner or later that it is
+impossible. If we persist we fall
+asleep wherever we happen to be. It
+is not necessary for all parts of the
+body to be tired before we sleep. One
+part alone may be so affected by what
+it has been doing that it alone causes
+us to fall asleep. Sometimes the eyes
+become so tired, while we are looking
+at the pictures in a book or reading,
+for instance, that we fall off to sleep
+quickly. It is perhaps easier to bring
+on sleep by making the eyes tired than
+in any other way. That is why so
+many people read themselves to sleep.
+It is such a gradual passing into unconsciousness
+that you can hardly ever
+tell where you left off reading. It is
+said that when we are awake our
+bodies are continually planning for the
+time when we shall need sleep and
+are continually making some little
+germ which is carried to the brain as
+soon as made, and when there are a
+sufficient number of these little germs
+piled up in the brain, we go to sleep.
+The process of sleeping then destroys
+these germs, and when they are destroyed
+we again wake up.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Do We Wake Up in the Morning?</h2>
+
+<p>To answer this we must go back to
+the answer to the <a href="#Ref05">question</a>, “What
+makes us go to sleep?” We go to sleep
+in order to secure the rest which our
+body and brain need to build up the
+parts which have been destroyed during
+our active work or play.</p>
+
+<p>We wake up naturally when we have
+had sufficient rest. We wake up naturally,
+however, only when the destroyed
+parts of the body have been
+replaced. Other things may waken us—a
+noise of any kind, loud or slight, a
+startling dream or a moving thing that
+disturbs our sleep—according to how
+fully we are asleep. It is said that
+sometimes only parts of the body are
+asleep; that we are not always all
+asleep when we appear to sleep, and
+that we dream because some part of the
+body is awake or active. This is probably
+true. Now then, when all of anyone
+of us is sleepy, we go into what is
+called a deep sleep and at such times
+only something out of the ordinary
+would awaken us. Gradually, however,
+various parts of the body become
+rested and they are said to wake up,
+and finally when all of us is rested, we
+naturally wake up all over. If you
+are healthy and sleep naturally, in a
+place where you cannot be disturbed by
+noises or movements of others, you
+should be “wide awake” when your
+eyes open and be ready to get up at
+once. If you feel like turning over for
+another snooze, when it is time to get
+up, you did not go to bed as early as
+you should have done, or else some part
+of you did not get the required amount
+of sleep it should have had.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Where Are We When Asleep?</h2>
+
+<p>We are just where we lie. It seems
+to us, of course, because of our dreams
+when we are asleep that we are away
+off some place else. Often when we
+wake up we wonder for a minute or<span class="pagenum" id="Page366">[366]</span>
+two where we are, as everything seems
+so strange to us, and it takes a minute
+or so for us to remember that we are
+in our own bed, if that is where we
+went to sleep. This is because of the
+dreams we have while asleep. In past
+times the uncivilized savages in various
+parts of the earth believed that
+when any of them went to sleep that
+the real person so asleep actually went
+away, leaving the body behind; in other
+words, that the soul went traveling.
+They thought this because it was the
+only explanation they could think of
+for the dreams they had, since almost
+invariably the dream was about some
+other place.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Does It Seem When We Have
+Slept All Night That We Have Been
+Asleep Only a Minute?</h2>
+
+<p>This is because all our ideas of passage
+of time are based on our conscious
+periods. When we are asleep
+we are unconscious. It is the same as if
+time did not pass, and when we wake
+up the tendency is to start in where
+we left off. We have learned by experience
+that when we go to sleep at
+night and wake up in the morning that
+much time has passed and this unconscious
+knowledge keeps us from thinking
+always that we have been asleep
+but a minute. But if you drop asleep
+in the day time, no matter how long
+you sleep, you wake up thinking that
+you have been asleep only a minute,
+and sometimes it is difficult to convince
+yourself that you have been
+asleep at all. Sometimes after being
+asleep for hours, your first waking
+thought is a continuation of what your
+mind was on when you went to sleep.
+The reason for this, as stated above, is
+that we cannot keep track of passing
+time when we are asleep, because we
+are perfectly unconscious.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Should We Not Sleep With the
+Moon Shining On Us?</h2>
+
+<p>There is no harm in letting the moon
+shine on us while we are asleep. This
+is one of the queer superstitions that
+has developed in the world. A great
+many people think that something terrible
+will happen if the moon is allowed
+to shine into the room where
+they are asleep. Not so many believe
+this as used to do so, thanks to the
+more enlightened condition of things
+in the world.</p>
+
+<p>To prove to yourself that no harm
+can come to you through the moon
+shining into your bedroom or upon
+you as you are asleep, you have only
+to remember that a great many men
+and very many more animals sleep out
+under the sky every night and that the
+moon must shine on them while they
+are asleep. As a matter of fact, people
+who sleep out under the open sky are
+generally in possession of more rugged
+health than people who sleep in beds
+in closed rooms. So it is rather better
+to let the moon shine on you while
+asleep than not.</p>
+
+<p>This belief probably started with
+some one who had trouble in going
+to sleep with the moon shining on him,
+because the light of the moon might
+have a tendency to keep him awake.
+It is easier to go to sleep in a dark
+room than in one that is lighted, because
+when there is no light there is
+less about you to keep you awake.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Makes Us Dream?</h2>
+
+<p>Dreams originate in the brain. The
+brain has many parts and some parts
+of it may be asleep while others are
+not. If all parts of the brain are actually
+asleep, it is said there can be no
+dreams. We have dreams about things
+which seem very natural while we are
+having them, and which we know
+would be impossible if we were wholly
+awake, because those parts of the
+brain which control the other parts are
+probably asleep while the dream is taking
+place, and it is then that we have
+those fantastic and highly imaginative
+dreams, for the brain is not under control
+in every sense.</p>
+
+<p>We used to believe that dreams have
+no purpose, just as now we know that
+they have no meaning. But it has been
+discovered that dreams have a purpose
+in that they protect our sleep. You
+see, every dream is started by some<span class="pagenum" id="Page367">[367]</span>
+disturbance or excitement of the body
+or mind. Something may be pressing
+or touching us while we sleep, or a
+strange sound may start a dream, or
+perhaps it is some uncomfortable position
+in which we are lying or trouble
+in the stomach on account of eating
+something we should not. Whatever
+it may be, those things wake up some
+part of the brain, because if all parts
+of the brain were asleep, we could not
+feel or hear anything. Any such disturbance
+or excitement would naturally
+excite the whole brain and wake
+us up completely if it were not for
+dreams. The dream takes care of this
+and enables the rest of the body and
+brain to sleep while one or more parts
+of the brain are disturbed and even
+perhaps awake. We may perhaps have
+become uncovered in some way. This
+would produce a cold feeling and
+might wake a part of the brain and
+cause a dream about skating or some
+other winter amusement or experience,
+or even perhaps one about falling
+through the ice, and still we might not
+be uncovered so much that it would
+make any great difference. The dream
+comes and we go on with our sleep
+without waking up, whereas if it were
+not for the dream we would awaken.
+In other words, dreams are just another
+wise provision of nature which
+enables us to go right on and get the
+rest we need, even if our digestion is
+out of order, or some part of our brain
+is disturbed through something we
+read about, or were told of, or we
+thought of while still awake.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Do We Know We Have Dreamed
+When We Wake Up?</h2>
+
+<p>Because we remember some of our
+dreams. Sometimes we do not remember
+the dreams we dreamed. This
+is just like what happens when we are
+awake. We remember some things and
+forget others.</p>
+
+<p>Dreams are a sort of safety valve
+in our sleep. We dream because not
+all of our brain is asleep at the time
+and it is a wise provision of nature
+that permits the waking part of the
+brain to go on working without disturbing
+the sleep of the other parts of
+the brain. If a large part of the brain
+is awake and engaged in making the
+dream, we are very apt to remember
+the dream; but when we dream and
+cannot remember what the dream was,
+it is because only a very small portion
+of the brain was awake and making
+a dream.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Causes Nightmare?</h2>
+
+<p>A nightmare is a dream of what we
+might call a vigorous kind. A nightmare
+is caused by a feeling of intense
+fear, horror, anxiety or the inability
+to escape from some great danger. A
+nightmare is the result of either an
+irregular flow of blood to the brain or
+by a stomach that is not in proper
+condition.</p>
+
+<p>The name for this kind of a dream
+comes from the words night and mare.
+The latter word in one of its several
+meanings indicates an incubus or evil
+vision, and a dream of an evil vision
+involving fear or horror came to be
+termed a mare. Since they occurred
+generally at night, since most people
+sleep at night, they became known as
+nightmares. Nightmares are more
+common to children than grown-up
+people because children are more apt
+to have an uneven flow of blood to the
+brain and also are more apt to eat the
+things which put the stomach in a state
+of unrest which causes nightmares.
+Grown-up people are more likely to
+have learned to avoid the abuses of
+the stomach which are apt to produce
+nightmares.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Are Ghosts?</h2>
+
+<p>The idea of ghosts is the result of
+a mistake of the brain or an attempt
+to account for something of which we
+see the results, but have no actual
+knowledge. There are no ghosts.
+There are many forces at work in the
+world of which we know nothing as
+yet. Many of the wonderful things
+that occur in the world are as yet
+mysteries to the mind of man. Every
+little while man discovers one of these
+new forces, and then he is able to understand
+many things plainly which
+were up to then surrounded with<span class="pagenum" id="Page368">[368]</span>
+mystery and in the minds of superstitious
+people attributed to spirits or
+ghosts. Long before we understood as
+much as we do now of the workings of
+electricity (and they say we know only
+a little of its wonders as yet) many of
+the natural wonders produced by electricity
+were attributed to ghosts.</p>
+
+<p>Most of the marvelous tales of the
+wonders performed by and visits from
+ghosts are the result of disturbances
+of the brain in the people who think
+they see the ghosts and the results of
+their work.</p>
+
+<p>A creature without imagination does
+not pretend to see or believe in ghosts.
+Man is the only animal which possesses
+the ability to imagine things and
+so the ghosts we hear about are the
+creatures of the disturbed brains of
+men. Generally in the ghost stories we
+hear of, the ghost is described as wearing
+clothes—usually white. A bed
+sheet thrown over the foot of the bed
+may appear to a half-awake person as
+the outline of the figure of a ghost and
+to one of a highly imaginative temperament
+without the courage of investigation,
+become forever a real
+ghost. Usually what is supposed to be
+a ghost is only a creation of the mind—a
+vision such as we can develop during
+a dream—oftentimes, however,
+what you look at when you think you
+see a ghost is an actual something such
+as the sheet referred to, but which
+takes the form of the ghost in the
+brain of the person who is looking at
+it through eyes that really see it, but
+out of a brain that for the moment at
+least is far off its balance.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Do Girls Like Dolls?</h2>
+
+<p>Girls like dolls because they come
+into the world for the purpose of becoming
+mothers and the love which
+they display for dolls is the mother
+instinct which begins to show itself
+early in life. To the little girl the doll
+is a make-believe child. It satisfies
+her as long as there are no real babies
+to take its place, but any little girl will
+drop her dollie if she is given an opportunity
+to play at dolls with a real
+live baby instead. This is a very interesting
+fact in connection with the
+human race. Boys sometimes play
+with dolls, but not so often, and any
+kind of a boy will give up playing
+with a doll as soon as a toy engine or
+some other boy’s toy appears for him.
+A boy has certain mannish instincts
+which a girl has not. We have many
+other instincts besides the instinct of
+parenthood and each of them has its
+origin in some certain kind of feeling
+which is born within us and is capable
+of development along interesting lines.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Makes the Works of a Watch Go?</h2>
+
+<p>A watch like any other machine
+which we have, only goes when power
+is applied in some form or another. In
+the case of a watch it is a spring. A
+spring is an elastic body, such as a
+strip of steel, as in the case of the
+watch, coiled spirally which, when bent
+or forced out of its natural state, has
+the power of recovering its shape
+again by virtue of its elastic power.
+The natural state of a watch spring is
+to be open flat and spread out to its
+full length. When you wind a watch
+you coil this spring, i.e., you bend it
+out of its natural shape. As soon as
+you stop winding the spring begins to
+uncoil itself, trying to get back to its
+natural shape, and in doing so makes
+the wheels of the watch which operate
+the hands go round. The spring then,
+or rather its elasticity, which always
+makes an effort to get back to its natural
+state, is the power which makes
+the watch go. Men who make watches
+arrange the spring and the other machinery
+in the watch in such a way
+that it will uncoil itself only at a certain
+rate of speed. Sooner or later the
+spring loses its elasticity and then its
+power to make the watch go.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Makes a Hot Box?</h2>
+
+<p>When you put oil on the axle, however,
+the oil fills up the hollows between
+the little irregular bumps on
+both the axle and the hub, and makes
+them both smooth—almost perfectly
+so. This reduces the friction and keeps
+the axle and hub from becoming hot
+and expanding. The less friction that
+is developed, the more easily the wheel
+will turn.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page369">[369]</span></p>
+
+<div class="container w45emmax" id="Fig369">
+
+<img src="images/illo369.jpg" alt="Three photographic portraits">
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<h2 class="nobreak">The Story in a Moving Picture</h2>
+
+</div><!--chapter-->
+
+<h3>How Are Moving Pictures Made?</h3>
+
+<p>To begin at the beginning, we must
+start with the negative stock, or film
+on which the pictures are taken. This
+material is very much like the films
+you buy for the ordinary snap-shot
+camera, slightly heavier and of more
+durable quality, to stand the wear and
+tear of passing through the picture
+camera and the projecting machine
+used in exhibition. This film is 1³⁄₈
+inches wide and comes in rolls of 200
+feet in length. This negative stock has
+to be carefully perforated, making the
+holes necessary to conduct the film by
+aid of sprockets through the camera
+and the projectoscope. To still further
+understand this explanation, see
+<a href="#Fig370c">illustrations</a> of the negative stock.
+Having prepared the film in the dark
+room, we can load the camera in the
+dark room and proceed to take the
+picture.</p>
+
+<p>In taking an industrial or travelogue
+picture, after the camera is in readiness,
+is not so much of an undertaking
+as taking a picture of a drama or comedy,
+wherein a plot and players are
+concerned. The travelogue or industrial
+pictures are simply photography, with
+the additional manipulation of panoraming
+or turning the camera, which
+requires an expert knowledge, acquired
+from experience and years of
+study. There is a distinction and a
+big difference between the ordinary
+photographer and the moving picture
+photographer, who is generally known
+as a “camera-man.” A photographer,
+therefore, though of vast experience,
+cannot step into a “camera-man’s”
+place and expect to “make good.” The
+latter has to depend entirely upon his
+special experience and judgment as to
+light and distance, focusing and general
+physical conditions of the moving-picture
+camera, which is affected by
+static and other electrical peculiarities
+of the atmosphere, to be avoided by
+him. These, and many other points,
+are convincing evidence that the moving-picture
+camera is entirely different
+from an ordinary photographic camera.
+A moving-picture camera and
+tripod weigh from fifty to one hundred
+pounds. There are two styles of cameras,
+one which takes a single film
+and one which takes two films at once,
+and each lens of the double camera
+must be equally well focused and
+every feature to be depicted must be
+brought within the focus, which generally
+occupies a radius of 8 feet in
+width by 10 feet in height.</p>
+
+<div class="container w60emmax">
+
+<div class="split5050">
+
+<div class="left5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo370a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig370a">
+
+</div><!--leftsplit-->
+
+<div class="right5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo370b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig370b">
+
+</div><!--rightsplit-->
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--split-->
+
+<p class="caption">SCENES FROM “OFFICER KATE.”</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<div class="container w30emmax">
+
+<img src="images/illo370c.jpg" alt="" id="Fig370c">
+
+<div class="split5050">
+
+<div class="left5050">
+
+<p class="caption">RAW NEGATIVE STOCK.</p>
+
+</div><!--leftsplit-->
+
+<div class="right5050">
+
+<p class="caption">PERFORATED NEGATIVE STOCK.</p>
+
+</div><!--rightsplit-->
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--split-->
+
+<p class="caption blankbefore75">Exact size of a Motion Picture Film</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>When it comes to taking a photo-play,
+a drama or comedy, different
+conditions of a varied nature have to
+be contended with. To proceed intelligently
+in taking a photo-play, a scenario
+or manuscript is essential. It
+must be prefaced with a well-written
+synopsis of the story involved, cast of
+characters, scenes to be enacted and a
+list of properties required in the
+scenes. The director, or producer, of
+the play, being furnished with such a
+guide, proceeds to select the actors
+and actresses (called players) suitable<span class="pagenum" id="Page370">[370]</span>
+for the parts and the filling of the cast.
+This being accomplished, he insists
+that each one of the players read the
+scenario in order to be familiar with
+his or her part and understand the
+whole play before going into the picture.
+The director instructs them as
+to the costumes fitting the parts and
+then confers with the costumer concerning
+the furnishing of proper dress
+for each one of the players. The director
+is ready to go on with the performance
+of the play, and tells his cast
+to appear for rehearsal at a set hour.
+At that time he puts them through a
+thorough course of training or rehearsal,
+to “get over” and register the
+meaning of each thought which is to
+be expressed by their actions. Sometimes
+a scene is rehearsed four to six
+hours before it is photographed. A
+one-reel play is generally 1000 feet in
+length, and it is very important that
+the director, if he has twenty scenes,
+for instance, to introduce within that
+1000 feet, to time the scenes to the<span class="pagenum" id="Page371">[371]</span>
+length of his film; that is, if he has
+twenty scenes within one thousand
+feet, each of the twenty scenes must
+not average more than one minute
+each. If one should happen to be more
+than one minute, then he has to condense
+another scene less than one minute,
+in order to bring all within the
+twenty minutes or 1000 feet.</p>
+
+<div class="container w45emmax" id="Fig371">
+
+<p class="caption">STAGING A MOTION PICTURE IN A STUDIO</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo371.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">REHEARSING SCENE IN STUDIO</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<h3>The Size of Each Picture on the Film.</h3>
+
+<p>So you can see from this that it
+needs very careful rehearsal and nice
+calculation to bring a well-acted and
+convincing play within so short a
+time, to tell the whole story intelligently.
+Having done all this, the director
+is ready to have the “camera-man”
+do his part of the work. He
+draws his lines within the range of the
+camera, which do not exceed eight or
+ten feet in the foreground. This is
+another point to be considered on the
+part of the director, because all the
+action has to be carried out within the
+eight feet of space, which is really confined
+to that much stage width. Here
+again is where the camera-man has to
+watch very carefully, not only the
+workings of his camera, but the players;
+always alert that they are in the
+picture, and assisting the director by
+his observations. The size of each picture
+as taken on the film is ³⁄₄ by 1
+inch. It is magnified ten thousand
+times its actual size when we see it on
+the screen in a place of exhibition.
+A full reel of 1000 feet shows 16,000
+photographs on the screen during the
+twenty minutes it consumes in its
+showing. The future of moving pictures
+is no longer a matter of speculation.
+The business is an established
+one, and its further developments are
+only matters of time. The possibilities
+and uses of the animated art are unlimited.
+Already it is felt in educational,
+religious, scientific, and industrial
+affairs. Their influence in matters
+of sanitation and all civic improvements,<span class="pagenum" id="Page372">[372]</span>
+construction and mechanics, is
+invaluable. As a medium of wholesome
+entertainment and solid instruction
+it is unsurpassed.</p>
+
+<p>These are merely suggestions of a
+few phases of its utility and it is only
+a natural conclusion that it will be so
+far-reaching in its uplift that it will
+surpass the expectations of the most
+sanguine.</p>
+
+<div class="container w45emmax" id="Fig372">
+
+<img src="images/illo372.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">THE DEVELOPING ROOM.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>To develop, tint and clear the films,
+large tanks of wood or soapstone are
+used. The films, which are wound
+upon the wooden frames, or racks, are
+dipped into these vats, filled with the
+necessary chemicals and liquids. The
+films being wound on frames enables
+the developers to examine them without
+handling them. The tinting is
+done by similar methods to give the
+necessary tint, coloring in red, sepia,
+blue, green or yellow, imparting to
+them the effect of night, sunlight or
+evening, whichever the case may be.
+The films are finally cleared, to wash
+them clear of any extraneous chemicals
+or matter which might streak or
+scratch the films, and avoid any objectionable
+matter that might mar
+their appearance when shown on the
+screen or in the process of handling.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>EACH PICTURE IS FIRST<br>EXHIBITED AT THE STUDIO</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>As soon as convenient after a film
+is finished it is taken to the exhibition
+rooms, at the studio, where it is thrown
+onto the screen. It is reviewed first
+by the heads of the departments and
+the directors, and later by players and
+all those interested in it. The projectoscopes
+or moving-picture machines
+are run by motor, presided over by
+licensed operators, who are kept on
+the job continually.</p>
+
+<p>These exhibition rooms are called,
+in the parlance of the studios, “knocklodeums,”
+for here is where everything
+is criticised. Players’ acting and
+fitness are judged by their appearance
+and conduct on the screen and decision<span class="pagenum" id="Page373">[373]</span>
+given as to their qualifications.
+The quality of the photography, developing
+and the picture as a finished
+production is here determined by the
+heads of the concern.</p>
+
+<div class="container w45emmax" id="Fig373a">
+
+<img src="images/illo373a.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">DRYING ROOM.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>THE BOARD OF CENSORS<br>PASSES ON EVERY PICTURE</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>Every picture before it is released
+for exhibition must be passed upon by
+the Board of Censors. It is run upon
+the screen and thoroughly inspected,
+criticised, and every point involved
+thoroughly weighed as to its effect
+upon the mind of the general public.
+If, in their estimation, it is found objectionable
+in any particular, the objectionable
+parts are eliminated, and if
+considered entirely harmful, in its sentiments
+or influence, the picture is condemned.
+The majority rules in the
+board’s judgment, although it is by no
+means infallible in its decision. This
+board is composed of about sixty persons,
+who are appointed by the government
+for their general qualifications,
+their interest in the general welfare
+of the public, keenness as to
+morals and uplift of the people at
+large. They do not receive salaries;
+their services are <i>pro bono publico</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="container w45emmax" id="Fig373b">
+
+<img src="images/illo373b.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">TAKING A MILITARY SCENE OUTDOORS.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page374">[374]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">THE STORY IN “PIGS IS PIGS”</p>
+
+<div class="split6733">
+
+<div class="left6733">
+
+<div class="split5050">
+
+<div class="left5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo374a.jpg" alt="Single film picture" id="Fig374a">
+
+</div><!--leftsplit 5050-->
+
+<div class="right5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo374b.jpg" alt="Single film picture" id="Fig374b">
+
+</div><!--rightsplit 5050-->
+
+</div><!--split5050-->
+
+<h3 class="cntr">“PIGS IS PIGS.”</h3>
+
+<p class="center fsize90 blankbefore75"><span class="smcap">Vitagraph Famous Authors’ Series by Ellis Parker
+Butler.</span></p>
+
+<p class="center fsize90 blankbefore75"><i>You Have Seen Pigs, but Never Such Pigs as These. Two
+of Them Become Eight Hundred Pigs so Rapidly, They
+Set Bunny Daffy and Almost Ruin the Express Business.</i></p>
+
+<p class="center fsize90"><i>Director</i>—<span class="smcap">George D. Baker</span>. 
+<i>Author</i>—<span class="smcap">Ellis Parker Butler</span>.</p>
+
+<p class="tabhead">CAST.</p>
+
+<table class="cast">
+
+<tr>
+<td class="role"><i>Flannery, an Express Agent</i></td>
+<td class="actor"><span class="smcap">John Bunny</span></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="role"><i>Mr. Morehouse</i></td>
+<td class="actor"><span class="smcap">Etienne Girardot</span></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="role"><i>Clerk in Complaint Dept.</i></td>
+<td class="actor"><span class="smcap">Courtland van Deusen</span></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="role"><i>Head of Claims Dept.</i></td>
+<td class="actor"><span class="smcap">William Shea</span></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="role"><i>Mr. Morgan, Head of Tariff Dept.</i></td>
+<td class="actor"><span class="smcap">Albert Roccardi</span></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="role"><i>President of Company</i></td>
+<td class="actor"><span class="smcap">Anders Randolf</span></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="role"><i>Prof. Gordon</i></td>
+<td class="actor"><span class="smcap">George Stevens</span></td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p class="fsize90">After a strenuous argument with Flannery, the local Express
+Agent, Mr. Morehouse refuses to pay the 30c charges
+on each of two guinea pigs shipped him, claiming they are
+pets and subject to the 25c rate. Flannery replies, “Pigs
+is pigs and I’m blame sure them animals is pigs, not pets,
+and the rule says, ‘30c each.’” Mr. Morehouse writes many
+times to the Express Company, claiming guinea-pigs are
+not common pigs, and each time is referred to a different
+department. Flannery receives a note from the Tariff
+Department inquiring as to condition of consignment, to
+which he replies, “There are eight now! All good eaters.
+Paid out two dollars for cabbage so far.” The matter
+finally reaches the President, who writes a friend, a Zoological
+Professor. Unfortunately that gentleman is in South
+Africa, causing a delay of many months, during which time
+the pigs increase to 160. At last word is received from the
+learned man proving that guinea-pigs are not common pigs.
+Flannery is then ordered to collect 25c each for two guinea-pigs
+and deliver the entire lot to consignee. There are now
+800 and Flannery is horrified to find Morehouse has moved
+to parts unknown. He is about to give up in despair when
+the company orders him to forward the entire collection to
+the Main Office, to be disposed of as unclaimed property,
+in accordance with the general rule.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo374d.jpg" alt="" id="Fig374d">
+
+<p class="caption">BUNNY FEEDING THE PIGS.</p>
+
+</div><!--leftsplit-->
+
+<div class="right6733">
+
+<img src="images/illo374c.jpg" alt="Film strip" id="Fig374c">
+
+</div><!--rightsplit-->
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--split-->
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page375">[375]</span></p>
+
+<h3>Who Made the First Moving Pictures?</h3>
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>THE FIRST MOVING<br>
+PICTURE CAMERA</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>The first device which produced the
+motion-picture effect was nothing but
+a scientific toy. The idea is almost as
+old as pictures themselves. This toy
+we speak of was called a zoetrope. It
+consisted of a whirling cylinder having
+many slits in the outside through which
+you could see by looking into the cylinder
+a picture opposite each slit. The
+pictures were drawn by hand and the
+artist aimed to place the pictures
+within the cylinder in such order that
+each succeeding one would represent
+the next successive motion of any
+moving object in making a movement
+as near as he could draw it; when the
+cylinder was whirled with the slits on
+a level with the eye, the effect produced
+was of a continuous moving picture.</p>
+
+<p>A great many devices were produced
+as a result of this toy for presenting
+the effect of pictures so arranged, but
+until photography was invented no way
+was found for making the pictures to
+be viewed except such as were drawn
+by artists. But when photography was
+developed it was possible to get actual
+successive photographs. The greatest
+difficulty was found in taking photographs
+in such quick succession that
+all of the motions in the moving object
+were taken without any skipping. This
+difficulty was for the first time successfully
+overcome by Muybridge in 1877.
+He arranged a row of twenty-four
+cameras with string trigger shutters,
+the string of each shutter being
+stretched across a race track. A moving
+horse approaching down the track
+broke the strings as he came to them,
+thus operating each of the cameras in
+turn in quick succession and securing
+a series of pictures of the moving horse
+within a very short time. There were
+twenty-four pictures to this film when
+reproduced in the devices then known
+for projecting pictures, and this
+method required one camera for each
+section of the picture produced. Of
+course, the length of the series was
+thus limited greatly.</p>
+
+<p>About ten years later Le Prince arranged
+what he called a multiple camera.
+This was as a matter of fact a
+battery of sixteen automatically reloading
+cameras in which strips of film
+were used. Each of the sixteen cameras
+took a picture in turn and then
+automatically brought another strip of
+the film into position, so that camera
+number one took the seventeenth picture,
+the twenty-third, the forty-ninth,
+etc., and each of the other cameras
+took their various pictures in turn.
+With this camera a film of any required
+length could be produced.</p>
+
+<p>The Le Prince camera was therefore
+the real parent from which the modern
+motion-picture camera sprang. The
+first really modern motion-picture camera
+was built in a single case with a
+battery of sixteen separate lenses and
+sixteen shutters. These were operated
+by turning a crank. The pictures
+were taken on four strips of film.
+When the crank was turned the exposure
+was made to each of the
+sixteen lenses in succession, and when
+the series was completed the films
+were cut apart and pasted together
+in a single strip of film, the pictures
+themselves being arranged in
+the proper order. The principal development
+of this camera, as found in
+the present method of making motion
+pictures, is the invention of the flexible
+film negatives; the transparent support
+for the print which permits the pictures
+to be projected in enlarged form
+upon a screen; and the system of holes
+in the margin of the film by which the
+film is held in perfect alignment for
+projecting the pictures.</p>
+
+<p>But a few years ago, then, the motion
+picture was a child’s toy. To-day
+it forms the basis for not only a very
+large and profitable business for many
+people, but a source of amusement
+and education to millions of people at
+reasonable prices. To-day the motion-picture
+business is regarded as one of
+the world’s greatest industries.</p>
+
+<p>No corner of the world is so far
+remote but the motion-picture man
+finds his way there, either as an exhibitor
+or as a producer. Nothing happens
+in the world to-day but the motion-picture
+man with his camera is on
+the job if it is a happening that can<span class="pagenum" id="Page376">[376]</span>
+be preserved in motion pictures and
+worthy of that. The dethronement of
+kings and the inaugurations of presidents
+are all alike to him. If there
+is a war, he is found in all parts of
+the field, and is the first to see the
+parade when there is a peace jubilee.
+Disasters, horrors, heroes and criminals
+pass before his lens and he gives
+us a moving panorama of everything
+that is interesting, in nature, in real
+life, and in fiction.</p>
+
+<h3>Taking Motion Pictures a Simple Operation.</h3>
+
+<p>Motion-picture photography is mechanically
+simple and the projection
+of the pictures on the screen was made
+possible by the improvement in dry
+plates which made instantaneous photography
+successful, together with the
+invention of the process of using celluloid
+films for negatives. Motion
+pictures consist of a series of photographs
+made rapidly and then projected
+rapidly on the screen. In this
+way one picture follows another so
+quickly that the change from one picture
+to another is not noticed and the
+movements and actions of the persons
+or things photographed are reproduced
+in a life-like manner.</p>
+
+<h3>Is the Hand Quicker Than the Eye?</h3>
+
+<p>There is no question that the hand
+can be moved so quickly that the eye
+cannot detect the movement. This is
+proved by the motion picture when
+projected on the screen. In moving
+pictures the quickness of the machine
+deceives the eye and the transition
+from one picture to another is done
+so rapidly that the change is not seen
+and the apparent movement is continuous
+and unbroken.</p>
+
+<p>The film made by the motion picture
+is a “negative” in which the colors
+are reversed, the blacks being white
+and the whites black, exactly as in still
+photography. The film used in the projection
+machine is a “positive,” in
+which the lights and shadows have
+their proper values. The principle and
+process is exactly the same as in making
+lantern slides and window transparencies.</p>
+
+<h3>Does the Film Move Continuously?</h3>
+
+<p>In making the negative for the motion
+picture the film does not move forward
+regularly, but it goes by jumps.
+It is absolutely still at the moment of
+exposure. The same is true in projecting
+the picture on the screen. In
+most projection machines the film is
+stationary three times as long as it is
+in motion, though in some machines
+the proportion is one in six. In the
+taking of the picture, the film is really
+stationary one-half of the time. As
+pictures are usually projected at the
+rate of fourteen or sixteen to the second,
+this means that each separate picture
+appears on the screen three-fourths
+of one-sixteenth of a second,
+or three-sixty-fourths of a second, and</p>
+
+<h3>How Are Freak Pictures Made?</h3>
+
+<p>Freak pictures are usually the result
+of clever manipulation of the camera
+or the film. Articles or individuals
+can be made to instantly disappear by
+stopping the camera while the article
+is removed or the person walks off the
+stage, the other characters holding
+their pose until the camera is again
+put in motion. In some films in which
+a person is thrown from a height or
+is apparently crushed under a steam
+roller the effect is gained by the live
+person walking away after the camera
+is stopped and a dummy substituted
+to undergo the death penalty.</p>
+
+<p>By projecting the picture at a faster
+rate than it was taken, excruciatingly
+comic scenes are sometimes devised.
+An automobile going ten miles an hour,
+by speeding up the projection machine,
+may be made to apparently move at a
+hundred miles an hour, and by increasing
+in the same way the apparent speed
+of persons dodging the demoniac auto
+exceedingly ludicrous effects are had.</p>
+
+<p>By mechanical means in combining
+two or more negatives into one positive
+a man can be shown fencing with himself
+or even cutting his own head off.</p>
+
+<p class="center highline2 fsize90">Pictures by courtesy of the Vitagraph Company.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page377">[377]</span></p>
+
+<div class="container w40emmax" id="Fig377a">
+
+<p class="caption">HOW RUBBER TIRES ARE MADE</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo377a.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">WASH ROOM.<a id="FNanchor4" href="#Footnote4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote4" href="#FNanchor4" class="label">[4]</a> These and the following Pictures by courtesy of the Goodyear Tire and Rubber Co.</p>
+
+</div><!--footnote-->
+
+<h2 class="nobreak">The Story in a Ball of Rubber</h2>
+
+<h3>How Crude Rubber Is Treated.</h3>
+
+</div><!--chapter-->
+
+<p><i>Washing.</i>—When the crude rubber
+arrives at the factory of the rubber
+manufacturer, it is generally stored in
+bins in dark and fairly cool store-rooms,
+where it is kept until ready to
+be used. The rubber passes directly
+from the storage bins to the wash-room,
+where it is cut up into small
+pieces, put into large vats of warmed
+water and allowed to soak, in order
+to soften it sufficiently to be broken
+down in the machines. It is then fed
+into a cracker, a machine consisting of
+two rolls with projections on their surfaces
+shaped like little pyramids, the
+two rolls revolving with a differential,
+one going considerably faster than the
+other, and being adjustable, so that
+they can work close together or with
+some distance between them. The rubber
+is fed between these rolls and
+broken down into a coarse, spongy
+mass. Water flows on to the rubber
+during the process, bringing down
+sand, dirt, bark, and the many other<span class="pagenum" id="Page378">[378]</span>
+foreign materials which come mixed
+with the rubber. The rubber is put
+through this machine a number of
+times, until it is worked into a uniform
+condition. Some of the rubbers, like
+the Ceylons and Paras, will sheet out
+into a coarse sheet by being put
+through this machine; others, like the
+majority of the African rubbers, will
+fall apart and come down in chunks
+and have to be fed into the machine
+with a shovel.</p>
+
+<div class="container w40emmax" id="Fig377b">
+
+<p class="caption">PREPARING CRUDE RUBBER FOR MAKING TIRES</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo377b.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">CALENDER ROOM.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>After the rubber is broken down
+sufficiently in the cracker, it is next put
+through a washing machine, which is
+built very similar to the cracking machine,
+except that the rolls are grooved
+or rifled, so that their action is not
+so severe on the rubber. A large quantity
+of water is kept constantly running
+over this machine while the rubber
+is being put through, and the rolls
+work very close together, so that the
+rubber is finely ground and run out
+into a thin and comparatively smooth
+sheet, allowing the water flowing between
+the rolls to take out practically
+all of the foreign matter that remains.
+The rubber is run through this machine
+a number of times until the experienced
+inspectors in charge are satisfied
+that it is thoroughly washed. Some
+types of rubber, such as Manicoba,
+which have large quantities of sand
+in them, are washed in a special form
+of washing machine known as the
+beater washer. This is an endless,
+oval-shaped trough with a fast-revolving
+paddle-wheel. In this machine the
+rubber is submerged in water, after
+being broken down in the cracker, and
+the sand is literally knocked out of it
+by the paddle-wheel. The sand drops
+to the bottom of the machine, where
+if is drained off, while the rubber floats
+to the top and is there gathered and
+then put through a regular washing
+machine for the final sheeting out.</p>
+
+<p><i>Drying.</i>—From the wash-room the
+rubber goes to the dry-room. Before
+the rubber can be used in any articles
+of commercial value, it must be thoroughly
+dried, as any moisture in the
+stock would turn to steam during the
+vulcanizing process and cause blisters
+or blow-holes to form in the goods.
+There are two ways in which rubber
+is usually dried. The method mostly
+used, and which is generally practiced
+with all the better grades of gums, is
+to hang the washed strips on horizontal
+poles and space them in aisles,
+so that air can freely circulate all
+around the surface of the rubber, the
+dry-room being kept at a constant temperature.
+To properly dry the rubbers
+by this method takes from four to six
+weeks. The other method of drying is
+by means of a vacuum-drier. Low-grade
+rubbers which have a comparatively
+large percentage of resin in their
+composition cannot bear their own
+weight when hung on horizontal poles,
+but drop off and stick in piles on the
+floor. Hence, these rubbers have to
+be dried in a peculiar manner. They
+are laid in trays which are placed into
+a large air-tight receptacle. The air
+is then withdrawn from this receptacle
+and the interior heated by means of
+steam coils. This allows the water
+to be evaporated off from the rubber
+at a considerably lower temperature
+than that at which water boils under
+atmospheric pressure, and at such a
+low temperature, and in such a short
+time, that the rubber is not affected.
+By this process these rubbers can be
+dried in a few hours.</p>
+
+<p><i>Mixing.</i>—After the rubber has been
+thoroughly dried, it is ready to be
+mixed in proper proportions with the
+various ingredients which are used in
+rubber compounding, to give the desired
+quality of rubbers for the various
+products for which they are intended.
+In order that rubber shall vulcanize, it
+is necessary to mix with it a certain
+proportion of sulphur, vulcanizing, or
+curing, as it is sometimes called, being
+merely the changing of a physical mixture
+of rubber and sulphur into a
+chemical compound of these ingredients,
+by the application of heat. Besides
+sulphur, some of the more important
+ingredients used in compounding
+rubber are:</p>
+
+<p><i>Zinc oxide.</i>—This toughens the rubber
+and increases its wearing properties
+and tensile strength.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page379">[379]</span></p>
+
+<p><i>Barium sulphate.</i>—This stiffens the
+rubber and adds weight, so reducing
+the cost.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lithopones.</i>—This whitens the stock
+and makes it soft, and is used extensively
+in druggists’ sundries.</p>
+
+<p><i>Antimony sulphide.</i>—This makes the
+stock red and is a preservative against
+oxidation.</p>
+
+<p><i>Litharge.</i>—This has the same action
+as antimony sulphide, but makes the
+stock black.</p>
+
+<p><i>White lead.</i>—This hastens the cure
+and is extensively used in gray and
+black stocks, and is a good filler or
+weight adder.</p>
+
+<p><i>Magnesia oxide and carbonate.</i>—These
+are used as fillers for white
+stocks.</p>
+
+<p><i>Oxide of iron.</i>—Used for coloring
+red and yellow stocks.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lime</i> (unslacked).—This hastens
+vulcanization and chemically removes
+any water left in the rubber.</p>
+
+<p><i>Whiting.</i>—This is used only as a
+cheap filler to increase quantity and
+lower cost.</p>
+
+<p><i>Aluminum silicate.</i>—This is used
+chiefly as a filler.</p>
+
+<p>There are also used in compounding
+what are known as the various substitutes.
+These are chiefly linseed oil
+products and mineral hydrocarbons
+which are more or less elastic, and act
+somewhat as a flux.</p>
+
+<h3>Why Don’t We Use Pure Rubber?</h3>
+
+<p>There seems to be a general impression
+that the various ingredients which
+are mixed with rubber are put into
+the compounds merely to cheapen the
+product and to lower the grade of the
+material. This is true in many cases,
+such as the general line of molded
+goods, rubber heels, bicycle grips, automobile
+bumpers, etc., but in many
+cases, such as tires, packing, belting,
+etc., these ingredients are added to
+toughen the gum, increase its wearing
+qualities, to make it indestructible
+when subjected to heat, or to make it
+soft and yielding so that it can be
+forced into fabric, etc.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>PROCESS NECESSARY TO<br>
+MAKING RUBBER GOODS</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>In the general process of manufacture
+the sheeted rubber is sent directly
+from the dry-room to the compound-room,
+where the various ingredients
+are weighed out into proper
+proportions along with the rubber to
+make up a batch, and placed in receptacles
+ready to be mixed. The batch
+is then sent into the mill-room to be
+mixed into a uniform pasty mass,
+which is the characteristic uncured, or
+so-called green, rubber compound. The
+mixing is done in the mill. This is a
+very heavy machine, constructed similarly
+to a cracker and a washer except
+that it is much larger and heavier, and
+the rolls are perfectly smooth and run
+closer together. No water at all is
+used on the batch during the mixing.
+There are steam and cold water connections
+to the mills which are connected
+with hollow spaces inside the
+rolls, so that the latter can be kept at
+any temperature desired. The general
+process of mixing is as follows:</p>
+
+<p>First the rubber portion of the batch
+is thrown into the mill and is worked
+and warmed up until it takes on a
+very sticky and plastic consistency.
+When it has arrived at a certain stage
+of plasticity, the various compounds in
+the batch, which are always in the
+form of very fine powders, are thrown
+in the mill, being worked by the rolls
+into the rubber. The compounds are
+generally thrown on, a small amount
+at a time, until they are all taken up
+by the rubber. The batch is then allowed
+to go through and through the
+mill, over and over again, until the
+mixture is absolutely uniform throughout
+the whole mass. The consistency
+of the rubber, during this operation, is
+such that the batch can be made endless
+around one of the rolls of the
+mill, so that it is constantly feeding
+itself between the rolls.</p>
+
+<p>After the batch is properly mixed,
+it is cut off the rolls in sheets and<span class="pagenum" id="Page380">[380]</span>
+rolled up and sent to the green-stock
+store-room. In this store-room the
+compounded, uncured gums are kept
+in different bins, according to the nature
+of the compound, and are there
+allowed to season a certain length of
+time, after which they are delivered
+to the various departments of the factory
+in which they are going to be
+used.</p>
+
+<p>Another form in which rubber is
+used is the so-called Rubber-Cement.
+Rubber or any of its compounds are
+readily soluble in naphtha. In this
+process, the compounds, after being
+milled, are chewed up and washed in
+specially constructed cement-mills and
+there mixed with a certain proportion
+of naphtha which gives a thick solution.</p>
+
+<p><i>Spreading and calendering.</i>—Rubber
+which is used for the general line of
+molded goods, solid tires, some kinds
+of tubing, etc., goes directly to the
+various departments from the green-stock
+store-room, while rubber used
+for boots and shoes, waterproof fabrics,
+many of the druggists’ sundries,
+belting, pneumatic tires, inner tubes,
+etc., has to be sheeted out, and some
+of it forced into fabric before it goes
+to the various departments. This
+sheeting-out of the gum, as well as
+applying the rubber to fabrics, is done
+generally by two methods; either by
+spreading a solution of the rubber and
+naphtha onto the fabric, or by calendering
+the rubber between heavy
+rolls in a rubber calender.</p>
+
+<p>In the spreading process, a machine
+called a spreader is used. The fabric
+to which the rubber is to be applied
+is mounted in a roll at one end of the
+spreader and from the roll passes
+through a trough of rubber-cement,
+and then up over a so-called doctor
+roll, and under a knife edge, which
+allows only enough cement to pass
+through to fill the pores of the fabric.
+From this knife the cemented fabric
+passes over a steam drying chest and
+is then rolled up with a roll of liner
+cloth to prevent its sticking together.
+Fabric treated in this manner must be
+put through the spreader a number of
+times before it has sufficient rubber on
+it to be used in the products for which
+it is intended.</p>
+
+<p>For calendering rubber, a machine
+called a rubber calender is used. This
+machine is made with three and sometimes
+four heavy rolls, which are capable
+of very fine adjustment. The rubber
+from the green-stock store-room is
+first warmed up on a small mixing mill
+and is then fed between the rolls of
+the calender, coming through in a thin
+sheet of required thickness, and is
+wound up in a liner cloth and sent
+directly to the departments, where it
+is used for inner tubes, druggists’ sundries,
+etc., where only rubber and no
+fabric is used. Where the rubber is
+to be applied to fabric, the fabric is
+put through the calender rolls with the
+rubber, and the rubber is literally
+ground into the fabric. Fabric treated
+in this manner is known to the trade
+as friction, and is generally used in the
+manufacture of pneumatic tires, belting,
+hose, etc. For boots, shoes, and
+other special work, calenders are used
+which are equipped with rolls engraved
+with the shapes of the soles and other
+parts of the articles in question, so
+that the sheet of rubber coming from
+the machine has imprinted on it the
+shapes and thickness of the articles
+for which it is intended.</p>
+
+<p>After passing through such of the
+above processes as are required the
+rubber is ready to be made up into
+the various articles known to the rubber
+trade, such as boots and shoes,
+mackintoshes, waterproof fabrics, for
+balloons, aeroplanes, tentings, etc., mechanical
+goods, such as rubber heels,
+horseshoe pads, packing, tiling, automobile
+and other bumpers, artificial
+fish bait, etc., druggists’ sundries, such
+as nursing-bottles, nipples, syringes,
+bulbs, hot-water bottles, tubing, etc.
+tobacco pouches, rubber belting, golf
+and other balls, insulated wire, fire and
+garden hose, inner tubes, tires, and the
+many other commodities into the manufacture
+of which rubber enters.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page381">[381]</span></p>
+
+<div class="container w40emmax" id="Fig381a">
+
+<img src="images/illo381a.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">TRADING ROOM</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<h3>How Are Automobile Tires Made?</h3>
+
+<p>From the calender room of the rubber
+factory the stock is received in
+the automobile tire department, in the
+form of large rolls of rubber-coated
+fabric, and in rolls of sheeted rubber
+of various thicknesses and widths. The
+rubber-coated fabric is first cut into
+strips of proper widths so that the
+edges will extend from bead to bead
+over the crown of the tire. These
+strips are always cut on the bias, generally
+at a 45-degree angle, with the
+edge of the roll, and were formerly
+all cut on a cutting-table, a table
+about 50 feet long and 6 feet wide,
+covered with sheet metal. The cutting
+was done by two men, each having a
+knife and each cutting half-way across
+the cloth along the edge of a straight-edge
+so arranged as to be always set
+at 45 degrees with the edge of the
+table. This method of cutting is gradually
+being put aside by the use of the
+bias cutter, an extremely up-to-date
+machine having jaws which ride up to
+the end of the fabric and pull it for
+a certain distance under a knife set at
+a 45-degree angle, the knife being set
+to cut just when the jaws have arrived
+at the limit of their motion. The action
+is repeated so that the machine
+cuts about eighty strips a minute. These
+strips are fed onto a series of belts
+which carry them to where they are
+placed, by boys, into a book having a
+leaf of common cloth between each
+strip of gum fabric, to prevent the
+strips from sticking together.</p>
+
+<div class="container w40emmax" id="Fig381b">
+
+<img src="images/illo381b.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">CURING ROOM—SOLID TIRES.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page382">[382]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">MAKING A PNEUMATIC TIRE</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo382a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig382a">
+
+<p class="caption">CURING ROOM, FIRST CURE—PNEUMATICS.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo382b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig382b" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption">SPREADER ROOM.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page383">[383]</span></p>
+
+<p>The majority of automobile tires to-day
+are machine built, but there are
+still a great many built by hand and
+this is the process we shall describe
+first. In this process the books of
+fabric are laid up and spliced into
+proper lengths to go around the tire
+and allow a proper lapping for the
+splices. The proper number of these
+laid-up pieces, or plies, as they are
+called, are placed together with cotton
+cloth between and taken to the tire
+builder. The tire builder mounts the
+core, upon which the tire is to be built,
+on the building stand, generally cementing
+it so that the first ply of fabric
+will stick in place. The first ply is
+then stretched onto the core and
+spliced, rolled down with a hand roller
+onto the sides of the core, and trimmed
+with a knife at the base. The
+following plies are put on and rolled
+down in the same manner, the beads
+being put in at the proper time, according
+to the size and the number of
+plies to be used. After all the plies
+have been put onto the core the so-called
+cover rubber is put on. This
+cover rubber is generally a sheet of
+rubber about one-sixteenth of an inch
+thick or more, and of the same compound
+as the rubber on the fabric.</p>
+
+<div class="container w40emmax" id="Fig383">
+
+<p class="caption">HOW THE TREAD OF A TIRE IS MADE</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo383.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">TREAD LAYING ROOM.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>In the case of the machine-built tire,
+the result is the same, but the stock
+is handled as follows: After the rubber-coated
+fabric has been cut on the
+bias cutter, the strips are spliced and
+rolled up in rolls on a spindle which
+is placed in the so-called tire-building
+machine. The tire core is mounted on
+a stand attached to the machine, so
+that it can be revolved by power, and
+the fabric is drawn onto the core
+from the spindle under a certain definite
+tension. The tire-machines roll
+the fabric down by power, and the
+beads are put into place before the
+tire and core are removed from the
+machine. Thereafter the process is the
+same as in the case of the hand-built
+tires.</p>
+
+<p>After the cover rubber is in place
+the tire is ready to have the tread
+applied. The tread is made up independently
+of the tire by laying up narrow
+strips of rubber, in different
+widths, in such a way that the center
+of the tread is thicker than the edges.
+In the case of the so-called single-cure
+tires, which are wholly vulcanized at
+one time, this tread is applied to the
+tire directly after the cover, a strip of
+fabric called the breaker-strip generally
+being placed underneath, and the
+building of the tire so completed.</p>
+
+<p>In the general method of curing, the
+tire is allowed to remain on the core,
+and is either bolted up in a mold and
+put into an ordinary heater, or it is
+laid in a mold and put into a heater
+press, where the hydraulic pressure
+keeps the two halves of the mold
+forced together during the vulcanizing
+process. After the vulcanizing is completed,
+the tire is removed from the<span class="pagenum" id="Page384">[384]</span>
+mold, the inside is painted with a
+French talc mixture, the tire inspected
+and cleaned, and so made ready for
+the market. In some methods of curing,
+instead of the tire being put in
+a mold, it is put into a so-called toe-mold,
+which is virtually a pair of side
+flanges only reaching up as high as
+the edges of the tread on the side of
+the tire. After the flanges are fastened
+into place, the whole is cross-wrapped,
+the cross-wrapping coming in direct
+contact with the tread. The tire in
+this condition is then put into the
+heater and vulcanized, giving the so-called
+wrapped tread tire. Still another
+form of curing is to inflate a
+kind of canvas inner tube inside the
+tire and place the whole in a mold.
+This is known as the air-bag mold
+process.</p>
+
+<div class="container w40emmax" id="Fig384">
+
+<img src="images/illo384.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">PNEUMATIC-TIRE ROOM—SHOWING TIRE-BUILDING MACHINES.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<h3>How Are Inner Tubes Made?</h3>
+
+<p>Inner tubes for pneumatic tires may
+be classed under three headings, according
+to the methods used in their
+manufacture, viz., seamed tubes, rolled
+tubes, and tube-machine tubes. By far
+the greater number of tubes come
+under the first two headings. For
+seamed tubes, the rubber is taken from
+the calender in the form of sheets
+from one-sixteenth to three-sixteenths
+of an inch in thickness. These sheets
+are cut into strips of proper length
+and just wide enough to make a tube
+of proper cross-section diameter when
+the two long edges are folded over and
+fastened together with rubber cement.
+These two long edges are cut on a
+bevel so that they make a good lap
+seam. The tube is then pulled over
+a mandrel of proper size and a thin
+piece of wet cloth rolled around it,
+and then it is spirally cross-wrapped
+with a long, narrow piece of wet duck
+for its entire length. The whole is
+then put into a regular heater and the
+tube vulcanized. After vulcanizing the
+wrapping is removed and the tube
+stripped from the mandrel, turning
+the tube inside out, so that the smooth
+side which is vulcanized next to the
+mandrel appears outside, and the
+rough side showing the marks of the
+cross-wrapping is inside. The valve
+hole is then punched in the tube, the
+valve inserted and the open ends of
+the tube buffed down to a feather
+edge. The tube in this state passes
+to the splicers, who cement the buffed
+ends and splice them together, placing
+one open end within the other, making
+a lapped seam around the tube about
+2¹⁄₂ inches long. The cement used in
+splicing is generally cured by an acid
+which chemically vulcanizes the rubber
+without the application of heat. The
+tube is thus finished and ready for the
+market. Rolled tubes are made from<span class="pagenum" id="Page385">[385]</span>
+very thin sheet rubber by rolling same
+over a mandrel of proper size, until
+the required number of layers of thin
+rubber have been rolled on to give the
+tube the desired thickness. The tube
+is then wrapped, cured and spliced, in
+exactly the same manner as a seamed
+tube.</p>
+
+<h3>What Is Rubber?</h3>
+
+<p>Crude rubber is a vegetable product
+gathered from certain species of trees,
+shrubs, vines and roots. Its characteristic
+peculiarities were early recognized
+by the natives of the tropical
+countries in which it is found. Records
+of the earliest travelers in these countries
+show that the natives had used
+various articles, such as receptacles,
+ties, clubs, etc., made from rubber, but
+it was not until about 1735 that rubber
+was first introduced into Europe. In
+civilization rubber was first used for
+pencil erasers and in waterproof cloth,
+and finally in cements. Vulcanizing,
+or the curing of rubber, was not discovered
+until 1844, and thereafter the
+development of the rubber industry
+was very rapid, especially in Great
+Britain.</p>
+
+<div class="container w40emmax" id="Fig385a">
+
+<img src="images/illo385a.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">WRAPPING ROOM—PNEUMATICS.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>There are many kinds and grades of
+rubber, and to-day these can be divided
+into two chief classes, wild and
+cultivated.</p>
+
+<div class="container w40emmax" id="Fig385b">
+
+<img src="images/illo385b.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">PNEUMATIC-TIRE ROOM, SHOWING TIRE FINISHING.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page386">[386]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">HOW THE CRUDE RUBBER IS SECURED</p>
+
+<div class="split6040">
+
+<div class="left6040">
+
+<img src="images/illo386a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig386a">
+
+<p class="caption">Gathering Rubber in South America.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo386b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig386b" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption long">1. Tapping Axe. 2. Tin Cup to Catch the Rubber
+Milk. 3. The Beginning of a Rubber “Biscuit.”
+4. A Palm Nut.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo386c.jpg" alt="" id="Fig386c" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption">Making Balls of Crude Rubber.</p>
+
+</div><!--leftsplit-->
+
+<div class="right6040">
+
+<img src="images/illo386d.jpg" alt="" id="Fig386d">
+
+<p class="caption">Tapping the Trees in Japan.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo386e.jpg" alt="" id="Fig386e" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption">How the Rubber Looks when it
+comes to Market.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo386f.jpg" alt="" id="Fig386f" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption">Carrying Balls of Crude Rubber
+to Native Market.</p>
+
+</div><!--rightsplit-->
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--split-->
+
+<p class="center highline2 fsize90">Pictures herewith by courtesy of The B. F. Goodrich Company, Ltd.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page387">[387]</span></p>
+
+<h3>What Is Wild Rubber?</h3>
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>WHERE RUBBER<br>
+COMES FROM</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>The first class, or wild rubbers, are
+collected from trees which have grown
+wild and where no cultivation processes
+whatsoever have been used.
+These rubber-producing trees, shrubs,
+etc., are found mostly in Northern
+South America, Central America,
+Mexico, Central Africa and Borneo.</p>
+
+<p>The finest rubber in the world is
+Fine Para, and is gathered in the Amazon
+regions of South America. This
+rubber has been gathered in practically
+the same way for over a century. The
+natives go out into the forests and,
+selecting a rubber tree, cut “V”-shaped
+grooves in the bark with a special
+knife made for the purpose, these
+grooves being cut in herring-bone
+fashion diagonally around the tree,
+with one main groove cut vertically
+down the center like the main vein in
+a leaf. The latex, or milk-like liquid,
+of the tree, from which the rubber is
+taken, flows from these veins and
+down the center vein into a little cup
+which the natives place to receive it.
+After the little cups are filled they are
+gathered and brought into the rubber
+camp, and there the latex is coagulated
+by means of smoke. This is done by
+the use of a paddle which is alternately
+dipped into a bowl of the latex and
+then revolved in the smoke from a
+wood or palm-nut fire. This smoke
+seems to have a preservative effect on
+the rubber as well as drying it out
+and causing it to harden on the paddle,
+each successive layer of the latex causing
+the size of the rubber ball or biscuit
+to increase. When a biscuit of
+sufficient size has been thus coagulated
+it is removed from the paddle and is
+ready for shipment to countries where
+rubber products are manufactured.</p>
+
+<p>Para rubber is sold in three grades.
+Fine Para, which is the more carefully
+coagulated or smoked rubber; Medium
+Para, which is rubber gathered and
+smoked in the same way as Fine, but
+which has had insufficient smoking,
+and, therefore, more subject to deterioration
+due to oxidation, etc.; and
+Coarse Para, which is rubber gathered
+from the drippings from the rubber
+trees after the cups have been removed.
+This latter grade has generally
+a large percentage of bark and
+other foreign substances mixed with
+it, and is subject to even more deterioration
+than is Medium Para, as it
+is oftentimes not smoked at all.</p>
+
+<p>Another important grade of rubber
+coming from South America is Caucho.
+This tree grows similar to the
+Para trees and the rubber is gathered
+in a similar manner, but is cured by
+adding to the latex some alkaline solution
+and allowing the whole to dry
+out in the sun. The value of this rubber
+can be greatly improved by better
+methods of coagulation.</p>
+
+<p>From Central America and Mexico
+comes the Castilloa rubber. This rubber
+is gathered from trees in a very
+similar manner to Para, and is coagulated
+by being mixed with juices
+which are obtained by grinding up a
+certain plant which grows in the Castilloa
+districts. After being mixed
+with this plant juice, the Castilloa is
+spread out in sheets on bull hides,
+where it is allowed to dry in the sun,
+after which the rubber is rolled up
+and is ready for shipment. Castilloa
+is gathered mostly from wild trees,
+but in Mexico it has recently been cultivated
+to some extent.</p>
+
+<p>From Mexico we also get Guayule.
+This rubber is obtained from a certain
+species of shrub, the shrub being cut
+down and fed into a grinding or pebble
+mill where the branches are
+crushed and ground and mixed with
+water, and the rubber, which is contained
+in little particles all through the
+wood, is worked out, being taken from
+the pebble mills in chunks as large as
+a man’s fist.</p>
+
+<p>From Central Africa and from Borneo
+come the so-called African gums,
+such as Congo, Soudan, Massai, Lapori,
+Manicoba, Pontianic, etc. Some
+of these rubbers are gathered from
+trees, but most of them from vines
+and roots, and the methods of coagulation
+are varied. Practically all of
+them are dried out in the sun. These
+rubbers are all of lower grade than
+the Para rubbers of South America.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page388">[388]</span></p>
+
+<div class="container w40emmax" id="Fig388">
+
+<img src="images/illo388.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">BAGS OF CACAO BEANS.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<h2 class="nobreak">The Story in a Stick of Chocolate</h2>
+
+</div><!--chapter-->
+
+<h3>Where Does Chocolate Come From?</h3>
+
+<p>Perhaps no other one thing is so
+well known to boys and girls the world
+over as chocolate. Yet there was a
+time, and not so many years ago, as
+we figure time in history, when there
+were no cakes of chocolate, or chocolate
+candies to be had in the candy
+shops, no chocolate flavored soda
+water or chocolate cake. To-day quite
+a panic would be started if the world’s
+supply of chocolate were cut off.</p>
+
+<p>Chocolate is obtained from cacao,
+which is the seed of the cacao tree.
+It is quite often called cocoa, although
+this is not quite a correct way of spelling
+the word. The cacao tree grows
+to a height of sixteen or eighteen feet
+when cultivated, but to a greater height
+when found growing wild. The cacao
+pod grows out from the trunk of the
+tree as shown in the <a href="#Fig391">picture</a>, and is,
+when ripe, from seven to ten inches
+long and from three to five inches in
+diameter, giving it the form of an
+ellipse. When you cut one of these
+pods open, you find five compartments
+or cells, in each of which is a row
+of from five to ten seeds, which are
+imbedded in a soft pulp, which is
+pinkish in color. Each pod then contains
+from twenty-five to fifty seeds,
+which are what we call “cocoa beans.”</p>
+
+<p>The cacao tree was discovered for
+us by Christopher Columbus, so that
+we have good reason to remember him
+aside from his great discovery of
+America. The discovery of either of
+these would be fame enough for any
+one man, and it would be difficult for
+some boys and girls to say just which
+of the two was Columbus’ greater
+discovery.</p>
+
+<p>Columbus found the cacao tree
+flourishing both in a wild and in a cultivated
+state upon one of his voyages
+to Mexico. The Indians of Peru
+and Mexico were very fond of it in
+its native state. They did not know
+the joy of eating a chocolate cream,
+but they had discovered the qualities
+of the cacao bean as a food and had
+learned to cultivate it long before Columbus
+came to Mexico.</p>
+
+<p>Columbus took some of the cacao
+beans back with him to Spain and to<span class="pagenum" id="Page389">[389]</span>
+this day cacao is much more extensively
+used by the Spaniards than by
+any other nation. The first record of its
+introduction into England is found in
+an announcement in the <i>Public Advertiser</i>
+of June 16, 1657, to the effect
+that:</p>
+
+<p>“In Bishopgate Street, in Queen’s
+Head Alley, at a Frenchman’s house,
+is an excellent West Indian drink
+called chocolate, to be sold where you
+may have it ready at any time and also
+unmade, at reasonable rates.”</p>
+
+<p>Of course, by the time America became
+settled the people brought their
+taste for chocolates with them.</p>
+
+<div class="container w40emmax" id="Fig389a">
+
+<img src="images/illo389a.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">VIEW OF COCOA BEANS IN BAG AND COCOA-GRINDING MILL.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<h3>What is the Difference Between Cacao
+and Chocolate?</h3>
+
+<p>When the cacao seeds are roasted
+and separated from the husks which
+surround them, they are called cocoa-nibs.
+Cocoa consists of these nibs
+alone, whether they are ground or unground,
+dried and powdered, or of the
+crude paste dried in flakes.</p>
+
+<p>Chocolate is made from the cocoa-nibs.
+These nibs are ground into an
+oily paste and mixed with sugar and
+vanilla, cinnamon, cloves, or other
+flavoring substances. Chocolate is only
+a product made from cocoa-nibs, but
+it is the most important product.</p>
+
+<div class="container w40emmax" id="Fig389b">
+
+<img src="images/illo389b.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">CACAO CRACKING MILL AND SHELL SEPARATOR.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page390">[390]</span></p>
+
+<div class="container w40emmax" id="Fig390a">
+
+<img src="images/illo390a.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">COCOA CRACKING AND SHELL SEPARATOR.</p>
+
+<p class="caption">WHERE THE
+SHELLS ARE
+SEPARATED<br>
+FROM THE
+BEAN.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<div class="container w30emmax" id="Fig390b">
+
+<img src="images/illo390b.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">COCOA MILL.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<h3>What Are Cocoa Shells?</h3>
+
+<p>There are other products which are
+obtained from the cacao seed. One is
+called Broma—which is the dry powder
+of the seeds, after the oil has been
+taken out.</p>
+
+<p>Cocoa shells are the husks which
+surround the cocoa bean. These are
+ground up into a fine powder and sold
+for making a kind of cocoa for drinking,
+although the flavor is to a great
+extent missing and it is, of course, not
+nearly so nourishing as a drink of real
+cocoa.</p>
+
+<div class="container w40emmax" id="Fig390c">
+
+<img src="images/illo390c.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">COCOA ROASTER.</p>
+
+<p class="caption">MILL IN
+WHICH THE<br>
+BEANS ARE
+ROASTED.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<h3>What is Cocoa Butter?</h3>
+
+<p>The oil from the cacao seeds, when
+separated from the seeds, is what we
+call cocoa butter. It has a pleasant
+odor and chocolate-like taste. It is
+used in making soap, ointments, etc.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page391">[391]</span></p>
+
+<div class="container w35emmax" id="Fig391">
+
+<p class="caption">HOW CACAO BEANS GROW</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo391.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">COCOA TREE WITH FRUIT KNOWN AS COCOA PODS, WHICH CONTAIN THE COCOA BEANS.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<h3>How is Cacao Gathered?</h3>
+
+<p>When the cacao pods ripen on the
+tropical plantations, where the climate
+is such that they can be grown successfully,
+the native laborer cuts off the
+ripened pods as we see him doing in
+the <a href="#Fig391">picture</a> showing the pods on the
+tree. He does this with a scissors-like
+arrangement of knives on a long pole.</p>
+
+<p>As he cuts off the pods he lays them
+on the ground and leaves them to dry
+for twenty-four hours. The next day
+they are cut open, the seeds taken out
+and carried to the place where they
+are cured or sweated.</p>
+
+<p>In the process of curing or sweating,<span class="pagenum" id="Page392">[392]</span>
+the acid which is found with the
+seeds is poured off. The beans are
+then placed in a sweating box. This
+part of the process is for the purpose
+of making the beans ferment and is
+the most important part of preparing
+the beans for market, as the quality
+and the flavor of the beans and, therefore,
+their value in the market, depends
+largely upon the ability of whoever
+does it in curing or fermenting.</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes the curing is done by
+placing the seeds in trenches or holes
+in the ground and covering them with
+earth or clay. This is called the clay-curing
+process. The time required in
+curing the cacao beans varies, but on
+the average requires two days. When
+cured they are dried by exposure to
+the sun and packed ready for shipping.
+At this time beans of fine quality are
+found to have a warm reddish color.
+The quality or grades of beans are determined
+by the color at this stage.</p>
+
+<div class="container w30emmax" id="Fig392a">
+
+<img src="images/illo392a.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">CHOCOLATE MILL.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<h3>How Chocolate is Made.</h3>
+
+<p>When the cacao beans arrive at the
+chocolate factory they are put through
+various processes to develop their
+aroma, palatability and digestibility.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>PROCESSES IN<br>CHOCOLATE MAKING</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>The seeds are first roasted. In
+roasting the substance which develops
+the aroma is formed. The roasting is
+accomplished in revolving cylinders,
+much like the revolving peanut roasters,
+only much larger. After roasting
+the seeds are transferred to crushing
+and winnowing machines. The crushing
+machines break the husks or
+“shells,” and the winnowing machine
+by the action of a fan separates the
+shells from the actual kernel or bean.
+The beans are now called cocoa-nibs.
+These nibs are now in turn winnowed,
+but in smaller quantities at a time,
+during which process the imperfect
+pieces are removed with other foreign
+substances. Cacao beans in this form
+constitute the purest and simplest form
+of cacao in which it is sold. The objection
+to their use in this form is that
+it is necessary to boil them for a much
+longer time, in order to disintegrate
+them, than when they are ground up
+in the form of meal. For that reason
+the nibs are generally ground before
+marketing as cacao or cocoa.</p>
+
+<p>Another form in which the pure
+seeds are prepared is the flaked cocoa.
+This is accomplished by grinding up
+the nibs into a paste. This grinding
+is done in a revolving cylinder machine
+in which a drum revolves. In this
+process the heat developed by the friction
+in the machine is sufficient to
+liquefy the oil in the beans and form
+the paste. The oil then solidifies again
+in the paste when it becomes cool.</p>
+
+<div class="container w30emmax" id="Fig392b">
+
+<img src="images/illo392b.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">CHOCOLATE FINISHER.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>What we know as cakes of chocolate
+are made from the cocoa-nibs by<span class="pagenum" id="Page393">[393]</span>
+heating the mixture of the cacao,
+sugar and such flavoring extracts as
+vanilla, until an even paste is secured.
+This paste is passed several times between
+heavy rollers to get a thorough
+mixture and finally poured into molds
+and allowed to cool. When cool it can
+be taken from the molds in firm cakes<span class="pagenum" id="Page394">[394]</span>
+and wrapped for the market. This is
+the way Milk Chocolate is made. The
+difference in the taste and consistency
+of milk chocolate depends upon how
+many different things the chocolate
+maker adds to the pure cocoa-nibs to
+produce this mixture. Often substances
+such as starchy materials are
+added to make the cakes more firm.
+They add nothing to the quality of the
+chocolate.</p>
+
+<div class="container w40emmax" id="Fig393a">
+
+<img src="images/illo393a.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">CHOCOLATE MIXER.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>HOW CHOCOLATE<br>CANDIES ARE MADE</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>Chocolate-covered bonbons, chocolate
+drops, and the many different
+kinds of toothsome confections are
+prepared in the American candy factories,
+as we all well know. The chocolate
+covering of this confectionery is
+generally put on by dipping the inside
+of the choice morsel in a pan of liquid
+chocolate paste and then placing the
+bits in tins to allow them to cool and
+harden.</p>
+
+<div class="container w40emmax" id="Fig393b">
+
+<img src="images/illo393b.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">CHOCOLATE MIXING AND HEATING MACHINE.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>A great many of the choicest bits of
+confectionery are now produced by
+machines entirely. These machines are
+almost human, apparently, as we see
+them make a perfect chocolate bonbon
+which is delivered to a candy box all
+wrapped for packing. These wonderful
+machines thus give us candy which
+has not been touched by the hands of
+any one prior to the time we thrust
+our own fingers in the brightly-decorated
+box and take our pick of the
+assortment it offers.</p>
+
+<div class="container w40emmax" id="Fig394">
+
+<img src="images/illo394.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">WHERE THE INDIVIDUAL PIECES OF CONFECTION ARE WRAPPED.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page395">[395]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">THE TALLEST BUILDING IN THE WORLD</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo395.jpg" alt="" id="Fig395">
+
+<p class="caption">WOOLWORTH BUILDING, NEW YORK CITY.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">This building, the tallest in the world, is equipped with 26 gearless traction elevators.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">Two of the elevators run from the first to the fifty-first floor with actual travels of 679 feet 9¹⁄₂
+inches and 679 feet 10¹⁄₄ inches, respectively. There is also a shuttle elevator which runs from the
+fifty-first to the fifty-fourth floor.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">Total height of building from curb to base of flagstaff, 792 feet.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page396">[396]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">HOW AN ELEVATOR GOES UP AND DOWN</p>
+
+<div class="container right w20emmax" id="Fig396">
+
+<img src="images/illo396.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">COMPLETE GEARLESS TRACTION
+ELEVATOR INSTALLATION.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<h2 class="minor fsize90">How Does an Elevator Go Up and Down?</h2>
+
+<p class="caption long">Ordinarily, when we think of an elevator we think merely of the cage or car in which
+we ride up or down. But the car is really only the part which makes the elevator of
+service to man, and from the standpoint of the machinery, is a relatively unimportant
+part of the equipment.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">There are two principal types of elevators used to-day; the hydraulic, which is worked
+by water under pressure, and the electric, which is worked by electricity through an
+electric motor. The latter type, because of the tendency towards the general use of
+electricity in recent years, has largely superseded
+the hydraulic, and, as when you think
+of elevators you probably have in mind those
+you have seen in some huge skyscraper, we
+shall look at one of these.</p>
+
+<h3>What are the Principal Parts of an
+Elevator?</h3>
+
+<p class="caption long">The most advanced type of elevator to-day
+is called a Gearless Traction Elevator. In
+this elevator the principal parts are a motor,
+a grooved wheel on the motor shaft called
+a driving sheave and a brake, all mounted
+on one cast-iron bed-plate; a number of
+cables of equal length which pass over the
+driving sheave and thence around another
+grooved wheel called an idler sheave, located
+just below the driving sheave, and to one
+end of which is attached the car or cage,
+and to the other end a weight called a counterweight;
+also a controller which governs
+the flow of electric current into the motor
+and thereby the speed, starts and stops of the
+elevator car. Although the controller, motor,
+brake and sheaves are usually placed way at
+the top of the building out of our sight, they
+are really very important parts of the elevator.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">The cage or car in which we ride is held
+in place by tracks built upright in the elevator
+shaft, and the counterweight at one side of
+the shaft travels up and down along two separate
+upright tracks. When the car goes up
+the counterweight on the other end of the
+cables goes down an equal distance. The
+counterweight is used to balance the load of
+the car and to make it easier for the motor
+to move the car.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">Electricity is the power that makes the car
+go up or down. The operator in the car
+moves a master switch—in one direction if
+he wishes to go up, in the other direction if
+he wishes to go down. This master switch
+sets the electro-magnetic switches of the controller
+at the top of the hatchway into action,
+electrically, and the controller in turn allows
+the electric current to flow into the motor.
+The motor then begins to revolve, gradually
+at first, and then faster, turning the driving
+sheave with which it is directly connected.
+As this driving sheave revolves, the cables
+passing over it are set in motion, and the
+car and counterweight to which they are
+attached begin to move.</p>
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page397">[397]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">THE PRINCIPAL PARTS OF AN ELEVATOR</p>
+
+<h3>Why Does Not the Car Fall?</h3>
+
+<p class="caption long">Of course, the question of safety is a very important one in any elevator, and you
+wonder what would happen if the cables broke. You think of this especially when you
+are going up in one of the big skyscrapers—where the elevators sometimes travel to a
+height of 700 feet. It can be truthfully said that on every modern elevator there are
+safety devices which should make it practically impossible to have a serious accident, due
+to the fall of the car. Every elevator is equipped with wedging or clamping devices
+which automatically grip the rails in case the car goes too fast either up or down. These
+gripping devices can be adjusted to
+work at any speed that is desired above
+the regular speed. It is not at all probable
+that all the cables will break at
+once, because there are usually six of
+these, and any one of them is strong
+enough to hold the car if the others
+break; but even if they all should break
+the gripping devices on the rails will
+operate and hold the car safely, just
+as soon as it starts down at great
+speed.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">Suppose that the car should descend
+at full speed, but not sufficiently fast
+to work the rail-gripping devices, it
+would be brought to a gradual rest at
+the bottom of the hatchway, because of
+the oil-cushion buffer against which it
+would strike. This is a remarkable invention,
+with a plunger working in oil
+in such a way that a car striking it at
+full speed will come to rest so gradually
+that there is scarcely any shock. You
+have perhaps seen a clever juggler on
+the stage throw an ordinary hen’s egg
+high into the air and catch it in a china
+dish without cracking it He does it
+by putting the dish under the falling
+egg just at the right moment, and bringing
+the dish down with the egg at just
+the right speed, so that eventually he
+has the egg in the dish without cracking
+it. The trick is in calculating the
+rate of speed of the falling egg accurately
+and adjusting the insertion of the
+dish under the falling egg to a nicety.
+The oil-cushion buffer in the modern
+elevator works in very much the same
+way.</p>
+
+<div class="container w25emmax" id="Fig397">
+
+<img src="images/illo397.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">GENERAL ARRANGEMENT OF
+ROPING FOR GEARLESS
+TRACTION ELEVATOR INSTALLATION.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p class="caption long">If it were not for the genius which
+has made possible these new types of
+elevators we could not have the high
+buildings. The elevators in the Woolworth
+Building are the latest type in
+modern elevator construction. In this
+one building alone there are 29 elevators,
+and when you are told that the
+electric elevators in the United States
+installed by a single company represent
+a total of 525,000 horse-power, you
+will have some idea of the power required
+to operate elevators all over the
+country.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page398">[398]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Does Air Weigh Anything?</h2>
+
+<p>Air is very light, so light that it seems
+to have no weight at all; but, if you
+will think a minute you will see that it
+must have some weight, because birds
+fly in it and balloons can be made to
+float through it. It has been found
+that one hundred cubic inches of air
+at the sea level weighs, under ordinary
+conditions, about thirty-one grains.
+This seems a very small weight, but
+when we remember the thickness of the
+atmospheric envelope over the earth we
+see that it must press quite heavily upon
+the earth’s surface. There is a very
+simple instrument called a barometer,
+which is used for measuring the amount
+of this pressure. The name means
+pressure-measure.</p>
+
+<p>Another striking feature of air is its
+elasticity, and this explains something
+that is noticed by all mountain climbers.
+On a high mountain, it is difficult to get
+enough air to the lungs, though one
+breathes rapidly and deeply. The reason
+is, that the air at the foot of the
+mountain is compressed by the weight
+of that above it, and consequently the
+lungs can hold more of it than of the
+air on the mountain top, which has less
+weight resting upon it and is, therefore,
+not so much compressed. On account
+of the ease with which it is compressed,
+we find that more than half of
+all the envelope of air that surrounds
+the earth is within three miles of the
+surface.</p>
+
+<p>When air is chemically analyzed it is
+found to consist of a number of substances
+mingled together, but not chemically
+united. These include nitrogen,
+oxygen, argon, carbonic acid gas, water
+vapor, ozone, nitric acid, ammonia, and
+dust.</p>
+
+<p>Oxygen is the most important of
+these constituents, for it is the part that
+is necessary to support life. Yet, notwithstanding
+its importance, it forms
+only about one-fifth of the entire bulk
+of the atmosphere.</p>
+
+<p>Oxygen is a very interesting substance
+and many striking experiments
+may be performed with it. If a lighted
+candle is thrust into a vessel filled with
+oxygen, it burns very much more rapidly
+and brilliantly than in air. A piece
+of wood with a mere spark on it bursts
+into flame and burns brightly when
+thrust into oxygen, and some things
+that will not burn at all in air, can be
+made to burn very rapidly in oxygen.
+For example, if a piece of clock spring
+be dipped in melted sulphur and then
+put into a jar of oxygen, after the sulphur
+has been set on fire, the steel
+spring will take fire and burn fiercely.
+The heat produced is so great that drops
+of molten steel form at the end of the
+spring, and falling on the bottom of the
+jar, melt the surface of the glass where
+they strike.</p>
+
+<p>The other two substances found in
+pure air, nitrogen and argon, are very
+much alike. They make up the remaining
+four-fifths of the air, and are very
+different from oxygen in nearly every
+respect.</p>
+
+<p>Nitrogen and argon resemble oxygen
+in being colorless, odorless, and tasteless
+gases; and they are of nearly the
+same weight as oxygen, argon being a
+little heavier and nitrogen a little
+lighter; but here the similarity ends.
+Oxygen is what we call a very active
+substance. As we have seen, it causes
+things to burn very much more rapidly
+in it than in air. Nitrogen and argon,
+on the contrary, put out fire. If a
+lighted candle is put into a jar of nitrogen
+or argon its flame will be extinguished
+as quickly as if put into water.</p>
+
+<p>We must now consider the impurities
+found in air. Of these the most
+important is carbonic acid gas, or, as it
+is frequently called, carbon dioxide. It
+is always produced when wood or coal
+is burned, and is, of course, constantly
+being poured out of chimneys. It is
+also produced in our lungs and we give
+off some of it when we breathe. It is
+colorless, like the gases found in pure
+air, has no odor or taste, and is considerably
+heavier than oxygen or nitrogen.
+In its other properties it is much more
+like nitrogen than oxygen, for when a
+candle is put into it the flame is extinguished
+at once. To find out whether
+air contains carbonic acid gas, it is only
+necessary to force it through a little<span class="pagenum" id="Page399">[399]</span>
+lime water, in a glass vessel, and watch
+what change takes place in the water.
+Fresh lime water is as clear as pure
+water; but after forcing air containing
+carbonic acid through it, it becomes
+turbid and milky. If the turbid water
+is allowed to stand for a time, a white
+powder will settle to the bottom, and if
+we examine this powder, we find it to
+be very much the same thing as chalk.
+While it is true that air generally contains
+only a very small portion of carbonic
+acid gas, there are some places in
+which it is present in such large quantities
+as to render the air unfit for
+breathing. The air at the bottom of
+deep mines and old wells often has an
+unusually large proportion of this gas,
+which, because of its great weight, accumulates
+at the bottom, and remains
+confined there. The presence of a
+dangerous quantity of the gas in such
+places may be detected by lowering a
+candle into it.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Does the Scenery Appear to Move
+When We Are Riding in a Train?</h2>
+
+<p>When you sit in a moving train
+looking out of the window it appears
+as though the fields, the telegraph
+poles and everything else outside were
+moving, instead of you. This is because
+our only ideas of motion are arrived
+at by comparison, and the fact
+that neither you nor the seats of the
+car or any other part of the inside of
+the car is changing its position, leads
+you to the delusion that the things outside
+the car are moving and not you.
+If you were to pull down all the curtains
+and the train were making no
+noise at all, you would not think that
+anything was moving. It would appear
+as though you were motionless
+just as everything in the car appears
+so. When you turn then to the window,
+and lift the curtain you carry in
+the back of your mind the idea of being
+at rest and that is what makes it
+appear as though the fields and everything
+outside were moving in an opposite
+direction.</p>
+
+<p>This is particularly noticeable when
+you are in a train in a station with
+another train on the next track. There
+is a sense of motion if one of the
+trains only is moving and you feel that
+it is the other train, because you are
+surrounded by objects in the car which
+are at rest, and when you look out at
+the other train with this half consciousness
+of rest in your mind, it appears
+as though the other train were
+moving when as a matter of fact it
+is your train. If the delusion happens
+to be turned the other way, it will appear
+as though you are moving and
+the other is still. It depends upon what
+cause the impression starts with.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Don’t the Scenery Appear to Move
+When I am in a Street Car?</h2>
+
+<p>If you are in a street car in the
+country and moving along fast you
+will receive the same impression, especially
+in a closed car, because you
+are looking out of one hole or one
+window. In an open car you do not
+receive the same impression because
+your range of vision is broader. You
+can and do, although perhaps unconsciously,
+look out on both sides and
+the impression your mind gets through
+the eyes is not the same. If you were
+to pull down all the storm curtains in
+a moving open street car, and then
+look out of one little crack, you would
+think the outside was moving. But if
+you stop to remember that you are
+moving and not the things outside the
+car, then the impression vanishes. In
+the city, of course, your brain is so
+thoroughly impressed with the fact
+that houses and pavements do not
+move, and the cars move so much
+more slowly, that it is difficult to make
+yourself believe otherwise. The impression
+is more difficult always when
+you are moving through or past objects
+with which you are perfectly
+familiar. It is all, of course, a question
+of impressions.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Does the Moon Travel With Us
+When We Walk or Ride?</h2>
+
+<p>The moon does not really travel
+with us. It only seems to do so. The
+moon is so far away that when we<span class="pagenum" id="Page400">[400]</span>
+walk a block or two or a hundred, we
+cannot notice any relative difference
+in the relative positions of the moon
+and ourselves. When a thing is close
+at hand we can notice every change in
+our position toward it, but when it is
+far away the change of our position
+toward it is so slight that it is hardly
+perceptible. A very good way to illustrate
+this is to ask you to recall the
+last time you were in a railroad train
+looking out at the scenery in the country.
+The telegraph poles rush past
+you so fast you cannot count them.
+The cows in the pasture beside the
+railroad do not seem to go by so fast.
+You can count them easily. The tree
+farther over in the next field does not
+appear to be moving but slightly, while
+the church steeple which you can see
+far in the distance, does not go out of
+sight for a long time—in fact, seems
+almost to be moving along with you.
+The moon is just like the church
+steeple in this case, except that it is so
+much farther away that it seems to
+travel right with you. It is all due to
+the fact as stated at the beginning of
+this answer, that the relative positions
+of yourself and the moon are only
+slightly changed as you move from
+place to place, so slight in fact as to
+appear imperceptible.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Is There a Man in the Moon?</h2>
+
+<p>The markings which we see on the
+face of the moon when it is full can
+by a stretch of the imagination be
+said to form the face of a man. On
+some nights this face appears to be
+quite distinct. If, however, we look at
+the moon through a telescope, we see
+distinctly that it is not the face of a
+man. Through a very large telescope
+we can see very plainly that the marks
+are mountains and craters of extinct
+volcanoes. It just happens that these
+marks on the moon, aided by the reflections
+of the light from the sun,
+which gives the moon all the light it
+has, make a combination that looks
+like a face.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Does the Air Surrounding the Earth
+Move With It?</h2>
+
+<p>This is one of the old puzzling questions
+which many a high-school student
+has had to struggle with to the
+great amusement of the teacher who
+asks for the information and such
+other scholars who have already had
+the experience of trying to solve it.</p>
+
+<p>To get at the right answer you have
+merely to ask one other question. If
+the air does not revolve with the earth,
+why can’t I go up in a balloon at New
+York, and stay up long enough for the
+earth to revolve on its axis beneath
+me, and come down again when the
+city of San Francisco appears under
+the balloon, which should be in about
+four hours? If that were possible,
+travel would be both rapid and comfortable,
+for then we could sit quietly
+in a balloon while the earth traveling
+beneath us would get all the bumps.</p>
+
+<p>No, the atmosphere surrounding the
+earth moves right along with the earth
+on its axis. If it were not so, the
+earth would probably burn up—at
+least no living thing could remain on
+it—since the friction of the surface
+of the air against the surface of the
+earth would develop such a heat that
+nothing could live in it.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Does Oiling the Axle Make the
+Wheel Turn More Easily?</h2>
+
+<p>If you look at what appears to be
+a perfectly smooth axle on a bicycle
+or motor car through a powerful magnifying
+glass, you will find that the
+surface of the axle is not smooth at
+all, as you may have thought, but
+covered with what appear to be quite
+large bumps or irregularities in the
+surface. If you were to examine the
+inside of the hub of the wheel in the
+same way, you would find that it also
+is like that. Now, when you attempt
+to turn a wheel on the axle without
+oil, these little irregularities or bumps
+grind against each other, producing
+what we call friction. As friction develops
+heat, the metal of the axle and
+the hub expand and the wheel gets
+stuck.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page401">[401]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Made the Mountains?</h2>
+
+<p>There is no question but that at one
+time the surface of the earth was
+smooth, i. e., there were no big hills and
+no deep valleys. That was before the
+mountains were made. The earth was
+a hot molten mass that began to cool
+off from the outside inward. It is still
+a hot molten mass inside today. The
+outside crust became cooler and cooler
+and the crust became deeper and deeper
+all the time. Then when there would
+be an eruption of the red-hot mass inside,
+the earth’s crust would be bulged
+out in some places and sucked in in
+others and would stay that way. The
+bulged out place became a range of
+mountains and the sucked in place became
+a valley. This process went on
+happening over and over again until the
+crust of the earth became firmly set.
+Volcanos caused some of these eruptions,
+as also did earthquakes. There
+are today gradual changes occurring
+which to a certain extent change the
+outside surface of the earth, and it is
+possible that new mountain ranges will
+be produced in this way.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Makes the Sea Roar?</h2>
+
+<p>The roar of the sea is a movement
+of the sea which causes the same kind
+of air waves or sound waves that you
+make when you shout, excepting that,
+of course, the vibrations do not occur
+so quickly in the sea and, therefore,
+the sound produced is a low sound. It
+is no different in any sense than the
+same noise would be if the same air
+waves could be produced on the land
+away from the water.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Is Fire Hot?</h2>
+
+<p>When a fire is lighted it throws off
+what we call heat rays or waves. These
+waves are very much like the waves
+of light which come from a light or fire
+or the air waves which produce sounds.
+The rays of light and heat which come
+from the sun are like the rays of light
+and heat from a fire. Heat is of two
+kinds—heat proper which is resident
+in the body, and radiant heat which is
+the kind which comes to us from the
+sun or from a fire. This radiant heat
+is not heat at all, but a form of wave
+motion thrown out by the vibrations in
+the ether. The heat we feel is the sensation
+produced upon our skins when
+it comes in contact with the waves created
+by the fire. Heat was formerly
+thought to be an actual substance, but
+we know now that radiant heat is
+known to be the energy of heat transferred
+to the ether which fills all of
+space and is in all bodies also. The
+hot body which sets the particles of
+either in vibration and this vibrating
+motion in the form of waves travels in
+all directions. When these vibrations
+strike against our skin they produce a
+heat sensation; striking other objects
+these vibrations may produce instead of
+a heat sensation, either chemical action
+or luminosity. This is determined by
+the length of the vibratory rays in each
+case.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">When I Throw a Ball Into the Air
+While Walking, Why Does It Follow
+Me?</h2>
+
+<p>When you throw a ball into the air
+while moving your body forward or
+backward, either slowly or fast, the ball
+partakes of two motions—the one upward
+and the forward or backward motion
+of your body. The ball possessed
+the motion of your body before it left
+your hand to go up into the air because
+your body was moving before you
+threw it up, and the ball was a part of
+you at the time.</p>
+
+<p>If you are moving forward up to the
+time you throw the ball into the air and
+stop as soon as you let go of the ball,
+it will fall at some distance from you.
+Also if you throw the ball up from a
+standing position and move forward as
+soon as the ball leaves your hand the
+ball will fall behind you, provided you
+actually threw it straight up.</p>
+
+<p>Of course, you know that the earth
+is moving many miles per hour on its
+axis and that when you throw a ball
+straight into the air from a standing
+position, the earth and yourself as well
+as the ball move with the earth a long<span class="pagenum" id="Page402">[402]</span>
+distance before the ball comes down
+again. The relative position is, however,
+the same. We get our sense of
+motion by a comparison with other objects.
+If you are in a train that is
+moving swiftly and another train goes
+by in the opposite direction moving just
+as fast, you seem to be going twice as
+fast as you really are. If the train on
+the other track, however, is going at the
+same rate of speed and in the same direction
+as you are, you will appear to
+be standing still.</p>
+
+<p>Going back to the ball again, you will
+find that it always partakes of the motion
+of the body holding it in addition
+to the motion given when it is thrown
+up.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Good Are the Lines On the Palms
+of Our Hands?</h2>
+
+<p>It cannot be said that the lines on the
+palms of our hands are of any great
+service to us. Indeed it is doubtful if
+they are of any value in themselves, outside
+of the possible aid they may be in
+helping us to determine the character
+of the surface of things which we
+grasp or touch. It is possible that they
+aid in some slight degree in this way.
+There is little doubt, however, that they
+are a result of the work the hands are
+constantly called upon to do rather than
+contrived for any particular service.
+The habitual tendency of the fingers in
+grasping and holding things throws the
+skin of the palms into creases which
+through frequent repetition make the
+lines of the palms permanent in several
+instances.</p>
+
+<p>The peculiarities of these lines or
+creases in various individuals as to details
+and length and variations is the
+chief basis of the so-called science of
+palmistry.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Makes Things Whirl Round When
+I Am Dizzy?</h2>
+
+<p>The medical term that describes this
+condition of turning or whirling is vertigo,
+which means in simple language
+“to turn.” There are two kinds of
+dizziness—one where the objects about
+us seem to be turning round and round
+and the other where the person who is
+dizzy seems to himself to be turning
+round and round.</p>
+
+<p>One cause of this is due to the fact
+that when you are dizzy the eyes are not
+in complete control of the brain and the
+eyes moving independently of each
+other look in different directions and
+produce this turning effect on the brain,
+since each eye then sends a different
+impression to the brain instantly.</p>
+
+<p>The principal cause of the sense of
+dizziness is, however, the little organ
+which gives us our power to balance
+and which is located near the ears.
+Sometimes this organ becomes diseased
+and people affected in this way are almost
+continually dizzy. Whenever this
+organ of balance is disturbed we lose
+our idea of balance and the turning sensation
+occurs.</p>
+
+<p>It is easy to make yourself dizzy. All
+you do is to turn round a few times in
+the same direction and stop. In doing
+this you disturb the little organ of balance
+and things begin to turn apparently
+before your eyes. If you turn the
+other way you right matters again or
+if you just stand still matters will right
+themselves. There is no great harm in
+making yourself dizzy and very little
+fun.</p>
+
+
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Are the Complexions of Some
+People Light and Others Dark?</h2>
+
+
+<p>This difference in the complexions
+of people is due to the varying amounts
+of pigment or coloring material in the
+cells of which the skins of all animals
+is made up. Very light people have
+very little pigment; very dark people,
+those with dark eyes and black hair,
+have a great deal of this coloring material
+in their cells. A great many
+people are neither light or very dark.
+They have less than the dark-complexioned
+people and more than the light-complexioned
+people. When the hair
+turns gray it is because the pigment has
+disappeared. As this is due to the loss
+of this coloring material, dark-complexioned
+people turn gray sooner than
+light-complexioned people. The structure<span class="pagenum" id="Page403">[403]</span>
+of the skin showing how these cells
+are made in layers can be seen by examining
+the skin with a microscope.</p>
+
+
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Makes Me Tired?</h2>
+
+
+<p>Men were wrong for a long time in
+their conclusions as to what produced
+the tired feeling in us.</p>
+
+<p>We know now that every activity of
+our body registers itself on the brain.
+When we move an arm or leg a great
+many times we soon feel tired. Every
+time you move your arm the movement
+is registered in the brain, and after a
+number of these movements are registered
+the tired feeling in the arm appears.
+It is said that every movement
+of any part of the body really produces
+certain defective cells and that these
+accumulate in the blood. When these
+reach a certain number the tired feeling
+takes possession of us, and when we
+rest, the blood under the guidance of
+the brain, goes to work and rebuilds
+these defective cells. We know that a
+change takes place in the blood when
+we become tired because, if you take
+some of the blood from an animal that
+shows unmistakable signs of fatigue
+and inject it into an animal that shows
+no tired feeling at all, the second animal
+will begin to show signs of fatigue
+even though it is not active at all.</p>
+
+<p>We used to think that being tired indicated
+that our bodies were in need of
+food and that the way to overcome it
+was to eat a big meal. We did not stop
+to think that even when we are hungry
+the human body has sufficient food supply
+stored up to keep it going for days
+without taking in new food. Of course,
+this mistake was made because we knew
+that our power and energy came as a
+result of the food we took into our
+systems, but this belief was exploded
+when it was found that a really tired
+person could hardly digest food while
+tired, and that it is best for people
+who are very tired to eat only a light
+meal.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Are Most People Right-Handed?</h2>
+
+<p>Most people are right-handed because
+they are trained that way. Being right-handed
+or left-handed depends largely
+on how we get started in that connection.
+When we are young we form the
+habit generally of being either right-handed
+or left-handed, as the case may
+be. Most people correct their children
+when it appears they are likely to become
+left-handed, as we have come to
+think that it is better to be right-handed
+than left, and that is the reason why
+most people are right-handed. As a
+matter of fact, if we were trained perfectly,
+we should all be both right-handed
+and left-handed also. Some
+people are so trained and, when we
+refer to their ability to do things equally
+well with both hands and wish to bring
+out this fact, we say they are ambidextrous.
+It is not natural that one
+hand should be trained to do things
+while the other is not.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Are Some Faculties Stronger Than
+Others?</h2>
+
+<p>All of our senses are capable of being
+developed so that our ability along these
+lines would be about equal. The trouble
+is that we soon begin to develop one or
+more of our faculties in an unusual
+manner at the expense of the development
+of others. Many people have a
+keener sense of observation than others
+because they have had more and better
+training along that line. It is a pity
+that more attention is not given to the
+development of the power of observation
+in children, because it is one of the
+most valuable accomplishments that we
+can possess ourselves of. With the
+sense of observation developed to the
+highest degree, many of the other faculties
+need not be developed so strongly
+because, if we notice every thing that
+it is possible for us to see, we do not
+have the need of the development of
+other powers to the same extent.</p>
+
+<p>It is said that it would be possible
+to so train an infant and bring him up
+to maturity with all his faculties developed
+and in practically an even way.
+If we did that we would have a wonderfully
+intelligent being.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page404">[404]</span></p>
+
+<div class="container w60emmax">
+
+<div class="split5050">
+
+<div class="left5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo404a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig404a">
+
+<p class="caption">Glazing plates.</p>
+
+</div><!--leftsplit-->
+
+<div class="right5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo404b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig404b">
+
+<p class="caption">Decorating china cups.</p>
+
+</div><!--rightsplit-->
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--split-->
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<h2 class="nobreak">The Story in a Cup and Saucer</h2>
+
+</div><!--chapter-->
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>HOW CHINA<br>
+IS MADE</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>Many different kinds of raw materials
+are required to produce the clay from
+which china is formed, and these ingredients
+come from widely separated
+localities. Clays from Florida, North
+Carolina, Cornwall and Devon. Flint
+from Illinois and Pennsylvania. Boracic
+acid from the Mojave Desert and
+Tuscany. Cobalt from Ontario and
+Saxony. Feldspar from Maine. All
+these and more must enter into the making
+of every piece.</p>
+
+<div class="container w35emmax">
+
+<img src="images/illo404c.jpg" alt="" id="Fig404c">
+
+<p class="caption">Grinders for reducing glazing materials.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>These materials are reduced to fine
+powder and stored in huge bins. Between
+these bins, on a track provided
+for the purpose, the workmen push a
+car which bears a great box. Under
+this box is a scale for weighing the exact
+amount of each ingredient as it is
+put in, for too much of one kind of clay
+or too little of another would seriously
+impair the quality of the finished china.</p>
+
+<div class="container w30emmax">
+
+<img src="images/illo404d.jpg" alt="" id="Fig404d">
+
+<p class="caption">Mill for pulverizing materials.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>From bin to bin this car goes, gathering
+up so many pounds of this material
+and so many pounds of that, until its
+load is complete. Then it is dumped
+into one of the great round tanks called
+“blungers,” where big electrically
+driven paddles mix it with water until
+it has the consistency of thick cream.
+From the blungers this liquid mass
+passes into another and still larger tank,
+called a “rough agitator,” and is there
+kept constantly in motion until it is
+released to run in a steady stream over
+the “sifters.”</p>
+
+<p>These sifters are vibrating tables of
+finest silk lawn, very much like that<span class="pagenum" id="Page405">[405]</span>
+used for bolting flour at the mills. The
+material for china making strains
+through the silk, while the refuse, including
+all foreign matter, little lumps,
+etc., runs into a waste trough and is
+thrown away. From the sifters the
+liquid passes through a square box-like
+chute, in which are placed a number
+of large horseshoe magnets, which attract
+to themselves and hold any particles
+of harmful minerals which may
+be in the mixture.</p>
+
+<p>After leaving the magnets the fluid
+is free from impurities, and is discharged
+into another huge tank called
+the “smooth agitator.” While the fluid
+is in this tank a number of paddles keep
+it constantly in motion.</p>
+
+<div class="container w35emmax" id="Fig405a">
+
+<img src="images/illo405a.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">Pressing the water from the clay.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>From the smooth agitator the mixture
+is forced under high pressure into
+a press where a peculiar arrangement
+of steel chambers packed with heavy
+canvas allows the water to escape, filtered
+pure and clear, but retains the clay
+in discs or leaves weighing about thirty
+pounds each. From the presses this
+damp clay is taken out to the “pug
+mills,” where it is all ground up together,
+reduced to a uniform consistency,
+and cut into blocks of convenient
+size. It is now ready to use. Automatic
+elevators carry it to the workmen
+upstairs.</p>
+
+<div class="container w35emmax" id="Fig405b">
+
+<img src="images/illo405b.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">Molding Dishes. The racks to the left are full
+of molds on which the clay is drying.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<div class="container w35emmax" id="Fig405c">
+
+<img src="images/illo405c.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">Molding sugar bowls and covered dishes.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>HOW THE DISHES<br>
+ARE SHAPED</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>The exact process of handling the
+clay differs with articles of different
+shapes. Some are molded by hand in
+plaster of paris molds of proper shape,
+while others are formed by machine.
+To make a plate, for example, the workman
+takes a lump of clay as large as
+a teacup. He lays this on a flat stone,
+and with a large, round, flat weight,
+strikes it a blow which flattens the material
+out until it resembles dough rolled
+out for cake or biscuits, only instead of
+being white or yellow it is of a dark
+gray color. A hard, smooth mold exactly
+the size and shape of the inside
+of the plate is at hand. Over this the
+workman claps the flat piece of damp
+clay. Then the mold is passed on to
+another workman, who stands before
+a rapidly revolving pedestal, commonly
+known as the potter’s wheel. On
+this wheel he places the mold and its
+layer of clay. He then pulls down a
+lever to which is attached a steel
+scraper. As the plate rapidly revolves,
+this scraper cuts away the surplus clay,
+and gives to the back of the plate its
+proper form. The plate, still in its
+mold, is placed on a long board, together<span class="pagenum" id="Page406">[406]</span>
+with a number of others, and
+shoved into a rack to dry. One workman
+with two helpers will make 2,400
+plates per day. It is fascinating to
+watch the molders’ deft hands at work
+swiftly changing a mass of clay into
+perfectly formed dishes. Such skilled
+workmen are naturally well paid.</p>
+
+<div class="container w20emmax" id="Fig406a">
+
+<img src="images/illo406a.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">Interior of a kiln showing how the “saggers”
+are packed for firing.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>When the clay is sufficiently dry, the
+plate is taken from its mold, the edge
+smoothed and rounded, and any minor
+defects remedied. It is then placed in
+an oval shaped clay receptacle called a
+“sagger,” together with about two
+dozen of its fellows, packed in fine
+sand, and placed in one of the furnaces
+or kilns. Each kiln will contain on an
+average two thousand saggers. When
+the kiln is full the doorway is closed
+and plastered with clay, the fires
+started, and the dishes subjected to terrific
+heat for a period of forty-eight
+hours. The fuel used is natural gas,
+piped one hundred miles from wells
+2,000 feet deep. Natural gas gives an
+intense heat, and yet is always under
+perfect control—features which are
+vital in producing uniformly good
+china.</p>
+
+<p>When the plate is taken from the kiln
+after the first baking, it is pure white,
+but of dull, velvety texture, and is
+known as bisque ware.</p>
+
+<p>In order to give it a smooth, high
+finish, the plate is next dipped into a
+solution of white lead, borax and silica,
+dried, placed in a kiln and again baked.
+When it is taken out for the second
+time it has acquired that beautiful
+glaze which so delights the eye. In
+this condition it is known as “plain
+white ware,” and is finished, unless
+some decoration is to be added.</p>
+
+<div class="container w30emmax" id="Fig406b">
+
+<img src="images/illo406b.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">Taking the dishes from a kiln.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>HOW CHINA IS<br>
+DECORATED</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>Most people are surprised to learn
+that the greater part of the gold which
+adorns dishes is put on by a simple
+rubber stamp. Two preparations of
+gold are used. One is a commercial
+solution called “liquid bright gold,” the
+other is very expensive, and is simply
+gold bullion melted down with acids to
+the right consistency.</p>
+
+<p>Decorating in colors is now done almost
+exclusively by decalcomania art
+transfers. These are made principally
+in Europe.</p>
+
+<p>After the gold and colors are applied,
+the China must again go through
+the oven’s heat for a period of twelve
+hours. Then the piece finished at last,
+is ready to grace your table. The dull
+gray clay has become beautifully finished
+china, which will delight alike the
+housekeeper and her guests.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page407">[407]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">How Do Birds Find Their Way?</h2>
+
+<p>The most interesting phase of the
+movement of animals from place to
+place is found in the flight of birds
+during the spring and fall. In the
+spring the birds come north and in the
+fall they go south. This is called “migration”
+and the reason given for the
+ability of some birds to come back
+every year to build a nest in the same
+tree is usually attributed to the “instinct
+of migration,” and yet that is
+more a statement of fact rather than
+an explanation of the wonderful
+ability of the birds to do this.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">How Does a Captain Steer His Ship
+Across the Ocean?</h2>
+
+<p>Man, the most intelligent animal,
+can also find his way about, but he
+has had to learn to do this step by
+step. When an explorer first travels
+into the unexplored forest, he carries a
+compass which tells him in what direction
+he is traveling, but this is not
+sufficient to tell him the exact path he
+came and return the same way. In
+order that he may do this, he must
+make marks on the trees and other
+objects to find his way back. When
+these marks are once made, other men
+can follow the path by their aid, and
+eventually a path becomes worn so
+that men can find their way back and
+forth without the aid of the marks
+especially.</p>
+
+<p>A trained ship captain can take his
+ship from any port in the world to another
+port. He can start at New York
+City and in a given number of days,
+according to how fast his ship can
+travel, land his passengers and cargo in
+the port of London or Johannesburg,
+South Africa, or at any desired port in
+China, Japan or any other country.
+But he cannot do this by any kind of
+instinct. He takes his directions from
+information that was furnished him
+by some one who went that way before
+him—some other captain of a vessel
+who made marks in his book of his
+position in relation to the sun and
+stars. This is practically the same as
+the traveler in the forest who made
+marks on the trees to make a map of
+the way back and forth. Even with
+these charts, compasses and other
+guiding marks, however, man, even
+though he is the most intelligent of all
+the animals, makes very grave mistakes
+and sometimes brings disaster
+upon himself and the lives in his care.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why the Birds Come Back in Spring?</h2>
+
+<p>The birds, however, have no charts
+or compasses to guide them. We do
+not know as yet absolutely what it is
+that enables the bird to find its way
+back and forth to the same spot year
+after year. As nearly as we have been
+able to ascertain, the birds after they
+mate and build their first nest and
+bring up their first family, develop a
+fondness for that particular spot
+which is much the same as the instinct
+in man which we call the “homing instinct.”
+Man becomes attached to one
+particular spot which he calls home
+and wherever he is thereafter, he is
+very likely to think of the old locality
+when he thinks of home, and there are
+very few of us but have yearnings to
+go back to the old “home locality”
+every now and then. The environment
+in which a bird or human being is
+brought up generally becomes to a
+greater or less extent a permanent
+part of him in this sense.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Do Birds Go South in Winter?</h2>
+
+<p>We know why birds go south in the
+winter. The necessity of finding food
+to live upon has everything to do with
+that. As food grows scarce towards
+the end of summer in the farthest
+northern places where birds live, the
+birds there must find food elsewhere.
+They naturally turn south and when
+they find food, they have to divide
+with the birds living there. The result
+is that soon the food becomes
+scarce again and both the new-comers
+and the old residents, so to speak, are
+forced to seek places where food is
+plentiful. So both of these flocks, to
+use a short term, fly away to the south
+until they find food again and encounter
+a third flock or group of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page408">[408]</span>
+bird family crowding the locality and
+exhausting the food supply. So in turn
+each flock presses for food upon the
+one in the locality next further to the
+south until we have a general movement
+to the south of practically all
+the birds until they reach a point
+where the food supply is sufficient for
+all for the time being.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Don’t the Birds Stay South?</h2>
+
+<p>The result of all this is that the
+south-land is crowded with birds of all
+kinds and the food supply is enough
+for all. But soon in following the
+laws of nature in birds, as in other
+living things, comes the time for
+breeding. The south-land is warm
+enough for nesting and hatching, but
+it is so crowded that there wouldn’t
+be enough food for all the old birds
+and the little ones too and so the birds
+begin to scatter again. Just think of
+what would happen in the south-land if
+all the birds that stay there in the winter
+built their nests there and brought
+up a new family. A bird family will
+average four young birds, so that if
+all the bird families were born and
+raised in the south the bird population
+would quickly multiply itself by three
+and there would be the same old necessity
+of traveling away to look for
+food. To avoid this the birds begin
+to scatter to their old homes before
+the breeding season begins.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">How Do They Find the Old Home?</h2>
+
+<p>The return of the birds to their old
+homes and how they find their way
+back to the same spot every year, to
+do which they must sometimes travel
+thousands of miles, is one of the most
+marvelous things in nature and has
+not as yet been satisfactorily determined.
+The nearest approach we have
+to a satisfactory answer to this is that
+birds do have a memory, that they can
+and do recognize familiar objects, and
+that their love for the old home causes
+them to fly to the north until they
+recognize the landmarks of their
+former habitation. In this it is said
+that the older birds—those who have
+gone that way before—lead the flocks
+and show the way.</p>
+
+<p>There is no doubt that birds have a
+more perfect instinct of direction than
+man. They can follow a line of longitude
+almost perfectly, i.e., they can
+pick out the shorter route by instinct,
+and this is, of course, a straight line.
+They just keep on going until they
+come to the familiar place they call
+home and then they stop and build
+their nests. That it is not memory
+and sight of places alone that guides
+the birds is shown by the fact that
+some birds when migrating fly all
+night when there is no light by which
+to recognize familiar objects.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Do Birds Sing?</h2>
+
+<p>The song of the birds is a part of
+the love-making. The male bird is
+the “singer,” as we call them at home,
+when we think of the canary in the
+cage near us. The male bird sings
+to his mate to charm her and to further
+his wooing. This wooing goes
+on after the eggs have been laid in
+the nest and while the mother bird
+is keeping them warm until they hatch
+out, but almost instantaneously with
+the birth of the little birds, the song
+of the male bird is hushed. Take the
+case of the nightingale. For weeks
+during the period of nest-building and
+hatching he charms his mate and us
+with the beautiful music of his love
+song. But as soon as the little
+nightingales come from the eggs, the
+sounds which the male nightingale
+makes are changed to a gutteral croak,
+which are expressive of anxiety and
+alarm, in great contrast to the song
+notes of his wooing. And yet, if you
+were at this period—just after the
+birds are born, and when his song
+changes—to destroy the nest and contents,
+you would at once find Mr.
+Nightingale return to his beautiful
+song of love to inspire his mate to help
+him build another nest and start all
+over again to raise a family.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Causes an Arrow to Fly?</h2>
+
+<p>It is caused by the power generated
+when you bend the bow and string of<span class="pagenum" id="Page409">[409]</span>
+the bow and arrow out of shape. The
+bow and string have the quality of
+elasticity which causes a rubber ball
+to bounce. When you force anything
+elastic out of shape, this quality in it
+makes it try to get back to its natural
+shape quickly. In doing this it acts
+in the direction which will take it back
+to its normal shape most quickly. The
+arrow is fixed on the string in a way
+that will not interfere with the bow
+and string getting back to its shape
+and, when they bounce back, the arrow
+goes with it. The real cause for
+the arrow’s flight, however, comes not
+from the bow, because the bow cannot
+put itself out of shape, but comes
+from the person who causes it to be
+out of shape and, therefore, the person
+who pulls the string back really
+causes the arrow to fly.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Do Children Like Candy?</h2>
+
+<p>Children crave candy because the
+sugar which it contains largely is in
+such a condition that it is the most
+suited of all our foods for quick use
+by the body. It is actually turned into
+real energy within a few minutes
+after it is eaten.</p>
+
+<p>All the things we eat are for the
+purpose of supplying energy to our
+bodies to replace the energy that our
+daily activities have dissipated. Nature
+takes the valuable parts of the foods
+we eat and changes them into energy.
+The waste parts she throws off. Many
+things we eat have little real value as
+food and many also nature has to
+work upon a long time before their
+food value is available in energy.
+Sugar, however, represents almost energy
+itself.</p>
+
+<p>Children are, of course, more active
+than grown-ups. They are never still.
+They are, therefore, almost always
+burning up or using up their energy.
+They are also, therefore, almost always
+in need of food that can be made
+into energy, and as sugar does this almost
+more quickly than any other food,
+nature teaches the children to like
+candy or sweets.</p>
+
+
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Does Eating Candy Make Some
+People Fat?</h2>
+
+
+<p>Eating as much as one can of anything
+at any time will produce fat,
+provided you do not do sufficient
+physical work or take enough exercise
+to counteract the effect of generous
+eating. When you see a person who
+eats a great deal and is growing fat,
+you may know that he or she is not
+taking sufficient bodily exercise to
+work off the energy produced by the
+body from the food that has been
+eaten. When this happens the energy
+in the form of fat piles up in various
+parts of the system. Candy will do
+this more quickly than any other thing
+we eat because it contains so much
+sugar and because sugar is so easily
+changed by our system into usable energy.
+You generally find a fat person
+who eats much candy to be a lazy
+person.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Makes Snowflakes White?</h2>
+
+<p>A snowflake is, as you are no doubt
+aware, made of water affected in such
+a way by the temperature as to change
+it into a crystal. Water, of course, as
+you know, is perfectly transparent. In
+other words, sunlight or other light
+will pass through water without being
+reflected. A single snow flake also is
+partially transparent, i.e., the light will
+go through it partially, although some
+of it will be reflected back. When a
+drop of water is turned into a snowflake
+crystal, a great many reflecting
+surfaces are produced, and the whiteness
+of the snowflake is the result of
+practically all of the sunlight which
+strikes it being reflected back, just as a
+mirror reflects practically all the light
+or color that is thrown against it. If
+you turn a green light on the snow, it
+will reflect the green light in the same
+way. When the countless snow
+crystals lie on the ground close together,
+the ability to reflect the light
+is increased and so a mass of snow
+crystals on the ground look even
+whiter than one single snowflake.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page410">[410]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Makes the White Caps on the
+Waves White?</h2>
+
+<p>In telling why the snowflake is
+white we have practically already answered
+this question also. Instead of
+little crystals formed from the water,
+the foam produced by the waves of
+the ocean are tiny bubbles which have
+the same ability to reflect the light as
+the snow crystals.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Good Can Come of a Toothache?</h2>
+
+<p>Very few of us realize that an aching
+tooth is a good thing for us, provided
+we have it attended to and the
+ache removed. Any one who has had
+toothache will hardly agree that there
+can be a blessing attached to this excruciating
+pain.</p>
+
+<p>But the good comes from the warning
+it gives us of the condition of our
+teeth on the inside of our mouths. The
+arrangement of the interior of the
+mouth and the use we make of it in
+passing things into our systems, favors
+very much the development and increase
+of microbes, and when they
+once get in they are difficult to remove.
+It is said that the greatest percentage
+of cases of stomach trouble
+come from teeth which are in bad condition
+and that a very large percentage
+of people who have bad teeth are in
+grave danger of blood poisoning or
+other troubles due to the microbes.
+When these microbes lodge in the
+mouth, they find conditions favorable
+to their development when there are
+bad teeth, and spread through the system.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">How Can Microbes Spread Through the
+Body?</h2>
+
+<p>The various parts of the body, including
+the gums, are connected by a
+lymphatic tissue, which is practically
+a series of canals. If the teeth are not
+properly attended to and kept in good
+condition, both as to cleanliness and repair,
+the microbes or germs collect on
+the gums and teeth, and increase in
+numbers. Soon the mouth is over-populated
+with microbes and are
+pushed off the gums or teeth into the
+lymphatic canals, where they succeed
+in developing a disease in your body.</p>
+
+<p>Now the ache in the tooth becomes
+a blessing very promptly if it begins
+soon after the tooth begins to decay,
+because in that event the dentist is
+visited and the tooth filled or pulled.
+Therefore, while it hurts terribly, it
+might be well to remember that a
+toothache is a timely warning of danger
+which, if not heeded, will likely
+develop into something quite serious.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Causes Toothache?</h2>
+
+<p>The ache comes when the tiny nerve
+at the heart of the tooth is exposed to
+the air. When the tooth begins to decay,
+it starts to do so generally from
+the outside, and after the decaying
+process has gone far enough, it
+reaches the nerve in the tooth, which
+aches when exposed to the air. The
+ache is the signal which the nerve
+sends to the brain that there is an exposure
+and a cry for help.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Of What Use Are Pains and Aches?</h2>
+
+<p>All pains and aches are helpful in
+sounding a warning. A headache may
+be the result of improper sleep and
+rest and, therefore, warns us to take
+the needed rest or sleep. A pain in
+the stomach is only nature’s way of
+telling us that we have been unwise
+in our eating and drinking. As a matter
+of fact, short though our lives are,
+they would probably be still shorter,
+on the average, if it were not for pains
+and aches, because without these
+warnings we would never have sense
+enough to stop doing the things we
+should not do if we lived normally.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Causes Earache?</h2>
+
+<p>Earache is caused by the nerves in
+the ear being affected by something
+either from within or without which
+produces a swelling of the parts immediately
+adjacent to the nerves in the
+ear, and which press against the
+nerves; as the nerves cannot go any
+place else they send a warning to the
+brain that they are being crowded and
+pressed against. The pain you feel is
+the nerve in the ear warning the brain
+that something is wrong in the ear.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page411">[411]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Is Soap Made Of?</h2>
+
+<p>Soap is not a very modern product,
+although we have rarely read of soap
+in olden times. As long ago as two
+thousand years, the Germans had an
+ointment which was made in practically
+the same way as we now make soap.
+A soap factory was engaged in making
+soap in France in 1000 A. D.</p>
+
+<p>Even before soap was manufactured,
+people knew that ashes of some
+plants, when mixed with water, gave
+it a peculiar, smooth, slippery feeling,
+and added to the cleansing qualities of
+water. Although they did not know
+it, this was due to the soda of potash
+which was in the ashes. Pure soda and
+potash both have excellent qualities for
+cleaning, but are likely to injure the
+skin, and other things coming in contact
+with them.</p>
+
+<p>Soap is made by boiling together oil
+or fat and “caustic” soda or potash.
+Caustic soda is a substance made from
+sodium carbonate by adding slaked lime
+to a solution of it. The slaked lime contains
+calcium in combination with hydrogen
+and oxygen, and is known in
+chemistry as calcium hydrate. When
+calcium hydrate is added to a solution
+of sodium carbonate, the sodium present
+combines with the oxygen and hydrogen
+to form a compound, variously
+called sodium hydrate, sodium hydroxide,
+or caustic soda. A similar compound
+of potassium is formed when the
+same kind of lime is mixed in a solution
+of potassium carbonate. In both cases
+the calcium is converted into calcium
+carbonate, which is not soluble in water
+and settles to the bottom; but the caustic
+soda or potash is dissolved.</p>
+
+<p>The word “caustic” means to burn.
+Both will burn the skin if allowed to
+touch the skin for a short time.</p>
+
+<p>The fats used for making soap consist
+of glycerine, in chemical combination
+with what are called fatty acids.
+When these fats are boiled with caustic
+soda, or caustic potash, the fat is
+decomposed; the fatty acid combines
+with the sodium or potassium to form
+soap and the glycerine is left uncombined.</p>
+
+<p>In modern soap factories the manufacture
+is carried on in large iron vessels.
+Some fat and oil are put into the
+vessel and a little lye, which is really
+caustic soda or potash, is added and
+the mixture boiled. The fat and the
+lye combine very quickly and form a
+whitish fluid. More lye is now added
+and the boiling continued. This process
+is repeated until nearly all the oil or fat
+has combined with the lye. If yellow
+laundry soap is being made, some rosin
+is put in, and this gives the yellow
+color. If toilet soap is being made,
+common salt is put in instead of rosin.
+The addition of the salt has the effect
+of separating the water and the glycerine
+from the soap. The soap rises
+to the surface and is skimmed off. As
+soon as the separation is complete, and
+the soap is then cut or pressed into
+cakes after it has become hard.</p>
+
+<p>Soaps referred to above are the ordinary
+hard soaps. In making soft soaps no
+salt is added to separate the soap from
+the liquid. As the water and glycerine do
+not separate from the soap, the entire
+mixture remains of a soft consistency.
+Soft soap is also made with a lye, that is
+obtained from wood ashes. The ashes
+are placed in barrels and water poured
+upon them. The water drips down
+through the ashes in the barrel and
+dissolves the potash contained in them,
+making lye or caustic potash. This lye
+is then in liquid form and is mixed and
+boiled with grease or fat to make soap.</p>
+
+<p>There are many different fats used
+in soap making. Palm oil is perhaps
+the most common, but tallow, olive oil,
+cotton seed oil, and many other fats
+are used. The hardness of the soap
+varies with the kind of fat and lye
+used. Palm oil or tallow soap is very
+hard, and other oils are sometimes
+mixed with it to soften it.</p>
+
+<p>These are the main facts connected
+with the making of soaps. There may
+appear to be different kinds all of which
+look and smell differently. The difference
+in them is largely due to the presence
+of different perfumes and coloring
+matters.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page412">[412]</span></p>
+
+<div class="container w50emmax" id="Fig412">
+
+<img src="images/illo412.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">INDIAN SENDING MESSAGE WITH SMOKE SIGNALS.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">The savage Indians found their system of smoke signals quite effective in sending messages
+from place to place. With a good burning fire before him, and a blanket or shield at hand,
+the Indian was equipped to send his messages. The code consisted of the varying kinds of smoke
+clouds produced. These were made large or small by covering the fire at intervals with the
+blanket or shield, thus making interruptions of various lengths in the rising clouds of smoke.
+By dropping moss or other things into the fire, he made the smoke clouds either light or dark
+at will.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<h2 class="nobreak">The Story in a Telegram</h2>
+
+</div><!--chapter-->
+
+<h3>How Man Learned to Send Messages.</h3>
+
+<p>From the time when man had learned
+to protect himself from the beasts of
+the forest, and thus was able to move
+about more freely, and live by himself
+rather than remain with the tribe,
+he has found it necessary to send
+messages.</p>
+
+<p>One of the most interesting of the
+early methods for sending messages
+was the Indian way of smoke signalling
+with the simple equipment of
+a fire with its rising column of smoke
+and a blanket or shield. Messages
+were sent, relayed, received and answered,
+at points hundreds of miles
+apart. Among savages still found in
+remote parts of the earth this and
+other primitive methods are still in
+use. In the wilds of Africa to-day
+at points where the electric telegraph
+service has not yet penetrated, the
+natives by the simple method of beating
+drums, which can be heard from
+one relay point to another, are able
+to send the “news of the day” across
+the country with marvellous rapidity.
+In some parts of South America, the
+natives long ago discovered that the
+ground is a good conductor of sound
+and send their messages almost at
+will, making their signals by tapping
+against poles which they have planted
+in the ground at various points and
+which constitute both their sending
+and receiving instruments.</p>
+
+<p>The Signal Corps in the army uses
+flags for sending messages, where the
+telegraph is not available, the flags
+being of different colors, and the signals
+are produced by waving the flags in
+different ways. The army heliograph
+is also used as a telegraph line—a
+mirror which reflects the sun’s rays
+in a manner understood by a prearranged
+code. These and other similar
+methods are merely elaborations
+of devices developed and used by the
+savages as a solution of the ever
+present need of sending a message to
+some other point.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page413">[413]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">THE FIRST MESSENGER BOY</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo413a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig413a">
+
+<p class="caption">THE GREEK RUNNER.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">In this picture we see the Greek Runner on the last leg of his journey and the man to whom
+he is to deliver the message waiting for him. This method of sending messages was not very
+fast, although the runners were picked because of their speed and endurance.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo413b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig413b" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption">THE PONY TELEGRAPH.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">Here we see the fast riders of the Pony Telegraph, which increased the speed of delivering
+messages quite a good deal, but, of course, there was danger of losing the message to enemies
+or through accident, so that it might be difficult under such circumstances to send a secret
+message or to even be certain that it would arrive at destination.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page414">[414]</span></p>
+
+<div class="container w25emmax" id="Fig414a">
+
+<p class="caption">IT IS EASY TO CALL A TELEGRAPH MESSENGER...</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo414a.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">RINGING THE CALL BOX.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>The great Marathon runner was
+nothing more or less than a telegraph
+messenger hastening with his written
+message, from the man who delivered
+it to him, to its destination, and his
+work was harder than that of the
+messenger boy to-day, for he not
+only had to deliver the message himself
+to its destination, but had to run
+fast all the way or lose his job.</p>
+
+<p>The messenger on foot finally gave
+way to the Pony Telegraph, which
+not only shortened the time necessary
+to deliver a message, but marked
+the beginning of a system.</p>
+
+<div class="container w50emmax" id="Fig414b">
+
+<img src="images/illo414b.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">MESSENGER BOYS WITH BICYCLES WAITING THE CALL.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<h3>How Does a Telegram Get There?</h3>
+
+<p>The next time your daddy takes you
+down to the office, ask him to show
+you the telegraph call box. When
+you see it, you will perhaps not think
+that by merely pulling down the little
+lever you can so start things going that,
+if you wish, you can cause men who
+are on the other side of the earth to<span class="pagenum" id="Page415">[415]</span>
+work for you in a few minutes, and
+to make little instruments all along
+the way which, with their other equipment,
+have cost millions of dollars,
+click, click, click at your will.</p>
+
+<div class="container w45emmax" id="Fig415a">
+
+<p class="caption">...BUT MANY TELEGRAPH EMPLOYEES MUST WORK...</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo415a.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">Here we see the messenger calling at the office from which the call box registered a call and
+receiving the telegram to be taken by him to the central office to be put on the wire.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<div class="container w45emmax" id="Fig415">
+
+<img src="images/illo415b.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption long">When the messenger gets back to the office, he hands the message to the receiving clerk who
+stamps it, showing the exact time received and sends it by pneumatic tube to the operating room.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>Sooner or later during the day your
+father will be wanting to send a telegram.
+He steps to the call box,
+pulls the little lever and goes back
+to his desk. In a few minutes, sometimes
+before you realize it, the little
+blue-coated messenger appears and<span class="pagenum" id="Page416">[416]</span>
+says “Call?” Father hands him a
+telegraph blank on which he has written
+the message, the messenger takes off
+his cap, puts the message inside and
+the cap back on his head and away
+he goes on his bicycle as fast as his
+legs can pedal, to the central office,
+to which point you follow him to see
+what he does with the message.</p>
+
+<p>If you had been at the telegraph
+office instead of your father’s office,
+you would have seen one of these boys
+start off on his wheel to get the message
+your father wished to send. When
+the little lever on the call box is pulled
+down, it is pulled back by a spring
+which sets some clock work going
+which sends a signal over the wire on
+a circuit which runs out from a register
+at the main office. The register
+has a paper tape running through it,
+and the signal from the call box
+appears as a series of dots on the tape.
+The clerk knows from the number and
+spacing of the dots that it was your
+father that called and not some other
+business man whose box might be
+on the same circuit.</p>
+
+<div class="container w30emmax" id="Fig416a">
+
+<p class="caption">...BEFORE THE TELEGRAPH SERVICE IS POSSIBLE AND...</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo416a.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption long">We have now followed the telegram to the
+point where it is to start on its real journey.
+Here we see the operator preparing to send
+the message. He first must “get the wire.”
+By this is meant to get a through connection
+to the town where the message is to be delivered.
+Each office along the line has a
+signal. The other operators can hear the call,
+but since it is not their signal, they pay no
+attention. Almost immediately, however, the
+operator at the delivery point hears the signal.
+He signals back “I I” and repeats his own
+office call, which means “I hear you and am
+ready.” The message is then ticked off,
+until finished and the operator at the delivery
+point signals “O. K.,” together with his
+personal signal, which means he has received
+the whole message and has it down on paper.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<div class="container w30emmax" id="Fig416b">
+
+<img src="images/illo416b.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption long">Here we see the operator at the delivery
+office. She has translated the dots and dashes
+as they came to her over the wire into plain
+words on a regular telegraph blank, putting
+down the time received, the amount to be
+collected, if it is a “collect” message, or
+marking it “Paid” if it was so sent. She
+has handed it to one of the blue-clad messengers
+in her office who starts off at once to deliver
+it. The operator has also made a copy of
+the message for the office files.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page417">[417]</span></p>
+
+<div class="container w45emmax" id="Fig417">
+
+<p class="caption">...THE TELEGRAM ARRIVES AT DESTINATION</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo417.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption long">Here we see the messenger delivering the telegram to the person to whom it is addressed.
+It may be good news or bad news for the person receiving it, but it is all in the day’s work for
+the messenger boy. But let us see how many people have to work to deliver the message. We
+have followed it through from the original call box. First there was the messenger who came
+for it, then the receiving clerk, the sending operator and the operator who receives it and
+last of all the messenger boy who delivered it. This does not take into account the men who
+must look after the many miles of wires, the machinery which supplies the current, or the great
+army of men who are constantly laying new wires so that you can send a telegram from almost
+anywhere to any other place.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>The operators you have seen working
+in these pictures are Morse operators.
+They send the message by Morse
+Code in dots and dashes which are sent
+over the wire as electric impulses. At
+the other end the message is read by
+listening to the clicks the sounder
+makes as it receives these same electric
+impulses. This is the simplest way
+of telegraphing.</p>
+
+<p>The number of messages sent between
+two big cities in a day is
+tremendous—many more than could
+be transmitted over one Morse wire.
+Many wires would be needed. But
+wire costs money, so ingenious men
+set to work to find some way to send
+more than one message over a single
+wire at the same time. They succeeded.
+There is now the duplex
+telegraph, which sends a message each
+way simultaneously over a single wire,
+the quadruplex, which sends two messages
+each way simultaneously over
+a single wire. Last but not least
+there is the multiplex, which sends
+four messages each way simultaneously
+over a single wire. This seems almost
+unbelievable, but it is done. In
+the case of the duplex and quadruplex,
+the different messages are
+sent by currents of different strength,
+and by changing the direction of the
+current. Receiving instruments are
+designed so as to separate the messages
+by being affected only by the
+currents of certain strength or polarity,
+as the direction of flow is termed. It
+can easily be seen that by these ingenious
+devices, the telegraph company
+saves many thousands of dollars in
+the miles and miles of wire, and hundreds
+of telegraph poles which would
+be required if all the messages had to
+be sent over a simple Morse wire, one
+message only upon the wire at a time.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page418">[418]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">THE WONDERFUL ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH SYSTEM...</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo418.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption long">In this picture we see the interior of a telegraph
+office along the line of a railroad. The operator
+has her hand on the “key” or sending instrument.
+At her left in a stand called the resonator, is the
+receiving instrument called the “sounder” which
+clicks off the message. In front of her is an instrument
+called the “relay.” Current from two of
+the batteries goes through the key when it is pressed
+down, through the relay and out on to the wires
+of the pole line, then through the relay of the
+receiving operator at the other end, (see <a href="#Fig419">picture</a>
+on opposite page) through his key and through two
+more batteries to the ground. The earth forms the
+return wire of an electric circuit when both keys are
+“closed” or pressed down. You know all electricity
+has to flow in a closed circuit. The “sounder”
+has to make good strong clicks to be understood,
+and the current after it has gone through miles of
+wire and ground may not be strong enough so the
+sounder is put on a local circuit of its own, with
+a special battery. In this circuit is a contact maker
+which is part of the relay. When the key is
+pressed down and current flows over the wires on
+the poles and through the relays, the magnets of the
+relay pull on a little piece of metal called the
+“armature,” which makes a contact and closes the
+local sounder circuit, so current from the single
+local battery can flow up through the magnets
+of the sounder and back to the battery. This
+makes the sounder click. When the key is released,
+the relay armature is pulled back by a
+spring and breaks the circuit of sounder, which
+then emits another click. By the number and
+duration of the clicks and the time between
+them, the receiving operator knows the meaning
+of the signal. The Morse Code, which is used
+throughout the United States, is <a href="#Ref02">shown</a> on next
+page.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page419">[419]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">...SENDS MESSAGES THOUSANDS OF MILES INSTANTANEOUSLY</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo419.jpg" alt="" id="Fig419">
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<div class="illotext w30emmax">
+
+<p class="center blankbefore75" id="Ref02">MORSE TELEGRAPH CODE</p>
+
+<div class="split5050">
+
+<div class="left5050">
+
+<table class="standard dontwrap">
+
+<tr>
+<th>Letters</th>
+<th>Morse</th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="text">A</td>
+<td class="text">·&#160;—</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="text">B</td>
+<td class="text">—&#160;·&#160;·&#160;·</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="text">C</td>
+<td class="text">·&#160;·&#160;&#160;·</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="text">D</td>
+<td class="text">—&#160;·&#160;·</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="text">E</td>
+<td class="text">·</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="text">F</td>
+<td class="text">·&#160;—&#160;·</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="text">G</td>
+<td class="text">—&#160;—&#160;·</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="text">H</td>
+<td class="text">·&#160;·&#160;·&#160;·</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="text">I</td>
+<td class="text">·&#160;·</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="text">J</td>
+<td class="text">—&#160;·&#160;—&#160;·</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="text">K</td>
+<td class="text">—&#160;·&#160;—</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="text">L</td>
+<td class="text">——</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="text">M</td>
+<td class="text">—&#160;—</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="text">N</td>
+<td class="text">—&#160;·</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="text">O</td>
+<td class="text">·&#160;&#160;·</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="text">P</td>
+<td class="text">·&#160;·&#160;·&#160;·&#160;·</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="text">Q</td>
+<td class="text">·&#160;·&#160;—&#160;·</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="text">R</td>
+<td class="text">·&#160;&#160;·&#160;·</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="text">S</td>
+<td class="text">·&#160;·&#160;·</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="text">T</td>
+<td class="text">—</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="text">U</td>
+<td class="text">·&#160;·&#160;—</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="text">V</td>
+<td class="text">·&#160;·&#160;·&#160;—</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="text">W</td>
+<td class="text">·&#160;—&#160;—</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="text">X</td>
+<td class="text">·&#160;—&#160;·&#160;·</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="text">Y</td>
+<td class="text">·&#160;·&#160;&#160;·&#160;·</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="text">Z</td>
+<td class="text">·&#160;·&#160;·&#160;&#160;·</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="text">&amp;</td>
+<td class="text">·&#160;&#160;·&#160;·&#160;·</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+</div><!--leftsplit-->
+
+<div class="right5050">
+
+<table class="standard dontwrap">
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Numerals</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="text">Figures</td>
+<td class="text">Morse</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="text">1</td>
+<td class="text">·&#160;—&#160;—&#160;·</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="text">2</td>
+<td class="text">·&#160;·&#160;—&#160;·&#160;·</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="text">3</td>
+<td class="text">·&#160;·&#160;·&#160;—&#160;·</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="text">4</td>
+<td class="text">·&#160;·&#160;·&#160;·&#160;—</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="text">5</td>
+<td class="text">—&#160;—&#160;—</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="text">6</td>
+<td class="text">·&#160;·&#160;·&#160;·&#160;·&#160;·</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="text">7</td>
+<td class="text">—&#160;—&#160;·</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="text">8</td>
+<td class="text">—&#160;·&#160;·&#160;·&#160;·</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="text">9</td>
+<td class="text">—&#160;·&#160;·&#160;—</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="text">0</td>
+<td class="text">——</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<table class="standard dontwrap w15em">
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Punctuations</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="text">. Period</td>
+<td class="text">·&#160;·&#160;—&#160;—&#160;·&#160;·</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="text">: Colon</td>
+<td class="text">—&#160;·&#160;—&#160;·&#160;·</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="text">; Semicolon</td>
+<td class="text">·&#160;·&#160;·&#160;&#160;·&#160;&#160;·</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="text">, Comma</td>
+<td class="text">·&#160;—&#160;·&#160;—</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="text">? Interrogation</td>
+<td class="text">—&#160;·&#160;·&#160;—&#160;·</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="text">! Exclamation</td>
+<td class="text">—&#160;—&#160;—&#160;·</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="text">- Fraction Line</td>
+<td class="text">·</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="text">¶ Paragraph</td>
+<td class="text">—&#160;—&#160;—&#160;—</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="text">() Parenthesis</td>
+<td class="text">·&#160;—&#160;·&#160;·&#160;—</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+</div><!--rightsplit-->
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--split-->
+
+</div><!--illotext-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page420">[420]</span></p>
+
+<p class="blankbefore75">The multiplex telegraph is truly a
+marvellous invention. It has been developed
+by the engineers of the Western
+Union Telegraph Co. working with
+the engineers of the Western Electric
+Company. The principle on which
+this instrument works is that if separate
+instruments are given connection
+with the wire one after the other
+during very short intervals of time,
+the effect is as though the wire were
+split up, and each instrument works
+just as if it alone were on the wire.
+Not only does the multiplex telegraph
+thus send four messages in one direction
+and four messages in the opposite
+direction, simultaneously over a single
+wire, thus keeping no less than sixteen
+operators employed on one wire,
+four sending and four receiving at
+each end, but each message instead
+of being sent by the ordinary Morse
+key, is written upon a typewriter
+keyboard at one end of the line and
+appears automatically typewritten at
+the other end.</p>
+
+<p>If you live in a big city, go into one
+of the larger branch offices of the
+Western Union Telegraph Co. and ask
+to see printing telegraph. Most of
+the large branch offices communicate
+with the general operating department
+in the city by means of what they
+term “short line printers,” which are
+instruments on which the message is
+written upon a typewriter keyboard and
+appears typewritten at the other end.</p>
+
+<h3>Who Invented the Electric Telegraph?</h3>
+
+<p>It is hard to say just how the telegraph
+originated in the mind of men.
+We have already shown how the savages
+sent signals over distances by
+means of the smoke rising from his
+fire. Every boy and girl has used a
+little mirror, held in the sun to flash
+a bright spot here and there. This
+principle has been used by the army
+to signal at distances. The sun’s
+rays are flashed from a small mirror,
+long and short flashes indicating the
+dashes and dots of the Morse telegraph
+code.</p>
+
+<div class="container w25emmax" id="Fig420">
+
+<img src="images/illo420.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">PROFESSOR S. F. B. MORSE,<br>
+INVENTOR OF THE TELEGRAPH.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>Progress towards the perfection of
+the electric telegraph began with the
+first researches of scientists into the
+natural laws which govern that great
+natural agent, electricity. Clever,
+painstaking men, studying and experimenting
+for the love of the work, discovered
+bit by bit how to control the
+force. Stephen Gray with his Leyden
+jars, which stored up a charge of electricity,
+inspired Sir William Watson
+to experiment, and he sent current
+from one jar to another two miles
+away.</p>
+
+<h3>The First Suggestion of the Electric
+Telegraph.</h3>
+
+<p>For a long time no one thought
+that this opened the way for the making
+of a useful servant for man. In
+1753 this thought occurred to an unknown
+man in Scotland, who wrote
+a letter to a newspaper suggesting
+that messages be sent by electric
+currents.</p>
+
+<p>One of his schemes was that there
+should be a light ball at the receiving
+end of the wire which would strike<span class="pagenum" id="Page421">[421]</span>
+a bell when it felt the electric impulse
+come over the wire from the Leyden
+jar, and by devising a code depending
+upon the number of strokes of the bell
+and the time between them, he suggested
+that messages could be sent and
+interpreted. Some believe this man
+to have been a doctor named Charles
+Morrison of Greenock, Scotland. Whoever
+he was, he suggested a method
+which comes very near to being that
+in use to-day.</p>
+
+<p>The difficulty with proceeding on
+this suggestion was that the current
+from the Leyden jar was static electricity,
+which has not the strength nor
+can it be controlled as can the current
+of low potential which is used
+to-day. Volta discovered this new
+and more stable form of electricity
+and many different men labored investigating
+what could be accomplished
+with it. The names of Sir
+Humphry Davy and Michael Faraday
+are inseparably connected with
+this advance. It was Oersted’s and
+Faraday’s discovery of the connection
+between electricity and magnetism,
+and how an electric current may be
+made to magnetize a piece of iron
+at will, that really opened the way for
+the invention of the telegraph we know
+to-day.</p>
+
+<h3>The First Real Telegraph.</h3>
+
+<p>But before the much greater practical
+value of Volta’s current was discovered,
+one man developed a real
+telegraph which worked with electricity
+of the static kind, produced by
+friction. This man was named Sir
+Francis Ronalds. He worked along
+the lines laid down by the unknown
+Scotchman, whom we have supposed
+to be Charles Morrison. The machine
+he built and operated in his garden
+at Hammersmith utilized pith balls,
+which actuated by the charge of static
+electricity sent along the wire caused
+a letter to appear before an opening
+in the dial. When perfected he offered
+it to the British Government, who
+refused it. They were very stupid
+in their refusal, for they said “telegraphs
+are wholly unnecessary.” Sir
+Francis Ronalds’ invention cost him
+much care, anxiety and money. He
+lived to see the more practical voltaic
+current taken up by others and put
+to successful use. Being unselfish he
+rejoiced that others should succeed
+where he had failed.</p>
+
+<h3>Two Men who Invented our Telegraph
+almost Simultaneously.</h3>
+
+<p>The telegraph, working on the electro-magnetic
+principle, as used to-day,
+was developed almost simultaneously
+on the two sides of the Atlantic Ocean.
+In England Sir Charles Wheatstone
+and Sir William Fothergill Cooke
+worked out a practical method and
+instruments, which with few changes,
+are in use to-day. Cooke was a doctor
+and had served with the British army
+in India. Wheatstone was the son of
+a Gloucester musical instrument maker.
+The latter was fond of science and
+experimented continually with electricity
+and wrote about it and other
+scientific subjects. As a result of his
+work he was made a professor at King’s
+College. There he conducted important
+researches and tests, among which
+was one which measured the speed
+at which electricity travels along a
+wire. So Cooke, who was a doctor
+and a good business man, entered into
+partnership with the scientist Wheatstone,
+and together they completed
+their invention. It was first used in
+1838 on the London and Blackwall
+Railway. At first it was expensive
+and cumbersome, using five lines of
+wire. Later this number was reduced
+to two, and in 1845, an instrument
+was devised which required but one
+wire. This instrument, with a few
+minor changes, is the one in use to-day
+in England.</p>
+
+<p>While these two men were working
+in England, an American artist, S. F.
+B. Morse, was studying and experimenting
+in the United States along his
+own lines but with the same end in
+view, namely to produce instruments
+which would satisfactorily send messages
+over a wire by electricity.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page422">[422]</span></p>
+
+<h3>An American, however, is given the
+honor of First by Slight Margin.</h3>
+
+<p>Morse was born in Charlestown,
+Massachusetts, in 1791. He was
+gifted as an artist, both in painting and
+sculpture, and in 1811 went abroad
+to England to study. While on a
+voyage from Havre to America in
+1832 he met on board ship a Dr.
+Jackson, who told him of the latest
+scientific discoveries in regard to the
+electric current and the electro-magnet.
+This set Morse to thinking and after
+three years’ hard work on the problem
+he produced a telegraph which worked
+on the principle of the electro-magnet.
+With the apparatus devised by Morse
+and his partner Alfred Vail, a message
+was sent from Washington to Baltimore
+in 1844.</p>
+
+<p>There has been some question as to
+whether Morse or Wheatstone first
+invented a workable telegraph. As
+will be evident from this history, the
+telegraph in principle was a gradual
+development, to which many minds
+contributed. To Morse, however, the
+high authority of the Supreme Court
+of the United States has given the credit
+of being the first to perfect a practical
+instrument, saying that the Morse
+invention “preceded the three European
+inventions” and that it would
+be impossible to examine the latter
+without perceiving at once “the decided
+superiority of the one invented
+by Professor Morse.”</p>
+
+<h3>Uncle Sam Helped Build the First
+Telegraph Line.</h3>
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>FIRST TELEGRAPH LINE FROM
+BALTIMORE TO WASHINGTON</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>At the time Morse’s Recording Telegraph
+was invented there were, of
+course, no telegraph lines in any part
+of the world, with the exception of
+the short lines of wire put up by investigators
+for experimental purposes.
+To remove the obscurity as to the purpose
+to be served by the telegraph was
+the first problem which presented
+itself to Morse and his backers. In
+1843 an appropriation was secured of
+$30,000 from the U. S. Government,
+with which a line was built from Washington
+to Baltimore. This was built
+and operated by the Government for
+about two years, but the Government
+refused to purchase the patent rights.
+So the owners of the patents endeavored
+to get the general public interested
+in the telegraph as a commercial undertaking
+and gradually companies were
+founded and licensed to use the invention.</p>
+
+<p>By 1851 there were as many as fifty
+different telegraph companies in operation
+in different parts of the United
+States. A few of these used the devices
+of a man named Alexander Bain,
+which were afterwards adjudged to
+infringe the Morse patents, and one or
+two used an instrument invented by
+Royal E. House of Vermont, which
+printed the messages received in plain
+Roman letters on a ribbon of paper.
+This at first seemed to have an advantage
+over that of Morse, which received
+the message in dots and dashes,
+in the Morse Code, and these had to
+be translated and written out by an
+operator before they could be delivered.
+However, as time went on, the operators
+came to read the Morse messages
+by the sound of the dots and dashes,
+instead of waiting to read the paper
+tape having the dots and dashes
+marked on it, and finally the recording
+feature was given up and the
+sounder, or instrument which simply
+clicks out the message, came into general
+use.</p>
+
+<p>In the early days, the possibility
+of the business were little understood
+and many telegraph companies failed.
+April 8, 1851, papers were filed in
+Albany for the incorporation of the
+New York and Mississippi Valley
+Printing Telegraph Co. This company,
+which soon afterwards changed
+its name to Western Union, was destined
+to absorb the various companies
+throughout the country until it, in
+time, operated the telegraph lines
+over practically the entire United
+States, and has its blue sign in nearly
+every town and hamlet in the country.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page423">[423]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">AN EXPENSIVE EQUIPMENT NECESSARY TO-DAY</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo423a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig423a">
+
+<p class="caption">OPERATING ROOM.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">In large cities like New York and Chicago, the operating rooms are very large. For instance, the main
+operating department of the Western Union Telegraph Co. in New York City has 1000 operators. This picture
+shows an operating room. The men and women sit in opposite sides of long tables. On the tables are the keys
+and sounders by which they send and receive the messages. Each operator has a typewriter, or “mill,” as
+he calls it, on which he writes off the message as it comes to him over the wire.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo423b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig423b" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption">MAIN SWITCHBOARD.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">The picture shows a main switchboard in a large operating room. To this come the ends of the wires from
+other cities, and to it are connected the wires from the instruments in front of the operators. By putting
+plugs, attached to each end of a wire, into the sockets in the board, any wire can be connected with any operating
+position, or several local circuits can be connected up with a main line from the outside.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page424">[424]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">A THOROUGH SYSTEM MUST HANDLE THE MESSAGES</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo424a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig424a">
+
+<p class="caption">A SECTION OF THE REPEATER ROOM.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">When a wire runs to a distant point from the main operating department of the telegraph company in a large
+city, the same electric current which runs through the key of the operator as he sits at his place, busily sending
+messages, does not go out over the wire to that distant point. It simply goes to the repeater room and
+operates a repeater, which sends out another current over the long wire which leads to the destination of the
+message. This is necessary because the condition of the weather affects the lines and the current strength
+has to be changed to suit the changing line conditions. The operators haven’t time to make these adjustments,
+and so all the repeaters are grouped together in the repeater room where they are under the watchful eyes of
+experts. Here also are the delicate instruments which separate the messages coming over duplex and quadruplex
+wires, by responding to impulses of various strengths. These messages which have been separated are then
+transmitted by the duplex or quadruplex repeaters to different operators in the operating room, who hear their
+sounders tick out the message just the same as if it came over a simple Morse wire.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo424b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig424b" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption">CABLES ENTERING A CENTRAL OFFICE.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">You may not but your father will remember the time when in large cities there were tall telegraph poles
+with hundreds of wires on them running along the main streets, so that the town seemed to be bound with
+great spiders’ web. That is all changed now, and the telegraph wires are run through ducts, placed underground.
+For this purpose they are made up in cables, and in the picture you see a number of cables entering a central
+office.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page425">[425]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">THE MARVEL OF TELEGRAPH INSTRUMENTS</p>
+
+<div class="split5050">
+
+<div class="left5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo425a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig425a">
+
+<p class="caption">WHEATSTONE SENDING INSTRUMENT.</p>
+
+</div><!--leftsplit-->
+
+<div class="right5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo425b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig425b">
+
+</div><!--rightsplit-->
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--split-->
+
+<p class="caption long">These two photographs show the most modern form of the
+instruments which, as we are told on another <a href="#Page421">page</a>,
+were invented in England by Wheatstone and Cooke. In sending a paper tape is punched in what is called a
+perforator, which has a keyboard like a typewriter. A certain combination of holes means a certain letter. This
+tape is then automatically fed through the sending instrument, which sends impulses over the wire. The tape
+with the holes punched through it can be seen in the picture.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">On the right is the Wheatstone receiving instrument. It prints the signals received in dots and dashes
+on a tape, which is translated by the operator who typewrites the translation on a message blank for delivery.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo425c.jpg" alt="" id="Fig425c" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption long">The automatic telegraph typewriter shown here is one of the wonderful instruments mentioned on one of the
+preceding <a href="#Page420">pages</a>. The operator at the other end of the line writes on a typewriter keyboard, on the sending
+instrument. The electric impulses are received by the machine shown above, which automatically typewrites
+the message on a blank, ready for delivery.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page426">[426]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">THE FIRST TELEGRAPH INSTRUMENTS</p>
+
+<div class="split5050">
+
+<div class="left5050">
+
+<p class="caption long">On this page we see some of the first telegraph
+instruments, in fact, the very instruments
+which Professor Morse used in the
+early demonstrations of his invention. These
+instruments may be seen in the Smithsonian
+Institution at Washington, D. C. The key
+is known as the Vail key, because it is supposed
+to have been constructed by Alfred
+Vail, who worked with Morse in his experiments
+with the telegraph. As can be seen
+it is very simple. One wire was connected
+to the spring piece and the other to the post
+beneath it. When the key was pressed down,
+the contact was made and an impulse sent
+over the wire, either a dot, if the key was
+pressed down and immediately released, or a
+dash if it were held down for just the fraction
+of a second before releasing.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">From the very first it was found that relays
+were necessary, because the current after
+coming a long way over the wire often was
+not strong enough to operate the recording
+instrument. Therefore, this weak current
+was made to go though the electro-magnets
+of the relay, magnetizing these and pulling
+to the left the upright arm which can be
+seen in the photograph with a little block
+of iron attached to it. This arm, when pulled
+by the magnets, made a contact at the top
+and allowed a strong current from a battery
+to flow through the magnets of the recording
+instrument.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">The first practical recording telegraph
+instrument devised by Morse is shown. It
+looks like a clumsy affair compared to the
+instruments of to-day, but it worked so
+effectively as to convince people of the possibilities
+of the great invention. In the
+wooden box, attached to the frame at the
+right, is clockwork which pulled a paper tape
+at an even rate of speed over a pulley just
+beneath a needle point. This needle point
+is attached to a light framework having a
+piece of iron fastened in it. Below this iron
+are the electro-magnets, and when they received
+an impulse of current from the battery,
+through the relay, they pulled down the frame
+so that the point made a mark upon the paper
+tape which moved under it. Thus in the
+tape appeared a series of dots and dashes,
+which the operator, knowing the Morse Code,
+could easily translate into English.</p>
+
+</div><!--leftsplit-->
+
+<div class="right5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo426a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig426a">
+
+<p class="caption">ONE OF THE FIRST KEYS FOR SENDING
+TELEGRAMS.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo426b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig426b" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption">ONE OF THE FIRST RELAYS.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo426c.jpg" alt="" id="Fig426c" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption long">The first recording apparatus. The box on
+the right contains clock work for pulling a
+paper tape beneath a sharp point actuated
+by magnets.</p>
+
+</div><!--rightsplit-->
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--split-->
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page427">[427]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">THE LITTLE INSTRUMENTS THAT CHECK OFF THE WORDS</p>
+
+<div class="split5050">
+
+<div class="left5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo427a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig427a">
+
+<p class="caption">A LATER KEY.</p>
+
+</div><!--leftsplit-->
+
+<div class="right5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo427b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig427b">
+
+<p class="caption">A LATER AND IMPROVED RECORDING INSTRUMENT.</p>
+
+</div><!--rightsplit-->
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--split-->
+
+<p class="caption long">Here we see some early telegraph instruments which have been improved somewhat from
+the crude devices illustrated on the preceding <a href="#Page426">page</a>. The key answers the same purpose as
+before, but has been improved by pivoting the lever arm, and having a coil spring, adjustable
+by means of a screw, so that the weight necessary to press it down can be varied to suit the
+likings of the operator who uses it. The play of the key or the distance it must be pressed down
+before it makes an electric contact, can be adjusted by another screw.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">The recording instrument here shown is a much neater affair than the cumbersome device
+which Professor Morse first built. The cumbersome wooden box has been replaced with a neat
+brass frame containing the clockwork for drawing the paper tape beneath the marking point,
+which is attached to a piece of iron, or armature, placed just above the magnet.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">Below we see the most modern types of Morse instruments. In the center is the key,
+which is not much changed except that it is built to be low down to a table, so that the operator
+may rest his forearm on the table top in front of it, and operate the key with his wrist, with
+less fatigue. The relay at the left is interesting. It shows how little this instrument has
+changed, except for refinement in its appearance, from the first relay built by Professor Morse.
+At the right is the Morse sounder, which has replaced the old Morse tape recording instrument.
+When current goes through the magnets they attract a piece of iron attached to the metal arm
+and pull it down to strike the brass frame. This makes a click, and when the current is intercepted,
+the magnets release the arm and a spring pulls it back, making another click. The
+operator reads the message by listening to the clicks. If the up click comes right after the
+down click it represents a dot. If there is a pause between them, a dash is represented.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo427c.jpg" alt="" id="Fig427c" class="blankbefore">
+
+<div class="split6436">
+
+<div class="left6436">
+
+<div class="split7525">
+
+<div class="left7525">
+
+<p class="caption">Relay</p>
+
+</div><!--left7525-->
+
+<div class="right7525">
+
+<p class="caption">Key</p>
+
+</div><!--right7525-->
+
+</div><!--split7525-->
+
+</div><!--left6436-->
+
+<div class="right6436">
+
+<p class="caption">Sounder</p>
+
+</div><!--right6436-->
+
+</div><!--split6436-->
+
+<p class="caption">MODERN MORSE INSTRUMENTS</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page428">[428]</span></p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">WHAT OCEAN CABLES LOOK LIKE WHEN CUT IN TWO</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo428a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig428a">
+
+<div class="illotext w25emmax">
+
+<p class="center"><i>Light Intermediate</i>
+<span class="padl2 padr2">&#160;</span><i>Heavy Intermediate</i></p>
+
+<p class="center blankbefore75"><i>Main Cable</i></p>
+
+<p class="center blankbefore75"><i>Rock Cable</i>
+<span class="padl2 padr2">&#160;</span><i>Heavy Shore End</i></p>
+
+<p class="center blankbefore75"><i>Rock Cable</i>
+<span class="padl2 padr2"><i>Heavy Shore End</i></span>
+<i>Heavy Intermediate</i></p>
+
+<p class="center blankbefore75"><i>Light Intermediate</i>
+<span class="padl2 padr2"><i>Deep Sea</i></span>
+<i>Bay Cable</i></p>
+
+</div><!--illotext-->
+
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 1.—Cables on Vancouver-Fanning Island Section.</span><br>
+Full size.<br>
+Core, 600/340.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo428b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig428b" class="blankbefore">
+
+<div class="illotext w15emmax">
+
+<p class="center">Yarn Serving &amp; Compound<br>
+16 No. 13 (·095) Galvanized Wires<br>
+Jute Serving<br>
+Gutta Percha<br>
+Copper Conductor</p>
+
+</div><!--illotext-->
+
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 2.—Cables used on Fiji-Norfolk Island-Queensland
+and New Zealand Sections.</span> Full size. Core 130/130.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">This picture shows cross-sections of a cable which runs from Vancouver, B. C., to Australia and New Zealand.
+A cable is not laid with a uniform cross-section. On the floor of the ocean, perhaps miles below the surface,
+the cable rests quietly and is not moved by storms which generate great waves on the surface of the water. As
+the cable approaches the shore, the movement of the water goes deeper and the cable must be made heavier to
+prevent it from being worn by movement on the bed of the ocean. Where the cable passes over a rocky bottom,
+it is made much larger in diameter and is heavily armored.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page429">[429]</span></p>
+
+<div class="container w45emmax" id="Fig429">
+
+<img src="images/illo429.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption long">Here is the cable steamship “Colonia” laying the shore end of a cable. Note the row
+of floats upon the water which carry the cable until the end in the cable office is firmly fastened.
+When this is accomplished the floats are removed and the cable sinks to the bottom.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2 class="nobreak">The Story in an Ocean Cable</h2>
+
+<h3>What is a Cable Made of?</h3>
+
+</div><!--chapter-->
+
+<p>A submarine telegraph cable as
+usually made consists of a core in the
+center of which is a strand of copper
+wire which varies in weight from seventy
+to four hundred pounds to the mile.
+Strands of copper wire instead of one
+thick wire of copper are used, because
+the former is more flexible. The copper
+conductor is covered with several
+coatings of rubber of equal weight to
+the copper wires. After this comes
+a coating of jute serving, then a layer
+of galvanized iron wires and finally
+a layer of yarn and compound which
+forms the outer covering of the cable.
+In addition to this where the cable
+lays among rocks that might injure
+it, chains are securely wrapped around
+it, so as to prevent wear and tear as
+much as possible.</p>
+
+<p>You may not have known it, but the
+cable which lies on the bottom where
+the water is deepest is never so large
+as nearer the shore or in shallow water.
+Little by little the men who lay and
+look after cables have found that it is
+best to have a specially constructed
+outer covering for different depths
+and character of bottoms so as to provide
+the least possible danger of damage
+through the action of the water on the
+bottom.</p>
+
+<h3>How is a Cable Laid?</h3>
+
+<p>When the cable of sufficient length is
+completed, it is carried to a specially
+equipped vessel which has a great
+tank for holding the cable and the
+necessary machinery for lowering it
+over the end of the ship into the water.
+The cable is carefully coiled in the
+tank, the different coils being prevented
+from adhering by a coat of whitewash.
+First then, a sufficient length of cable
+is paid out to reach the cable house or
+shore. Here it is finally tested to see
+that the entire length of cable is in
+working order. If satisfactorily tested,
+the vessel steams slowly away on the
+course outlined, paying out the cable
+as she goes.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page430">[430]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">STORING A CABLE LONG ENOUGH TO CROSS THE OCEAN</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo430a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig430a">
+
+<p class="caption">Here we see a cable coiled round and round in the tank which holds it on board the cable ship.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo430b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig430b" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption long">In the front of the picture we see the cable coming from the tank in which it is coiled. It
+goes over the drum of the paying-out machine and thence to the bow of the ship, where it passes
+over big sheaves or pulleys and down into the ocean.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page431">[431]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">THE MACHINERY ON A CABLE SHIP</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo431a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig431a">
+
+<p class="caption long">The paying-out machine. The cable makes a couple of turns around the big drum, which
+is connected to the dial, so that the dial indicates the length of cable which has been paid out
+into the sea.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo431b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig431b" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption long">The upper forward deck of the cable steamship “Telconia,” showing the gear which is
+used in paying out the cable. Away in the bow are the big sheaves over which the cable goes
+into the sea. Nearer is a dynamometer which measures the tension on the cable.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page432">[432]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">HOW THE CABLE IS DROPPED INTO THE OCEAN</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo432.jpg" alt="" id="Fig432">
+
+<p class="caption">Here we see the cable on the lead, as it is called, passing over the big bow sheave from which
+it dives into the depths of the sea.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page433">[433]</span></p>
+
+<p>The vessel must pay out more than
+a mile of cable for every mile she travels
+because there must be enough slack
+allowed at the same time to provide
+for the unevenness of the bottom of the
+sea. For this purpose the amount of
+cable paid out must be measured. This
+is done by the paying-out machine,
+which is <a href="#Fig431a">shown</a> in one of the pictures.
+The difference between the speed of the
+ship and the amount of cable paid out
+gives the amount of slack. Too much
+slack would also be bad, so that it is
+a very pretty problem to pay out just
+enough and both the speed of the
+vessel and the rate of paying out the
+cable must be watched carefully.</p>
+
+<p>One of the greatest wonders accomplished
+by the ingenuity of man is the
+ocean telegraph, by which we flash
+messages back and forth under the sea
+between the continents and completely
+around the world.</p>
+
+<p>Hardly had the telegraph become an
+established fact, before Professor Morse,
+who made the telegraph practical,
+expressed the belief that a telegraph
+line to Europe by means of a wire laid
+on the bottom of the ocean was easily
+possible at some future time. Mr.
+Cyrus W. Field, the first to lay an
+ocean cable successfully, heard him
+and in his own mind said “Why not
+now?” The idea fixed itself so thoroughly
+in his resolute mind that he
+soon said to himself “It shall be done,”
+and went to work, and labored incessantly
+through twelve years of failure
+and discouragement before he
+accomplished his task, which was a
+great compliment to this giant of
+American stick-to-it-iveness.</p>
+
+<p>While many doubted the feasibility
+of the project and others thought it
+the dream of a disordered brain, Mr.
+Field found many who believed in him
+and his idea and who loaned him their
+financial support for the undertaking.</p>
+
+<div class="container w45emmax" id="Fig433">
+
+<p class="caption">THE CABLE ARRIVES ON THE OTHER SIDE</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo433.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption long">Landing the shore end of a cable. The cable is supported on several boats and this picture
+shows the inshore boat with the end of the cable reaching the beach with the seas breaking over
+her.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page434">[434]</span></p>
+
+<div class="container w50emmax" id="Fig434">
+
+<p class="caption">THE MEN WHO MADE THE OCEAN CABLE POSSIBLE</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo434.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">THE PIONEERS OF THE FIRST OCEAN CABLE.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>American genius had not at that
+time asserted its supremacy in mechanics
+and so the first cable had to be
+made in England; so Mr. Field ordered
+one long enough to stretch from the
+west coast of Ireland to the eastern
+point of Newfoundland. English capitalists
+subscribed the money and the
+United States provided the vessel in
+which to store and from which to drop
+the cable into the ocean.</p>
+
+<p>Upon the first attempt to lay the
+cable, every thing went along nicely
+for six days, and then suddenly the
+cable broke when three hundred and
+thirty-five miles had been laid, and
+many said it could not be done. Mr.
+Field, however, full of American pluck
+and determination, said “We will try
+again.” A second attempt was made
+with two ships, the U. S. S. “Niagara”
+and H. M. S. S. “Agamemnon.” Each
+ship carried half the cable and they
+traveled in company to the middle
+of the ocean. There the two pieces
+of the cable were spliced together and
+the ships started for the shores in opposite
+directions. Again, however, when
+only a little of the cable had been paid
+out—a little more than one hundred
+miles in fact—the cable broke and both
+ships were forced to return to England.</p>
+
+<p>In his third attempt the cable was
+finally laid clear across the ocean and
+fastened at both ends. When tried it
+was found to work successfully and
+Queen Victoria and President Buchanan
+were able to exchange greetings upon
+the achievement of a wonderful work.
+The people celebrated the event on
+both sides of the ocean, but in the midst
+of the festivities, while a message was
+being flashed, something happened to
+the cable—what, we have never been
+able to learn—and the cable was silent,
+forever.</p>
+
+<p>Nothing daunted, however, Mr. Field
+by his great courage induced his backers
+to buy him another cable and the
+“Great Eastern” sailed upon what
+was to be a most successful mission.
+Starting from the American side with
+the greatest steamship then known in
+charge of the previous cable, the other
+end was successfully landed at Hearts
+Content, Ireland, on July 27, 1866,
+in perfect working order, and the question
+of the ocean telegraph was solved.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page435">[435]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">HOW CABLES ARE REPAIRED</p>
+
+<div class="split5050">
+
+<div class="left5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo435a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig435a">
+
+<p class="caption long">Here is a buoy which is anchored to the
+cable. The cable ship will pick it up and
+haul up the cable to the surface for inspection
+and perhaps it will have to be repaired.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo435b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig435b" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption long">Three grapnels used for picking up a cable
+from the bed of the ocean. On the left is
+a common grapnel. In the middle is a special
+grapnel known as Trott-Kingsford. On the
+right is the ordinary cutting grapnel. Note
+the knives on the shaft and the insides of the
+prongs.</p>
+
+</div><!--left5050-->
+
+<div class="right5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo435c.jpg" alt="" id="Fig435c">
+
+<p class="caption long">In this picture we see a portion of a cable
+which has been fouled by the anchor of a ship
+and badly damaged. Note how the wires
+are bunched. The cable splicers will go to
+work on this and put in a new piece of cable,
+after which it will be let down into the sea
+again.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo435d.jpg" alt="" id="Fig435d" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption">The Western Union Cable ship “Minia,”
+fast in an ice field.</p>
+
+</div><!--right5050-->
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--split-->
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page436">[436]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">POWERFUL ENGINES NEEDED ON CABLE REPAIR SHIPS</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo436a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig436a">
+
+<p class="caption">Here are the powerful engines which are used for picking up a cable which has to be raised
+from the bottom of the sea for inspection or repair.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo436b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig436b" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption">In this picture we see men at work splicing a cable which has been picked up out of the depths
+of the sea and found to be damaged.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page437">[437]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">THE SHIP WHICH HELPED IN LAYING THE FIRST CABLE</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo437a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig437a">
+
+<div class="illotext w12emmax">
+
+<p class="center">ARMORING MACHINE</p>
+
+</div><!--illotext-->
+
+<p class="caption long">Here is one of the machines used for armoring the cable. By armoring is meant winding
+steel wires around and around the cable to protect it from being cut by sharp rocks on the bottom
+or by deep sea animals like the teredo, which might attack it.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo437b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig437b" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption">The “Great Eastern” which was the first ship to carry a cable across the Atlantic Ocean.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo437c.jpg" alt="" id="Fig437c" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption long">This is a section of a telephone cable, known as a “bulge.” It contains inductance coils
+to offset what is called the condenser capacity of the cable, which would otherwise cause the
+talking to become blurred.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page438">[438]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">THE DOTS AND DASHES WHICH FLASH ACROSS THE SEA</p>
+
+<div class="split5050">
+
+<div class="left5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo438a.jpg" alt="Cable repair crew on rocky sea shore" id="Fig438a">
+
+<p class="caption">CONTINENTAL MORSE CODE SIGNALS
+USED IN CABLE WORKING</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo438b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig438b">
+
+</div><!--leftsplit-->
+
+<div class="right5050">
+
+<p class="caption long fig438a">Making repairs to a cable where it comes
+out of the sea on to a bold rocky shore. Note
+how the cable is wound with chain to protect
+it from the rocks.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">Facsimile of Continental Morse Alphabet as Signalled Across the Atlantic
+and Copied on Tape by Siphon Recorder Instrument at the Receiving Station.
+Signals Enlarged for Purposes of this Illustration.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo438c.jpg" alt="" id="Fig438c">
+
+<p class="caption">Same Signals as They Appear in Actual Working</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo438d.jpg" alt="" id="Fig438d">
+
+</div><!--rightsplit-->
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--split-->
+
+<p class="caption long blankbefore75">Here are two photographs showing the continental Morse code signals used in cable working and the signals
+as they are received by the siphon recording instrument at the receiving station. This siphon recorder is in
+practical use in the cable world. The dots and dashes sent into the wire on one side of the ocean according to the
+Morse code, cause the siphon recorder through the means of electrified ink to make a waving line on a tape.
+The signals are readily reducible again if necessary to the dots and dashes of the Morse code because dots make
+deflections to one side of the center of the tape and dashes to the other. The operator who receives the message
+can therefore readily read it.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<div class="illotext w30emmax">
+
+<table class="morsecode">
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="7">ALPHABET:</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>A</td>
+<td>B</td>
+<td>C</td>
+<td>D</td>
+<td>E</td>
+<td>F</td>
+<td>G</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>·&#160;—</td>
+<td>—&#160;·&#160;·&#160;·</td>
+<td>—&#160;·&#160;—&#160;·</td>
+<td>—&#160;·&#160;·</td>
+<td>·</td>
+<td>·&#160;·&#160;—&#160;·</td>
+<td>—&#160;—&#160;·</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>H</td>
+<td>I</td>
+<td>J</td>
+<td>K</td>
+<td>L</td>
+<td>M</td>
+<td>N</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>·&#160;·&#160;·&#160;·</td>
+<td>·&#160;·</td>
+<td>·&#160;—&#160;—&#160;—</td>
+<td>—&#160;·&#160;—</td>
+<td>·&#160;—&#160;·&#160;·</td>
+<td>—&#160;—</td>
+<td>—&#160;·</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>O</td>
+<td>P</td>
+<td>Q</td>
+<td>R</td>
+<td>S</td>
+<td>T</td>
+<td>U</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>—&#160;—&#160;—</td>
+<td>·&#160;—&#160;—&#160;·</td>
+<td>—&#160;—&#160;·&#160;—</td>
+<td>·&#160;—&#160;·</td>
+<td>·&#160;·&#160;·</td>
+<td>—</td>
+<td>·&#160;·&#160;—</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>V</td>
+<td>W</td>
+<td>X</td>
+<td>Y</td>
+<td>Z</td>
+<td rowspan="2" colspan="2">&#160;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>·&#160;·&#160;·&#160;—</td>
+<td>·&#160;—&#160;—</td>
+<td>—&#160;·&#160;·&#160;—</td>
+<td>—&#160;·&#160;—&#160;—</td>
+<td>—&#160;—&#160;·&#160;·</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<table class="morsecode">
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="5">FIGURES:</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>1</td>
+<td>2</td>
+<td>3</td>
+<td>4</td>
+<td>5</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>·&#160;—&#160;—&#160;—&#160;—</td>
+<td>·&#160;·&#160;—&#160;—&#160;—</td>
+<td>·&#160;·&#160;·&#160;—&#160;—</td>
+<td>·&#160;·&#160;·&#160;·&#160;—</td>
+<td>·&#160;·&#160;·&#160;·&#160;·</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>6</td>
+<td>7</td>
+<td>8</td>
+<td>9</td>
+<td>0</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>—&#160;·&#160;·&#160;·&#160;·</td>
+<td>—&#160;—&#160;·&#160;·&#160;·</td>
+<td>—&#160;—&#160;—&#160;·&#160;·</td>
+<td>—&#160;—&#160;—&#160;—&#160;·</td>
+<td>—&#160;—&#160;—&#160;—&#160;—</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4">&#160;</td>
+<td>OR&#160;—</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+</div><!--illotext-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page439">[439]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage landscape">
+
+<p class="paghead">TO-DAY THERE ARE MANY CABLES ON THE BOTTOM</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo439.jpg" alt="" id="Fig439">
+
+<div class="illotext w15emmax">
+
+<p class="center">MAP No. 1<br>
+WESTERN UNION<br>
+TRANS-ATLANTIC CABLES<br>
+AND CONNECTIONS<br>
+</p>
+
+</div><!--illotext-->
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page440">[440]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage landscape">
+
+<h2 class="pagheading">THE STORY IN A RAILWAY LOCOMOTIVE</h2>
+
+<p class="caption p440"><span class="fsize175"><b>One of the Most Powerful Locomotives in the World</b></span></p>
+
+<img src="images/illo440a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig440a">
+
+<img src="images/illo440b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig440b" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption">BOILER OF ARTICULATE COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVE.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">The wonder of our railroad systems to-day
+is the growth of the locomotive. The necessity
+for economy in hauling long freight
+trains has led to the development of this
+type of engine. Some idea of its size can be had
+from the second picture, which shows the
+boiler and firebox of the locomotive shown
+in the first picture. The firebox is so large
+that an ordinary narrow-gauge locomotive
+of the old style can be comfortably stored in it.</p>
+
+<table class="locdata">
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="head"><span class="smcap">Loaded Weights</span></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="descr">On driving wheels</td>
+<td class="data">475,000 lbs.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="descr">On truck wheels</td>
+<td class="data">30,000 lbs.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="descr">On trailing wheels</td>
+<td class="data">35,000 lbs.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="descr">Total of engine</td>
+<td class="data">540,000 lbs.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="descr">Total of tender</td>
+<td class="data">212,000 lbs.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="head"><span class="smcap">Wheel Base</span></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="descr">Driving, rigid</td>
+<td class="data">15 ft. 6 ins.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="descr">Total of engine</td>
+<td class="data">57 ft. 4 ins.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="descr">Total of engine and tender</td>
+<td class="data">91 ft. 5³⁄₁₆ ins.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="head"><span class="smcap">Cylinders</span></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="descr">Diameter</td>
+<td class="data">H.P. 28 ins.,<br>L. P. 44 ins.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="descr">Stroke of piston</td>
+<td class="data">32 ins.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="head"><span class="smcap">Wheels</span></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="descr">Diameter of driving wheels, outside</td>
+<td class="data">56 ins.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="descr">Diameter of truck wheels</td>
+<td class="data">30 ins.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="descr">Diameter of trailing wheels</td>
+<td class="data">30 ins.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="descr">Diameter of tender wheels</td>
+<td class="data">33 ins.</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page441">[441]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage landscape">
+
+<p class="paghead">CYLINDERS BIG ENOUGH FOR MEN TO SIT DOWN IN</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo441.jpg" alt=""  id="Fig441">
+
+<p class="caption">LOW PRESSURE CYLINDERS OF ARTICULATED COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVE.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">In the picture we see the cylinders
+of the locomotive shown on the <a href="#Page440">previous
+page</a>. Some idea of their size
+can be had from the fact that a good-sized
+man can sit comfortably in
+each of them.</p>
+
+<table class="locdata">
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="head"><span class="smcap">Boiler</span></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="descr">Type</td>
+<td class="data">Ex. Wagon Top</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="descr">Working pres. per sq. in.</td>
+<td class="data">200 lbs.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="descr">Outside diam. at front end</td>
+<td class="data">100 ins.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="descr">Outside diam. at back end</td>
+<td class="data">112 ins.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="descr">Length firebox inside</td>
+<td class="data">173¹⁄₁₆ ins.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="descr">Length firebox, actual, inside</td>
+<td class="data">132 ins.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="descr">Width of firebox inside</td>
+<td class="data">108¹⁄₄ ins.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="descr">No. and diam. of tubes</td>
+<td class="data">334, 2¹⁄₄ ins.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="descr">No. and diam. of flues</td>
+<td class="data">48, 5¹⁄₂ ins.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="descr">Length of tubes</td>
+<td class="data">24 ft. 0 ins.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="descr">Combust. chamber length</td>
+<td class="data">39¹⁄₁₆ ins.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="descr">Grate area</td>
+<td class="data">99.2 sq. ft.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="head"><span class="smcap">Heating Surface</span></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="descr">Tubes and flues</td>
+<td class="data">6462 sq. ft.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="descr">Water tubes</td>
+<td class="data">67 sq. ft.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="descr">Firebox</td>
+<td class="data">380 sq. ft.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="descr">Total</td>
+<td class="data">6909 sq. ft.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="descr">Superheating surface</td>
+<td class="data">1311 sq. ft.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="head"><span class="smcap">Clearance Limitations</span></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="descr">Extreme height</td>
+<td class="data">16 ft. 5¹⁄₈ ins.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="descr">Extreme width</td>
+<td class="data">11 ft. 8¹⁄₂ ins.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="descr">Length over all</td>
+<td class="data">99 ft. 9⁵⁄₈ ins.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="head"><span class="smcap">Maximum Tractive Power</span></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="descr">Working compound</td>
+<td class="data">115,000 lbs.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="descr">Working simple</td>
+<td class="data">138,000 lbs.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="descr">Factor of adhesion (working compound)</td>
+<td class="data">4.13</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="descr">Factor of adhesion (working simple)</td>
+<td class="data">3.44</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="head"><span class="smcap">Tender Capacity</span></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="descr">Water</td>
+<td class="data">12,000 gals.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="descr">Fuel</td>
+<td class="data">16 tons</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page442">[442]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEER’S WORKROOM</p>
+
+<div class="split5050">
+
+<div class="left5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo442a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig442a">
+
+</div><!--leftsplit-->
+
+<div class="right5050">
+
+<p class="caption long fig442a">Here is a picture of one end of
+the boiler of this giant locomotive.
+It would take a man more than
+seven feet high to bump his head
+in the middle of it while standing on
+his feet.</p>
+
+</div><!--rightsplit-->
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--split-->
+
+<img src="images/illo442b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig442b" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption long">This shows a picture of the engineer’s cab of one of these great railroad machines. We are accustomed
+to see the levers and other machinery for operating the engine right in the back of the engine cab. Over
+or near the firebox. Upon looking closely we find that the operating machinery is at the side of the locomotive
+and far forward in the cab. In fact there is a complete set of operating machinery on both sides of the cab,
+so that the engineer can run the engine from whatever side he happens to be on. This is very necessary, particularly
+in switching. Near the end of the cab where the engineer used to sit you will notice a peculiar pipe-like
+arrangement. This is not for operating the engine, but is the automatic stoker, which is fully explained in the
+<a href="#Fig443a">next picture</a>. An engine of this size will require seven tons of coal per hour.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page443">[443]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">A MACHINE WHICH DOES THE WORK OF FOUR FIREMEN</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo443a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig443a">
+
+<p class="caption long">When these large locomotives were first used it was found that no one fireman could shovel
+in enough coal to keep the steam up. It would require three or four firemen working constantly
+to shovel enough coal to keep this engine going. Man’s inventive genius came to the front,
+however, and now we have an automatic fireman, so to speak. Instead of shoveling coal on one
+of these engines the fireman merely operates a lever. This is a picture of the Sweet locomotive
+stoker installed in a railroad engine. This machine automatically conveys coal from the tender
+to the locomotive, raises it by an elevator to a point above the fire door, dumps it into the firebox
+and spreads it evenly over the grate.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo443b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig443b" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption">This is the new type of electric locomotive being used by the New York Central system</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page444">[444]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">HOW A FAST TRAIN TAKES WATER WITHOUT STOPPING</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo444a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig444a">
+
+<p class="caption long">The fast express trains haven’t time to stop and take water from the tank at the side of the railroad as in
+former days. This picture shows a tank built between the tracks which enables the engineer to fill his boilers
+without slackening speed. When approaching this tank the engineer simply lowers a tube into the water, the
+end of which is a scoop. The moving engine thus forces the water up into the tube, from which it runs into the
+boiler.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo444b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig444b" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption long">This is an improved signal tower from which switches are operated. If you were ever in a signal tower
+you will not recognize this as one, for you are used to seeing a room full of levers which the tower man had to
+pull hard when he wished to throw a switch. By the old way the end of the lever was attached to a wire which
+was connected with the switch. The wire running through pipes, when the operator pulled the lever the switch
+was pulled shut by the pull on the wire. In this new plan the switch is controlled by electricity, and the operator
+has merely to pull out a plug as shown in the picture, which is much easier than operating a lever.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page445">[445]</span></p>
+
+<div class="container w40emmax">
+
+<p class="caption">WHAT MAKES A WIRELESS MESSAGE GO</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo445.jpg" alt="" id="Fig445">
+
+<p class="caption long">Sketch showing arrangement of aerial on ship equipped with the Marconi Direction Finder,
+an instrument which tells the sea captain the exact points of the compass from which wireless
+distress signals are being sent and enables ships to avoid collisions in fog.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<h2 class="nobreak">The Story in the Wireless</h2>
+
+</div><!--chapter-->
+
+<h3>What is the Principle of the Wireless
+Telegraphy?</h3>
+
+<p>Drop a stone in a pool of water.
+Circular waves or ripples will travel
+outward in all directions. That is
+the principle of wireless telegraph.</p>
+
+<p>If a chip be floating on the water
+it will be rocked by each ripple, just
+as a wireless receiving station will
+respond to the electrical waves or
+impulses that make up a wireless
+message. It is not known just how
+the invisible wireless waves are propelled
+through space, but they travel
+through the ether in the air in very
+much the same way as do sound
+waves. The electrical signals, too, are
+received only by apparatus that is
+attuned to them; that is, they can not
+be heard except at wireless stations,
+any more than sound can be heard by
+the ears of a deaf person.</p>
+
+<p>The wireless waves have a definite
+length, can be measured in feet or
+meters, and are regulated according
+to the distance the message is to
+travel. Stations that send a few hundred
+miles use a wave length of six
+hundred meters, or less, while at the
+powerful land stations used for trans-atlantic
+work the wave lengths used run
+into as many thousands.</p>
+
+<h3>Why Don’t the Messages Go to the
+Wrong Stations?</h3>
+
+<p>So that the hundreds of messages
+hurtling through space at the same
+time will not interfere, the wireless
+stations are equipped with tuning-apparatus
+through which they can
+adjust their wave length to receive
+the particular message desired. A different
+wave length is used by each
+ship or wireless shore station, and even
+though dozens of messages fill the air,<span class="pagenum" id="Page446">[446]</span>
+the minute the wireless operator adjusts
+his tuner to the length of the
+station he is after, that particular
+message stands out very strongly and
+all the others grow dim.</p>
+
+<div class="container w30emmax" id="Fig446">
+
+<img src="images/illo446.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">The Marconi Wireless station at Miami,
+Fla., which is typical of the shore stations
+that handle messages to several thousand
+ships at sea.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<h3>How Does the Wireless Reach Ships at
+Sea?</h3>
+
+<p>All ships at sea report their positions
+regularly; thus it is a simple
+matter for a shore station to send a
+wireless message to the ship to which
+it is addressed. For example, the
+Marconi station at Sea Gate, New
+York, wants to reach the Lusitania.
+The operator looks up that vessel on
+the list and notes her call signal and
+wave length. He adjusts his tuner
+to correspond and calls her signal,
+M F A, repeating it three times.</p>
+
+<p>The wireless man on the vessel,
+knowing that he is within range of a
+shore station, has set his tuner at the
+wave length assigned to him and is
+listening. When his call letters are
+heard, he acknowledges them and signals
+to go ahead with the message.
+When it has been given, the Sea Gate
+station “signs off” with its call
+letters W S E and the ship operator
+enters in his record that that particular
+message reached him via the Marconi
+station at Sea Gate. Thus, with the
+wide variety in wave lengths, no confusion
+of messages exists and any desired
+ship or shore station can be called,
+just as a direct telephone connection
+is secured by giving the central station
+the call number of the subscriber
+wanted.</p>
+
+<h3>What Kind of Signs Are Used in the
+Wireless?</h3>
+
+<p>The actual wireless message is composed
+of dots and dashes, which, in
+certain combinations, stand for certain
+letters of the alphabet. This is done
+through opening and closing the electrical
+circuit by pressing a key, a sharp
+touch forming a dot and a longer
+pressure a dash, as with the wire
+telegraph.</p>
+
+<p>If secrecy in a wireless message is
+wanted, the words are sent in cipher
+which, of course, cannot be understood
+by outsiders. The Government sends
+thousands of words each day without
+a single word meaning anything to
+the wireless stations that happen to
+be “listening in.” While it is true
+that any one owning a wireless receiving
+set may listen to messages flying
+through the air, every person within
+hearing who understands the Morse
+Code can read the telegrams that come
+into a telegraph office. Knowledge
+thus gained, however, is of little value,
+as the law provided heavy penalties
+for disclosing the contents of any kind
+of telegraph message.</p>
+
+<h3>What Does a Wireless Equipment Consist
+of?</h3>
+
+<p>The various apparatus that comprises
+a wireless equipment can not be properly
+explained without the use of technical
+language, but the general principle
+of operation is somewhat as
+follows: If a small loop of copper
+wire, with a slight separation between
+the ends, is placed across a room<span class="pagenum" id="Page447">[447]</span>
+from an electric spark, it will be slightly
+affected. Increase the electrical current
+to far greater power and control
+it, and the invisible electrical wave
+may be thrown many miles. To send
+a message across the ocean, the current
+used by the modern wireless
+station is so powerful that it will pass
+through storm and fog, even through
+mountains, without losing much of
+its force. When this tremendous force
+is released by pressing the telegraph
+key, it leaps from the aerial wires,
+or antennae, travels across the Atlantic
+and is picked up by a corresponding
+aerial, attuned to receive the signal.</p>
+
+<div class="container w45emmax" id="Fig447">
+
+<div class="split6040">
+
+<div class="left6040">
+
+<p class="caption">Pack and riding horses
+grouped together ready
+for unloading the Marconi
+wireless set used in the
+cavalry.</p>
+
+</div><!--leftsplit-->
+
+<div class="right6040">
+
+<p>&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--right6040-->
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--split-->
+
+<img src="images/illo447.jpg" alt="">
+
+<div class="split5050">
+
+<div class="left5050">
+
+<p>&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--leftsplit-->
+
+<div class="right5050">
+
+<p class="caption">Station set up and working.</p>
+
+</div><!--right5050-->
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--split-->
+
+<p class="caption">WORKING THE WIRELESS IN THE ARMY.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>The aerial, or antennae, as it is called
+in a wireless work, is made up of copper
+wires. On a ship these are strung
+between the masts, usually consisting
+of two, four or six wires held apart
+by crosspieces. Two or more wires
+lead down from this to the wireless
+cabin.</p>
+
+<p>The coil or transformer is the apparatus
+which produces the spark that
+forms the electrical waves. In small
+stations, the length and thickness
+of the spark and the speed of vibration
+is regulated by a thumb screw. Transformers
+are used when the power is
+taken from the alternating current of
+an electric light circuit.</p>
+
+<p>The gap, which the electrical current
+jumps when the telegraph key is pressed
+down, is composed of two rods which
+slide together or apart to vary the length
+of the spark.</p>
+
+<p>The simplest type of sending station
+consists of the antenna, battery,
+coil, wireless key and spark gap. If
+a change in wave length is desired a
+transmitting tuning coil must be added.</p>
+
+<p>The receiving apparatus contains a
+detector, which is chiefly two mineral
+points lightly touching and connected
+with a sensitive head telephone. The
+incoming signals are heard as long and
+short buzzing sounds corresponding to
+the dots and dashes. The receiving
+tuning coil, used to adjust wave
+lengths, is operated by simply moving
+sliding contacts along a bar until the
+signals are more plainly heard. While
+the large stations have more complicated
+apparatus, the principle remains
+the same.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page448">[448]</span></p>
+
+<div class="container w30emmax" id="Fig448a">
+
+<img src="images/illo448a.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption long">The masts for the cavalry wireless
+sets are so attached that they
+can be loaded and unloaded with
+the utmost rapidity; a complete
+station can be erected or dismantled
+in less than ten minutes.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<div class="container w30emmax" id="Fig448b">
+
+<img src="images/illo448b.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption long">The gasoline engine which supplies
+the power for operating a
+cavalry wireless station is fitted
+to the saddle frame and is light
+enough to be carried by one horse.</p>
+
+<p class="caption">THE WIRELESS IN THE ARMY</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<h3>How High Do Wireless Masts Have
+to be?</h3>
+
+<p>The towering masts of the Marconi
+Trans-Oceanic stations are often supposed
+to rise to their great height, so
+that an antennae will be raised above
+the obstructions between. If this were
+necessary, two wireless stations separated
+by the Atlantic would have to
+have masts one hundred and twenty-five
+miles high to rise above the curvature
+of the earth. The path of the
+wireless waves, however, is not in a
+straight line, but follows the curvature
+of the earth. Scientists explain
+this by saying the rarefied air above
+the earth’s surface acts as a shell
+enclosing the globe.</p>
+
+<p>The speed of wireless messages is
+placed at 186,000 miles per second.
+A wireless message will thus cross the
+Atlantic in about one-nineteenth of
+a second—a period of time too small
+for the human mind to grasp. In
+other words, the wireless flash crosses
+in a fraction of a second a distance
+that the earth requires five hours
+to turn on its axis and the fastest
+ships take nearly a week to cross.</p>
+
+<p>The longest distance over which a
+wireless message can be sent is not
+definitely known; the present record
+was made in September, 1910, by
+Marconi from Clifden, Ireland, to
+Buenos Aires, Argentina, a distance
+of 6700 miles.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page449">[449]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage landscape">
+
+<p class="paghead">THE WIRELESS PREVENTS ACCIDENTS AND SAVES MANY LIVES</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo449.jpg" alt="" id="Fig449">
+
+<p class="caption long">This photograph makes us appreciate what a wonderful aid is wireless to navigators. On
+Easter Sunday, 1914, the U. S. Revenue Cutter “Seneca,” patrolling the North Atlantic,
+found these two gigantic icebergs in the regular steamer lanes and sent out wireless warnings
+to all nearby steamships.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page450">[450]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">HOW THE WIRELESS IS INSTALLED ON FAST TRAINS</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo450a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig450a">
+
+<p class="caption">RAILROAD WIRELESS.—ANTENNA ON CARS.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo450b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig450b" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption">WIRELESS STATION ON TRAINS.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page451">[451]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">WIRELESS STATION IN U. S. ARMY</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo451a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig451a">
+
+<p class="caption">City side of Scranton station, Lackawanna R.R., showing aerial of wireless which communicates
+with trains.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo451b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig451b" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="illocredit p451">Photo by Stefano</p>
+
+<p class="caption">WIRELESS RECEIVING STATION IN U. S. ARMY.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page452">[452]</span></p>
+
+<div class="container w20emmax" id="Fig452">
+
+<img src="images/illo452.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">Guglielmo Marconi,
+Inventor of wireless telegraphy.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<h3>The Man Who Invented Wireless Telegraphy.</h3>
+
+<p>Communication without wires for
+thousands of miles across oceans, from
+continent to continent, is a far cry from
+sending a wireless impulse the length
+of a kitchen table. That is the development
+of twenty years.</p>
+
+<p>To properly trace the development
+of wireless telegraphy, however, it is
+necessary to go back eighty-three years
+to when, in 1831, Michael Faraday
+discovered electro-magnetic induction
+between two entirely separate circuits.
+Steinheil, of Munich, too, in
+1838, suggested that the metallic portion
+of a grounded electrical circuit
+might be dispensed with and a system
+of wireless telegraphy established.
+Then, in 1859, Bowman Lindsay demonstrated
+to the British Association his
+method of transmitting messages by
+means of magnetism through and
+across the water without submerged
+wires. In 1867 James Clerk Maxwell
+laid down the theory of electro-magnetism
+and predicted the existence of
+the electric waves that are now used in
+wireless telegraphy. Dolbear, of Tufts
+College, in 1836, patented a plan for
+establishing wireless communication by
+means of two insulated elevated plates,
+but there is no evidence that the method
+proposed by him effected the transmission
+of signals between stations
+separated by any distance. A year
+later Heinrich Rudolph Hertz discovered
+the progressive propagation
+of electro-magnetic action through space
+and accomplished the most valuable
+work in this period of speculation and
+experiment.</p>
+
+<p>Just twenty years ago, at his father’s
+country home in Bologna, Guglielmo
+Marconi, then a lad just out of his
+’teens, read of the experiments of
+Hertz and conceived the first wireless
+telegraph apparatus. This was
+completed some months later and a
+message in the Morse Code was transmitted
+a distance of three or four
+feet, the length of the table on which
+the apparatus rested.</p>
+
+<p>Satisfied that he had laid the foundation
+of an epoch-making discovery
+young Marconi pursued his experiments
+and filed the first patent on the
+subject on June 2, 1896. Further
+experiments were carried on in London
+during that year and at the request
+of Sir William H. Preece, of the British
+Post Office, official tests were made,
+first over a distance of about 100
+yards and later for one and three-quarter
+miles.</p>
+
+<p>During the year following Mr. Marconi
+gave several demonstrations to
+the officials of the various European
+governments and communication was
+established up to 34 miles. In July
+of this year, 1897, the first commercial
+wireless telegraph company was incorporated
+in England and the first Marconi
+station was erected at the Needles,
+Isle of Wight.</p>
+
+<p>On June 3, 1898, Lord Kelvin visited
+this station and sent the first paid
+Marconigram. A month later the
+events of the Kingstown Regatta in
+Dublin were reported by wireless telegraphy
+for a local newspaper from the
+steamer “Flying Huntress.” In August
+of that year the royal yacht “Osborn”
+was equipped with a wireless set, in
+order that Queen Victoria might communicate
+with the Prince of Wales,
+who was at Ladywood Cottage and
+suffering from the results of an accident
+to his knee. For sixteen days,
+constant and uninterrupted communication
+was maintained. Then on<span class="pagenum" id="Page453">[453]</span>
+Christmas Eve was inaugurated the
+first lightship wireless service, messages
+being sent from the East Goodwin
+lightship to the lighthouse at South
+Foreland.</p>
+
+<div class="container w25emmax" id="Fig453a">
+
+<p class="caption">PREPARING TO SEND MESSAGES ACROSS THE OCEAN</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo453a.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption long">This photograph shows how wireless messages
+are prepared for direct transmission
+across the ocean. The dots and dashes of
+the telegraphic code are punched on tapes by
+skilled operators, thus insuring accuracy and
+a permanent record of each message. Five
+or six operators, and sometimes more, are
+steadily preparing these tapes, which are
+pasted together and run through a machine
+which operates the key at each perforation.
+A speed of 100 words a minute is thus obtained.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>Three months later the first marine
+rescue was effected through this installation.
+The steamship “R. F. Matthews”
+ran into the lightship and
+lifeboats from the South Foreland
+station promptly responded to the
+wireless appeal for aid. The most
+important wireless event abroad during
+the year 1899 was the establishing
+of communication across the English
+Channel, a distance of thirty miles.</p>
+
+<p>The American public next learned
+something of Marconi’s invention, for
+in September and October of that year
+wireless telegraphy was employed in
+reporting the International yacht races
+between the “Shamrock” and the “Columbia”
+for a New York newspaper.
+At the conclusions of the races, the naval
+authorities requested a series of trials,
+during which wireless messages were
+exchanged between the cruiser “New
+York” and the battleship “Massachusetts”
+up to a distance of about
+36 miles. On leaving America, Marconi
+fitted the liner “St. Paul” with his
+apparatus and when 36 miles from the
+Needles Station, secured wireless reports
+of the war in South Africa.
+These were printed aboard the vessel in
+a leaflet called “The Transatlantic
+Times,” the first of the chain of wireless
+newspapers now published daily
+on practically all passenger steamships.
+Six field wireless sets were dispatched
+to South Africa about this
+time and were later of considerable
+service in the Boer War.</p>
+
+<div class="container w25emmax" id="Fig453b">
+
+<img src="images/illo453b.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption long">In the foreground of this picture is seen
+the automatic transmitter with the message
+perforated tape running through. This is
+one of the smaller wireless equipments; much
+larger ones are used at the new Marconi
+stations.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>The year 1900 brought the first
+commercial wireless contracts. By
+agreement with the Norddeutscher
+Lloyd, Marconi apparatus was installed
+on a lightship, a lighthouse and aboard
+the liner “Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse.”
+On July 4th the British Admiralty
+entered into a contract for the installation
+of Marconi apparatus on thirty-two<span class="pagenum" id="Page454">[454]</span>
+warships and shore stations and
+the erection of the high power station
+at Poldhu was commenced.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>WORLD WIDE USE<br>
+OF THE WIRELESS</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>Work on similar station at Cape Cod
+was begun early in 1901 and on August
+12th the famous Nantucket Island and
+Nantucket lightship stations opened
+to report incoming vessels by wireless.
+Heavy gales in September and
+November wrecked the masts at both
+Poldhu and Cape Cod stations and these
+were replaced by four wooden towers,
+210 feet high. Important experimental
+work was then shifted to St. John’s,
+Newfoundland, and on December 12th
+and 13th, signals were received across
+the Atlantic from Poldhu. This to
+Marconi was a great achievement and
+the forerunner of the present day trans-atlantic
+service. But with the announcement
+that the long dreamt of
+feat had been accomplished a flood
+of vituperation from scientific men
+was let loose. It was nonsense; it
+was deliberate deception; the reading
+was in error, were among the comments.
+Another prank of the “young
+man with a box,” one scientist termed
+it. It is amusing now to recall this
+extraordinary treatment, but it was
+hardly so amusing to the young inventor,
+then in his twenty-seventh year.</p>
+
+<p>But in spite of the skepticism, developments
+followed rapidly from then
+on and in 1902, the year in which the
+American Marconi Company was established,
+full recognition to wireless
+telegraphy was given by the various
+governments.</p>
+
+<p>The wonderful growth of the Marconi
+system within the last twelve years
+is well known to all and does not require
+detailing. But in view of its youth
+as an industry and its inauspicious
+beginning, a glimpse into what the
+present day Marconi system comprises
+may be interesting.</p>
+
+<p>More than 1800 ships are equipped
+with Marconi wireless and its shore
+stations are landmarks in practically
+every country on the globe.</p>
+
+<p>Press and commercial messages are
+transmitted daily from continent to
+continent direct.</p>
+
+<p>Shore to ship and ship to shore business
+each year runs into millions of
+words.</p>
+
+<p>Marconi wireless within seventeen
+years, has become an absolute necessity
+in the maritime field, an invaluable
+aid in others. Regular communication
+has been established with icebound
+settlements and desert communities,
+and official running orders transmitted
+to moving railway trains. Its service
+is dependable under all conditions and
+embraces activities and locations inaccessible
+to any other telegraph system.
+Continuous service is maintained and
+wireless messages for all parts of the
+world at greatly reduced rates are
+received at any Western Union Office.</p>
+
+<p>The direction finder and wireless
+compass are recent Marconi inventions.</p>
+
+<p>A wide variety of types of Marconi
+equipment are designed for the merchant
+marine, warships, submarines,
+pleasure craft, motor cars and railroad
+trains; also portable signal corps
+sets, apparatus for aircraft, cavalry
+sets, knapsack sets and high-power
+installations for trans-ocean communication.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">How Does a Fly Walk Upside Down?</h2>
+
+<p>There is a little sucker on the end of
+each of the fly’s feet which makes his
+foot stick to the ceiling or any other
+place he walks, and which he can control
+at will. It is made very much like
+the sucker you have seen with which a
+boy can pick up a flat stone—a circular
+piece of rubber or leather with a
+string in the middle and more or less bell
+shaped underneath. A boy can pick up a
+flat stone with this kind of a sucker by
+pressing the rubber or leather part
+down flat on the stone and then pulling
+gently on it by the string. When he
+does this he simply expels the air which
+is between the leather part of the sucker
+and the stone, which creates a vacuum
+and the pressure of the air on the outside
+part of the leather enables him to
+pick it up. The fly has little suckers
+like these on each of his feet, and they
+act automatically when he puts his foot
+down. Of course the sticking power of
+each foot is adjusted to the weight of<span class="pagenum" id="Page455">[455]</span>
+the fly, just as the sticking or lifting
+power of the boy’s sucker is regulated
+by the weight of the stone or other object
+he tries to pick up. If the weight
+of the object is sufficient to overcome
+the sticking power which the vacuum
+creates, the stone cannot be lifted.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Is Money?</h2>
+
+<p>It is quite difficult to give a broad
+definition of money that will be understood
+by all, for in different ages and
+lands many things have been used as
+money besides the coins and bills which
+we think of only when we think at all
+what money is. Anything that passes
+freely from hand to hand in a community
+in the payment of debts and for
+goods purchased, accepted freely by the
+person who offers it without any reference
+to the person who offers it, and
+which can be in turn used by the person
+accepting it to give to some one else in
+payment of debt or for the purchase
+of goods, is money. This is rather a
+long sentence and perhaps difficult to
+understand, and so we will try to analyze
+what this means. If some one offered
+you a pretty stone as money in
+payment of a debt, it would be as good
+as any kind of money if you in turn
+could pass it on to any other person
+to whom you owed a debt or in payment
+of something you bought. The stone
+might appear to you to be valuable but
+it would not be good money unless you
+could count on every one else in the
+community accepting it at the same
+value. If everybody accepts it at the
+same value, it is as good as any kind of
+money. So that anything which is acceptable
+to the people in any community
+as a unit of value to pay debts, is good
+money, provided everybody thinks so
+and accepts it that way. In this case,
+then any kind of substance might become
+money provided it was used and
+accepted by everyone.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Do We Need Money?</h2>
+
+<p>We need money for the sake of the
+convenience which it provides in making
+the exchange of one kind of wealth
+for another and as a standard of value.
+When a community has adopted something
+or anything which is regarded by
+all of the people as a standard of value,
+all of the difficulties of trading disappear.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Who Originated Money?</h2>
+
+<p>The earliest tribes of savages did not
+need money because no individual in
+the tribe owned anything personally.
+All the property of the tribe belonged
+to the tribe as a whole and not to any
+particular person. Later on, when different
+groups of savages came into contact
+with each other, there arose the
+custom of bartering or exchanging
+things which one tribe possessed and
+which the other tribe wanted. In that
+way arose the business of trading or of
+what we call doing business, and soon
+the need of something by which to
+measure the values of different things
+arose. Some of the old Australian tribes
+had a tough green stone which was
+valuable for making hatchets. Members
+of another tribe would see some of
+this stone and notice what good hatchets
+could be made from it—better hatchets
+than they had been able to make. Naturally
+they wanted it so much that it
+became very valuable in their eyes and
+so they came wanting to buy green
+stones. But they had nothing like what
+we could call money today. They had,
+however, a good deal of red ochre in
+their lands which they used to paint
+their bodies. They got this red ochre
+out of the ground on their own lands
+just as the other tribe got green stones
+out of its ground, and those who owned
+the green stones which were good for
+making hatchets, wanted some red
+ochre very much, and so they traded
+green stones for red ochre. The green
+stones then took on a value in themselves
+for making exchanges for various
+commodities, and before long became
+a kind of money inside and outside
+the community so that when
+they wanted to obtain anything, the
+price was put by the merchant as so
+many green stones and he accepted
+these in payment for goods given in exchange.
+He was willing to do this because<span class="pagenum" id="Page456">[456]</span>
+he knew he could use them in
+making trades for almost anything he
+might want, provided he had enough
+of the green stones. So you see these
+green stones of the Australian tribe
+became a rudimentary kind of money,
+just because a desire had arisen to possess
+them; and the red ochre was actual
+money in the same sense, for when this
+tribe found that other tribes would
+value this red ochre, they began getting
+the things they wanted and paying for
+them in red ochre. But the “unit of
+value” had to be developed to make a
+currency that was elastic. It required
+something that could be carried about
+easily—in fact it had to be something
+small enough so a number of units
+of value could be carried about without
+too much trouble. The Indians of
+British Columbia solved this difficulty
+of making an elastic currency by adopting
+as a unit of value a haiqua shell
+which they wore in strings as ornamental
+borders of their dresses—and
+one string of these shells was worth
+one beaver’s skin. These shells then
+were real money and one of the earliest
+forms of it.</p>
+
+<p>The skins of animals were long used
+by savage tribes as money. The skins
+were valuable in trading and a man’s
+fortune was reckoned by the number of
+skins he owned. As soon as the animals
+became domesticated, however,
+the whole animal replaced the skin as
+the unit of value. This change undoubtedly
+came because a whole animal
+is more valuable than only its skin. The
+first skins obtainable however were
+worn by wild animals—the kind that the
+people could not deliver to someone else
+alive and whole. But when the animals
+became domesticated, which meant that
+man tamed them and kept them where
+he could control them at will, the skin
+and the wild animal ceased to be a unit
+of value because it was an uncertain
+kind of money. Among domestic animals,
+oxen and sheep were the earliest
+forms of money—an ox was considered
+worth ten sheep. This idea of using
+cattle as money was used by many
+tribes in many lands. We find traces of
+it in the laws of Iceland. The Latin
+word pecunia (pecus) shows that the
+earliest Roman money was composed of
+cattle. The English word fee indicates
+this also. The Irish law records show
+the same evidence of the use of cattle
+as money and within recent years the
+cattle still form the basis of the currency
+of the Zulus and Kaffirs.</p>
+
+<p>When slavery became prominent
+many lands adopted the slaves as the
+unit of value. A man’s wealth was
+reckoned by the number of slaves he
+owned.</p>
+
+<p>Then, when the practice of agriculture
+became more common, people used
+the products of the soil as money—maize,
+olive oil, cocoanuts, tea and
+corn—the latter is said to pass current
+as actual money in certain parts of Norway
+now. They used these products of
+the soil for money even in our own
+country. Our ancestors in Maryland
+and Virginia before the Revolutionary
+War, and even after, used tobacco as
+money. They passed laws making tobacco
+money and paid the salaries of
+the government officials and collected
+all taxes in tobacco.</p>
+
+<p>Other early forms of money were ornaments
+and these serve the purpose of
+money among all uncivilized tribes. In
+India they used cowrie shells—a small
+yellowish-white shell with a fine gloss.
+The Fiji Islanders used whales’ teeth;
+some of the South Sea Island tribes
+used red feathers; other nations used
+mineral products as money—such as
+salt in Abyssinia and Mexico.</p>
+
+<p>Up to this point we have talked about
+the things used as money from the
+standpoint of primitive forms of money.
+Today the metals have practically
+driven all these other crude forms of
+money out.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Metallic Forms of Money.</h2>
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>WHY WE USE METALS<br>
+FOR COINING</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>The use of metals as money goes far
+back in the history of civilization but it
+has never been possible to trace the historical
+order of the adoption of the
+various metals for the purposes. Iron
+according to the statement of Aristotle<span class="pagenum" id="Page457">[457]</span>
+was at one time extensively used as
+money. Copper, in conjunction with
+iron, was used in early times as money
+in China; and until comparatively a
+short time ago was used for the coins
+of smaller value in Japan. Iron spikes
+were used in Central Africa and nails
+in Scotland; lead money is now used in
+Burmah. Copper has long been used
+as money. The early coins of England
+were made of tin. Finally, however,
+came silver and silver was the principal
+form of money up to a few years
+ago. It was the basis of Greek coins
+introduced at Rome in 269 B. C. Most
+of the money of Medieval times was
+composed of silver.</p>
+
+<p>The earliest traces of gold used as
+money is seen in pictures of ancient
+Egyptians “weighing in scales heaps of
+gold and silver rings.”</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Do We Use Gold and Silver as
+Money Principally?</h2>
+
+<p>There are a good many reasons why
+gold and silver have become almost universal
+materials for use as money. Perhaps
+this will be better understood if
+these reasons are set down in order.</p>
+
+<p>1st. It is necessary that the material
+out of which money is made should be
+valuable, but nothing was ever used as
+money that had not first become desirable
+and, therefore, valuable as money.
+This is only one of the incidental reasons
+for taking gold and silver for coining
+money.</p>
+
+<p>2nd. To serve its purpose best,
+money should be easy to carry around—in
+other words, its value should be high
+in proportion to its weight.</p>
+
+<p>The absence of this quality made the
+early forms of money such as skins,
+corn, tobacco, etc., undesirable. It was
+difficult to carry very much money about.
+Imagine the skin of a sheep worth a
+dollar, say, and having to carry ten of
+them down to pay the grocer. To a
+certain extent this difficulty occurred
+with iron and copper money and in
+times when they used live cattle it was a
+pretty expensive job to pay your debts
+because, while the cattle could move,
+it was still expensive to drive them from
+place to place. A man who accepted a
+thousand cattle in payment had to go to
+some expense in getting them home.
+Then it was expensive to have money
+when live cattle were used because the
+cattle, of course, had to be fed and from
+that point of view the poor man who
+had no money was better off than the
+rich man who had money. When cattle
+were used as money it cost a lot to keep
+it. Our kind of money doesn’t eat anything;
+in fact, if you put it in a savings
+bank, it will earn interest money for
+you. But when cattle were used as
+money it cost a great deal to keep them
+and so it was worse than not earning
+any interest.</p>
+
+<p>3rd. Another quality that money
+should possess is divisibility without
+damage and also the quality of being
+united again. This quality is possessed
+by the metals in every sense because
+they can be fused, while skins and
+precious stones suffer in value greatly
+when they are divided.</p>
+
+<p>4th. The material out of which
+money is made should be the same
+throughout in quality and weight so
+that one unit of money should be worth
+as much as any other unit. This could
+never be true of skins or cattle as the
+difference in the size of skins is very
+great sometimes, and a small skin from
+the same animal could not be worth as
+much as a large one, or a skin of an
+animal of inferior quality so valuable
+as a very fine one.</p>
+
+<p>5th. Another quality which money
+should possess is durability. This requirement
+made it necessary to use
+something else besides animals or vegetable
+substances. Animals die and
+vegetables will not keep and so lose
+their value. Even iron is apt to rust
+and through that process lose more or
+less of its value.</p>
+
+<p>6th. The materials out of which
+money is made should be easy to distinguish
+and their value easy to determine.
+For this reason such things as
+precious stones are not good to use as
+money because it takes an expert to<span class="pagenum" id="Page458">[458]</span>
+determine their value and even they are
+not always certain to be correct.</p>
+
+<p>7th. Then a very important quality
+that the material out of which money
+is made is that its value should be
+steady. The value of cattle varies very
+greatly and, in fact, most of the materials
+out of which the first currencies
+were made were subject to quick
+change in value in a short time. The
+value of gold and silver does not change
+excepting at long intervals. Gold and
+silver are both durable and easily recognizable.
+They can be melted, divided
+and united. The same is true of other
+metallic substances, but iron as stated
+is subject to rust and its value is low;
+lead is too soft. Tin will break, and
+both of them and copper also are of
+low value. Gold and silver change
+only slowly in value when the change
+at all; they do not lose any of their
+value by age, rust or other cause; they
+are hard metals and do not, therefore,
+wear. Their value in proportion to the
+bulk of the pieces used for money is so
+large that the money made from them
+can be carried without discomfort and
+it is almost impossible to imitate them.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Who Made the First Cent?</h2>
+
+<p>Vermont was the first state to issue
+copper cents. In June, 1785, she
+granted the authority to Ruben Harmon,
+Jr., to make money for the state
+for two years. In October of the same
+year, Connecticut granted the right to
+coin 10,000 pounds in copper cents,
+known as the Connecticut cent of 1785.
+Massachusetts, in 1786, established a
+mint and coined $60,000 in cents and
+half cents. In the same year, New
+Jersey granted the right to coin $10,000
+at 15 coppers to the shilling. In 1781
+the Continental Congress directed Robert
+Morris to investigate the matter of
+governmental coinage. He proposed a
+standard based on the Spanish dollar,
+consisting of 100 units, each unit to be
+called a cent. His plan was rejected.
+In 1784, Jefferson proposed to Congress,
+that the smallest coin should be of
+copper, and that 200 of them should
+pass for one dollar. The plan was
+adopted, but in 1786, 100 was substituted.
+In 1792 the coinage of copper
+cents, containing 264 grains, and half
+cents in proportion, was authorized;
+their weight was subsequently reduced.
+In 1853 the nickel cent was substituted
+and the half cent discontinued, and in
+1864 the bronze cent was introduced,
+weighing 48 grains and consisting of 95
+per cent. of copper, and the remainder
+of tin and zinc.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">How Did the Name Uncle Sam Originate?</h2>
+
+<p>The name Uncle Sam is a jocular
+name long in use for the Government
+of the United States.</p>
+
+<p>Shortly after the war of 1812 was declared,
+Elbert Anderson of New York
+State, who was a contractor for the
+army, went to Troy, New York, to purchase
+a quantity of provisions. At that
+place the provisions were inspected, the
+official inspectors being two brothers
+named Wilson—Ebenezer and Samuel.
+The latter was very popular among the
+men and was known as “Uncle Sam
+Wilson” and everybody called him that.
+The boxes in which the provisions were
+packed were stamped with four letters,
+E. A. for Elbert Anderson, and U. S.
+for United States. One of the men
+engaged in making the inspection asked
+another of the workmen who happened
+to be a jocular fellow, what the letters
+E. A. U. S. on the boxes stood for. He
+said in reply that he did not know but
+thought they probably meant Elbert
+Anderson and Uncle Sam Wilson, and
+that they had left off the W which
+would stand for Wilson. The suggestion
+caught on quickly and as such
+things often do, the joke spread rapidly
+so that everybody soon thought of the
+name “Uncle Sam” whenever they saw
+the letters U. S. on anything or in any
+place.</p>
+
+<p>The suit of striped trousers and long
+tailed coat and beaver hat in which
+Uncle Sam is now always represented
+in pictures, was the inspiration of the
+famous cartoonist.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page459">[459]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">THE WORLD’S BREAD LOAVES</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo459.jpg" alt="" id="Fig459">
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<div class="illotext w35emmax">
+
+<table class="standard">
+
+<colgroup>
+<col span="4" class="w25pc">
+</colgroup>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="cntr mid">Egypt<br>
+2500 B.C.</td>
+<td class="cntr mid">Unleavened Bread<br>
+2000 B.C.</td>
+<td class="cntr mid">Pompeii<br>
+50 A.D.</td>
+<td class="cntr mid">Palestine</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="cntr mid">Modern American Loaf</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="cntr mid">England<br>
+England</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="cntr mid">France</td>
+<td class="cntr mid">Hungary</td>
+<td class="cntr mid">Spain</td>
+<td class="cntr mid">Switzerland</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="cntr mid">Bohemia</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="cntr mid">Holland</td>
+<td class="cntr mid">Italy</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="cntr mid">Austria</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="cntr mid">Germany</td>
+<td class="cntr mid">Balkan States</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+</div><!--illotext-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page460">[460]</span></p>
+
+<div class="container w45emmax" id="Fig460">
+
+<img src="images/illo460.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">HARVESTING WHEAT.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<h2 class="nobreak">The Story in a Loaf of Bread</h2>
+
+</div><!--chapter-->
+
+<h3>Why is Bread so Important?</h3>
+
+<p>The history of bread as a food reads
+like a romance. It has played an important
+part in the destinies of mankind
+and its struggles through the
+ages to perfection. The progress of
+nations through their different periods
+of development can be traced by the
+quality and quantity of bread they have
+used.</p>
+
+<p>No other food has taken such an important
+part in the civilization of man.</p>
+
+<p>To a large extent it has been the
+means of changing his habits from those
+of a savage to those of a civilized
+being. It has supplied the peaceful
+pursuits of agriculture and turned him
+from war and the chase.</p>
+
+<p>It is an interesting fact that the
+civilized and the semi-civilized people
+of the earth can be divided into two
+classes, based upon their principal
+cereal foods: the rice eaters and the
+bread eaters.</p>
+
+<p>Every one admits that rice eaters
+are less progressive, while bread eaters
+have always been the leaders of civilization.</p>
+
+<p>It is an interesting fact that just as
+Japan is changing from a rice-eating
+nation to a bread-eating nation she is
+asserting her power.</p>
+
+<p>Any one who stops to consider the
+history of nations will see that this
+matter of what we eat is the one question
+of vital importance.</p>
+
+<p>Bread is one of the earliest, the most
+generally used and one of the most
+important foods used by man. Without
+bread the world would not exist
+without great hardship. On bread
+alone a nation of people can exist, and
+to sit down to a meal without it causes
+us to feel at once that something is
+missing.</p>
+
+<h3>What Was the Origin and Meaning of
+Bread?</h3>
+
+<p>Bread is baked from many substances,
+although when we think of bread, we
+usually think of wheat bread. It<span class="pagenum" id="Page461">[461]</span>
+is sometimes made from roots, fruits
+and the bark of trees, but generally
+only from grains such as wheat, rye,
+corn, etc. The word bread comes from
+an old word <i>bray</i>, meaning to pound.
+This came from the method used in
+preparing the food. Food which was
+pounded was said to be brayed and
+later this spelling was changed to bread.
+Properly speaking, however, these
+brayed or ground materials are not
+really bread in our sense of using the
+term until they are moistened with
+water, when it becomes dough. The
+word <i>dough</i> is an old one meaning to
+“moisten.” This dough was in olden
+times immediately baked in hot ashes
+and a hard indigestible lump of bread
+was the result. Accidentally it was
+discovered that if the dough was left
+for a time before baking, allowing it to
+ferment, it would when mixed with
+more dough, swell up and become
+porous. Thus we got our word loaf
+from an old word <i>lifian</i>, which meant
+to raise up or to lift up.</p>
+
+<h3>When Was Wheat First Used in Making
+Bread?</h3>
+
+<p>It is not clearly known when or by
+whom wheat was discovered, but it
+seems to have been known from the
+earliest times. It is mentioned in
+the Bible, can be traced to ancient
+Egypt and there are records showing
+that the Chinese cultivated wheat as
+early as 2700 B.C. To-day it supplies
+the principal article for making bread
+to all the civilized nations of the world.</p>
+
+<p>The origin of the wheat plant is
+said to have been a kind of grass which
+is given a Latin name <i>Ægilops ovata</i>
+by the botanists.</p>
+
+<h3>Will Wheat Grow Wild?</h3>
+
+<p>This is a question that has puzzled
+the world’s scientists for more than
+two thousand years. From time to
+time it has been reported by investigators
+in various parts of the world that
+here and there wheat has been found
+growing wild and doing well, but every
+time a further investigation is made,
+it develops that the wheat has been
+cultivated by some one. There is as
+yet no evidence for believing that
+wheat will grow in a wild state.</p>
+
+<h3>What is the Difference between Graham
+Flour and Whole Wheat?</h3>
+
+<p>Graham flour from which Graham
+bread is baked is made from unbolted
+flour. The process of bolting flour,
+which is <a href="#Page465">described</a> in one of the following
+pages, consists briefly in taking
+out of it all but the inside of the grain
+of wheat. When this has been done,
+we have pure white flour.</p>
+
+<p>In making Graham flour every part
+of the grain of wheat is left in the flour,
+and ground up finely. Many people
+think that Graham flour is made from
+a special grain called Graham, but this
+is not true. It is said that Graham
+bread is not so good for you because it
+contains the outside covering of the
+wheat grain or bran which is composed of
+almost pure silica, the same substance
+of which glass is made, and cannot
+therefore be good for us.</p>
+
+<p>Whole wheat flour is made from the
+whole grain of wheat from which the
+outside covering or bran has been
+separated. It contains everything but
+the bran and is therefore the most
+nutritious flour made.</p>
+
+<p>The grain of wheat has several
+coverings of bran coats, the outer one
+of which is the one composed of silica,
+and which is not valuable as food.
+Underneath this husk are found the
+inner bran coats, which contain the
+gluten. Gluten is a dark substance
+containing the flesh-forming or nitrogenous
+elements, which are valuable
+in muscle building. The inside or
+heart of the grain of wheat consists
+of cells filled with starch, a fine white
+mealy powder which has little value as
+food, but is a great heat producer.
+Sometimes in making whole wheat
+flour, the heart of the grain is also
+removed, making a pure gluten flour.
+The name whole wheat for flour is not
+accurate, therefore, for Graham flour
+is made of the whole wheat grain, while
+“whole wheat” flour is made of only
+certain parts of the grain of wheat.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page462">[462]</span></p>
+
+<div class="container w30emmax" id="Fig462">
+
+<img src="images/illo462.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">Wheat conditioners for tempering the wheat before being ground by the corrugated roller
+mills.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<h3>How is Flour Made?</h3>
+
+<p>In great factories the raw material
+is frequently taken in at one end and
+comes out of the opposite end as a
+finished locomotive, a Pullman palace
+car, or a pair of shoes. There is no
+such progression in making flour. The
+wheat comes in at one place as a plain
+Spring or Winter wheat and at another
+goes out as flour, but in the process parts
+of it may go from top to bottom of the
+big mill 30 times. Instead of a factory
+where everything moves along from
+hand to hand or machine to machine,
+the flour mill is like a human body—a
+huge framework like the bones, with
+thousands of carrying devices, “elevators,”<span class="pagenum" id="Page463">[463]</span>
+“spouts” and “conveyors,”
+like the veins and arteries of the blood-carrying
+system. Stop up a vein of
+wheat, the mill becomes clogged, and
+finally must shut down if it cannot be
+mechanically relieved. It is an intricate
+and intensely interesting process, the
+result of year-to-year experience.</p>
+
+<div class="container w45emmax" id="Fig463">
+
+<p class="caption">SEPARATING THE WHEAT FIBER AND GERMS</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo463.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">Purifier for separating the fiber, germ, and other impurities from the semolina (grits) before it
+is finally crushed or ground into flour by smooth roller mills.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<h3>Scouring that Suggests a Dutch
+Kitchen.</h3>
+
+<p>From the storage bins the wheat is
+drawn off through conveyors to the
+first of several cleaning processes, the
+“separators,” where the coarse grain
+which naturally comes with the wheat,
+such as corn and oats, and imperfect
+kernels of wheat, is taken out. After
+this general cleaning the grain goes
+to the “scouring machine,” which
+is an interesting device—a rapidly
+revolving cylinder with what are called
+“beaters” attached. The grain is
+thrown against perforated iron screens.
+Any clinging dirt is loosened, and a
+strong current of air passing through the
+cylinder is constantly “calling for dust,”
+as the miller aptly expresses it, and
+carries the impurities away as dust and
+dirt. Indeed, the cleaning process
+seems to be a constant one from the time
+the wheat enters the mill until the flour
+is made. Having been cleansed, the
+wheat is now ready for the rolls except
+for a “tempering” process, which is
+to prepare the grain, so that the outside
+of the wheat may be taken off
+without injury to the inside or kernel.</p>
+
+<p>Then as the grain passes to the rolls
+there begins a gradual reduction of
+wheat to flour which is most intricate.</p>
+
+<p>The first sets of rolls are corrugated
+and so adjusted as to “break” each
+grain of wheat into 12 to 15 parts.
+The “breaking” process goes on through
+five different sets of rolls.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page464">[464]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">GRINDING THE WHEAT FOR MAKING FLOUR</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo464a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig464a">
+
+<p class="caption">Corrugated roller mills for grinding the wheat after it has been cleaned.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo464b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig464b" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption">Wooden spouts for conveying the different products, bran and partly ground wheat, from one
+machine to another.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page465">[465]</span></p>
+
+<div class="container w40emmax" id="Fig465">
+
+<p class="caption">THE FLOUR IS READY FOR BAKING</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo465.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">Gyrating sifter for separating the bran particles from the flour and semolina.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<h3>The Big Bolters with Silken Sieves.</h3>
+
+<p>Closely allied with the rolling process
+is the bolting process, which, working
+hand in hand with it has made modern
+flour making so perfect. The bolting
+process consists of a series of sieves—a
+sifting of the broken grain so that
+it is finally, after repeated breaking and
+sifting, a flour. The bolter machine
+contains a number of sieves covered
+with silk bolting cloth with varying
+mesh or number of threads to the
+square inch. This bolting machine,
+moving rapidly, makes from 8 to 10
+different separations of the material.
+From rolls to bolters, from bolters to
+purifiers, from purifiers to rolls, over
+and over, the process continues, until
+five different grades of “middlings”
+have been selected by the mechanical
+hands of the millers. The purifier
+is still another step to the process. It
+is a machine having eight sieves of
+different mesh. The “middlings”
+flow down over the different sieves in a
+thin sheet, a current of air meantime
+drawing all impurities out. With this
+purifying process completed, the material
+is ready for the smooth rolls.</p>
+
+<h3>The Mill Tries to Catch Up with the
+Bins.</h3>
+
+<p>When the flour is made it is conveyed
+to large round bins—five sheets of hard
+wood pressed together. These bins
+are being filled all the time and being
+emptied all the time, the mill being
+about seven hours behind the capacity
+of the bins, so that from start to finish
+the modern flour mill is a tremendously
+busy place.</p>
+
+<p>Underneath the bins and connecting
+with them are the flour packers—automatic
+devices which pack a 3¹⁄₂-pound
+paper sack as accurately as a
+196-pound barrel. The filled packages
+are sent down “chutes” to the shipping
+floor. There they go to wagons
+or through other chutes to boats.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page466">[466]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak">The Story in a Lead Pencil<a id="FNanchor5" href="#Footnote5" class="fnanchor"><span class="fsize80">[5]</span></a></h2>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote5" href="#FNanchor5" class="label">[5]</a> Courtesy of The Scientific American.</p>
+
+</div><!--footnote-->
+
+</div><!--chapter-->
+
+<h3>Why Do They Call Them Lead-pencils?</h3>
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>WHERE LEAD PENCILS<br>COME FROM</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>The lead-pencil so generally used today
+is not, as its name would imply,
+made from lead, but from graphite. It
+derives its name from the fact that
+prior to the time when pencils were
+made from graphite, metallic lead was
+employed for the purpose. Graphite
+was first used in pencils after the discovery
+in 1565 of the famous Cumberland
+mine in England. This graphite
+was of remarkable purity and could be
+used without further treatment by
+cutting it into thin slabs and encasing
+them in wood.</p>
+
+<h3>Who Made the First Lead-pencils in
+America?</h3>
+
+<p>For two centuries England enjoyed
+practically a monopoly of the lead-pencil
+industry. In the eighteenth century,
+however, the lead-pencil industry
+had found its way into Germany. In
+1761, Caspar Faber, in the village of
+Stein, near the ancient city of Nuremberg,
+Bavaria, started in a modest
+way the manufacture of lead-pencils,
+and Nuremberg became and remained
+the center of the lead-pencil industry
+for more than a century. For five
+generations Faber’s descendants made
+lead-pencils. Up to the present day
+they have continued to devote their interest
+and energy to the development
+and perfection of pencil making. Eberhard
+Faber, a great-grandson of Caspar
+Faber, immigrated to this country,
+and, in 1849, established himself in
+New York City. In 1861, when the
+war tariff first went into effect, he
+erected his own pencil factory in New
+York City, and thus became the pioneer
+of the lead-pencil industry in this
+country. Since then four other firms
+have established pencil factories here.
+Wages, as compared to those paid in
+Germany, were very high, and Eberhard
+Faber realized the necessity of
+creating labor-saving machinery to
+overcome this handicap. Many automatic
+machines were invented which
+greatly simplified the methods of pencil
+making and improved the product.
+To-day American manufacturers supply
+nine-tenths of the home demand
+and have largely entered into the competition
+of the world’s markets.</p>
+
+<h3>What Are Lead-pencils Made of?</h3>
+
+<p>The principal raw materials that
+enter into the making of a lead-pencil<span class="pagenum" id="Page467">[467]</span>
+are graphite, clay, cedar and rubber.
+Although graphite occurs in comparatively
+abundant quantities in many
+localities, it is rarely of sufficient purity
+to be available for pencil making.
+Oxides of iron, silicates and other impurities
+are found in the ore, all of
+which must be carefully separated to
+insure a smooth, serviceable material.
+The graphites found in Eastern Siberia,
+Mexico, Bohemia and Ceylon
+are principally used by manufacturers.</p>
+
+<p class="center highline3">Pictures by courtesy Joseph Dixon Crucible Co.</p>
+
+<div class="container w30emmax" id="Fig467">
+
+<div class="split3367">
+
+<div class="left3367">
+
+<img src="images/illo467a.jpg" alt="">
+
+</div><!--left3367-->
+
+<div class="right3367">
+
+<div class="split5050">
+
+<div class="left5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo467b.jpg" alt="">
+
+</div><!--left5050-->
+
+<div class="right5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo467c.jpg" alt="">
+
+</div><!--right5050-->
+
+</div><!--split5050-->
+
+</div><!--right3367-->
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--split3367-->
+
+<div class="split3367">
+
+<div class="left3367">
+
+<p class="caption">FIG. 1.</p>
+
+</div><!--left3367-->
+
+<div class="right3367">
+
+<div class="split5050">
+
+<div class="left5050">
+
+<p class="caption">FIG. 2.</p>
+
+</div><!--left5050-->
+
+<div class="right5050">
+
+<p class="caption">FIG. 3.</p>
+
+</div><!--right5050-->
+
+</div><!--split5050-->
+
+</div><!--right3367-->
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--split3367-->
+
+<p class="caption long">Fig. 1 shows the shape in which the cedar slats arrive at the factory. These
+slats after grading are boiled in steam to remove what remaining sap there may
+be in the wood. The slats are then dried in steam-drying rooms. Then the next step
+is grooving and gives the results shown by Fig. 2. Now the wood is ready to receive
+the “leads” (which you will remember are a mixture of graphite and clay), which are
+placed between two slats sandwich fashion, glued, put in forms that hold them over
+night under a thousand pounds pressure. Fig. 3 shows the leads laid in one of the
+grooved slats.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<h3>How Are Lead-pencils Made?</h3>
+
+<p>The graphite, as it comes from the
+mines, is broken into small pieces, the
+impure particles being separated by
+hand. It is then finely divided in large
+pulverizers and placed in tubs of
+water, so that the lighter particles of
+graphite float off from the heavier particles
+of impurities. This separating,
+in the cheaper grades, is also done by
+means of centrifugal machines, but the
+results are not as satisfactory. After
+separation, the graphite is filtered
+through filter-presses.</p>
+
+<h3>What Makes Some Pencils Hard and
+Others Soft?</h3>
+
+<p>The clay, after having been subjected
+to a similar process, is placed<span class="pagenum" id="Page468">[468]</span>
+in mixers with the graphite, in proportions
+dependent upon the grade of
+hardness that is desired. A greater
+proportion of clay produces a greater
+degree of hardness; a lesser proportion
+increases the softness.</p>
+
+<div class="container w30emmax" id="Fig468">
+
+<div class="split3367">
+
+<div class="left3367">
+
+<img src="images/illo468a.jpg" alt="">
+
+</div><!--left3367-->
+
+<div class="right3367">
+
+<div class="split5050">
+
+<div class="left5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo468b.jpg" alt="">
+
+</div><!--left5050-->
+
+<div class="right5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo468c.jpg" alt="">
+
+</div><!--right5050-->
+
+</div><!--split5050-->
+
+</div><!--right3367-->
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--split3367-->
+
+<div class="split3367">
+
+<div class="left3367">
+
+<p class="caption">FIG. 4.</p>
+
+</div><!--left3367-->
+
+<div class="right3367">
+
+<div class="split5050">
+
+<div class="left5050">
+
+<p class="caption">FIG. 5.</p>
+
+</div><!--left5050-->
+
+<div class="right5050">
+
+<p class="caption">FIG. 6.</p>
+
+</div><!--right5050-->
+
+</div><!--split5050-->
+
+</div><!--right3367-->
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--split3367-->
+
+<p class="caption long">Fig. 4 shows a prospective view of the block as it appears when taken out of the
+form; the leads can be seen in the end. These blocks are fed to machines which cut
+out the pencils in one operation. An idea of this operation is given by Fig. 5, which
+shows a block half cut through. The pencils come out quite smooth, but are sand-papered
+to a finer finish before receiving the finishing coats. The finer grades of pencils
+are given from seven to nine coats of varnish before being passed along for the next
+process. Fig. 6 shows a pencil after it has been machined and before it has been
+varnished and stamped.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>Furthermore, the requisite degree of
+hardness is obtained by the subsequent
+operation, viz., the compressing of the
+lead and shaping it into form ready to
+be glued into the wood casings. A
+highly compressed lead will produce a
+pencil of greater wearing qualities, an
+important feature in a high-grade pencil.
+Hydraulic presses are used for
+this purpose; and the mixture of clay
+and graphite, which is still in a plastic
+condition and has been formed into
+loaves, is placed into these presses. The
+presses are provided with a die conforming
+to the caliber of the lead desired,
+through which die the material
+is forced. The die is usually cut from a
+sapphire or emerald or other very hard
+mineral substance, so that it will not
+wear away too quickly from the friction
+of the lead. The lead leaves the
+press in one continuous string, which is
+cut into the lengths required (usually
+seven inches for the ordinary size of
+pencil), is placed in crucibles, and fired
+in muffle furnaces. The lead is now
+ready for use, and receives only a
+wooden case to convert it into a pencil.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page469">[469]</span></p>
+
+<h3>Where Does the Wooden Part of a
+Lead-pencil Come from?</h3>
+
+<p>The wood used in pencil making
+must be close and straight grained,
+soft, so that it can readily be whittled,
+and capable of taking a good polish.
+No better wood has been found than
+the red cedar, a native of the United
+States, a durable, compact and fragrant
+wood to-day almost exclusively
+used by pencil makers the world over.
+The best quality is obtained from the
+Southern States, Florida and Alabama
+in particular.</p>
+
+<p>The wood is cut into slats about 7
+inches long, 2¹⁄₂ inches wide, and ¹⁄₄
+inch thick. It is then thoroughly dried
+in kilns to separate the excess of moisture
+and resin and to prevent subsequent
+warping. After this the slats
+are passed through automatic grooving
+machines, each slat receiving six semi-circular
+grooves, into which the leads
+are placed, while a second slab with
+similar grooves is brushed with glue
+and covered over the slat containing
+the leads. This is passed through a
+molding-machine, which turns out pencils
+shaped in the form desired, round,
+hexagon, etc. The pencils are now
+passed through sanding machines, to
+provide them with a smooth surface.</p>
+
+<h3>How is the Color Put on the Outside
+of the Pencil?</h3>
+
+<p>After sand-papering, which is a
+necessary preliminary to the coloring
+process, when fine finishes are desired,
+the pencils are varnished by one of several
+methods. That most commonly
+employed is the mechanical method by
+which the pencils are fed from hoppers
+one at a time through small apertures
+just large enough to admit the
+pencil. The varnish is applied to the
+pencil automatically while passing
+through, and the pencils are then deposited
+on a long belt or drying pan.
+They are carried slowly a distance of
+about twenty feet, the varnish deposited
+on the pencils meanwhile drying,
+and are emptied into a receptacle.
+When sufficient pencils have accumulated,
+they are taken back to the hopper
+of the machine and the operation
+repeated. This is done as often as is
+necessary to produce the desired finish.
+The better grades are passed
+through ten times or more. Another
+method is that of dipping in pans of
+varnish, the pencils being suspended
+by their ends from frames, immersed
+their entire length and withdrawn very
+slowly by machine. A smooth enameled
+effect is the result. The finest
+grades of pencils are polished by hand.
+This work requires considerable deftness;
+months of practice are necessary
+to develop a skilled workman. After
+being varnished, the pencils are passed
+through machines by which the accumulation
+of varnish is sand-papered
+from their ends. The ends are then
+trimmed by very sharp knives to give
+them a clean, finished appearance.</p>
+
+<p>Stamping is the next operation. The
+gold or silver leaf is cut into narrow
+strips and laid on the pencil, whereupon
+the pencil is placed in a stamping
+press, and the heated steel die brought
+in contact with the leaf, causing the
+latter to adhere to the pencil where
+the letters of the die touch. The surplus
+leaf is removed, and, after a final
+cleaning the pencil is ready to be
+boxed, unless it is to be further embellished
+by the addition of a metal
+tip and rubber, or other attachment.</p>
+
+<h3>How is the Eraser Put On a Pencil?</h3>
+
+<p>In this country about nine-tenths of
+the pencils are provided with rubber
+erasers. These are either glued into
+the wood with the lead, or the pencils
+are provided with small metal ferrules
+threaded on one end, into which the
+rubber eraser-plugs are inserted. These
+ferrules are made from sheet brass,
+which is cupped by means of power
+presses, drawn through subsequent operations
+into tubes of four- or five-inch
+lengths, cut to the required size,
+threaded and nickel-plated.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page470">[470]</span></p>
+
+<div class="container w40emmax" id="Fig470">
+
+<img src="images/illo470.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="illocredit">Courtesy of Doubleday, Page &amp; Co.</p>
+
+<p class="caption">A SOUTHERN COTTON FIELD</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<h2 class="nobreak">The Story in a Bale of Cotton</h2>
+
+</div><!--chapter-->
+
+<h3>Where Does Cotton Come From?</h3>
+
+<p>We get cotton from a plant which
+grows best in the warm climate of our
+Southern States. Cotton has been
+known to the people of the world for
+a long time. Before the birth of
+Christ people knew about cotton.
+They thought it was wool which grew
+on a tree instead of a sheep’s back.
+No other plant is of such value to
+man as cotton. We should learn
+something about a plant that is used
+by man in so many ways as cotton.</p>
+
+<p>The cotton plant of our Southern
+States is a small shrub-like annual
+about four feet high. The flowers of
+the cotton plant are white at first but
+change to cream color and then are
+tinged with red. This change takes
+place over a period of four days when
+the petals drop off and leave what is
+called a “boll” in the calyx of the
+flower. This boll, which is to contain
+the cotton, is really the seed container
+of the cotton plant and keeps on growing
+larger until it is about as big as
+a hen’s egg. When it is fully grown
+or ripe the boll cracks and the seeds
+and fibrous lint burst forth. The bolls
+are then gathered and taken to a cotton
+gin, where the seeds are separated
+from the lint and the lint prepared for
+weaving.</p>
+
+<p>The boll is divided into from three
+to five sections. Each section contains
+a quantity of lint and seeds. When the
+boll is fully grown the covering of
+each of the sections cracks and opens
+up, revealing the contents. It is just
+like opening the door of each section
+and having the contents burst out.
+When these bolls burst open, there is
+no more beautiful sight in the world
+than to look out over a cotton field
+and see the colored people—the “cotton
+pickers”—busy at their work picking
+off the bolls.</p>
+
+<p>When the crop is gathered and
+ginned, the lint is packed into bales and
+taken to the cotton mill, where it is
+made into cloth. One of the most interesting
+industrial processes in the
+world is to see the bale of cotton go
+into a cotton mill and come out a piece
+of cotton goods.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page471">[471]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">THE COTTON ARRIVES AT THE MILL</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo471a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig471a">
+
+<p class="caption">BALES OF COTTON AT COTTON MILL</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo471b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig471b" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption">OPENING MACHINES.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">The bales are opened, and the
+cotton is thrown into the large
+hoppers at the front of these
+machines, which open and loosen
+the fibers, work out lumps and
+remove the grosser impurities,
+such as dirt, leaf, seed and trash.
+A strong air draft carries off the
+dust and foreign particles, and
+lifts the cotton through trunks
+to the floor above.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo471c.jpg" alt="" id="Fig471c" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption">LAPPER MACHINES.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">In these machines, known as
+Breaker and Finisher Lappers,
+more of the trash and impurities
+is beaten out of the cotton, and
+the lint is carried forward and
+wound into rolls of cotton batting,
+known as laps. Several of
+these are doubled and drawn into
+one so as to get the weight of
+each yard as uniform as possible.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page472">[472]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">FIRST STEPS IN MAKING COTTON CLOTH</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo472a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig472a">
+
+<p class="caption">CARD ROOM.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">In these machines, known as
+Revolving Flat Top Cards, the
+cotton passes over revolving cylinders
+clothed with wire teeth,
+and the fibers are combed out and
+laid parallel with each other.
+They are delivered at the front
+of the machine as a filmy web,
+which is gathered together and
+formed into a soft downy ribbon
+or rope, known as card sliver.
+This is automatically coiled and
+delivered into cans.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo472b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig472b" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption">DRAWING FRAMES.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">To insure uniformity in weight,
+so that the yarn when spun shall
+run even, the card slivers are
+doubled and drawn out, redoubled
+and again drawn out, somewhat
+in the manner of a candy maker
+pulling taffy, only here the process
+is continuous. Six strands of the
+card sliver are fed in together at
+the back of the drawing frames,
+pulled out and delivered as one;
+and the process repeated. This
+produces a sliver more uniform
+in weight, and in which the fibres
+are more parallel.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo472c.jpg" alt="" id="Fig472c" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption">SLUBBERS.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">The sliver from the drawing
+frames is taken to machines
+called slubbers, where again the
+fibers are drawn out, and the
+strand of cotton, now much finer
+and known as slubber roving, is
+given a bit of twist to hold it
+together, and is wound on large
+bobbins.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page473">[473]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">PUTTING THE COTTON FIBER ON BOBBINS</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo473a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig473a">
+
+<p class="caption">SPEEDERS.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">The large bobbins of roving from the slubbers are taken to other
+machines known as Speeders, and are unwound through the machine,
+again drawn out finer and finer, and rewound on smaller bobbins.
+The strand of cotton known as speeder roving is now ready to be
+taken to the spinning room for the final draft and twist necessary
+to turn it into yarn.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo473b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig473b" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption">SPINNING FRAMES.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">The roving from the speeders is placed on the Spinning Frames,
+and now undergoes its final draft as it passes through the spinning
+rolls. The attenuated fibres are then twisted firmly together by the
+action of the spindles, which turn at a speed of about 10,000 revolutions
+per minute. The yarn thus formed is wound on bobbins and
+is ready to be dyed and weaved.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page474">[474]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">THE COTTON IS READY FOR DYEING</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo474a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig474a">
+
+<p class="caption">SPOOLERS.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">Two kinds of yarn are delivered
+at the spinning frames,
+known as warp and filling, which
+make respectively the lengthwise
+and crosswise threads of the
+cloth. The filling is in its completed
+form ready for the loom;
+the warp must first be gotten into
+shape for dyeing and then arranged
+in parallel rows or sheets
+of thread for weaving. The first
+of these processes is spooling, and
+consists simply in unwinding the
+yarn from the small bobbins on
+which it is spun, and rewinding
+it on large spools.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo474b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig474b" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption">WARPERS.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">The spools of warp yarn are
+placed in large wooden racks or
+creels from which they can conveniently
+unwind. The separate
+threads are drawn through little
+wires in the warpers, and are
+gathered into a bunch or rope of
+threads, which is wound in a large
+cylindrical ball known as a warp.
+If any thread breaks while passing
+through the warper, the little
+wire drops and stops the machine.
+In this way full count of threads
+and uniform weight of the goods
+is insured.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo474c.jpg" alt="" id="Fig474c" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption">DYE-HOUSE.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">Here the warps, after being
+boiled and softened to enable the
+dye to penetrate, are passed
+through the indigo vats. Several
+runs are made to get the beautiful
+depth of color. This Dye-house
+is equipped with one hundred
+indigo vats, and is one of
+the best-lighted and cleanest-kept
+dye-houses in the world.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page475">[475]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">WHERE THE COTTON IS WOVEN INTO CLOTH</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo475a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig475a">
+
+<p class="caption">BEAMING FRAMES.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">After being dyed, the warps are
+washed and then passed through
+drying machinery, from which
+they are delivered in coils. These
+are brought to the beaming
+frames, where they are again
+spread out into sheets of parallel
+threads, and passed through the
+teeth of a steel comb, which
+separates the threads and prevents
+tangling, and in this form they
+are wound on huge iron spools
+known as slasher beams.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo475b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig475b" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption">SLASHERS.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">From the beaming frames the
+warps are taken to machines
+known as Slashers, where they
+are sized or stiffened to enable
+them to stand the chafing at the
+looms incidental to the process
+of weaving. The slasher beams
+are placed in an iron frame at
+the back of the slashers and unwound
+together through the machine.
+With them some additional
+threads of white yarn are unwound
+at either side to form the
+selvage of the cloth.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo475c.jpg" alt="" id="Fig475c" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption">WEAVE ROOM.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">The sheet of warp threads unwinds
+from the loom beam, receives
+the filling threads and is
+wound into a roll of cloth at
+the front of the loom. This
+weave room contains 2000 looms.
+It is 904 feet long by 180
+feet wide (about four acres) and
+is the largest single weave room
+in the world. Overhead is the
+roof, which forms one vast sky-light,
+being of what is known as
+saw-tooth construction. The vertical
+sides of the teeth all face
+due north and are formed of
+ribbed glass, which affords the
+most perfect light to every section
+of the room.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page476">[476]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">THE COTTON CLOTH FINISHED</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo476a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig476a">
+
+<p class="caption">INSPECTING TABLES.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">Before going to the baling
+presses every yard of cotton cloth
+passes under the vigilant eyes of
+the cloth inspectors, who mark as
+seconds and lay aside all pieces
+containing imperfections. This inspection
+is not a mere formality,
+but is conducted most carefully,
+and this department is specially
+located to get the best and most
+perfect light.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo476b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig476b" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption">BALING PRESSES.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">The bolts of finished cloth
+are now placed in presses and
+made into bales of finished cloth
+and are ready for the market.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo476c.jpg" alt="" id="Fig476c" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption long">Shipping platform of the White
+Oak Mills, Greensboro, N. C.,
+showing how the bales of finished
+cloth are handled in shipping.</p>
+
+<p class="center highline3">Pictures herewith by courtesy of White Oak Mills.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page477">[477]</span></p>
+
+<h3>Who Discovered Cotton?</h3>
+
+<p>Just who discovered cotton is not
+known. The early records are so incomplete
+that no individual can be
+credited with the discovery of the value
+of this wonderful plant. Long before
+Cæsar’s time, among the Hindoos they
+had a law that if you stole a piece of
+cotton you were fined three times its
+value. Most of the early nations were
+familiar with cotton—the early Egyptians,
+Chinese and other ancient people
+used it and valued it.</p>
+
+<h3>What Nation Produces the Most
+Cotton?</h3>
+
+<p>The United States is the leader in
+the production of cotton, as in many
+other important world products. We
+produce more than seventy-five per
+cent of all the cotton grown in the
+world. The remainder is practically
+all grown by East India, Egypt and
+Brazil.</p>
+
+<h3>What is Cotton Used For?</h3>
+
+<p>The cotton plant is one of the wonder
+plants of the world, when you stop
+to think how well we could get along
+without wool or silk or other fabrics
+if we had to.</p>
+
+<p>Little would be lost to the world so
+far as actual comfort is concerned if
+all of the other fabric-making materials
+were lost. We would sleep, as
+we often do now, in beds the coverings
+of which were pure cotton, in a
+room in which the rugs were woven
+from cotton, the sun kept out of the
+room by cotton window shades. We
+could still have plenty of good soap
+to wash our bodies and clothing, for
+much of our soap to-day is made from
+cotton-seed oil; then we could use a
+cotton towel to dry ourselves; and put
+on a complete outfit of clothing made
+entirely of cotton. White cotton table
+cloths and napkins are not so fine as
+linen; they are good enough for anyone.
+Your breakfast rolls will taste
+quite as well if baked with cottolene
+instead of lard; the meat for your dinner
+would be fed and fattened on cotton-seed
+meal and hulls as they are
+now; you would have butter made
+from cotton-seed that compares favorably
+with the butter you now have on
+the table; the tobacco in your cigar
+would continue to be grown under cotton
+cloth and packed in cotton bags;
+armies would still sleep under cotton
+tents and could use gun-cotton to destroy
+the enemy.</p>
+
+<h3>What Are the Principal Cotton Cloths?</h3>
+
+<p>There are a great many different
+names given to cotton cloths, but they
+may in general be divided into five
+classes—plain goods, twills, sateen,
+fancy cloth and jacquard fabrics. The
+cotton cloth in each of these classes
+varies and goes by different names.
+For instance, in Plain Goods, the different
+kinds are lawn, nainsook,
+sheeting, mull, print cloth, madras.
+The difference lies in the number of
+threads in one inch of width, the fineness
+and the weave. The Twills have
+lines running diagonally and are used
+for linings mostly. The difference is
+in the weaving. Denim, largely used
+for overalls, belongs to the class of
+Twills. Sateen is used for dress linings,
+dresses and waists. Then there
+is the class of Fancy Cloths which is
+another kind of weave used largely in
+children’s clothes, shirt waists, etc.,
+and under the name Scrim is fine for
+draperies and towelling. The other
+class, Jacquard Fabrics, represents the
+most complicated form of weaving and
+used largely under special individual
+names or brands for dress goods, novelties,
+etc.</p>
+
+<h3>How Much Cotton Cloth Will a Pound
+of Cotton Make?</h3>
+
+<p>When the cotton is spun into yarn
+it is no longer sold by the bale, but
+by the pound. It is impossible to make
+an exact statement of the amount of
+cotton cloth one pound of cotton yarn
+will make, because of the difference
+in weaving. It has, however, been
+figured out that a pound of cotton yarn
+should make<br>
+3¹⁄₂ yards of sheeting, or<br>
+3³⁄₄ yards of muslin, or<br>
+9¹⁄₂ yards of lawn, or<br>
+7¹⁄₂ yards of calico, or<br>
+5¹⁄₂ yards of gingham, or<br>
+57 spools of thread.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page478">[478]</span></p>
+
+<div class="container w40emmax" id="Fig478">
+
+<img src="images/illo478.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="illocredit">Picture by courtesy Browne &amp; Howell Co.</p>
+
+<p class="caption">CHRISTOFORI PIANO FROM THE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART, NEW YORK CITY.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<h2 class="nobreak">The Story in a Piano</h2>
+
+</div><!--chapter-->
+
+<h3>What is Music?</h3>
+
+<p>Music is one kind of sound. All
+sounds, whether musical or not, are
+the result of sound waves in the air.
+They travel almost exactly like the
+waves of the water. They go in circles
+in all directions at the same speed and
+will go on forever unless they meet
+something that has the ability to stop
+them. If you drop a pebble into the
+exact center of a basin of water, you
+will see the ring of waves produced
+start from the point where the pebble
+entered the water and travel to the
+sides of the vessel, which stop them.
+Also the pebble as it falls into the
+water will make ring after ring of
+waves.</p>
+
+<p>When you shout or ring or strike
+one of the keys of the piano you start
+a sound wave or a series of them,
+which you can hear as soon as the
+sound wave strikes your ear. When
+the series of waves is regular the
+sound produced is a musical sound,
+and when the sound waves are not
+regular in length we call it some other
+kind of a sound.</p>
+
+<p>Acting on the knowledge so learned,
+man has devised numerous instruments
+with which he can produce musical
+sounds, such as the piano, phonograph,
+and many others.</p>
+
+<h3>Who Made the First Piano?</h3>
+
+<p>The first real piano was made by
+Bartolomeo Christofori, an Italian.
+He invented the little hammers by the
+aid of which the strings are struck,
+giving a clear tone instead of the
+scratching sound which all the previous
+instruments produced. It took two
+thousand years to discover the value
+of the little hammers in making clearer
+notes. His first piano was made in
+1709. The word by which we call the
+instrument pianoforte has, however,
+been traced back as far as 1598, when<span class="pagenum" id="Page479">[479]</span>
+it is said to have been originated by
+an Italian named Paliarino. The first
+piano made in America was produced
+by John Behnud, in Philadelphia, in
+1775.</p>
+
+<h3>How Was the Piano Discovered?</h3>
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>THE DISCOVERY OF STRINGED MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>The piano is a stringed musical instrument.
+The name pianoforte comes
+from two Italian words meaning <i>soft</i>
+and <i>loud</i>, and is accurately descriptive
+of the piano because the notes can at
+will be made soft or loud. The piano
+is a development of the simplest form
+of making regular sound vibrations by
+snapping or hammering a string of
+some kind which is stretched tight and
+fastened at both ends. We must go
+far back into history to find the earliest
+traces of stringed instruments, and
+even then we do not know where and
+when they originated, for there seem
+to be no records which help us to trace
+their origin. We know that the
+Egyptians as far back as 525 B.C. had
+stringed instruments, but we only know
+they had them—not where they got
+them or who made them. There is a
+legend that the Roman god Mercury,
+while walking along the Nile after the
+river had overflowed its banks and the
+land had again become dry, stubbed his
+toe on the shell of a dead tortoise. He
+picked it up to cast it aside and accidentally
+touched some strings of sinew
+with his finger. These strings were
+only what remained of the once live
+tortoise. At the same time Mercury
+heard a musical note and, after vainly
+trying to find a cause for the musical
+sound, twanged the string again and
+discovered the music in tightly-stretched
+strings. He set about making
+an instrument, using the tortoise
+shell for the sound box and stretching
+a number of strings of sinew across it.
+This is only a legend, of course, but
+if we examine the early musical instruments
+of the Greeks, which was the
+lyre, we always find the representation
+of a tortoise upon it.</p>
+
+<p>Other nations, such as the early
+Chinese, the Persians, the Hindus and
+the Hebrews, had stringed instruments
+much resembling the lyre. In the
+tombs of the great rulers of Egypt are
+found representations of harps, and
+one harp which had been buried in one
+of the tombs for more than 3000 years
+was actually found to be in good condition.</p>
+
+<div class="container w40emmax" id="Fig479">
+
+<img src="images/illo479.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="illocredit">Picture by courtesy Browne &amp; Howell Co.</p>
+
+<p class="caption">DULCIMER.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>Wherever we search among the records
+of early nations we find evidence
+that they were familiar with the music
+obtainable from playing upon stringed
+instruments, but we have never been<span class="pagenum" id="Page480">[480]</span>
+able to discover what people or what
+persons first learned that music could
+be produced with such instruments.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>THE FIRST STRINGED<br>MUSICAL INSTRUMENT</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>The harp was probably the first
+practical stringed instrument. Its
+music was produced by picking the
+strings with the fingers or with a piece
+of bone or metal.</p>
+
+<p>The next step was the psaltery,
+which was produced in the Middle
+Ages. It was a box with strings
+stretched across it and represented the
+first crude attempt at using a sounding
+board. A larger instrument which came
+about the same time and was very like
+the psaltery, was the dulcimer. Both
+were played by picking the strings with
+the finger or a small piece of bone or
+other substance.</p>
+
+<p>Then came the keyboard, first used
+on stringed instruments in what is
+called the <i>clavicytherium</i>. This consisted
+of a box with cat-gut strings
+ranged in a semitriangle. On the end
+of each key was a quill, which picked
+the string when the key was operated.</p>
+
+<p>After this came the clavichord. It
+was built like a small square piano
+without legs. The strings were made
+of brass and on the end of each key
+was a wedge-shaped piece of brass
+which picked the strings. The elder
+Bach composed his music on the clavichord,
+his favorite instrument, and that
+is why the music written by Bach is
+full of soft and melancholy notes. The
+clavichord produced only such notes.</p>
+
+<p>The next steps brought the virginal,
+spinet and harpsichord. The strings
+on all three were of brass with quills
+at the key ends for picking the strings.
+The virginal and spinet were very
+much alike. The harpsichord was
+larger and sometimes was made with
+two keyboards. These instruments had
+notes covering four octaves only.</p>
+
+<div class="container w40emmax" id="Fig480">
+
+<img src="images/illo480.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="illocredit">Picture by courtesy Browne &amp; Howell Co.</p>
+
+<p class="caption">CLAVICHORD.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>The arrangement of the strings in
+the harpsichord provided one step
+nearer to our piano. It had five octaves
+of notes and there were at least
+two strings to each note instead of only
+one, as in previous instruments.</p>
+
+<div class="container w40emmax" id="Fig481a">
+
+<img src="images/illo481a.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="illocredit">Picture by courtesy Browne &amp; Howell Co.</p>
+
+<p class="caption">SPINET.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<h3>Why Do We Have Only Seven Octaves
+On a Piano? Why Not Twelve or
+More Octaves?</h3>
+
+<p>Ordinarily the longest key-board of
+the piano has seven octaves and three
+notes in addition, or 52 notes, not
+counting the sharps and flats. An octave
+you, of course, know consists of
+the seven notes C D E F G A B.<span class="pagenum" id="Page481">[481]</span>
+Every eighth note is a repetition of the
+one seven notes below or above. The
+reason that there are no more notes
+or octaves on the piano is that if we
+extended the key-board either way one
+or two octaves more, we should not be
+able to hear the notes struck on the
+keys. There would be sound produced,
+or course, but the vibrations would be
+too fine for the human ear to hear. It
+is said that the range of the human
+ear does not go beyond somewhere between
+eleven and twelve octaves.</p>
+
+<div class="container w25emmax" id="Fig481b">
+
+<img src="images/illo481b.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="illocredit">Picture by courtesy Browne &amp; Howell Co.</p>
+
+<p class="caption">UPRIGHT HARPSICHORD.<br>
+(From the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New
+York City.)</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<div class="container w40emmax" id="Fig481c">
+
+<img src="images/illo481c.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="illocredit">Picture by courtesy Browne &amp; Howell Co.</p>
+
+<p class="caption">QUEEN ELIZABETH’S VIRGINAL.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page482">[482]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">HOW THE MUSIC GETS INTO THE PIANO</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo482a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig482a">
+
+<p class="illocredit">Photo by Kohler &amp; Campbell Piano Co.</p>
+
+<p class="caption">PUTTING ON THE SOUNDING BOARD.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">The first operation in producing the piano is to make a wooden frame or back on which is attached
+first the sounding board, then the iron, harp-shaped frame to which the strings are fastened.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">The tones of the piano are produced by felt-covered hammers striking the strings. The sounding
+board, which is made of wood, magnifies the tones.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">This picture shows the mechanics glueing the sounding board to the back.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo482b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig482b" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="illocredit">Photo by Kohler &amp; Campbell Piano Co.</p>
+
+<p class="caption">FASTENING THE STRINGS.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">The strings are hitched on to pins in the iron frame at its lower end and fastened at the upper
+end by a metal pin or peg driven into the back. The peg is square on top, so that it can be turned
+with a tuning hammer or wrench in order to tighten or slacken the strings, which is the operation of
+tuning the piano.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page483">[483]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">THE LITTLE HAMMERS WHICH STRIKE THE PIANO STRINGS</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo483a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig483a">
+
+<p class="illocredit">Photo by Kohler &amp; Campbell Piano Co.</p>
+
+<p class="caption">BUILDING THE CASE AROUND THE SOUNDING BOARD.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">As soon as the sounding board with its iron frame and strings is complete, the outside case is
+built up around it, the front being left open to receive the action and key-board.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo483b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig483b" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="illocredit">Photo by Kohler &amp; Campbell Piano Co.</p>
+
+<p class="caption">ATTACHING THE LITTLE HAMMERS THAT STRIKE THE STRINGS.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">In this picture the workmen are placing the action and keys, to which are attached the little
+wooden felt-covered hammers, which will strike the strings and produce the tones. It took a great
+many years for our musical instrument makers to hit upon the idea of using these little hammers,
+and thus make the piano a perfect instrument.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page484">[484]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">REGULATING THE ACTION OF THE PIANO</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo484a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig484a">
+
+<p class="illocredit">Photo by Kohler &amp; Campbell Piano Co.</p>
+
+<p class="caption">REGULATING THE ACTION AND KEYBOARD.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">This picture shows the piano partly assembled and the workmen adjusting each little black and
+white key to the proper touch.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo484b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig484b" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="illocredit">Photo by Kohler &amp; Campbell Piano Co.</p>
+
+<p class="caption">TUNING, POLISHING AND FINISHING.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">The piano is now complete except for polishing and tuning. The tuning is left to the last.
+The tuner must have a good ear for music. With his key he tightens or loosens each of the pegs
+to which the wires are attached until it is perfectly in tune and all in harmony. The piano is
+now ready to play upon.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page485">[485]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">How Sounds Are Produced.</h2>
+
+<p>If you look closely at a tuning fork,
+or a piano string, while it is sounding,
+you can see that it is swinging rapidly
+to and fro, or vibrating. Touch it with
+your finger and thus stop its vibration
+and it no longer produces sound. The
+only difference that you can discover
+in the fork or string when sounding
+and when silent is that when you stop
+the motion it is silent and when it vibrates
+it makes a sound. From this we
+learn that the sounds are due to the vibrations
+of sounding bodies. This has
+been proven by the examination of so
+many sounding bodies that we believe
+that all sounds are produced by vibrations.</p>
+
+<p>The question that next presents itself
+is, how the vibrations affect our
+ears, so as to produce the sensation of
+hearing. This may be made clear by a
+very simple, but striking, experiment.
+If a bell which has been arranged to
+be rung by clock-work is suspended
+under the receiver of an air pump, and
+the air pumped out, the sound of the
+bell will grow faint as the quantity
+of air in the receiver decreases, and
+finally will stop completely. By looking
+through the glass of the receiver,
+however, the bell may be seen ringing
+as vigorously as at first. We learn thus
+that the air around a sounding body
+plays an important part in the transmission
+of the vibrations to our ears.
+The way in which the air acts in transmitting
+the vibrations is as follows. At
+each vibration of the sounding body, it
+compresses, to a certain degree, a layer
+of air in front of it. This layer, however,
+does not remain compressed, for
+air is very elastic, and the compressed
+air soon expands, and in doing so compresses
+a layer of air just beyond it.
+This layer expands in its turn, and compresses
+another layer still further from
+the body. In this way waves of compression
+are sent through the air, at each
+vibration, in all directions from the vibrating
+body.</p>
+
+<p>It must not be thought that particles
+of air travel all the way from the vibrating
+body to the ear when a sound is
+heard. Each particle of air travels a
+very short distance, never any further
+than the vibrating body moves in making
+a vibration, and the movement of
+the air particles is a vibratory one, like
+that of the sounding body. But the particles
+of air near the sounding body
+communicate their vibrations to other
+particles, further from that body, and
+these, in turn, to others still further
+away, so, while the particles of air
+themselves move very short distances,
+the waves produced by their vibrations
+may be made to travel a considerable
+distance.</p>
+
+<p>The size of a sound wave ordinarily
+is very small, but sound waves are
+sometimes made of such size and
+strength as to strike our ears with a
+force sufficient to rupture the ear drum.
+Such large and forceful waves come
+during explosions, such as the discharges
+of cannon or the explosions of
+large quantities of gunpowder under
+any conditions.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Is Sound?</h2>
+
+<p>From what has already been said,
+you will probably answer that sounds
+are waves in the air, which produce
+the sensation of hearing. This is correct,
+but sound is not limited to vibrations
+of the air. Other elastic substances
+can be made to vibrate in the
+same way, and the waves so produced
+when conveyed to our ears, produce the
+sensation of hearing. If you put your
+ear under water and then strike two
+stones together in the water you will
+hear a sound as readily as you would
+in air. Sound waves may be transmitted
+by solid bodies also, and some of these
+are better for this purpose than air or
+liquids. Perhaps you have tried the
+experiment of placing your ear against
+one of the steel rails on a railroad track
+to listen for the coming of a distant
+train. If you have tried this, you know
+that a sound that is too faint, or is made
+too far away, to be heard through the
+air, can easily be heard through the rail.</p>
+
+<p>In view of the fact that other substances
+than air can be thrown into<span class="pagenum" id="Page486">[486]</span>
+waves that will affect the sense of hearing,
+we may define sound as vibrations
+in any elastic object, that produces the
+sensation of hearing.</p>
+
+<p>The definition is sometimes called the
+physical definition of sound, in contradistinction
+to the physiological definition
+of sound which is given as the sensation
+produced when vibrations in elastic
+substances are conveyed to our ears.
+You will see then that sound when referring
+to the physical definition is
+what makes sound known in the physiological
+definition. The term sound
+alone, without qualifications, may have
+either meaning, and therefore statements
+concerning sound may be misleading,
+unless we are exact in explaining
+the sense in which the word is
+used.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">How Fast Does Sound Travel?</h2>
+
+<p>When a sound is made close to us,
+it reaches our ears so quickly that it
+seems as though it took no time to
+travel; but when a gun is fired by a
+person at a distance, you will notice
+that after you see the flash of the gun,
+a little time elapses before the sound
+reaches your ear. It takes a little time
+for the light from the flash to get to
+your eyes, but a very short time, which
+you cannot appreciate. Sound travels
+much more slowly and the time it takes
+to travel a few hundred yards is noticeable.
+Accurate measurements of
+the speed of sound have been made, and
+it has been found that sound usually
+travels in air at a speed of about eleven
+hundred feet a second. The speed is
+not always the same, however, for a
+number of circumstances may cause it
+to vary. In air which is heated, the
+speed at which sound travels in it is
+increased because hot air expands. At
+the freezing point, sound travels
+through the air at the rate of 1,091 feet
+a second, and for every increase in temperature
+of one degree of heat, the
+speed is increased about thirteen inches
+a second. Accordingly at 68° F. the
+speed would be approximately 1,130
+feet a second. Sounds also travel faster
+in moist air than in dry.</p>
+
+<p>In other gases the speed of sound
+transmission may be greater or less than
+in air. For example, in hydrogen gas,
+which is much lighter than air, sound
+travels nearly four times as fast as it
+does in air. On the other hand, in carbonic
+acid gas, which is heavier than
+air, sound is transmitted more slowly.</p>
+
+<p>In liquids, which are always heavier
+than air, you would naturally think that
+sound would travel more slowly than
+in air, but this is not true. Liquids are
+less compressible than gases and this
+causes the speed with which sound is
+transmitted in them to be increased. In
+water sound travels about four times
+as fast as in air.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Are the Properties of Sound?</h2>
+
+<p>Sounds differ from each other by the
+extent to which they possess three qualities,
+namely; intensity, pitch and quality.</p>
+
+<p>The intensity of any sound that we
+hear depends upon the size of the waves
+that reach our ears. The size of a
+sound wave gradually decreases, as the
+wave travels from its starting point,
+consequently the intensity of a sound
+depends upon the distance from the
+point at which the sound was produced.
+We know this from experience and if
+we think of the matter for a moment
+we will see why it is so. At the start
+of a sound wave, only a small quantity
+of air is affected, but for every inch
+it travels the quantity of air to which
+the wave is conveyed becomes larger,
+and the intensity of the waves must
+grow correspondingly smaller, just as
+when a pebble is dropped into water,
+the ripples produced by it are highest
+at the point where the pebble struck the
+water, and grows lower and lower as
+their circle widens.</p>
+
+<p>It has been found possible to measure
+the intensity of a sound wave, at
+different distances from the point from
+which it started, and from these measurements
+it has been learned that the
+decrease in the open air, follows a fixed
+rule that is stated thus: the intensity
+of a sound wave at any point is inversely
+proportional to the square of its<span class="pagenum" id="Page487">[487]</span>
+distance from its starting point. This
+rule is called “the law of inverse
+square,” and it means that if the intensity
+of a wave be measured at two
+points, distant say one hundred, and two
+hundred yards, respectively, from the
+starting point of the sound, the intensity
+of the sound at the first point will be
+found to be four times as great as at
+the second point.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Can You Hear More Easily
+Through a Speaking Tube?</h2>
+
+<p>We have seen that the decrease in
+intensity of a sound wave as it travels
+through the air, is due to the fact that
+the quantity of air set in motion by it
+is constantly increasing. But, if a wave
+is conveyed through a tube containing
+air, the quantity of air to which the vibrations
+are communicated does not increase
+as the wave travels forward, and
+theoretically there is no decrease in intensity.
+When a wave is actually transmitted
+in this way, however, it is found
+that there is some decrease in intensity
+on account of the friction of the particles
+of air against the sides of the
+tube; but the decrease from this cause
+is much slower than that which occurs
+in the open air, and consequently
+sounds can be heard at much greater
+distances through tubes than through
+the open air. Tubes for speaking purposes
+are frequently used to connect
+different parts of the same building,
+and if the tubes are not too crooked they
+serve their purpose very well.</p>
+
+<p>Pitch is that property of sounds that
+determines whether they are high or
+low. The pitch of a sound depends
+upon the number of vibrations a second
+which the body that produces it
+makes. The sound of an explosion has
+no pitch because it makes but one wave
+in the air. The sound made by a wagon
+on a pavement has no definite pitch,
+for it is a mixture of sounds, in which
+the number of vibrations per second is
+not the same. Pitch is a property of
+continuous sounds only, and it is apparent
+chiefly in musical sounds, by
+which we mean sounds in which the vibrations
+are continuous and regular.
+In music, however, pitch is very important.
+In a musical instrument, the
+parts are so arranged that the sounds
+produced can be given any desired
+pitch, and it is by controlling the pitch
+that the pleasing effect of musical
+sounds in large measure is produced.
+Sounds of low pitch are produced by
+bodies making but a few vibrations a
+second while high-pitched sounds are
+made by bodies that vibrate rapidly.</p>
+
+<p>Quality, may be defined as that property
+of sounds which enable us to distinguish
+the notes produced by different
+instruments. Two notes, one of
+which is produced upon a piano, and
+the other upon a violin, may have the
+same pitch and be equally loud, yet
+they are easily distinguishable. The
+difference in them is due to the presence
+of what are called overtones.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Is Meant By the Length of Sound
+Waves?</h2>
+
+<p>The length of a sound wave embraces
+the distance from the point of
+greatest compression in one wave to the
+same point in the next. This depends
+upon the pitch for if a sounding body
+is making one hundred vibrations a second,
+by the time the one hundredth vibration
+is made, the wave from the first
+vibration will have travelled about
+eleven hundred feet from the starting
+point, and the remaining ninety-eight
+waves will lie between the first and the
+one hundredth. In consequence of this,
+the wave length for that particular
+sound will be about eleven feet. If the
+sounding body had made eleven hundred
+vibrations a second by the time
+the first wave had travelled eleven hundred
+feet, there would have been eleven
+hundred waves produced, and the wave
+length for that sound would be one foot.
+The wave lengths of sounds produced
+by the human voice usually lay between
+one and eight feet, though some singers
+have produced notes having wave
+lengths as great as eighteen feet, and
+others have reached notes so high that
+the wave length was only about nine
+inches.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page488">[488]</span></p>
+
+<p>When a tuning fork is struck, it
+produces a sound so faint that it can
+scarcely be heard unless the fork is
+held near the ear; but if the end of the
+fork is held on a box or table, the
+sound rings out loudly and seems to
+come from the table. The explanation
+of this is very simple. When only the
+fork vibrates, it produces very small
+sound waves, because its prongs are
+small and cut through the air. But
+when it is set on a box or table, its vibrations
+are communicated to the support,
+and the broader surface of the
+box or table sets a larger mass of air
+in vibration, and so amplifies the sound
+of the fork. When a surface is used in
+this way to reinforce the vibrations of
+a small body, and thus produce sound
+waves of greater volume, it is called a
+sounding board. Many musical instruments,
+like the violin and the piano,
+owe the intensity of their sounds to
+sounding boards, which reinforce the
+vibrations of their strings.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>WHAT A SOUNDING<br>
+BOARD DOES</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>Columns of air, like sounding boards,
+serve to reinforce sound waves. Unlike
+sounding boards, however, they do
+not respond equally well to a large
+number of different sounds. They respond
+to one sound only, or to several
+widely different ones. This may be
+shown as follows: Take a glass tube
+about sixteen inches long, and two
+inches in diameter, and after thrusting
+one end of it into a vessel of water,
+hold a vibrating tuning fork over the
+other end. By gradually lowering the
+tube into the water a point will be
+reached at which the sound becomes
+very loud, and as this point is passed
+the sound gradually dies away again.
+By raising the tube again the sound
+is again made loud when the tube
+reaches a certain point. This shows
+that to reinforce sound waves of a certain
+vibration frequency, the column of
+air in the tube must be of certain
+length.</p>
+
+<p>Let us now see why the waves produced
+by the tuning fork are reinforced
+only by a column of air of a certain
+length. When the prongs of the fork
+make a vibration, a wave of air is produced
+which enters the tube, goes down
+to the water, is reflected, and comes
+back toward the fork. Now, if the
+reflected wave reaches the fork at the
+precise moment when it has completed
+one-half of its vibration and is about
+to begin upon the second half, it will
+strengthen the wave produced by the
+second half of the vibration; but if the
+reflected wave reaches the fork before
+or after the beginning of the second half
+of the vibration, it will not reinforce it.
+At the downward movement of the
+lower prong of the tuning fork, a wave
+of compression is sent down into the
+tube, and is reflected at the surface of
+the water. In order to reinforce the
+wave produced by the prong when it
+moves upward, the reflected wave must
+reach the fork just at the time that the
+prong reaches its normal position and
+before it starts upon the second half
+of its vibration.</p>
+
+<p>Not only do columns of air tend to
+reinforce notes having a certain rate
+of vibration, but all elastic bodies have
+a certain rate at which they tend to vibrate,
+and when sounds having the
+same rate of vibration are produced
+near them, these bodies will vibrate in
+sympathy with them. If the sounds be
+kept up long enough, the sympathetic
+vibrations in objects near them sometimes
+become so great that they can
+easily be seen. Goblets and tumblers
+made of thin glass show this property
+very strikingly. When the proper notes
+are sounded the glasses take up the vibrations,
+and give a sound of the same
+pitch. If the note is loud, and is continued
+for some time, the vibrations of
+a glass sometimes become so great that
+the glass breaks. Large buildings, and
+bridges also, have rates at which they
+tend to vibrate, and this fact is the
+foundation for the old saying, that a
+man may fiddle a bridge down, if he
+fiddles long enough.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Musical Instruments.</h2>
+
+<p>By musical sounds, are meant sounds
+that are pleasant to hear, and their combination
+in such a way that their effect<span class="pagenum" id="Page489">[489]</span>
+is agreeable produces music. Any instrument,
+therefore, that is capable of
+producing pleasing sounds may be
+called a musical instrument, and music
+is sometimes produced by very odd devices;
+but by musical instruments we
+ordinarily mean instruments that are
+especially designed to produce musical
+sounds. The number of such instruments
+that have been invented is enormous,
+but all of them may be divided
+into comparatively few classes, only
+two of which are of much importance.
+The two classes, only two of which are
+of much importance. The two classes
+referred to are stringed instruments
+and wind instruments.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>WHAT PITCH IS<br>
+IN MUSIC</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>Stringed musical instruments are
+those in which the sounds are produced
+by the vibration of a number of strings,
+and are generally reinforced by a
+sounding board. The strings are arranged
+in the instruments in such a way
+that the pitch of the sound produced by
+each string shall bear relation to the
+pitch of those obtained from the other
+strings. As long as this relation exists,
+the instrument is said to be in tune,
+and when the relation is destroyed, the
+instrument is out of tune, and the music
+produced by it is apt to contain what
+we call discords.</p>
+
+<p>The conditions that determine the
+pitch of sounds produced by strings can
+be very easily discovered by experiment.
+Thus, by taking two pieces of
+the same wire, one twice as long as the
+other, and stretching them equally, you
+will observe on striking them that the
+shorter one yields the higher note. If
+their vibration frequencies are measured
+it will be found that the shorter
+string has a vibration frequency just
+twice as great as that of the longer
+string. From this we conclude that
+when two strings of the same size (and
+material) are stretched equally taut,
+their vibration frequencies are inversely
+proportional to their lengths.</p>
+
+<p>By now taking two pieces of wire,
+of the same size and length, and stretching
+them so that the tension of one is
+four times as great as that of the other,
+we shall find that the vibration frequency
+of the tighter string is just twice
+as great as that of the looser. Thus,
+we see that the vibration frequency depends
+upon the tension applied to a
+string, and, that in strings of the same
+size and length, the vibration frequencies
+are proportional to the square roots
+of their tensions.</p>
+
+<p>Now taking two strings of the same
+length, but with the diameter of one
+twice as great as that of the other, and
+stretching them equally, we shall find
+that the vibration frequency of the
+smaller string is twice that of the
+larger; which shows that when the
+lengths and tensions of two strings are
+equal, their vibration frequencies are
+inversely proportional to their diameters.</p>
+
+<p>In constructing stringed instruments,
+advantage is taken of each of these conditions
+that affect the vibration of
+strings, and the requisite pitch is secured
+in a string by choosing one of
+convenient length and diameter, and by
+stretching it to just the right tension.</p>
+
+<p>When a string is plucked in the
+middle, it vibrates as a whole, and its
+rate of vibration, or vibration frequency,
+is determined by the three conditions
+that have just been discussed; but if a
+finger is laid on the string, in the
+middle, and the string is plucked between
+the middle and the end, the string
+will vibrate in halves, and the middle
+point will remain at rest. If the string
+had been touched at a point one-fourth
+of the length from the end it would
+have vibrated in fourths, and there
+would have been three stationary points.</p>
+
+<p>When vibrations are set up in a
+string, with nothing to prevent the free
+vibration of the whole string, it first
+vibrates as a whole, and the sound produced
+is known as the fundamental
+tone of the string; but very soon smaller
+vibrations of segments of the string begin,
+first of halves of the string, then
+of thirds, and then of fourths. These
+smaller vibrations produce sound waves
+that blend with the fundamental tone
+and are known as overtones. The combined
+sound of the fundamental tone
+and the overtones is called a note. The<span class="pagenum" id="Page490">[490]</span>
+overtones present in notes that have the
+same fundamental tone are not the
+same when the notes are produced by
+different instruments, and, consequently,
+the sound of notes of the same pitch
+is not the same on different instruments.
+This difference in notes of the same
+pitch has already been mentioned, but
+the way in which overtones are produced
+was not explained in connection
+with it.</p>
+
+<p>In wind instruments the sounds are
+produced by the vibrations of columns
+of air in pipes. In the organ, which
+is probably the best example of a wind
+instrument, the vibrations are usually
+produced by causing a current of air to
+strike a sharp edge, just above the opening
+of the pipe, as is done in a common
+whistle. A portion of the air current
+is deflected into the organ pipe, and
+it sets up vibrations in the air within
+the pipe.</p>
+
+<p>The pitch of the sound produced by
+an organ pipe is determined by the
+length of the pipe. A pipe that is open
+at both ends, called an open pipe, produces
+a sound that has a wave length
+twice as great as the length of the
+pipe; and if the pipe is open at one end
+only, a closed pipe, the sound produced
+has a wave length twice the length of
+the open pipe. Hence it will be seen
+that a closed pipe produces a sound that
+has the same pitch as that produced
+by an open pipe that is twice as long.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Talking Machines.</h2>
+
+<p>The phonograph, graphophone, gramophone,
+sonophone, and other talking
+machines, furnish one of the best proofs
+of the wave theory of sound, because
+their invention was based upon that
+theory. The first talking machine was
+that invented by Thomas A. Edison and
+called by him the phonograph. The
+others merely show the principle of the
+phonograph applied in different ways,
+and need not be separately described.
+The reasoning that led Edison to invent
+the phonograph was that if the
+sound waves produced by the human
+voice were allowed to strike a thick
+disk of hard rubber or metal, they
+would cause the disk to vibrate in a
+certain way, and if the disk were again
+made to vibrate as it had done under
+the influence of the voice, the sounds
+of the voice would be reproduced. The
+difficult part of the task of making a
+talking machine was in finding a way
+to make the disk vibrate again as it
+did under the influence of the voice.
+This, however, was finally accomplished,
+providing the disk with a
+needle, that rests on a cylinder of hard
+wax, which turns slowly under the
+point of the needle while the sound
+waves are striking the disk. The vibrations
+of the disk cause the point to
+indent the surface of the wax so as
+to produce a groove of varying depth
+on its surface. After the vibrations of
+the speaker’s voice have been recorded
+in this way on the surface of the wax
+cylinder the needle can be made to retrace
+its path, and will cause the disk
+to vibrate as it did under the tones of
+the speaker’s voice. These last vibrations
+of the disk produce sound waves
+similar to those of the voice, but their
+amplitude is less and the sound is not
+so loud.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Does Red Make a Bull Angry?</h2>
+
+<p>It is very doubtful if a red flag really
+makes a bull more excited or more quickly
+than a rag of any other color or
+any other object which the bull can see
+plainly but does not understand. Conceding
+for the moment that red excites
+a bull more than any other color, the
+answer to the question will be found in
+the statement that anything unusual
+which the bull sees has a tendency to
+make him angry and the thing which
+he can see at a distance more quickly
+will start him going most quickly. He
+can see a red rag better perhaps than
+almost any other color. There may be
+something about the color which excites
+him just as some notes on the piano
+will worry some dogs, but there is no
+way of studying the bull’s anatomy to
+determine why red should excite him
+more than any other color, if that is so.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page491">[491]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<h2 class="pagheading">HOW A KEY TURNS A LOCK</h2>
+
+<div class="split5050">
+
+<div class="left5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo491a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig491a">
+
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 1.</span></p>
+
+<img src="images/illo491b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig491b" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 2.</span></p>
+
+<img src="images/illo491c.jpg" alt="" id="Fig491c" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 3.</span></p>
+
+</div><!--left5050-->
+
+<div class="right5050">
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Happens When the Knob is
+Turned?</h2>
+
+<p class="caption long">All of that portion of the lock which is shown
+above the round central post is operated by the
+knob, the spindle of which passes through the
+square hole. Before the knob is turned, the parts
+are in the position shown in <a href="#Fig491b">figure 2</a>, with the
+latch bolt protruding. Turning the knob to the
+left gives the position shown in <a href="#Fig491a">figure 1</a>, the
+upper lever in the hub pushing back the yoke,
+which in turn pushes back the latch bolt. When
+the hand is removed, the springs cause the parts
+to return to the position shown in <a href="#Fig491b">figure 2</a>. Turning
+the knob to the right also retracts the latch
+bolt, as shown in <a href="#Fig491c">figure 3</a>, by means of the
+lower lever on the hub.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">The spiral spring on the latch bolt is lighter
+than the one above it. This gives an easy, lively
+action to the bolt, with very little friction when
+the door is closed, while the heavier spring above
+gives a quick and positive action of the knobs.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Happens When the Key is
+Turned?</h2>
+
+<p class="caption long">All of that portion of the lock which is shown
+below the round central post is operated by the
+key. The square stud is attached to the bolt,
+and in figure 1, it is seen that the projections on
+the flat tumblers prevent the stud from moving
+forward, holding the bolt in retracted position.
+When the key is turned as shown in <a href="#Fig491b">figure 2</a>, it
+raises the tumblers releasing the stud, and then
+pushes the bolt out, the tumblers falling into
+position as shown in <a href="#Fig491c">figure 3</a>, with the projections
+again engaging the stud and preventing the bolt
+from moving until the key is turned backward,
+again raising the tumblers and releasing and retracting
+the bolt.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">How Key Changes Are Provided.</h2>
+
+<p class="caption long">There are three ways in which keys are made
+individual to the locks they fit.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long"><i>a.</i> By changing the shape of the keyhole. This
+may be done shorter or longer, wide or narrow,
+straight or tapering and with projections on the
+sides which the key must fit, making it difficult or
+impossible for keys of a different class to enter
+the lock. In the lock shown, a projection on the
+keyhole will be noted, fitting a groove in the bit
+of the key.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long"><i>b.</i> By wards attached to the lock-case. The two
+crescent-shaped wards seen near the key in <a href="#Fig491b">figure
+2</a> illustrate this feature. Similar wards are placed
+on the lock cover. These fit into the two notches
+shown on the key bit in <a href="#Fig491d">figure 4</a>, and their shape
+and position are varied at will.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long"><i>c.</i> By changes in the tumblers. There are five
+flat tumblers in the lock shown, and their lower
+edges fit into the end of the key bit. By varying
+their height, changes in the cutting of the key
+are made necessary.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">The security of a lock depends very largely
+upon its being so made that no key will operate
+it except the one which belongs to it, and this
+is obtained by guarding the keyhole by means of <i>a</i>,
+by preventing the wrong key from turning by
+means of <i>b</i>, and by still further limitations by
+means of <i>c</i>.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo491d.jpg" alt="Key" id="Fig491d">
+
+</div><!--right5050-->
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--split5050-->
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page492">[492]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">HOW A CYLINDER LOCK WORKS</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo492a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig492a">
+
+<p class="caption">FIGURE 1. PARTS OF CYLINDER LOCK.</p>
+
+<div class="split4060">
+
+<div class="left4060">
+
+<img src="images/illo492b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig492b" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption">FIGURE 2.</p>
+
+<p class="caption">FACE OF CYLINDER LOCK.</p>
+
+</div><!--left4060-->
+
+<div class="right4060">
+
+<h3>The Cylinder Lock.</h3>
+
+<p class="caption long">Door locks of the highest grade of security are made with
+a locking cylinder, which contains tumblers in the form of
+miniature bolts which make it impossible to operate the lock
+except with the key to which it is fitted. This is screwed into
+the lock-case through the side of the door, with the lever
+on the inner end engaging the end of the bolt in the lock,
+so that as it is moved it either retracts or “throws” the
+bolt as desired.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long"><a href="#Fig492a">Figure 1</a> shows all the parts of a modern master-keyed
+lock. <a href="#Fig492d">Figure 4</a> shows a broken view of the cylinder with
+all parts in position. <a href="#Fig492c">Figure 3</a> shows a simpler form
+used when the master key is not desired. <a href="#Fig492b">Figure 2</a> shows
+the front, the only part which is visible when the lock
+is in use, with its keyway of tortuous shape which will
+not admit flat-picking tools.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">When the lock is assembled, the pin tumblers project
+through the shell, the master cylinder and the key plug
+holding all parts firmly bolted or fastened together. When
+the proper key is inserted, the tumblers are raised until
+the “breaks” in all of them coincide with the surface of the
+key plug, releasing it and permitting the key to turn it.
+If any one of the five tumblers is .002 inch too high or
+too low, the key will not turn; so that no key except
+the one made for the lock can be used.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">In the master-keyed lock, the master key causes the
+breaks to coincide with the outer surface of the master
+ring. It is thus possible to have a master key which will
+fit any desired number of locks with the individual or
+change keys all different from each other and from the
+master key.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">The balls reduce friction to such an extent that a key
+has been inserted and withdrawn for a million times without
+affecting the accuracy of the lock.</p>
+
+</div><!--right4060-->
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--split4060-->
+
+<div class="split5050">
+
+<div class="left5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo492c.jpg" alt="" id="Fig492c" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption">FIGURE 3.</p>
+
+<p class="caption">INTERIOR OF CYLINDER LOCK WITHOUT
+MASTER KEY.</p>
+
+</div><!--left5050-->
+
+<div class="right5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo492d.jpg" alt="" id="Fig492d" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption">FIGURE 4.</p>
+
+<p class="caption">INTERIOR OF MASTER-KEYED CYLINDER LOCK.</p>
+
+</div><!--right5050-->
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--split5050-->
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page493">[493]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Where Does Salt Come From?</h2>
+
+<p>Salt is one of the things with which
+we come in contact with daily perhaps
+more than any other. With the exception
+of water, probably no one thing
+is used more by all civilized people than
+salt.</p>
+
+<p>You have already learned in our <a href="#Page349">talk
+on elements</a> the difference between a
+mere mixture of substances and a chemical
+compound. You remember that
+when some substances are only mixed
+together, they do not lose their identity.
+In a compound the substances are always
+combined in fixed proportions and
+the properties of the compound are often
+very different from those of the things
+that make it. Common salt is made of
+two substances, that are not at all like
+salt, and are very different from each
+other. One, sodium, is a soft, bluish
+metal, and the other is chlorine, a yellowish-green
+gas. The chemical name
+for salt is sodium chloride which is derived
+from the two names sodium and chlorine.</p>
+
+<p>Sodium and chlorine are both what
+we have learned to call elements. An
+element being a substance which cannot
+be separated into substances of different
+kinds. There are now known
+about seventy such elements. All the
+substances around us are composed of
+these elements alone, or chemically
+united in different compounds, or
+simply mixed together. Most of them,
+however, are mixtures, not of separate
+elements, but of compounds. The soil
+under our feet is a mixture of compounds.
+Water is also a compound.
+Pure compounds very rarely occur
+naturally. Salt is sometimes found almost
+pure; but generally is mixed with
+so many other things that we have to
+take them out to get absolutely pure
+salt. For practical every-day use it is
+unnecessary to purify the salt.</p>
+
+<p>Salt is found in large quantities in
+the sea water, in which it is dissolved
+with some other substances. It is also
+found in salt beds, formed by the drying
+up of old lakes that have no outlets;
+salt wells, that yield strong brine;
+and salt mines, in which it is found
+in hard, solid, transparent crystals,
+called rock salt. Rock salt is the purest
+form in which salt is found and, to
+prepare it for market, it is merely necessary
+to grind it or cut into blocks. The
+greatest deposit of salt in the world is
+probably that at Wielizka in Poland,
+where there is a bed 500 miles long, 20
+miles wide, and 1,200 feet thick. Some
+of the mines there are so extensive that
+it is said some of the miners spend
+all their lives in them, never coming
+to the surface of the earth.</p>
+
+<p>A trip through these mines is interesting.
+In one of them can be seen a
+church made entirely of salt. The salt
+supply of the United States is obtained
+chiefly from the salt wells of Michigan
+and New York, the Great Salt Lake in
+Utah, and the rock-salt mines of Louisiana
+and Kansas.</p>
+
+<p>In the arts and manufactures, the
+most important uses of salt are in glazing
+earthenware, in extracting metals
+from their ores, in preserving meats
+and hides, in fertilizing arid soil, and
+also, as we shall presently <a href="#Ref03">see</a>, in the
+manufacture of soda. Of equal importance,
+perhaps, is its use in food. Most
+people think it not only lends a pleasant
+flavor, but is itself an important article
+of diet. It is certain, that all
+people who can obtain it use salt in their
+food, and where it is scarce, it is considered
+one of the greatest of luxuries.</p>
+
+<p>Soda is of interest to us, not so much
+on account of its use in our households,
+as because it plays on extremely important
+part in two industries that contribute
+greatly to our comfort, viz., the
+manufacture of glass and soap.</p>
+
+<p id="Ref03">Soda is not found naturally in great
+abundance, as salt is, but is generally
+made from other substances. Formerly
+it was made almost entirely from the
+ashes of certain plants. One, known as
+the Salsoda soda-plant, was formerly
+cultivated in Spain for the soda contained
+in it, and the ashes, or Barilla,
+as they were called, were soaked in
+water to dissolve out the soda. Now,
+however, the world’s soda supply is produced
+from common salt by two processes,<span class="pagenum" id="Page494">[494]</span>
+known from the names of their
+inventors as the Leblanc and Solvay
+processes.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>WHERE WE<br>
+GET SODA</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>In the Leblanc process the first step
+is to treat the salt, or sodium chloride,
+with sulphuric acid. As a result of this,
+a compound of sodium, sulphur, and
+oxygen, called sodium sulphate is
+formed, together with another acid
+containing hydrogen and chlorine, and
+called hydrochloric acid. This acid is
+driven off by boiling, and the sodium
+sulphate is left.</p>
+
+<p>The next step in the process is to convert
+the sodium sulphate, or “salt
+cake,” into soda, or, to give it its chemical
+name, sodium carbonate. This
+change is brought about by mixing the
+salt cake with limestone and coal and
+heating the mixture. Just what changes
+go on when this is done, are not known,
+but the chief ones are probably the following:
+the coal, which consists for the
+most part of an element called carbon,
+takes the oxygen out of the sodium sulphate,
+and unites with it to form carbonic
+acid gas, leaving a compound of
+sodium and sulphur called sodium sulphide;
+this acts on the limestone, which
+is composed of a metal, calcium, in
+combination with carbon and oxygen,
+and causes the sulphur in the sodium
+sulphide to combine with the calcium,
+forming calcium sulphide, while the
+sodium combines with the carbon and
+oxygen and forms the desired compound,
+sodium carbonate. After the
+heating, the resulting mass which contains
+calcium sulphide, sodium carbonate,
+and some unburned coal, and is
+known as “black ash,” is broken up and
+treated with water. This dissolves the
+sodium carbonate, leaving the rest undissolved,
+and when part of the water is
+evaporated crystals containing sodium
+carbonate and water are formed. By
+heating these the water may be driven
+off, and the sodium carbonate left behind
+as a white powder.</p>
+
+<p>The Solvay, or ammonia soda, process
+consists in forcing carbonic acid
+gas through strong brine, to which a
+considerable quantity of ammonia has
+been added. When this is done, crystals
+are formed in the brine, which are
+composed of a compound of hydrogen,
+sodium, carbon, and oxygen, and are
+called sodium bicarbonate. This substance,
+which is the soda we sometimes
+use in baking bread, is decomposed by
+heating, into water and sodium carbonate,
+the soda used for washing.</p>
+
+<p>The Leblanc process was formerly
+used almost altogether for making
+soda; but in recent years the Solvay
+process has come into extensive use,
+and it is said that now more than half
+the soda of the world is made in this
+way.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Where Do All the Little Round Stones
+Come From?</h2>
+
+<p>The little round stones you are thinking
+of are really pebbles which have
+been worn smooth and round by being
+rubbed against each other in the water,
+through the action of the waves on a
+beach, or the running water of brooks
+and streams. This sort of rock is called
+a water-formed rock. Some of them
+have travelled many miles before they
+are found side by side on the shore or
+in a large mass of what we would call
+conglomerate rock. But whenever you
+see a round smooth rock or pebble you
+may be quite sure that it was made
+round and smooth by the action of
+water.</p>
+
+<p>You sometimes see large rocks made
+of small stones of various colors and
+sizes. You can often find a large rock
+of this kind standing by itself. If you
+examine it carefully, you will find it
+consists of an immense number of small
+stones of different sizes and of a variety
+of colors, all fastened together as
+though with cement. This kind of rock
+is called conglomerate. We know two
+kinds of conglomerate rock, one, quite
+common, in which the little stones are
+round and smooth, and another, not
+seen so often, in which the stones are
+sharp. The latter sort is sometimes
+called breccia, to distinguish it from the
+former, which is called true pudding
+stone.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page495">[495]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Is Clay?</h2>
+
+<p>Clay is the result of the crumbling of
+a certain kind of rocks called feldspars.
+When feldspar is exposed to the action
+of the weather, it crumbles slowly at the
+surface and the little fragments combine
+with a certain amount of water,
+forming clay. Pure clay is white and is
+used in the manufacture of china and
+porcelain. The common clay that we
+usually think of when we think of clay,
+is generally yellowish, but there are
+many different colored clays. Most of
+these colors, particularly those of red
+clay, yellow clay and blue clay, come
+from the iron which is present in the
+clay. Clay which contains iron is useful
+for making bricks. Bricks are made
+from clay by first softening the clay and
+pressing it in molds, the size of a brick.
+When dried for a time in the sun they
+are put into an oven and baked in great
+heat and they become quite hard and
+generally red. Most of the clay from
+which bricks are made turns red when
+baked, whether blue, yellow or red, because
+the iron which is in the clay is
+generally turned red when subjected to
+heat.</p>
+
+<p>For making porcelains it is desirable
+to use the kinds of clay which contain
+nothing that melts when heated to a
+high degree. Clays which contain substances
+which melt in strong heat are,
+therefore, not good for making porcelains.
+There is a pure white clay
+called Kaolin which is very excellent
+for this purpose. Clay out of which
+we make firebrick for lining stoves and
+fireplaces is free from substances which
+melt. Several kinds of clay are good
+for making paints.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Where Do School Slates Come From?</h2>
+
+<p>Slates such as are used in school and
+as roofing material are formed of clay,
+which has been hardened under pressure
+and heat. When this occurs it does
+so because a number of layers of clay,
+one on top of the other, have at sometime
+been subjected to great heat and
+pressure within the earth with the result
+that the clay is pressed into very
+thick layers and changed in color by the
+heat and becomes hard. There are
+many kinds of slate. Some of the
+slate, as found in slate mines, is used
+to make roofs over buildings and for
+this purpose they are cut to shapes very
+much like wooden shingles. They are
+easily broken, however, as slate is very
+brittle.</p>
+
+<p>Slate is used in many other ways besides
+for roofs and school slates. Sometimes
+it is made into slate pencils but,
+since paper has become so cheap, comparatively
+few slate pencils are used
+in the school room today.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Causes Shadows?</h2>
+
+<p>Where anything through which rays
+of light cannot pass intercepts the light
+rays coming from a luminous body, the
+light rays are turned back in the direction
+from which they come and the part
+on the other side of the object which intercepted
+the light goes into shade and a
+shadow results. A shadow then is produced
+by cutting off one or more light
+rays. We notice shadows when the sun
+is bright in the daytime and at night
+when we walk along the streets lighted
+partly by street lamps. The shadows
+we see in the daytime are caused by our
+cutting off and throwing back some of
+the light rays which come from the sun.
+These are not so dark as the shadows
+we see at night because the rays of light
+from the sun are so bright and are reflected
+from so many other objects to
+the side and in back of us.</p>
+
+<p>When, however, we are walking
+along a dimly lighted street and come
+to a street lamp the shadows our bodies
+cause are quite black. The night shadows
+are darker because the source of
+light is less intense and the objects to
+the side of and in back of us (if we
+are walking toward the light) do not
+reflect so much of the light rays as they
+do of the sun’s rays in the daytime.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page496">[496]</span></p>
+
+<div class="container w30emmax" id="Fig496">
+
+<img src="images/illo496.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">DRIVING THE HOLLOW STEEL PILES TO BED ROCK.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<h2 class="nobreak">The Foundation of a Sky Scraper</h2>
+
+</div><!--chapter-->
+
+<h3>How Hollow Steel Piles, Compressed
+and Concrete Are Employed to Make
+a Foundation</h3>
+
+<p>Rapidity of building construction is
+of primary importance in every city of
+metropolitan size. When real estate
+is sold at the rate of several hundred
+dollars a square foot it is self-evident
+that time is indeed money. The delay
+of a few days in completing a structure
+may deprive the owner of the
+chance of earning thousands in rental
+money. Because of the excessive depth
+of an open caisson, the completion of a
+foundation may be delayed for months.
+Hence the building may not be completed
+until the renting period has
+passed and the owner must wait an<span class="pagenum" id="Page497">[497]</span>
+entire year before he can expect any
+financial return on his investment.</p>
+
+<p>Because rapidity is so essential in
+city building construction the method
+of first sinking an open pit to rock
+in providing a foundation has been
+displaced to a large extent by a system
+in which heavy hollow steel piles are
+employed in clusters to support a building.
+The hollow piles are driven through
+quicksand to rock, cleaned out and
+ultimately filled with concrete.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>PILES ARE DRIVEN DOWN<br>
+TO SOLID ROCK</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>In this method of constructing
+foundations, which is illustrated, hollow
+steel piles are driven in the well-known
+manner down to solid rock. The
+steel pile sections vary in length from
+20 feet to 22 feet, and in diameter from
+12 inches to 24 inches. If the ground
+is to be penetrated to a depth greater
+than 22 feet, the sections of piling are
+connected by means of a sleeve in such
+manner that a watertight joint is
+formed. Under a pressure of 150
+pounds to the square inch a jet of compressed
+air is then employed to blow
+out the earth and water contained
+within the shell. A spouting geyser of
+mud rising sometimes to a height of
+150 feet, and occasional large pieces of
+rock blown up from a depth of 40 feet
+below the ground, bear testimony to
+the terrific force of the air blast.</p>
+
+<div class="container w45emmax" id="Fig497">
+
+<img src="images/illo497.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">THE PILES ARE ABOUT TWENTY-TWO FEET LONG. IF GREAT DEPTHS ARE TO BE REACHED
+SECTIONS OF PILING ARE JOINED TOGETHER BY MEANS OF A SLEEVE.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>When the shell has been completely
+cleaned out by means of the blast of
+compressed air, the exposed rock can
+be examined by lowering an electric
+light. Steel sounding rods are employed
+to test the hardness of the rock
+and to detect the difference between
+soft and hard bed rock. After the piles
+in each pier have been cleaned out,
+they must be cut off at absolutely
+the same height—sometimes a very
+difficult task when there is little room.
+The oxy-acetylene torch is used for the
+purpose, the intensely hot flame cutting
+off the steel almost like butter at the
+exact elevation desired.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page498">[498]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">CUTTING STEEL PILES WITH A HOT FLAME</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo498.jpg" alt="" id="Fig498">
+
+<p class="caption">PILE BEING CUT TO PROPER LEVEL BY MEANS OF OXY-ACETYLENE TORCH.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">After the piles in each
+pier have been cleaned
+out they must be cut off
+at exactly the same
+height—sometimes a very
+difficult task when there
+is little room. The oxy-acetylene
+torch is used
+for the purpose, the
+intensely hot flame cutting
+off the steel almost
+like butter.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page499">[499]</span></p>
+
+<div class="container w30emmax" id="Fig499a">
+
+<img src="images/illo499a.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">A CLUSTER OF PILES, CLEANED OUT,
+FILLED WITH CONCRETE AND CUT
+OFF FLUSH BY MEANS OF
+THE OXY-ACETYLENE
+FLAME.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>PILES ARE NEXT FILLED<br>
+WITH CONCRETE</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>The hollow shell is next filled with
+concrete reinforced by means of long
+two-inch steel rods, sometimes fifty
+feet in length. On clusters of these
+concrete-filled piles, the weight of the
+building is supported.</p>
+
+<p>That this method of constructing
+foundations is indeed rapid, the story
+of the work at 145-147 West Twenty-eighth
+Street, New York City, proves.
+Rock was located 38 feet below the
+curb. The material above it was clay
+and water-bearing sand. Structural
+steel was due in three weeks, but the
+completion of the cellar was still ten
+days off. The steel pile foundation
+method offered the only solution of the
+problem. Specifications were drawn
+which called for eighty-five 12-inch steel
+piles, driven to rock, blown clean by
+compressed air, and filled with concrete,
+reinforced with 2-inch rods.
+Despite various obstructions on the
+ground (shoring of neighboring buildings
+and the like) the driving was
+started on June 30th. The excavator
+was still taking out his runway while
+the rear half of the lot was completely
+driven. After he had left the ground
+a compressor was set up, and the first
+pipe was blown on July 7th. Three
+days later all driving and cleaning
+had been completed. During the following
+two days all the piles were
+filled and capped. In a word, the
+entire foundation had been completed
+three days before the expected arrival
+of the steel.</p>
+
+<div class="container w30emmax" id="Fig499b">
+
+<img src="images/illo499b.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">CONCRETE PILES WHICH HAVE BEEN SUNK TO
+ROCK BOTTOM AND IN WHICH TWO-INCH STEEL
+RODS HAVE BEEN INSERTED TO ACT AS REINFORCEMENT
+FOR THE CONCRETE WHICH WILL
+EVENTUALLY BE POURED IN.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>Such rapid work is not unusual with
+the steel foundation method. On another
+contract, work was completed
+not in the three months stipulated,
+but in exactly one month and a half,
+during which brief time all the excavation
+had been done, including sheeting,
+shoring, pile-driving, the mounting of
+concrete girders to carry the wall and<span class="pagenum" id="Page500">[500]</span>
+capping of the piles ready to receive
+the grillage.</p>
+
+<div class="container w30emmax" id="Fig500a">
+
+<img src="images/illo500a.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">THE STEEL PILE IS EASILY FORCED EVEN
+THROUGH THE SOFT UPPER LAYERS OF BED
+ROCK. SOMETIMES VERY LARGE PIECES ARE
+BLOWN UP INTO THE AIR BY THE BLAST OF
+COMPRESSED AIR.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>Sometimes difficulties are encountered
+which would prove all but
+insurmountable and certainly hopelessly
+expensive with other methods. Thus
+in carrying out the one contract, water
+was found 12 feet from the curb. Two
+running streams had intersected at that
+point. The piles were simply sunk
+through the stream to rock bottom
+without any difficulty.</p>
+
+<p>The excessive cost of open-pit work
+has sometimes made it impossible to
+build twelve or fourteen-story buildings
+in many sections of the city of New
+York. The steel pile has, however,
+made steel building construction profitable.</p>
+
+<p>The carrying capacity of a steel pile
+is enormous. On a single 12-inch steel
+pile one hundred tons can be safely
+maintained. Piers containing sixteen
+piles have been used, and loadings up
+to 1300 tons are not unusual.</p>
+
+<p>Naturally the question arises: Do
+the steel piles deteriorate in time? The
+question has been answered over and
+over again by the piles themselves.
+After a service of fifteen years the steel
+foundation piles were removed from the
+site of a building which now stands at
+the northwest corner of Wall and Nassau
+streets, in New York City. They
+showed practically no deterioration.
+The oxidation on the outside was
+almost negligible.</p>
+
+<div class="container w40emmax" id="Fig500b">
+
+<p class="caption">BLOWING OUT MUD AND ROCK WITH COMPRESSED AIR</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo500b.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">CLEANING OUT A HOLLOW STEEL PILE BY MEANS OF COMPRESSED AIR A
+GEYSER OF MUD ALWAYS APPEARS.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page501">[501]</span></p>
+
+<div class="container w45emmax">
+
+<img src="images/illo501.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">A DRIVEWAY ALONG THE TOP OF THE OLIVE BRIDGE DAM.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<h2 class="nobreak">The Story in a Glass of Water</h2>
+
+</div><!--chapter-->
+
+<h3>How Does the Water Get into the
+Faucet?</h3>
+
+<p>It is easy for you boys and girls who
+live in the city to run into the kitchen
+or bathroom when you are thirsty
+and by a simple turn of the faucet tap
+secure a glass of cool and refreshing
+water, but did you ever stop to think
+how many men must constantly work
+and how great and perfect arrangements
+must be made before it is possible to
+supply a great city with water to drink,
+to bathe in, and for cooking and
+washing?</p>
+
+<p>No one who has never had the experience
+of being in a town or city from
+which the water supply has been cut
+off, for a day or a number of days, can
+realize how necessary water is in our
+daily lives. We are so used to having
+all the water we want at any time that
+we even complain when in summer
+we are asked to drink water which is
+not iced. Drinking ice-water is very
+much of a habit. In tropical countries
+where there is no ice, people drink the
+water just as they find it, and if you
+were to go there and drink the waters
+for a few days, you would soon find that
+the water slakes your thirst even when
+quite warm, so it is not the ice in the
+water that quenches your thirst, but
+the water itself, and the ice-water is
+not good for you, as the doctor will
+tell you, because it chills the stomach.</p>
+
+<h3>Where Does Our Drinking Water Come
+from?</h3>
+
+<p>The best way to find out where the
+water in the faucet comes from is to
+follow it back to its source. Let us
+see. Here we are in the kitchen and
+you have just had a drink of water
+taken from the faucet above the sink.
+The faucet, you will notice, is attached
+to a small pipe which is fastened to
+the wall back of the sink. We look
+under the sink and see that the pipe
+goes through a hole in the floor, so we
+reason that the water must come from
+the cellar. Let us go down cellar and
+see. Yes, here is the little pipe that
+comes down through the floor under
+the sink and we follow it along the wall
+toward the front of the house, and
+well, well, there it goes right out
+through the stone foundation of the
+house. So we conclude that the water
+comes from somewhere outside of the
+house, and that the little pipe we have
+been following is only a means of
+getting it from the outside into the
+house. We now mark the place in the
+wall where the pipe goes through and
+run around to the front of the house
+to see where it comes out, but we don’t
+see it. It must be buried in the ground,
+so we get a spade and pick and begin
+to dig a hole in the ground, and pretty
+soon we find the little pipe pointing
+straight out toward the street. We
+keep on digging the dirt away, and thus
+open a little trench from the house
+to the middle of the street and when
+we get there after a great deal of digging
+we find our little pipe attached to a
+larger pipe which seems to run along
+the ground in the middle of the street;
+so we are still in the dark as to where
+the water comes from, excepting that
+so far as our own home is concerned we
+know that it gets into the house through
+a little pipe which is attached to a
+big pipe in the middle of the street.
+By this time we know we have a big
+job on hand.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page502">[502]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">HOW A BIG DAM IS BUILT</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo502a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig502a">
+
+<p class="caption">BUILDING OLIVE BRIDGE DAM TO FORM THE ASHOKAN RESERVOIR.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">The great Ashokan reservoir is situated about fourteen miles west of Kingston on the
+Hudson River. Its cost is $18,000,000, and it will hold sufficient water to cover the whole of
+Manhattan Island to a depth of twenty-eight feet. The water is impounded by the Olive Bridge
+dam, which is built across Esopus Creek, and also by the Beaver Kill and the Hurley dikes,
+which have been built across streams and gaps lying between the hills which surround the
+reservoir.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo502b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig502b" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption">THE OLIVE BRIDGE DAM, 4650 FEET LONG, 200 FEET HIGH.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">The dam is a masonry structure 190 feet in thickness at the base, and 23 feet thick at the
+top. The surface of the water when the reservoir is full is 590 feet above tide level. The
+total length of the main dam is 4560 feet, and the maximum depth of the water is 190 feet.
+The area of the water surface is 12.8 square miles, and in preparing the bottom it was necessary
+to remove seven villages, with a total population of 2000. Forty miles of highway and
+ten bridges had to be built. In the construction of the dam and dikes it was necessary to excavate
+nearly 3,000,000 cubic yards of material, and 8,000,000 cubic yards of embankment and nearly
+1,000,000 cubic yards of masonry had to be put in place. The maximum number of men
+employed on the job was 3000.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page503">[503]</span></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>HOW THE PIPES RUN<br>THROUGH THE STREET</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>We are pretty tired of digging by
+this time, so we call in all the boys and
+girls in town to help us dig so that we
+may see where these pipes come from,
+and we have a regular digging carnival.
+We follow the big pipe along our own
+street until we come to the corner.
+Here we find that our larger street pipe
+is connected with a still larger pipe,
+so we think we had better follow the
+larger pipe. We keep on digging,
+getting more of the boys and girls to
+help, and we follow that big pipe right
+out to the edge of town where we see
+it runs into another stone wall which
+you knew all the time was the reservoir,
+but concerning what it was for
+you were perhaps never quite clear.</p>
+
+<p>Right near the place where the pipe
+goes in is a stairway which leads up
+to the top of the wall, so the whole
+crowd of boys and girls climb the
+steps and you are at the top of the
+reservoir; and there spread out before
+you, you see a big lake surrounded with
+a stone wall and you see where the
+water comes from—the reservoir—at
+least so you think. But you are wrong.
+You really haven’t come anywhere
+near the source of the supply. For
+soon as you walk around the broad
+top of the wall which surrounds your
+reservoir, you meet a man who asks
+you what you want, and you tell him
+that you have been finding out where
+the water in the faucet came from,
+but having found out you thought you
+would go back home.</p>
+
+<p>The man smiles at you, but, as he is
+good-natured and sees you are really
+trying to find out where the water
+comes from, he tells you that since you
+have gone to all the trouble of digging
+up the streets to follow the pipes, you
+might as well learn all about it.</p>
+
+<p>He first tells you that the reservoir
+is not really the place where the water
+comes from but only a tank, so to speak.
+He explains to you that most of the
+faucets in the city are higher than the
+real source of the water, which is out
+in the country miles away, and as water
+will not run up hill, it is necessary to
+keep the city’s daily supply in some
+place that is higher than the highest
+faucet in the city, so that it will force
+its way into and fill to the very end all
+of the large pipes in the streets and the
+small pipes which go into the houses,
+so that the water will come out just
+as soon as you turn the faucet.</p>
+
+<p>Then he takes you over to a large
+building near the reservoir which you
+have always called the water works,
+but never knew exactly what it was
+for. He takes you into a large room
+where there is a lot of nice-looking
+machinery working away steadily but
+quietly, and tells you that these are
+the great pumps which lift the water
+from the great pipes which bring it
+from far away in the country, into the
+reservoir we have just seen, from which
+the water runs into and fills all of the
+pipes into the city.</p>
+
+<p>He also tells you that in some cities
+it is impossible to find a place to build
+a reservoir which is higher than the
+highest places in the city. In such
+places, the pumps in the water works
+pump the water direct into the city
+water pipes and force the water to the
+very end of all the pipes and keep it
+there under pressure all the time.</p>
+
+<p>From the pumping station he takes
+you down stairs in the water works
+and shows you the huge pipe which
+brings the water to the water works
+from the country. It is quite the
+largest pipe you ever saw. You see it
+is not really an iron pipe, but built
+of concrete, which is quite as good.
+You will be surprised to have our
+friend, the water-works man, tell you
+that three average-sized men could
+stand up on each other’s shoulders
+inside the great pipe.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page504">[504]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">HOW THE BIG PIPES ARE LAID THROUGH THE COUNTRY</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo504a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig504a">
+
+<p class="caption">OLIVE BRIDGE DAM; ESOPUS CREEK FLOWING THROUGH TEMPORARY TUNNEL.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo504b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig504b" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption">PLACING THE 9¹⁄₂ FOOT STEEL PIPES.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page505">[505]</span></p>
+
+<div class="container w45emmax" id="Fig505">
+
+<p class="caption">A HUGE UNDERGROUND RIVER</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo505.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption long">The water is conducted from Ashokan reservoir as a huge, underground, artificial river.
+The aqueduct is ninety-two miles in length from Ashokan to the northern city line, and it should
+be explained that it is built on a gentle grade, and that the water flows through this at a slow
+and fairly constant speed. The aqueduct contains four distinct types: the cut-and-cover,
+the grade tunnel, the pressure tunnel, and the steel-pipe siphon. The cut-and-cover type, which
+is used on fifty-five miles of the aqueduct, is of a horseshoe shape and measures 17 feet high by
+17 feet 6 inches wide, inside measurements. It is built of concrete, and on completion it is covered
+in with an earth embankment. This type is used wherever the nature of the ground and the
+elevation allow. Where the aqueduct intersects hills or mountains, it is driven through them
+in tunnel at the standard grade. There are twenty-four of these tunnels, aggregating fourteen
+miles in length. They are horseshoe in shape, 17 feet high by 16 feet 4 inches wide, and they are
+lined with concrete. When the line of the aqueduct encountered deep and broad valleys,
+they were crossed by two methods: if suitable rock were present, circular tunnels were driven
+deep within this rock and lined with concrete. There are seven of these pressure tunnels of a
+total length of seventeen miles. Their internal diameter is 14 feet, and at each end of each
+tunnel a vertical shaft connects the tunnel with the grade tunnel above. If the bottom of the
+valley did not offer suitable rock for a rock tunnel, or if there were other prohibitive reasons,
+steel siphons were used. These are 9 feet and 11 feet in diameter. They are lined with two
+inches of cement mortar and are imbedded in concrete and covered with an earth embankment.
+There are fourteen of these pipe siphons of a total length of six miles. At present one
+pipe suffices to carry the water. Ultimately three will be required for each siphon.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>Our water-works man sees how
+earnest you are in seeing just where
+the water comes from, so he proposes
+that we go find out. We go outside
+and there is an automobile all ready
+to go and we jump in and the machine
+starts off along quite one of the nicest
+roads you were ever on. Soon you
+exclaim, “Why, this is the aqueduct
+road,” and so it is. The great pipe
+through which the water comes to the
+city is an aqueduct and they have
+built the road right over the place
+where the aqueduct runs. Away we
+go as fast as the car can carry us, sometimes
+ten, or twenty or perhaps fifty
+miles, according to what city you are
+in. The city goes as far as it must to
+find a supply of pure water and plenty
+of it and spends millions upon millions<span class="pagenum" id="Page506">[506]</span>
+of dollars to make its supply of water
+good and certain. Occasionally we
+come to a little stone house along the
+way where we can go down and see the
+sides of the great stone pipe. After
+a while, however, we find our aqueduct
+road comes to an abrupt stop before
+another great stone wall. It is the
+great dam which has been built out
+there in the country to form one end of
+a great tank that catches and holds the
+waters from the creeks and rivers that
+flow into it. Usually the dam is built
+up right across a river. They simply
+build the dam strong enough to stop
+the river from going any further. Then,
+of course, the water piles up on the other
+side of the dam and occasionally this
+tank, which is simply another huge
+reservoir, gets so full that the water
+flows over. It does not really overflow
+the top of the dam, because underneath
+the top the engineers have left
+openings here and there for the water
+to get through. If it were not for these
+loopholes, so to speak, the great wall
+of water within the reservoir, piled
+against the dam, would break down
+the wall no matter how well built, by
+the great pressure it exerts.</p>
+
+<div class="container w45emmax" id="Fig506">
+
+<img src="images/illo506.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">THROUGH THIS CHAMBER THE FLOW OF WATER TO THE AQUEDUCT IS REGULATED.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>THE REAL SOURCE<br>OF THE WATER</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>We are now near to the real source
+of the water. We take a trip around
+the top of the great reservoir. Around
+at the other end we find what looks
+like a river, excepting that there isn’t
+any current to speak of. It is a
+river, but a much deeper one than it
+would have been but for the dam which
+has been built across it, and originally
+its surface was quite far down in a
+valley. Sometimes man makes his
+water dam at one end of a lake, which
+has been formed by streams flowing
+into a valley which has no opening
+for the water to run out of. In these
+cases the lake will be high up in the
+hills and man simply builds his dam
+at one end, lets the end of his aqueduct
+into the bottom of the lake and the
+water flows. In other cases he picks
+out a valley where there is no lake at
+all, builds his dam and then drains
+the water which he finds in small
+lakes higher up in the hills into the one
+big valley and makes a very large lake.
+But the water in the lakes comes
+originally from the creeks, rivers or
+springs which run into it, and so we
+will follow our original river back into
+the hills. Here and there along its
+course we find a little stream flowing
+into our river and, as we go up higher
+and higher into the hills, we find our
+river getting smaller and smaller. Now
+it is only a creek and, if we go far enough,
+we find its source but the tiniest kind
+of a tinkling brook with the water
+dripping almost noiselessly between the
+rocks as it makes its path down the
+side of the hill. There is the source of
+the water in the glass you have just
+enjoyed.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page507">[507]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">DIGGING A HOLE UNDER A RIVER</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo507a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig507a">
+
+<p class="caption">DIAMOND DRILL BORING A HORIZONTAL HOLE 1100 FEET BELOW THE HUDSON RIVER.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo507b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig507b" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption">HUDSON RIVER SIPHON, 1100 FEET BELOW THE RIVER.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">Of the many siphons constructed, by far the most interesting and difficult is that which
+has been completed beneath the Hudson River. The preliminary borings made from scows
+in the river showed that great depths would have to be reached before rock sufficiently solid
+and free from seams was encountered to withstand the enormous hydraulic pressure of the
+water in the tunnel. After failing to reach rock by the scow drills, two series of inclined borings
+were made from each shore, one pair intercepting at about 900 feet depth and the other
+at about 1500 feet. Both showed satisfactory rock, and accordingly a shaft was sunk on each
+shore, to a depth of approximately 1100 feet, and then a horizontal tunnel was driven connecting
+the two. It is of interest to note that because of the enormous head, which must be measured
+from the flow line far above the river surface, the pressure in the horizontal tunnel reaches over
+forty tons per square foot.</p>
+
+</div><!--ilopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page508">[508]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">THE HIGHEST BUILDING IN THE WORLD UPSIDE DOWN</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo508.jpg" alt="" id="Fig508">
+
+<div class="illotext w35emmax">
+
+<div class="split5050">
+
+<div class="left5050">
+
+<p class="center">SHAFT 752′-0 DEEP</p>
+
+</div><!--leftsplit-->
+
+<div class="right5050">
+
+<p class="center">WOOLWORTH BUILDING 750′ 0″ HIGH</p>
+
+</div><!--rightsplit-->
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--split-->
+
+</div><!--illotext-->
+
+<p class="caption long">This picture
+shows the depth
+to which the pipes
+which carry the
+water through the
+city must sometimes
+be sunk in
+order that it will
+be certain to remain
+in place. To
+illustrate this in
+connection with
+the depth of the
+water tunnel in
+one place in the
+city of New York,
+our artist has
+taken the liberty
+of turning the
+Woolworth Building
+upside down.
+Even this building,
+which is the
+tallest business
+building in the
+world, and is 792
+feet high, would
+not penetrate the
+water tunnel, at
+the point shown,
+which is at the
+Clinton Street
+shaft at the west
+bank of the East
+River.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page509">[509]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What is Carbonic Acid?</h2>
+
+<p>It was formerly called fixed air, and
+is a gaseous compound of carbon and
+oxygen. It is procured by the processes
+of combustion and respiration,
+and hence is always present in the air,
+though in minute quantity. Plants live
+upon it and absorb it into their tissues;
+they abstract and assimilate its carbon,
+and return its oxygen to the atmosphere
+in a pure condition. It is also present
+in spring water, and often in quantities,
+so that it sparkles and effervesces; it
+is also produced during the processes
+of putrefaction, fermentation, and slow
+decay of animal and vegetable substances
+in presence of air. It is largely
+employed by the manufacturers of
+aerated bread and aerated waters.
+Under a pressure of about 600 pounds
+it liquefies, and when allowed to
+escape through a small jet it rapidly
+evaporates and causes intense
+cold, so much so as to become frozen.
+It does not support burning. The gas
+derived from it, carbon dioxide, is invisible,
+and is heavier than air by one
+half, and has a pungent odor and
+slightly acid taste. In a pure state the
+gas cannot be respired, as it supports
+neither respiration nor combustion.
+When the portion in the atmosphere is
+increased to a considerable extent, as
+happens sometimes, it endangers life.
+The familiar “rising” of bread is
+brought about by carbonic acid gas
+escaping through and permeating the
+dough, making it light and porous. In
+this form it is known as yeast or as
+baking powder. We see its uses also in
+the chemical fire-engine.</p>
+
+<p>In some parts of the world large
+quantities of carbonic acid gas are constantly
+issuing from openings of the
+earth’s surface. Two such places are
+the famous Poison Valley of Java, and
+the Grotto del Cane, near Naples, in
+Italy. The former is a small valley
+about a half a mile around and about
+thirty-five feet deep, in which the air
+is so loaded with carbonic acid gas that
+animals entering it are killed in a few
+minutes. Even birds that fly over the
+valley are overcome if they do not rise
+high above it. The Grotto del Cane,
+or Grotto of the Dog, is a small cavern
+in the crater of a volcano. A stream
+of carbonic acid gas flows constantly
+into the grotto, but the level of the gas
+does not reach the height of a man’s
+mouth. When the same air is breathed
+over and over again, the quantity of
+carbonic acid in it is increased so much,
+that it may become as deadly as the air
+in the Poison Valley.</p>
+
+<p>Two other gases that may generally
+be found in air are ozone and ammonia.
+The first is merely a form of oxygen
+that is produced by the passage of
+lightning through the air. After severe
+thunderstorms, it is said to be present,
+sometimes, in sufficient proportion to
+give to the air a slightly pungent odor.
+It is more active chemically than is the
+ordinary form of oxygen, and consequently
+has a stimulating effect upon
+animals.</p>
+
+<p>Ammonia, or hartshorn, as it is sometimes
+called, from the fact that it was
+formerly obtained by distilling the
+horns of harts, or deer, is almost always
+present in the air in small quantities. It
+is produced chiefly by the decay of animal
+and vegetable matter, especially the
+former. Though present in the air in
+very small quantities, it is of much
+value to the plant world, because it contains
+nitrogen in a form in which it can
+be readily absorbed by plants. All
+plants contain some nitrogen, which is
+essential to their growth, but the<span class="pagenum" id="Page510">[510]</span>
+greater part of the nitrogen in the air
+is not in such form that it can be absorbed
+by them. They must obtain
+their supply from the soil, which usually
+contains some nitrogen in a form
+that may be taken up by plants, and
+from the ammonia in the air. The latter
+is not taken directly out of the air
+by the plants, but the rains falling
+through the air absorb the ammonia
+and carry it to the soil, from which it
+is taken up into the plants by their
+roots.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>VARIOUS GASES<br>
+FOUND IN AIR</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>Besides the gases that have been
+mentioned, there is present in the air,
+at all times, a small quantity of water-vapor,
+which is, in many ways as important
+to mankind as is the oxygen itself.
+The quantity of water in the air
+is not always the same. As a rule, the
+quantity is greater in warm air than in
+cold, and is less over land than over
+water. Frequently the air feels damp
+in cold weather, and dry in hot weather,
+and it is natural to suppose that there
+is more vapor in the air on the damp
+day than on the dry one. This, however,
+is not always true. There is usually
+more moisture in the air on a warm
+summer day than on a cold day in winter,
+though the winter day may seem
+much more moist. You will be able to
+understand why this is so by comparing
+the air to a sponge. If we fill a
+sponge with water, and squeeze it
+gently, a little water will be forced out
+of it. If we then remove the pressure
+on the sponge. When the air cools,
+will appear dry on the surface, but
+there will still be water in it, and on
+being squeezed harder than before it
+will again become moist on the surface
+and more water will be forced out of it.
+Now cold has an effect upon moisture-laden
+air very much like that of pressure
+on the sponge. When the air cools,
+some of the moisture is forced out of
+it, and the air seems damp. When it
+warms again, the air seems dry, though
+there is still water-vapor in it. It
+seems dry because it can absorb more
+water-vapor, just as the sponge seems
+dry after you cease to squeeze it, though
+it still contains water. From this we
+see that the air does not always seem
+moist when there is much water-vapor
+in it, nor dry when there is only a little.
+It feels moist when there is as much
+water-vapor present as it can hold, and
+dry when it can held more than it already
+has. And we also see that in
+hot weather the air can hold much
+more moisture than it can in cold
+weather, so that whether the air feels
+dry or moist, there is generally much
+more water-vapor in it in hot weather
+than in cold.</p>
+
+<p>It is easy to see that, over water, the
+air naturally takes up more moisture
+than over land, because there is so much
+more water there to be transformed
+into vapor. Over the surface of seas,
+lakes and rivers, water is continually
+being converted into vapor by the
+process of evaporation, and this vapor
+is absorbed by the air.</p>
+
+<p>Let us now consider the solid particles
+floating in the air, the dust that
+is seen dancing in the path of a sunbeam.
+Whenever we examine the air,
+these small particles are found, even on
+the tops of mountains, and at points so
+high above the earth that they have
+been reached only by balloons. Of
+course, there is very much less dust
+high above the earth than near the surface,
+where the winds are constantly
+stirring up the loose soil, and throwing
+into the air small particles of every
+kind. In cities, where factory chimneys
+are continually pouring out clouds
+of smoke, and the people and vehicles
+are constantly disturbing the dust of the
+streets, the air always contains more
+dust than does the air of the country.</p>
+
+<p>In order that we may breathe air, the
+oxygen in it has been mixed with four
+times as much nitrogen and argon,
+which must be inhaled with the oxygen,
+though they have no more effect on the
+body than the water you take with a
+strong medicine to weaken it. The oxygen,
+however, has a very important effect
+upon the body, and if we compare
+the air we exhale with that we inhale
+we find considerably less oxygen in the
+former than in the latter. In place of
+the oxygen, the air has received carbonic
+acid gas. It may seem very
+strange to say that there is burning going<span class="pagenum" id="Page511">[511]</span>
+on in the body, but that is very
+nearly what takes place. The chief difference
+from coal-burning is that in the
+body the process goes on so slowly that
+it does not make the body very hot; but
+when we set fire to coal, the process is
+much more rapid, and a large amount
+of heat is produced in a short time, so
+that the coal becomes very hot. The
+products of breathing and of coal-burning
+are the same, carbonic acid gas being
+the chief one. When coal is burned
+it disappears, together with some of the
+oxygen of the air, and in their stead we
+have carbonic acid gas. When a breath
+is taken some of the material of the
+body disappears, as does some of the
+oxygen of the air, and in place of them
+carbonic acid gas is found. If we
+could weigh the coal burned and the
+oxygen that disappears in the burning
+of it, and could then weigh the carbonic
+acid gas that is produced in the
+burning, we should find that the latter
+weighs just as much as the coal and the
+oxygen together. So, too, if we could
+weigh the oxygen that disappears from
+the air we breathe, and also find the
+weight of the material taken from our
+bodies by breathing, we should find
+that the two together weigh just as
+much as the carbonic acid gas given off
+in our breath. In neither case is anything
+absolutely destroyed; the substances
+resulting from the change
+weigh just as much as those that took
+part in it.</p>
+
+<p>Having learned that a quantity of
+oxygen disappears every time we take
+a breath, every time we build a fire, it
+would seem that in the thousands of
+years during which men and animals
+have been living on the earth, all the
+oxygen would have been exhausted and
+nothing left in its place but carbonic
+acid gas. That, however, is impossible,
+as the carbonic acid gas is used up almost
+as fast as it is produced and the
+oxygen is returned to the air in its
+stead.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>HOW PLANTS EAT<br>
+CARBONIC ACID</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>All trees and plants, from the great
+redwood trees of California to the
+smallest flowers that dot the fields, need
+carbonic acid gas to keep them alive
+and to make them grow. Their leaves
+have the power when the sun shines on
+them to take up carbonic acid from the
+air and to return oxygen in exchange.
+In this way you see that the balance is
+kept just as it should be. The oxygen
+needed by animals of all kinds is furnished
+by the plants, and the carbonic
+acid required by plants is thrown off
+in the breath of animals.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Is It a Fact that the Sun Revolves On
+Its Axis?</h2>
+
+<p>It is a proved fact that the sun revolves
+on its axis. All parts of its
+surface, however, do not rotate with
+the same velocity. The rotation of the
+sun differs from that of the earth in
+this respect.</p>
+
+<p>This constitutes the visible proof that
+the physical state of the sun is different
+from the earth’s, although they are
+composed of similar chemical elements.</p>
+
+<p>The earth, being covered with a solid
+crust, and being also, as recent investigation
+demonstrates, as rigid as steel
+throughout its entire globe, rotates
+with one and the same angular velocity
+from the equator to the poles.</p>
+
+<p>If you stood on the earth’s equator
+you would be carried by its daily rotation
+round a circle about 25,000 miles
+in circumference. If you stood within
+a yard of the North or South Pole
+you would be carried, by the same
+motion, round a circle not quite 19
+feet in circumference. And yet it
+would require precisely the same time,
+viz., twenty-four hours, to describe the
+19-foot circle as the 25,000-mile one.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">What Is the Most Usefully Valuable
+Metal?</h2>
+
+<p>If you were guessing you would
+naturally say that gold is, of course, the
+most valuable of the metals. But you
+would be wrong. The proper answer to
+this is iron. We do not mean the pound
+for pound value, for you could get much
+more money for a pound of gold than
+for a pound of iron, but we mean in
+useful value—iron is in that sense the
+most valuable metal known to man.
+This is so because iron is of great service
+to man in so many different ways,
+and it is very well that there is so great
+a quantity of it for man’s use.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page512">[512]</span></p>
+
+<div class="container w45emmax" id="Fig512">
+
+<p class="caption">WHERE DOES TOBACCO COME FROM?</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo512.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">GROWING TOBACCO UNDER CHEESECLOTH.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<h2 class="nobreak">The Story in a Pipe and Cigar<a id="FNanchor6" href="#Footnote6" 
+class="fnanchor"><span class="fsize80">[6]</span></a></h2>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote6" href="#FNanchor6" class="label">[6]</a> Copyright by Tobacco Leaf Publishing Co.</p>
+
+</div><!--footnote-->
+
+</div><!--chapter-->
+
+<h3>Where Did the Name Tobacco Originate?</h3>
+
+<p>It is now generally agreed that the
+word tobacco is derived from “tobago,”
+which was an Indian pipe. The tobago
+was Y-shaped, and usually consisted
+of a hollow, forked reed, the two
+prongs of which were fitted into the
+nostrils, the smoke being drawn from
+tobacco placed in the end of the stem.
+The island of Tobago, contrary to the
+belief of many, did not furnish the
+name for tobacco, but on the other
+hand, it was given that name by
+Columbus, owing to its resemblance
+in shape to the Indian pipe.</p>
+
+<h3>How Was Tobacco Discovered?</h3>
+
+<p>While tobacco is now found growing
+in all inhabited countries, it is a native
+of the Americas and adjacent islands.
+Its discovery by civilized man was
+coincident with the discovery of this
+continent by Christopher Columbus in
+1492. Columbus and his adventurous
+sailors found the native Indians using
+the weed on the explorer’s first visit
+to the new world. Investigation has
+established that the plant was first
+used as a religious rite and gradually
+became a social habit among the
+natives. Columbus and his Castilian
+successors carried the weed to Spain.
+Sir Walter Raleigh took it to England,
+Jean Nicot, whose name is immortalized
+in nicotine, introduced it to
+the French; adventurous traders
+brought the seed to Turkey and Syria,
+and Spanish argosies carried it westward
+from Mexico to the Philippines
+and thence to China and Japan. Thus
+within two centuries after its discovery
+tobacco was being cultivated in nearly
+every country and was being used by
+every race of men.</p>
+
+<h3>Where Does Tobacco Grow?</h3>
+
+<p>While tobacco is a native of the
+Americas, it is a fact that it will grow
+after a fashion almost anywhere. Milton
+Whitney, Chief of the Division of<span class="pagenum" id="Page513">[513]</span>
+Soils, United States Department of
+Agriculture, in his bulletin on tobacco
+soils says tobacco can be grown in
+nearly all parts of the country even
+where wheat and corn cannot economically
+be grown. The plant readily
+adapts itself to the great range of
+climatic conditions, will grow on nearly
+all kinds of soil and has a comparatively
+short season of growth. But while it
+can be so universally grown, the flavor
+and quality of the leaf are greatly
+influenced by the conditions of climate
+and soil. The industry has been very
+highly specialized and there is only
+demand now for tobacco possessing
+certain qualities adapted to certain
+specific purposes.... It is a curious
+and interesting fact that tobacco suitable
+for our domestic cigars, is raised in
+Sumatra, Cuba and Florida, and then
+passing over our middle tobacco States
+the cigar type is found again in Massachusetts,
+Connecticut, Pennsylvania,
+Ohio and Wisconsin.... It is surprising
+to find so little difference in the
+meteorological record for these several
+places during the crop season. There
+does not seem to be sufficient difference
+to explain the distribution of the different
+classes of tobacco, and yet this
+distribution is probably due mainly
+to climatic conditions.... The plant
+is far more sensitive to these meteorological
+conditions than are our instruments.
+Even in such a famous tobacco region
+as Cuba, tobacco of good quality cannot
+be grown in the immediate vicinity
+of the ocean or in certain parts of the
+island that would otherwise be considered
+good tobacco lands. This has
+been experienced also in Sumatra and
+in our own country, but the influences
+are too subtle to be detected by our
+meteorological instruments.... Under
+good climatic conditions, the class
+and type of tobacco depend upon the
+character of the soil, especially on the
+physical character of the soil upon
+which it is grown, while the grade is
+dependent largely upon the cultivation
+and curing of the crop. Different
+types of tobacco are grown on widely
+different soils all the way from the
+coarse sandy lands of the Pine Barrens,
+to the heavy, clay, limestone, corn and
+wheat lands. The best soil for one
+kind of tobacco, therefore, may be
+almost worthless for the staple agricultural
+crops, while the best for
+another type of tobacco may be the
+richest and most productive soil of
+any that we have.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>WHERE HAVANA TOBACCO<br>
+IS GROWN</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>Havana tobacco, which means all
+tobacco grown on the island of Cuba,
+possesses peculiar qualities which make
+it the finest tobacco in the world for
+cigar purposes. The island produces
+from 350,000 to 500,000 bales annually,
+of which 150,000 to 250,000 bales come
+to the United States for use in American
+cigar factories. The best quality of the
+Cuban tobacco comes largely from the
+Vuelta Abajo section, although some
+very choice tobaccos are raised also
+in the Partidos section. Remedios
+tobaccos are more heavily bodied
+than others and are used almost exclusively
+for blending with our domestic
+tobaccos. While there are innumerable
+sub-classifications, such as Semi-Vueltas,
+Remates, Tumbadero, etc.,
+the three general divisions named
+above, Vuelta Abajo, Partidos and
+Remedios, embrace the entire island.
+If a fourth general classification were
+to be added, it would be Semi-Vueltas.
+The Vuelta Abajo is grown in the Province
+of Pinar del Rio, located at the
+western end of the island. It is raised
+practically throughout the entire province.
+Semi-Vueltas are also grown
+in Pinar del Rio, but the trade draws
+a line between them and the genuine
+Vueltas. Partidos tobacco, which is
+grown principally in the Province of
+Havana, differs from the Vuelta Abajo
+in that it is of a much lighter quality.
+The Partidos country is famous for its
+production of fine light glossy wrappers.
+Tobacco from the foregoing sections
+is used principally in the manufacture
+of clear Havana cigars. Some of the
+heavier Vueltas, however, are also
+used for seed and Havana cigar purposes.
+Remedios, otherwise known as
+Vuelta-Arriba, is grown in the Province
+of Santa Clara, located in the center
+of the island. This tobacco is taken
+almost entirely by the United States
+and Europe and is used here for filler
+purposes, principally in seed and Havana<span class="pagenum" id="Page514">[514]</span>
+cigars. Its general characteristics
+are a high flavor and rather heavy
+body, which make it especially suitable
+for blending with our domestic tobaccos.
+Havana tobacco is packed and marketed
+in bales.</p>
+
+<h3>Preparing the Seed Beds.</h3>
+
+<p>The first step is the preparation of
+the seed beds. For these beds low,
+rich, hardwood lands are selected.
+The trees are cut down and the wood
+split, converted into cord wood and
+piled up to dry. About the middle
+of January this wood is stacked up on
+skid poles and ignited. The ground
+is thus cleared by burning, the fires
+being moved from spot to spot until a
+sufficient area is cleared. By this
+process all grass, weeds, brush and
+insects are eradicated. The ground is
+then dug up with hoes and cleared
+off and a perfect seed bed is made.</p>
+
+<p>The tobacco seed is first mixed with
+dry ashes in the proportion of about
+a tablespoonful of seed to a gallon of
+the ashes, and about this quantity
+is sowed over a square rod of land.
+This amount is calculated to supply
+plants enough for one acre of ground,
+but the farmers usually double the
+planting as a precaution against emergencies.
+After the seed beds are sowed
+they are covered over with cheesecloth
+as a means of protection, and they are
+carefully weeded and watered until the
+leaves have attained a length of about
+four inches. They are then ready for
+transplanting, which operation begins
+about the middle of April.</p>
+
+<h3>Fertilization.</h3>
+
+<p>In the meantime, the tobacco-growing
+areas have been prepared by plowing
+and fertilizing. The matter of
+fertilization has been the subject of
+much study and many experiments,
+and it has been definitely established
+that cow manure is one of the best for
+this purpose. This natural fertilizer
+is distributed on the fields at the rate
+of ten to twenty two-horse loads to
+each acre. In addition to this from
+two hundred to three hundred pounds
+of carbonate of potash, and from two
+thousand to three thousand pounds of
+bright cottonseed meal are employed.
+The total cost of this fertilizer amounts
+to about $120 per acre.</p>
+
+<h3>Planting.</h3>
+
+<p>After the fertilizer is well plowed into
+the land the ground is laid off into
+ridges about four feet apart, made by
+throwing two one-horse furrows together.
+These ridges are about two
+feet in width and are flattened on the
+top so as to make a level bed for the
+young plant. The farmer then measures
+off and marks these rows at intervals
+of 16 to 18 inches. At each mark
+he makes a small hole, and after pouring
+in a pint of water the plant is carefully
+set. Machine planters are used
+for this purpose to a limited extent.</p>
+
+<h3>Care of the Growing Crop.</h3>
+
+<p>The growers usually calculate on
+finishing their planting about the first
+of June. The young plants are then
+closely watched and are hoed and
+cultivated at least once a week. They
+are also supplied with sufficient water
+to keep them alive and growing. At
+this stage of the proceedings, the
+planter begins to look out for worms.
+The butter worm is one of his greatest
+enemies. This is a small green moth
+that lays its eggs in the bud of the
+plant and turns into a worm two days
+later. To stop the ravages of this
+insect, it is customary to use a mixture
+composed of some insecticide mixed
+with corn meal. A small pinch of this
+mixture is inserted at regular intervals
+in the bud of each plant until the plant
+is nearly grown.</p>
+
+<p>When the tobacco is about three
+feet high, all such leaves as were on
+the plant when it was first set out are
+picked off and thrown away. About
+this time the crop is usually threatened
+by another enemy known as the horn
+worm. This is a large, mouse-colored
+moth, which swarms over the field
+about sun-down, and deposits green
+eggs about the size of a very small
+bird shot, on the back sides of the leaves.<span class="pagenum" id="Page515">[515]</span>
+This is a very ravenous insect and
+unless carefully watched it will devour
+every leaf of tobacco, leaving nothing
+but the stalks standing. It is removed
+by picking off and by insecticides.</p>
+
+<div class="container w30emmax" id="Fig515a">
+
+<img src="images/illo515a.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">A FIELD OF FINE HAVANA.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<h3>Harvesting.</h3>
+
+<p>About sixty to ninety days after
+setting, the bottom leaves on the plant
+are ripe and the grower is able to remove
+from three to four on each stalk. This
+is called priming. The primer detaches
+each leaf carefully and places it face
+down in his left hand, inspecting it at
+the same time to see that no worms
+are carried to the barns. Upon
+accumulating a handful, he places
+them in baskets that are lined with
+burlap to prevent injury to the leaf,
+and the filled baskets are either carried
+or hauled to the barns.</p>
+
+<p>About this time the plants have
+begun to bud out at the top, and this
+bud, with a few small leaves around it,
+is broken off. This process is called
+topping, and is done for the purpose
+of confining the development of the
+plant to the leaves below. After
+topping, the priming of the tobacco is
+continued for about three weeks, and
+until all the upper leaves of marketable
+value have been harvested. In the
+meantime, the suckering has to be
+looked after, which is the removing
+of the small branches that have a
+tendency to grow out of the main stalk
+of the plant.</p>
+
+<p>In the barns the leaves are placed on
+long tables, behind which stand the
+stringers. They string the leaves, each
+separately, on strong cotton twine,
+about thirty leaves to a string, spaced
+about an inch apart. If this is not
+done carefully and accurately, several
+leaves may become bunched together
+and the cure will thereby be impaired.
+It is attention to this detail which prevents
+the defect known as pole-sweat.
+These strings are tied at either end
+to a tobacco lath, and the lath is hung
+upon two poles. These poles are placed
+in courses in the barn, at spaces of two
+feet, one above the other.</p>
+
+<div class="container w30emmax" id="Fig515b">
+
+<img src="images/illo515b.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">A MODERN CUBAN TOBACCO PLANTATION.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>HOW TOBACCO<br>
+IS CURED</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>Here the tobacco undergoes its preliminary,
+or barn cure, and during
+this period the grower is constantly
+on the anxious seat, having to open<span class="pagenum" id="Page516">[516]</span>
+and close his curing houses according
+to the changes in the weather, and
+to look closely after the ventilation
+of his crop in order to avoid the development
+of stem rot and other afflictions
+with which the tobacco is threatened
+at this stage of the proceedings.</p>
+
+<div class="container w20emmax" id="Fig516">
+
+<img src="images/illo516.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">A STAND OF TOBACCO IN EACH HAND.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<h3>Bulk Sweating.</h3>
+
+<p>In due course of time the laths are
+taken down, the strings removed and
+the leaves are formed into hands and
+tied with a string. The tobacco is
+then packed temporarily in cases and
+delivered at the fermenting house, where
+it is put into what is known as the
+bulk sweat. This consists of uniform
+piles of tobacco covered over with
+blankets, and which are frequently
+“turned” in order that they shall cure
+evenly and not become too dark in
+color. From the bulk sweat the tobacco
+goes to the sorting tables, where it is
+divided into numerous grades of length
+and color. It is then turned over to
+the packers, who form it into bales.</p>
+
+<h3>How is Tobacco Cultivated?</h3>
+
+<p>As the young plants spring up and
+begin to grow, they are thinned out,
+watered and cared for until along in
+October or November, and as soon as
+the weather becomes settled for the
+season, the little seedlings are transplanted
+into the field. Some growers
+use shade, but most of the tobacco is
+grown in the open. The plants are
+placed in rows, very much as corn is
+planted, only farther apart. The plants
+are carefully protected from weeds and
+insects, and in December the early
+tobacco is ready to be harvested. Here
+the mode of procedure differs according
+to the discretion of the grower.
+The plan universally in vogue until
+recent years was to cut the plant down
+at the base of the stalk. Lately,
+however, the more scientific growers
+harvest their tobacco gradually, picking
+it leaf by leaf, according as they
+ripen and mature. The tobacco is
+then allowed to lie in the field until the
+leaves are wilted. The stalks (or stems,
+according to the method followed) are
+then strung on <i>cujes</i> or poles, so that
+the plants hang with the tips down.
+The tobacco is then allowed to hang
+in the sun until it is dry and later
+carried into the barns, where the poles
+are suspended in tiers until the barn is
+full. Tobacco barns everywhere are
+constructed with movable, or rather,
+adjustable, side and end walls which
+permit of a constant adjustment of
+the ventilation. While hanging in the
+barn the tobacco undergoes its preliminary
+cure and changes in color
+from the green of the growing plant
+to a yellowish brown. The climatic
+changes have to be carefully studied
+during this process. If the weather
+is extremely dry it is customary to
+keep the barns closed in the daytime
+and to open the ventilators at night.<span class="pagenum" id="Page517">[517]</span>
+It is generally desirable to keep the
+tobacco fairly dry while it is undergoing
+the barn cure. After a few
+weeks, and when the hanging tobacco
+has reached the proper stage of maturity,
+a period of damp weather is looked
+for so that the dry leaves may be rehandled
+without injury. When the
+desired shower comes along the tobacco
+is stripped off the poles and placed in
+<i>pilon</i>—that is, in heaps, or piles, on the
+floors of the barns and warehouses,
+each pile being covered with blankets.
+Here, being in a compact mass, it
+undergoes the <i>calentura</i>, or fever, by
+which it is pretty thoroughly cured,
+the color changing to a deeper brown.
+After about two weeks in the piles it
+is sorted, tied into small bundles or
+carrots, and these in turn are packed
+in bales. After being baled the tobacco,
+if allowed to remain undisturbed, undergoes
+a third cure, by which it is greatly
+improved in quality. It is then ready
+for the factory.</p>
+
+<div class="container w30emmax" id="Fig517a">
+
+<img src="images/illo517a.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">A TOBACCO BARN.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<h3>The Shade-growing Method.</h3>
+
+<p>The shade-growing method is one of
+the institutions of modern tobacco
+cultivation. The principle is this: The
+sun, shining on the tobacco plants,
+draws the nutrition from the earth,
+and the plant ripens quickly, the leaves
+having a tendency to be heavy-bodied
+and not very large. To defeat these
+results and produce large, thin, silky
+leaves for cigar-wrapper purposes, the
+grower sometimes covers his field with
+a tent of cheesecloth or with a lattice-work
+of lathing which protects the growing
+tobacco from the direct rays of
+the sun. Thus the ripening process
+is slower, causing the leaves to grow
+larger and thinner and less gummy;
+and being thinner and less gummy,
+they are of a lighter color when finally
+cured. This method is employed by
+some growers in cigar-leaf districts,
+such as Cuba, Florida and Connecticut.</p>
+
+<div class="container w20emmax" id="Fig517b">
+
+<img src="images/illo517b.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">TAKING TOBACCO FROM BALES</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<h3>How Are Cigars Made?</h3>
+
+<p>While many labor-saving devices
+have been introduced in all branches
+of tobacco manufacture, it is a curious
+fact that in the production of the best
+grade of cigars, namely, the clear
+Havana, the work is done entirely by
+hand. In fact, it may be said that in
+the process of manufacturing fine cigars
+exactly the same principles are followed
+as those of two centuries ago. There
+has been much improvement in the
+artisanship of the worker, of course, but
+no rudimentary change in method.<span class="pagenum" id="Page518">[518]</span>
+In the manufacture of snuff, chewing
+and pipe tobacco, cigarettes and all-tobacco
+cigarettes, machinery plays an
+important part; and mechanical devices
+are also used extensively in the
+production of five-cent cigars and in the
+still higher priced grades of part-domestic
+cigars, such as the seed and
+Havana. Some of these appliances
+are almost human in their ingenuity.
+But in fashioning the tobacco of Cuba
+into cigars that are perfect in shape,
+in formation and in all the qualities
+that go to make a good cigar, there is
+no substitute for the human hand.</p>
+
+<p>Upon opening a bale of tobacco the
+workman takes each carrot out separately,
+shakes it gently to separate
+the leaves, and then moistens it, either
+by dipping it into a tub of water from
+which it is quickly removed and shaken
+to throw off the surplus water or else
+by spraying it with a blower. It is
+left in this condition over night, so
+that the leaves may absorb the moisture
+and become uniformly damp and pliable.</p>
+
+<p>The tobacco is then turned over to
+the strippers, who remove the midrib
+from each leaf, at the same time separating
+the wrapper from the filler.
+From this point on the treatment of the
+wrappers and fillers is different.</p>
+
+<p>The half leaves suitable for fillers are
+spread out and placed one on top of the
+other, making what are called books.
+These books are placed side by side,
+closely together, on a board, and a
+similar board is placed on top of the
+tobacco to hold it in position. Later,
+it is packed into barrels, the tops of
+which are covered with burlap, and
+there it undergoes a fermentation.
+It is usually allowed to remain in
+this condition for ten days or two weeks,
+when it is rehandled and inspected,
+and if found to be in the right condition,
+it is placed on racks, where it remains
+until it is in just the proper state of
+dryness to be ready for working.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>THE GREAT CARE NECESSARY IN SELECTION</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>The wrapper leaves, after leaving the
+hands of the stripper, are taken by the
+wrapper selector, who sits, usually,
+at a barrel, and spreads out each leaf,
+one on top of the other, over the edge
+of the barrel, assorting them as to size,
+color, etc., into several different piles
+or books. Each of these piles is divided
+into packs of twenty-five each, and
+each lot of twenty-five is folded over
+into what is called a “pad” and tied
+with a stem. It is in this form that
+they go to the cigarmaker.</p>
+
+<p>Every morning the stock is distributed
+among the cigarmakers. Each
+workman is given enough tobacco to
+make a certain number of cigars, and
+when his work is finished he must
+return either the full number of cigars
+or the equivalent in unused leaves.</p>
+
+<p>The tools of the cigarmaker consist
+merely of a square piece of hardwood
+board, a knife and a pot of gum tragacanth.
+He sits at a table upon which
+rests the board, and at which there is
+also a gauge on which the different
+lengths are indicated. Fastened to the
+front of each table is a sack or pocket
+of burlap into which the cuttings that
+accumulate on the table are brushed.
+The operator deftly cuts his wrapper
+from the leaf, fashions the filler into
+proper form and size in the palm of his
+hand (this is known as the “bunch”)
+and rolls the tobacco into cigar form,
+In winding the wrapper around the
+“bunch” the operator begins at the
+“lighting end” of the cigar, called the
+“tuck,” and finishes at the end that
+goes into the mouth, which is called the
+“head.” A bit of gum tragacanth
+is used to fasten the leaf securely at the
+“head.” The cigar is then held to
+the gauge and is trimmed smoothly
+off to the proper length by a stroke of
+the knife at the “tuck.” The cigars
+are taken up in bundles of fifty each.
+They next pass into the hands of the
+selectors, who separate them into different
+piles, according to the color of the
+wrappers, and who also reject any
+cigars that may be of faulty construction.
+Broken wrappers, bad colors or
+any other defects are sufficient to
+cause the rejection of a cigar. The
+rejected cigars are known as <i>resagos</i>
+(“throwouts”) or <i>secundos</i>.</p>
+
+<p>From the selectors the cigars go to
+the packers, whose duty it is to place
+them in the boxes, and to see that the
+colors in each box are uniform, marking
+the temporary color classification on
+each box in lead pencil. After being<span class="pagenum" id="Page519">[519]</span>
+packed, the filled boxes are put into
+a press and so left for twelve hours
+or until the cigars conform somewhat
+to the shape of the box which contains
+them. On being removed from
+the press, if to be banded, the cigars
+are carefully removed in layers from
+the box, the bands affixed, and the
+cigars replaced. The goods are then
+placed in an air-tight vault to await
+shipment.</p>
+
+<p>When the cigarmaker ties up his
+bundle of fifty cigars, he attaches to it
+a slip of paper upon which is marked
+his number. This enables the manufacturer
+to keep an accurate account
+of the number of cigars made by each
+workman and also to place the responsibility
+for any defects in the workmanship.
+Cigarmakers are paid by the
+piece, the scale of wages ranging from
+$16 to $100 per thousand. In nearly
+every factory there may be found
+advanced apprentices or old men working
+at the rate of $14 per thousand
+and also there may be found skilled
+artisans making exceptionally large
+odd sizes at more than $100 per thousand,
+but these are not generally considered
+in the regulation scale of prices.
+In averages, the workmen earn about
+$18 a week and make about 150 cigars
+a day.</p>
+
+<h3>Just a Few Figures About Tobacco.</h3>
+
+<p>The internal revenue from tobacco
+for one year would build fourteen
+battleships of the first-class; or it
+would pay the salary of the President
+of the United States for nearly a thousand
+years. It would pay the interest
+on the public debt for three years, and
+there would be enough left over to add
+a dollar to the account of every savings
+bank depositor in the United States.</p>
+
+<p>The money spent by smokers for
+cigars only, <i>not counting</i> cigarettes,
+smoking and chewing tobacco and snuff
+would more than pay for the building
+of the Panama Canal, besides taking
+care of the $50,000,000 paid to the
+new French Canal Co., and the Republic
+of Panama for property and franchises.
+And in addition to this it would cover
+the cost of fortifying the Canal.</p>
+
+<p>Or it would build a fleet of thirty-five
+trans-Atlantic liners, each exactly
+like the lost <i>Titanic</i>, coal them, provision
+them and keep them running
+between New York and Liverpool with
+a full complement of passengers and
+crew, almost indefinitely.</p>
+
+<p>There are 21,718,448 cigars burned up
+in the United States every twenty-four
+hours; and 904,935 every hour;
+and 15,082 every minute; and 251
+<i>every second</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The annual <i>per capita</i> consumption
+of cigars in the United States, counting
+men, women and children, is
+eighty-six cigars.</p>
+
+<p><i>If all the cigars smoked in the United
+States in one year were put together, end
+to end, they would girdle the earth, at
+its largest circumference, twenty-two times.</i></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">As to the cigarettes</span>, there are
+23,736,190 of them consumed in the
+United States every day; and 989,007
+every hour; and 16,482 every minute.
+With every tick of your watch, night
+and day, the year around, the butts
+of 275 smoked-up cigarettes are dropped
+into the ash tray.</p>
+
+<p>Cigarette smokers in the United
+States, not counting those who roll
+their own smokes from tobacco, spend
+$60,645,966.36 for the little paper-covered
+rolls.</p>
+
+<p>If all the cigarettes smoked in the
+United States in one year were placed
+end to end and stood up vertically
+they would make a slender shaft rising
+512,766 miles into the heavens.</p>
+
+<p><i>If strung on a wire they would make a
+cable that would reach from the earth to
+the moon and back again, with enough
+left over to circle one-and-a-half times
+around the globe.</i></p>
+
+<p>If this quantity of tobacco could be
+placed on one side of a huge balancing
+scale it would take the combined weight
+of four vast armies, each army consisting
+of 1,000,000 men, to pull down
+the other side of the scale.</p>
+
+<p>The weight of the tobacco consumed
+in the United States in a year is equal
+to the weight of the entire and combined
+population of Delaware, Maryland,
+West Virginia, North Carolina,
+South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Tennessee
+and Alabama.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page520">[520]</span></p>
+
+<div class="container w50emmax">
+
+<p class="caption">HOW OUR FINGER PRINTS IDENTIFY US</p>
+
+<div class="split5050">
+
+<div class="left5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo520a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig520a">
+
+<p class="caption">ARCH: IN THIS PATTERN RIDGES RUN FROM
+ONE SIDE TO ANOTHER, MAKING NO BACKWARD
+TURN.</p>
+
+</div><!--leftsplit-->
+
+<div class="right5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo520b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig520b">
+
+<p class="caption">LOOP: SOME RIDGES IN THIS PATTERN MAKE
+A BACKWARD TURN, BUT WITHOUT TWIST.</p>
+
+</div><!--rightsplit-->
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--split-->
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<h2 class="nobreak">The Story in a Finger 
+Print<a id="FNanchor7" href="#Footnote7" class="fnanchor"><span class="fsize80">[7]</span></a></h2>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote7" href="#FNanchor7" class="label">[7]</a> Engravings and story by the courtesy of Scientific American.</p>
+
+</div><!--footnote-->
+
+</div><!--chapter-->
+
+<h3>Our Fingers.</h3>
+
+<p>One of the most interesting facts
+about our fingers is that every member
+of the human race, irrespective of age
+or sex, carries in person certain delicate
+markings by which identity can
+be readily established. If the inner
+surface of the hand be examined, a
+number of very fine ridges will be seen
+running in definite directions, and arranged
+in patterns, there being four
+primary types—arches, loops, whorls,
+and composites. It has been demonstrated
+that these patterns persist in
+all their details throughout the whole
+period of human life. The impressions
+of the fingers of a new-born infant
+are distinctly traceable on the
+fingers of the same person in old age.
+The fact that these patterns on the
+bulbs of the fingers are characteristic
+of and differentiate one individual
+from another, makes it an ideal means
+of fixing identity. Even men who look
+so much alike that it is virtually impossible
+to tell one from the other so
+far as facial characteristics are concerned,
+can be identified by their finger
+impressions.</p>
+
+<p>Innumerable illustrations can be
+given of how the perpetrators of
+crime have been identified and convicted
+by their finger prints. Impressions
+left by criminals on such articles
+as plated goods, window panes,
+drinking glasses, painted wood, bottles,
+cash boxes, candles, etc., have
+often successfully supplied the clue
+which has led to the apprehension of
+the thief or thieves. One of our illustrations
+is that of a <a href="#Fig523a">champagne bottle</a>
+which was found empty on the dining-room
+table of a house which had been
+entered by a burglar in Birmingham,
+England. There was a distinct impression
+of a thumb mark on the bottle.
+An officer of the Birmingham City
+Police took the bottle to New Scotland<span class="pagenum" id="Page521">[521]</span>
+Yard, London, and within a few minutes
+a duplicate print was found in the
+records. The burglar was arrested the
+same evening.</p>
+
+<div class="container w50emmax">
+
+<p class="caption">FINGER PRINTS OF DIFFERENT PEOPLE ARE DIFFERENT</p>
+
+<div class="split5050">
+
+<div class="left5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo521a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig521a">
+
+<p class="caption">WHORL: RIDGES HERE MAKE A TURN THROUGH
+AT LEAST ONE COMPLETE CIRCUIT.</p>
+
+</div><!--leftsplit-->
+
+<div class="right5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo521b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig521b">
+
+<p class="caption">COMPOSITE: INCLUDES PATTERNS IN WHICH
+TWO OR MORE OF THE OTHER TYPES ARE
+COMBINED.</p>
+
+</div><!--rightsplit-->
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--split-->
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>Many similar instances could be
+given of how thieves have been caught
+by handling bottles and glasses. On
+one occasion a burglar entered a house
+in the West End of London, and before
+leaving helped himself to a glass
+of wine. On the tumbler used he left
+two finger imprints, and these were
+subsequently found, upon search in
+the records at New Scotland Yard, to
+be identical with two impressions of a
+notorious criminal, who was in due
+course arrested and sentenced to four
+years’ imprisonment.</p>
+
+<p>A somewhat gruesome relic is a
+<a href="#Fig523c">cash-box</a> which bears the blurred
+thumb mark of a man who was convicted
+of murder. The box was found
+in the bedroom of a man and his wife
+who were murdered at Deptford, London,
+in 1905. The cash-box was
+taken to New Scotland Yard, and the
+impression photographed and enlarged.
+Two brothers, suspected of
+the crime, were arrested, and the
+thumb print of one was found to be
+identical with that on the lid of the
+box. Our photograph of <a href="#Fig524">a gate</a> recalls
+a curious case that recently occupied
+the attention of a London
+magistrate. In this instance a thief
+successfully climbed the gate, which
+was ten feet high. In his attempt to
+reach the ground on the inner side he
+placed his feet on the center cross-bar,
+at the same time holding the
+spikes with his right hand. In this position
+he fell, and the ring he wore on
+his little finger caught on the spike indicated
+by the arrowhead. This caused
+him to remain suspended in the air
+until his weight tore the finger from
+his hand. The ring with the finger
+was found on the spike, and in due
+course was received at New Scotland
+Yard. An impression was taken of
+the finger, and search among the records
+revealed a duplicate print, which
+led to the man’s arrest.</p>
+
+<p>If a criminal handles a piece of
+candle or removes a pane of glass and
+leaves these behind, it is a hundred to
+one he has left a valuable clue for the
+police. The <a href="#Fig523b">candle</a> shown on the 
+following<span class="pagenum" id="Page522">[522]</span>
+page bears the imprint of a man’s
+thumb, and was found in a house which
+a burglar had entered. By handling the
+candle, the thief virtually signed the
+warrant for his own arrest.</p>
+
+<p>The system was first used by the
+police in the Province of Bengal,
+India, at the instigation of Sir William
+Herschel. Its value was at once apparent.
+The work of the courts was
+considerably lightened, as the natives
+recognized that a system of identification
+had been discovered which was
+indisputable. Then from the police it
+was introduced into various branches
+of the public service, and here again its
+value was quickly demonstrated. When
+native pensioners died, for instance,
+friends and relatives personated them,
+and so continued to draw their allowances.
+By recording the identity of
+pensioners by finger prints, this evil
+was quickly stamped out.</p>
+
+<div class="container w30emmax" id="Fig522a">
+
+<p class="caption">IMPRESSIONS MADE BY THE FINGERS AND PALMS</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo522a.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">PALMARY IMPRESSIONS OF WHOLE HAND,
+SHOWING HOW IT IS COVERED WITH RIDGES
+AND PATTERNS.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<div class="container w45emmax" id="Fig522b">
+
+<img src="images/illo522b.jpg" alt="">
+
+<div class="illotext w25emmax">
+
+<table class="standard fsize80">
+
+<colgroup>
+<col span="6" class="w16pc">
+</colgroup>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&#160;</td>
+<td class="cntr bttm">THUMB</td>
+<td class="cntr bttm">FIRST<br>FINGER</td>
+<td class="cntr bttm">SECOND<br>FINGER</td>
+<td class="cntr bttm">THIRD<br>FINGER</td>
+<td class="cntr bttm">FOURTH<br>FINGER</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="cntr">RIGHT HAND</td>
+<td colspan="5">&#160;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="cntr">LEFT HAND</td>
+<td colspan="5">&#160;</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+</div><!--illotext-->
+
+<p class="caption">FINGER IMPRESSIONS OF AN ORANG-OUTANG
+(ANTHROPOID APE) TAKEN AT THE LONDON
+ZOO. THEY WERE MADE BY SCOTLAND YARD.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>The wonderful lineations, in the
+form of ridges and patterns, which
+adorn the palmar surface of the human
+hand, had, of course, been known
+for many years. Mr. Francis Galton,
+the famous traveler and scientist, was
+perhaps the first to give serious attention
+to the subject of finger prints. He
+discovered many interesting facts about
+them. Then, in 1823, Prof. Purkinje,
+of Breslau, read a paper before the
+University of Breslau on the subject.
+Up to this date, however, no practical
+use could be made of the impressions
+for the want of a system of classification.
+Prof. Purkinje certainly suggested
+one, but little notice appears to
+have been taken of it.</p>
+
+<p>Naturally, to be of any value to the
+police or to any government department,
+it is absolutely essential to
+classify the prints in such a way that
+they could be readily referred to and
+identity established without undue delay.
+It was virtually left to Sir William<span class="pagenum" id="Page523">[523]</span>
+Herschel, of the Indian Civil
+Service, to invent a really practical
+system of classification, so it may be
+claimed that the finger-print method
+of identification, as at present adopted,
+is the discovery of an Englishman.
+Then it is only fair to add that Sir
+Edward R. Henry, the Commissioner
+of the Metropolitan Police of London,
+has also devoted much time and study
+to the subject. His book, “Classification
+and Uses of Finger Prints,” has
+passed through many editions, and has
+been translated into several foreign
+languages.</p>
+
+<div class="container w30emmax" id="Fig523a">
+
+<p class="caption">HOW THIEVES HAVE BEEN CAUGHT THROUGH FINGER PRINTS</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo523a.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">A CHAMPAGNE BOTTLE HAVING THUMB IMPRINT,
+WHICH LED TO ARREST OF A BURGLAR.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<div class="container w30emmax" id="Fig523b">
+
+<img src="images/illo523b.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">CANDLE BEARING THUMB MARK OF A BURGLAR.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<div class="container w30emmax" id="Fig523c">
+
+<img src="images/illo523c.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">CASH-BOX IN BEDROOM OF MURDERED MAN AND
+WIFE. THE THUMB IMPRESSION (POINTED
+AT BY ARROW) LED TO ARREST OF THE MURDERER.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>Impressions are divided up into
+four distinct types or patterns. First,
+we have arches in which the ridges run
+from one side to the other, making no
+backward turn. In loops, however,
+some of the ridges do make a backward
+turn, but are devoid of twists.
+In whorls some of the ridges make a
+turn through at least one complete circuit.
+Under composites are included
+patterns in which two or more of the
+former types are combined in the same
+imprint. Although similarity in type
+is of frequent occurrence, completely
+coincident ridge characteristics have
+never been found in any two impressions.
+It is not necessary here to enter
+into a detailed account as to how the
+classification of these wonderful lineations
+of the human hand is effected.
+It is based on a number value, attained
+by an examination, by means
+of a magnifying glass, of the “deltas”
+and “cores,” which break up a collection
+into as many as 1024 separate
+primary groups, each of which can
+again, by a system of sub-classification,
+be further split up into quite a
+number of sub-groups. When the
+British police discover finger prints on
+articles at the scene of crime, the latter
+are at once conveyed to New Scotland
+Yard. If the impressions are very
+faint, a little powder, known to chemists
+as “grey powder” (mercury and
+chalk), is sprinkled over the marking
+and then gently brushed off with a
+camel-hair brush. This brings out the
+imprint much more clearly. If one
+places his dry thumb upon a piece of
+white paper no visible impression is
+left. If powder, however, is sprinkled
+over the spot and then brushed off, a
+distinct impression is seen. In the case
+of candles and articles of this nature,
+a drop of printer’s ink is lightly
+smeared over an impression, in order
+the more clearly to define the ridges
+and patterns.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page524">[524]</span></p>
+
+<div class="container w30emmax" id="Fig524">
+
+<p class="caption">A SPIKE THAT CAUGHT A CRIMINAL</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo524.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">ON THE SPIKE OF THE GATE (INDICATED BY AN
+ARROW) A CRIMINAL LEFT HIS FINGER AND
+RING, WHICH LED TO HIS CONVICTION.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>At the headquarters of the British
+police at New Scotland Yard they
+possess special cameras and a dark
+room for photographing these thumb
+marks. The dark room is 21 feet long
+and 7 feet wide. When finger prints
+are required for production in court
+they are first enlarged five diameters
+with an enlarging camera. The negatives
+are afterward placed in an electric
+light enlarging lantern, with which
+it is possible to obtain photographic
+enlargements of a thumb mark 36
+inches square. The lantern is arranged
+on a specially made table 12 feet long,
+the lantern running between tram
+lines, so that when moved it is square
+with the easel.</p>
+
+<p>Criminals have naturally come to dread
+the value of their thumb marks as a
+means of identifying their movements.
+Some will try to obliterate the markings
+by pricking their fingers, but so
+far this has not availed them. To successfully
+accomplish this it would be
+necessary to obliterate the whole of
+the palmary impressions on the tip of
+each finger of each hand.</p>
+
+<p>Then the system, too, is far in advance
+of any other, both in reliability
+and simplicity of working. Compared
+to anthropometry, for instance, invented
+by M. Bertillon, in which measurements
+of certain portions of the
+body are relied upon as a medium of
+identification, the finger-print system
+is certainly preferable. In the first
+place, the instruments are costly and
+are liable to get out of order; while
+the measurements can only be taken by
+a fairly educated person, and then only
+after a special course of instruction.
+In the finger-print system the accessories
+needed are a piece of paper and
+ink, while any person, whether educated
+or not, after half an hour’s practice,
+can take legible finger prints.
+Then the classification of the latter is
+much simpler and readier of access
+than the former.</p>
+
+<p>At the time of writing there are
+some 164,000 finger-print records in
+the pigeon-holes at New Scotland
+Yard, and the number now being
+added to it is at the rate of about 250
+weekly. The system, too, is not only
+in use in Great Britain, but in all the
+provinces of India, including Burma,
+and in most of the British colonies and
+dependencies. It is being rapidly extended,
+not only throughout Europe,
+but also through North and South
+America.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page525">[525]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">RECORDS OF FINGER PRINTS ARE KEPT AT HEADQUARTERS</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo525.jpg" alt="" id="Fig525">
+
+<div class="illotext w50emmax fsize80">
+
+<p class="center">SPECIMEN FORM.</p>
+
+<p class="center">This Form is not to be pinned.</p>
+
+<p class="right">MALE.</p>
+
+<div class="split5050"><!--outside-->
+
+<div class="left5050"><!--outside-->
+
+<p class="noindent">H.C.R. No. .....</p>
+
+<p class="noindent">Name .....</p>
+
+<p class="noindent">Aliases .....</p>
+
+</div><!--leftsplit--><!--outside-->
+
+<div class="right5050"><!--outside-->
+
+<div class="split5050"><!--inside-->
+
+<div class="left5050">
+
+<p class="noindent highline3">Classification No.</p>
+
+</div><!--leftsplit-->
+
+<div class="right5050">
+
+<p class="noindent highline15">28. MM.<br>
+32. II.</p>
+
+</div><!--rightsplit-->
+
+</div><!--split--><!--inside-->
+
+</div><!--rightsplit--><!--outside-->
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--split--><!--outside-->
+
+<p class="center">RIGHT HAND.</p>
+
+<table class="standard w100pc">
+
+<colgroup>
+<col span="5" class="w20pc">
+</colgroup>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="cntr">1.—Right Thumb.</td>
+<td class="cntr">2.—R. Fore Finger.</td>
+<td class="cntr">3.—R. Middle Finger.</td>
+<td class="cntr">4.—R. Ring Finger.</td>
+<td class="cntr">5.—R. Little Finger.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="text">(Fold.)</td>
+<td colspan="3">&#160;</td>
+<td class="rght">(Fold.)</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p>Impressions to be so taken that the flexure of the last joint shall be immediately above 
+the black line marked (Fold). If the impression of any
+digit be defective a second print may be taken in the vacant space above it.</p>
+
+<p>When a finger is missing or so injured that the impression cannot be obtained, or is deformed
+and yields a bad print, the fact should be noted under Remarks.</p>
+
+<p class="center">LEFT HAND.</p>
+
+<table class="standard w100pc">
+
+<colgroup>
+<col span="5" class="w20pc">
+</colgroup>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="cntr">6.—L. Thumb.</td>
+<td class="cntr">7.—L. Fore Finger.</td>
+<td class="cntr">8.—L. Middle Finger.</td>
+<td class="cntr">9.—L. Ring Finger.</td>
+<td class="cntr">10.—L. Little Finger.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="text">(Fold.)</td>
+<td colspan="3">&#160;</td>
+<td class="rght">(Fold.)</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<div class="split5050">
+
+<div class="left5050">
+
+<p class="center">LEFT HAND.<br>
+Plain impressions of the four fingers taken simultaneously.</p>
+
+</div><!--leftsplit-->
+
+<div class="right5050">
+
+<p class="center">RIGHT HAND.<br>
+Plain impressions of the four fingers taken simultaneously.</p>
+
+</div><!--rightsplit-->
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--split-->
+
+<div class="split5050">
+
+<div class="left5050">
+
+<p class="blankbefore75">Impressions taken by</p>
+
+<p>Classified at H.C. Registry by</p>
+
+<p>Tested at H.C. Registry by</p>
+
+<p class="noindent blankbefore75">13336</p>
+
+</div><!--leftsplit-->
+
+<div class="right5050">
+
+<p class="blankbefore75">Rank <span class="padl5">Police Force.}</span></p>
+
+<p>Date</p>
+
+<p>Date</p>
+
+<p class="right blankbefore75">(P.T.O.)</p>
+
+</div><!--rightsplit-->
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--split-->
+
+</div><!--illlotext-->
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page526">[526]</span></p>
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<div class="container w50emmax" id="Fig526">
+
+<img src="images/illo526.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">COMBS OF HONEY AS WE RECEIVE SAME</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<h2 class="nobreak">The Story in a Honey Bee<a id="FNanchor8" href="#Footnote8" 
+class="fnanchor"><span class="fsize80">[8]</span></a></h2>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote8" href="#FNanchor8" class="label">[8]</a> Pictures by Courtesy of E. R. Root Co.</p>
+
+</div><!--footnote-->
+
+</div><!--chapter-->
+
+<p>Of all the insect associations there are
+none that have more excited the admiration
+of men of every age or that
+have been more universally interesting
+than the colonies of the common honey-bee.</p>
+
+<p>The ancients held many absurd
+views concerning the generation and
+propagation of bees, believing that
+they arose from decaying animals,
+from the flowers of certain plants, and
+other views equally ridiculous from
+our present point of view.</p>
+
+<h3>Where Does Honey Come From?</h3>
+
+<p>Honey is a sticky fluid collected from
+flowers by several kinds of insects,
+particularly the honey bee; and the
+common honey bee from the earliest
+period has been kept by people in
+hives for the advantage and enjoyment
+which its honey and wax gives. It
+is found wild in North America in great
+numbers, storing its honey in hollow
+trees and other suitable locations,
+but not native to this country, having
+been introduced in North America by
+European colonists.</p>
+
+<p>The story of the honey bee is one of
+the most interesting of all stories of the
+living things found on the earth. The
+busy bee is the ideal example of hard
+and persistent work and has for a long
+time been the subject of interesting
+study for young and old. The bee
+is one of the busiest of all of the world’s
+workers, and it is from the honey bee
+that we get our expression “as busy as
+a bee”; such other expressions as “to
+have a bee in one’s bonnet”; also such
+others as “quilting bees” and “husking
+bees” are founded on the known
+activities of the honey bee. The first
+expression means “to be flighty or full
+of whims or uneasy motions” which
+comes from the restless habits of bees,
+and “quilting bee” or “husking bee”<span class="pagenum" id="Page527">[527]</span>
+originated from the knowledge that
+bees work together for the queen. In
+a quilting bee or husking bee a number
+of people get together and work together
+for a time for the benefit of
+one individual.</p>
+
+<div class="container w50emmax">
+
+<div class="split3367">
+
+<div class="left3367">
+
+<img src="images/illo527a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig527a">
+
+</div><!--left3367-->
+
+<div class="right3367">
+
+<div class="split5050">
+
+<div class="left5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo527b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig527b">
+
+</div><!--left5050-->
+
+<div class="right5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo527c.jpg" alt="" id="Fig527c">
+
+</div><!--right5050-->
+
+</div><!--split5050-->
+
+</div><!--right3367-->
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--split3367-->
+
+<div class="split3367">
+
+<div class="left3367">
+
+<p class="caption">WORKER-BEE.</p>
+
+</div><!--left3367-->
+
+<div class="right3367">
+
+<div class="split5050">
+
+<div class="left5050">
+
+<p class="caption">QUEEN-BEE, MAGNIFIED.</p>
+
+</div><!--left5050-->
+
+<div class="right5050">
+
+<p class="caption">DRONE-BEE.</p>
+
+</div><!--right5050-->
+
+</div><!--split5050-->
+
+</div><!--right3367-->
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--split3367-->
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<h3>Honey Is Produced by Bees which Live
+in Colonies.</h3>
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>HOW A BEE<br>
+MAKES HONEY</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>A colony of bees consists of one
+female, capable of laying eggs, called
+the queen; some thousands of undeveloped
+females that normally never
+lay eggs, the workers; and, at certain
+seasons of the year, many males, the
+drones, whose only duty is to mate
+with the young queens. These different
+kinds of individuals can readily
+be recognized by the difference in size
+of various parts of the body, so that
+even the novice at bee-keeping can
+soon recognize each with ease. This
+colony makes its home in nature in a
+hollow tree or cave; but it thrives perhaps
+even better in the hives provided
+for it by man. In a modern hive, sheets<span class="pagenum" id="Page528">[528]</span>
+of comb are placed in wooden frames
+which are hung in the hive-box in such
+a way that they can be removed at the
+pleasure of the bee-keeper. A sheet of
+comb is made up of small cells in which
+honey is stored by the bees, and in
+which eggs are laid, and young bees
+develop.</p>
+
+<div class="container w45emmax" id="Fig527d">
+
+<img src="images/illo527d.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">BEES LIVING ON COMBS BUILT IN THE OPEN AIR.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<h3>How Does a Bee Make Honey from
+Flower Nectar?</h3>
+
+<p>In the spring of the year the colony
+consists of a queen and workers, there
+being no drones present at this time.
+During the winter the bees remain
+quiet, and the queen lays no eggs, so
+that there are no developing bees in the
+hive. The supply of honey is also
+low, for they have eaten honey all
+winter, and none has been collected and
+placed in the cells. As soon as the
+days are warm enough the bees begin
+to fly from the hive in search of the
+earliest spring flowers. From these
+flowers they collect the nectar, which is
+transformed into honey, and pollen,
+which they carry to the hive on the
+pollen-baskets on the third pair of legs.</p>
+
+<div class="container w35emmax" id="Fig528">
+
+<img src="images/illo528.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">CUCUMBER-BLOSSOM WITH A BEE ON IT;
+CAUGHT IN THE ACT.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>The nectar is taken by the bee into
+its mouth, and then passes to an enlargement
+of the alimentary canal
+known as the honey-stomach, where it
+is acted upon by certain juices secreted
+by the bee. The true stomach lies
+just behind the honey-stomach; and
+if the bee needs food for its own immediate
+use it passes on through the opening
+between the two stomachs. On
+its arrival in the hive the bee places its
+head in one of the cells of the comb and
+deposits there the nectar which it has
+carried in. By this time the nectar
+has been partly transformed into honey,
+and the process is completed by the
+bees by fanning the cells to evaporate
+the excess of moisture which still remains.
+When a cell has been filled with
+the thick honey the workers cover it
+with a thin sheet of wax unless it is to
+be eaten at once. The pollen is also
+deposited in cells, but is rarely mixed
+with honey. The little pellets which
+the bees carry in are packed tightly
+into cells until the cell is nearly full.
+If a cell of pollen be dug out of the
+comb, one can often see the layers
+made by the different pellets. This
+collecting of nectar and pollen continues
+throughout the summer whenever
+there are flowers in bloom, and
+ceases only with the death of the last
+flowers in the autumn.</p>
+
+<h3>What Does the Queen Bee Do?</h3>
+
+<p>Almost as soon as the honey and pollen
+begin to come in, the queen of the
+colony begins to lay eggs in the cells
+of the center combs. The title of
+queen has been given to the female bee
+which normally lays all the eggs of the
+colony, under the supposition that she
+governs the colony and directs its
+activities. This we now know to be
+an error, but the name still remains.
+Her one duty in life is that of egg-laying.
+She is most carefully watched
+over by the workers, and is constantly
+surrounded by a circle of attendants
+who feed her and touch her with their
+antennæ; but she in no way dictates
+what shall take place in the hive. The
+eggs are laid in the bottom of the hexagonal
+cells, being attached by one end
+to the center of the cell. The first eggs
+laid develop into workers, and are
+deposited in cells one-fifth of an inch
+across. As the colony increases in
+size by the hatching-out of these
+workers, and as the stores of honey
+and pollen increase, the queen begins
+to lay in larger cells measuring one-fourth<span class="pagenum" id="Page529">[529]</span>
+of an inch, and from the eggs
+laid in these cells drones (or males)
+develop.</p>
+
+<div class="container w45emmax" id="Fig529a">
+
+<img src="images/illo529a.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">THE DEVELOPMENT OF COMB HONEY.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<div class="container w30emmax">
+
+<img src="images/illo529b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig529b">
+
+<p class="caption">QUEEN-CELLS.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<div class="container w30emmax">
+
+<img src="images/illo529c.jpg" alt="" id="Fig529c">
+
+<p class="caption">THE QUEEN AND HER RETINUE.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>The eggs do not develop directly
+into adult bees, as might be inferred
+from what has just been said; but
+after three days there hatches from the
+egg a small white worm-like larva.
+For several days the larvæ are fed by
+the workers, and the amount of food
+consumed is truly remarkable. The
+larva grows rapidly until it fills the
+entire cell in which it lives. The
+workers then cover the cell with a cap
+of wax, and at the same time the larva
+inside spins a delicate cocoon under the
+cap.</p>
+
+<div class="container w40emmax" id="Fig529d">
+
+<p class="caption">HOW THE EGG OF THE QUEEN BEE LOOKS</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo529d.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">EGG OF QUEEN UNDER THE MICROSCOPE.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page530">[530]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage landscape">
+
+<p class="paghead">HOW HONEY DEVELOPS IN A COMB</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo530.jpg" alt="" id="Fig530">
+
+<p class="caption">THE DEVELOPMENT OF COMB HONEY.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page531">[531]</span></p>
+
+<h3>What Are Drone Bees Good for?</h3>
+
+<p>The worker brood can at once be
+distinguished from the drone brood
+by the fact that the workers place a
+flat cap over worker brood and a high
+arched cap over drone brood; and this
+is often a great help to the bee-keeper
+in enabling him to determine at once
+what kind of brood any hive contains.
+Twenty-one days from the time the egg
+is laid the young worker-bee emerges
+from its cell, having gone through some
+wonderful transformations during the
+time it was sealed up, this stage being
+known as the pupa stage. For drones
+the time is twenty-four days.</p>
+
+<div class="container w30emmax" id="Fig531">
+
+<img src="images/illo531.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">HOW A SWARM WILL SOMETIMES OCCUPY A SMALL TREE AND BEND IT OVER BY ITS
+WEIGHT.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>About the time the drones begin
+to appear, the inmates of the hive begin
+to prepare for swarming, which, to any
+one watching the habits of bees, is one
+of the most interesting things which
+takes place in the colony. Several
+young worker larvæ are chosen as the
+material for queen-rearing, generally
+located near the margin of the comb.
+The workers now begin to feed these<span class="pagenum" id="Page532">[532]</span>
+chosen larvæ an extra amount of food
+and at the same time the sides of the
+cells containing them are remodeled
+and enlarged by the destruction of
+surrounding cells. The queen (or
+royal) cell is nearly horizontal at the
+top, like the other cells of the comb,
+and projects beyond them; but then
+the workers construct another portion
+to the cell into which the queen larva
+moves. This is an acorn-shaped cell
+placed vertically on the comb, about
+as large as three ordinary cells. As
+the cell is being built, the queen larva
+continues to grow until the time comes
+for her to be sealed up and enter her
+pupa state. Although it takes the
+worker twenty-one days to complete its
+development, the queen passes through
+all the stages and reaches a considerably
+larger size in but sixteen days.</p>
+
+<div class="container w30emmax" id="Fig532a">
+
+<img src="images/illo532a.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">THE DAILY GROWTH OF LARVÆ.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<div class="container w40emmax" id="Fig532b">
+
+<img src="images/illo532b.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption long">DRONE-COMB.
+<span class="righttext">WORKER-COMB.</span></p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<div class="container w40emmax" id="Fig352c">
+
+<p class="caption">HOW THE HONEY COMB IS MADE</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo532c.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">A STUDY IN CELL-MAKING.</p>
+
+<p class="caption">Note that the cells are made independent of each other, and that it is the refuse wax, like droppings
+of mortar in brick-laying, that seems to tumble into the interstices to fill up.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>In the swarming season, at about
+the time the new queens are ready to
+leave their cells, the old queen leaves
+the hive and takes with her part of the
+workers, this being known as swarming.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page533">[533]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">CLIPPING THE QUEEN BEE’S WINGS</p>
+
+<div class="split5050">
+
+<div class="left5050">
+
+<div class="container w25emmax" id="Fig533a">
+
+<img src="images/illo533a.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">HOW TO BUMP THE BEES OFF A COMB.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+</div><!--leftsplit-->
+
+<div class="right5050">
+
+<div class="container w25emmax" id="Fig533b">
+
+<img src="images/illo533b.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">MANNER OF USING GERMAN BEE-BRUSH</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+</div><!--rightsplit-->
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--split-->
+
+<div class="split5050">
+
+<div class="left5050">
+
+<div class="container w20emmax" id="Fig533c">
+
+<img src="images/illo533c.jpg" alt="" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption long">M. G. Dervishian’s method of catching
+queens, for caging or clipping their wings, by
+means of a jeweler’s tweezers.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+</div><!--leftsplit-->
+
+<div class="right5050">
+
+<div class="container w20emmax" id="Fig533d">
+
+<img src="images/illo533d.jpg" alt="" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption">“THE PROOF OF THE PUDDING IS IN
+THE EATING.”</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+</div><!--rightsplit-->
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--split-->
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page534">[534]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage landscape">
+
+<p class="paghead">WHAT AN APIARY LOOKS LIKE</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo534.jpg" alt="" id="Fig534">
+
+<p class="caption">AN APIARY IN SUMMER.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long hind">This photo shows the windbreak of evergreens surrounding the yard. The house-apiary is shown
+in the background, the upper story of which is used as a workshop. A trellis of grapevines
+is placed in front of each hive. In summer there is ample shade, and in the fall and early
+spring the leaves are shed, leaving plenty of sun to strike the hives when it is most needed.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page535">[535]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">HOW THE HONEY MAN HANDLES THE BEES</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo535a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig535a">
+
+<div class="split6733">
+
+<div class="left6733">
+
+<p class="caption">A SWARM ENTERING A HIVE.</p>
+
+</div><!--left6733-->
+
+<div class="right6733">
+
+<p class="caption">A LIVE BEE-HAT.</p>
+
+</div><!--right6733-->
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--split6733-->
+
+<img src="images/illo535c.jpg" alt="" id="Fig535c" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption">A FRAME OF BEES, SHOWING ONE WAY OF HOLDING AN UNSPACED FRAME.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page536">[536]</span></p>
+
+<h3>How Do Bees Build the Honey Comb?</h3>
+
+<p>In the hands of a bee-keeper the
+departing swarm will be put into another
+hive provided he wishes to increase
+the number of his colonies;
+but in a state of nature the swarm will
+find an old hollow tree or some similar
+place in which to establish itself. The
+bees, before leaving their old hive, fill
+themselves with honey until the abdomen
+is greatly distended, and for this
+reason it is not necessary for them to
+collect nectar for a day or two, for they
+have other work to do. Some of the
+bees begin to clean out the new quarters
+and get it fit for occupancy; but
+most of them begin the construction
+of new combs. To do this they suspend
+themselves in curtains from the
+top of the hive, and remain motionless
+for some time. The wax used in building
+comb is secreted by the workers in
+eight small pockets on the lower side
+of the abdomen while they thus hang
+in curtains. Finally, after enough wax
+has been formed, they begin to build.
+The small flakes of wax are passed
+forward to the mouth, there mixed with
+a salivary secretion to make the wax
+pliable, and then are placed on the top
+of the hive by the first comb-builders.
+Other workers then come and place
+their small burdens of wax on those
+first deposited, and this continues until
+the combs are finished. There is more
+to comb-building than the mere sticking
+on of wax plates, however, and
+nothing in all bee instincts is more wonderful
+than the beautiful plan on which
+they build the comb. The cells are
+hexagonal in shape, so that each cell
+in the center of the comb is surrounded
+by six others. Nor is this the only
+remarkable thing in their architecture,
+for each comb is composed of a double
+row of cells, the base of each cell being
+formed of three parts, each one of which
+is likewise a part of a separate cell
+of the other side of the comb. By this
+method the bees obtain the greatest
+possible capacity for their cells, with
+the least expenditure of wax. The
+accuracy of the cells of the comb has
+in all ages been an object of admiration
+of naturalists and bee-keepers.</p>
+
+<p>As soon as there are some cells constructed,
+and even before the cells are
+entirely completed, the queen begins
+to lay eggs, and the workers begin to
+collect the stores of honey and pollen.
+They also collect in considerable quantity
+a waxy substance from various
+trees, commonly called propolis, with
+which they seal the inside of the hive,
+closing up all openings except the one
+which serves as the entrance.</p>
+
+<div class="container w30emmax" id="Fig536">
+
+<p class="caption">HOW THE HONEY BEE DEFENDS HIMSELF</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo536.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">EFFECT OF A STING NEAR THE EYE.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>The cells which are used for the storage
+of honey generally slant upward
+slightly to help keep the honey from
+running out. Queen-cells are made
+only when a new queen is to be
+reared.</p>
+
+<h3>Can a Bee Sting?</h3>
+
+<p>It is true that bees cannot bite and
+kick like horses, nor can they hook
+like cattle; but most people, after having
+had an experience with bee-stings
+for the first time, are inclined to think
+they would rather be bitten, kicked,
+and hooked, all together, than risk
+a repetition of that keen and exquisite
+anguish which one feels as he receives
+the full contents of the poison-bag.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page537">[537]</span></p>
+
+<h3>What Happens When a Bee Stings?</h3>
+
+<p>After the bee has penetrated the
+flesh on your hand, and worked the
+sting so deeply into the flesh as to be
+satisfied, it begins to find that it is a
+prisoner, and to consider means of
+escape. It usually gets smashed at
+about this stage of proceedings, unless
+it succeeds in tearing the sting—poison-bag
+and all—from the body; however,
+if allowed to do the work quietly it
+seldom does this, knowing that such a
+proceeding seriously maims it for life,
+if it does not kill it. After pulling at
+the sting to see that it will not come
+out, it seems to consider the matter a
+little, and then commences to walk
+around it, in a circle, just as if it were
+a screw it was going to turn out of a
+board. If you will be patient and let
+it alone, it will get it out by this very
+process, and fly off unharmed. I need
+not tell you that it takes some heroism
+to submit patiently to all this maneuvering.
+The temptation is almost ungovernable,
+while experiencing the intense
+pain, to say, while you give it a
+clip, “There, you little beggar, take
+that, and learn better manners in
+future.”</p>
+
+<p>Well, how does every bee know that
+it can extricate its sting by walking
+around it? Some would say it is instinct.
+Well, I guess it is; but it
+seems to me, after all, that it “sort o’
+remembers” how its ancestors have
+behaved in similar predicaments for
+ages and ages past.</p>
+
+<h3>Odor of the Bee-sting Poison.</h3>
+
+<p>After one bee has stung you, if you
+remain where you were stung, the
+smell of the poison, or something else,
+will be pretty sure to get more stings
+for you, unless you are very careful.
+It has been suggested that this is owing
+to the smell of the poison, and that
+the use of smoke will neutralize this
+scent. This probably is so.</p>
+
+<h3>What Should I Do If I Am Stung by
+a Bee?</h3>
+
+<p>The blade of a knife, if one is handy,
+may be slid under the poison-bag, and
+the sting lifted out, without pressing
+a particle more of the poison into the
+wound. When a knife-blade is not
+handy, push the sting out with the
+thumb or finger nail in much the same
+way. It is quite desirable that the
+sting should be taken out as quickly
+as possible, for if the barbs once get a
+hold in the flesh, the muscular contractions
+will rapidly work the sting
+deeper and deeper. Sometimes the
+sting separates, and a part of it (one
+of the splinters, so to speak) is left in
+the wound; it has been suggested that
+we should be very careful to remove
+every one of these tiny points; but after
+trying many times to see what the
+effect would be, I have concluded that
+they do but little harm, and that the
+main thing is, to remove the part containing
+the poison-bag before it has
+emptied itself completely into the
+wound.</p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">Why Are Some Races White, and Others
+Black, Yellow and Brown?</h2>
+
+<p>What you eat determines your color,
+according to Bergfield, a German investigator.
+Not necessarily that you
+yourself could effect any change in
+color, but your ancestors for thousands
+of years have unconsciously been
+influenced by the food they have eaten
+and the drinks they have drunk.</p>
+
+<p>For instance, the original men were
+black, says Bergfield. Their chief diet
+was of vegetables and fruits, he explains,
+and these same food contains
+manganates that are not unlike iron.
+Dark browns and blacks result from
+this combination. It is a scientific
+fact that negroes who drink milk and
+eat meat are never as dark as those
+who eat vegetables.</p>
+
+<p>Again, Mongols are yellow because
+they have descended from races that
+were fruit-eating, and who, making
+their way into the deepest nooks and
+widest plains of Asia, developed into
+shepherds and lived largely on milk.
+Of course it is now known that milk
+contains a certain percentage of
+chlorine, and has a decidedly bleaching
+effect. In the case of Caucasians,
+they are said to have become white
+by adding salt to their foods, which
+common salt is a strong chloride, and
+powerful in bleaching the skin.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page538">[538]</span></p>
+
+<div class="container w40emmax" id="Fig538">
+
+<img src="images/illo538.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">A HIDE HOUSE</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<h2 class="nobreak">The Story in a Piece of Leather<a id="FNanchor9" href="#Footnote9" class="fnanchor"><span class="fsize80">[9]</span></a></h2>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote9" href="#FNanchor9" class="label">[9]</a> Pictures by courtesy of Endicott, Johnson &amp; Co.</p>
+
+</div><!--footnote-->
+
+</div><!--chapter-->
+
+<h3>Where Does Leather Come From?</h3>
+
+<p>Leather is made by treating the
+hides of various animals such as the
+calf, cow and horse. These are the
+principal animals from which we obtain
+hides for making leather to make shoes.
+Before the hides are fit for making
+shoes, they must be taken to a tannery
+where they are prepared and tanned.</p>
+
+<p>In viewing a tannery, we enter first
+the enormous hide house. It is long,
+damp and dark. Here the hides are
+collected from all over the world and
+stored, awaiting their turn for tanning.
+We follow a small car of these hides
+into the beamhouse. We see the
+hides loaded into a vat. They are
+soaked, resoaked, softened and split
+into sides. This operation, while simple,
+holds your attention longer perhaps
+than any of the others. Several
+hides after being softened are thrown
+over a sort of saw-horse, the lot number
+is stamped on the hide in such a manner
+that it appears on each side after being
+split. With an unusually long bladed
+knife the workman quickly cuts down
+through the center and the hides which
+are now called sides, fall to the floor.
+They are next hooked together and
+pass on through vat after vat of lime
+solution which loosens the hair and
+superfluous flesh. At the end of this
+long chain of vats, we see the sides
+awaiting their turn at the first unhairing
+machine, where all the hair is
+removed and then to the fleshing machine,
+where the flesh is taken off and
+the sides are again loaded in a car and
+pass on to the tanyard.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page539">[539]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">HOW THE HIDES ARE TREATED</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo539a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig539a">
+
+<p class="caption">THE TAN YARD</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">We resume our travels, following a car of sides from the beamhouse to the sole
+leather tanyard. There are about 40 operations in the tanning of sole leather,
+requiring about 100 days to produce first quality leather. In the tanyard, we see
+more than 500 vats, each holding 300 sides, weighing about 23 pounds apiece.
+Each vat contains about 3000 gallons of liquor at an approximate cost of $100
+a vat. Here we see the sides slipped over sticks and placed in vats six feet deep,
+where they receive the tanning, the real tanning process which preserves the fibers
+giving the leather its life and long wearing qualities.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">From the tanyard we go to the big wringers where the liquor is wrung out, the
+hides are milled, dried and loaded on cars for the drying loft, where they are allowed
+to dry or season preparatory to rolling. This long building is sectioned off every
+50 feet into chambers, where the hides are hung in the same manner as in the
+vats. The temperature of each room is
+changed from the outside temperature
+to a heat of 115 degrees, at which temperature
+the hides are dried and are
+ready for rolling.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo539b.jpg" alt="Man rolling a hide" id="Fig539b" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption long">In the rolling room, we see an operation
+requiring skill and quickness of
+eye. The rollers pass to and fro over
+the side, which is now hard and stiff,
+with a pressure of 300 tons. This
+rolling or finishing gives it a high
+polish and we see a beautiful side of
+sole leather, weighing from 18 to 25
+pounds.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page540">[540]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">HOW UPPER SHOE LEATHER IS TANNED</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo540a.jpg" alt="Men handling hides near rolling drums" id="Fig540a">
+
+<p class="caption long">In the upper leather tannery we see the various operations preparatory to
+the actual operation of tanning the hide, about the same as in the sole leather
+tannery, with this difference: Upper leather in this tannery is generally chrome
+tanned, a process requiring 30 days and instead of vats sunken in the ground we
+see huge rolling drums revolving at a rapid rate. This process is the most up-to-date
+method and absolutely insures the wearing qualities of the leather. This
+leather is very tough, yet is just as soft and pliable as glove leather and as comfortable
+to the feet. It does not harden with age, nor does it stiffen after being wet.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo540b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig540b">
+
+<p class="caption">UNHAIRING MACHINE</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">One of the most interesting sight
+while going through the tanneries
+is the process of disposing of waste
+materials, such as hair, fleshings
+and the sediments from the lime
+and sulphur vats.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">The hair is separated into white,
+brown and black colors, each color
+taking its turn through the huge
+mill or gin where the hair is dried
+and afterwards baled. The brown
+and black are sold to plasterers.
+Those who purchase the white
+often mix it with wool and use it
+for making many useful articles.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">The fleshings and trimmings are
+sold to manufacturers of glue.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page541">[541]</span></p>
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<div class="container w35emmax" id="Fig541">
+
+<img src="images/illo541.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">The Ancient Sandal Maker as pictured on the wall of the ruined temples at Thebes, Egypt.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<h2 class="nobreak">The Story in a Pair of Shoes<a id="FNanchor10" href="#Footnote10" 
+class="fnanchor"><span class="fsize80">[10]</span></a></h2>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote10" href="#FNanchor10" class="label">[10]</a> Pictures by Courtesy of United Shoe Machinery Co.</p>
+
+</div><!--footnote-->
+
+</div><!--chapter-->
+
+<h3>Who Made the First Shoes?</h3>
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>WHERE SHOES<br>
+COME FROM</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>The making of shoes is one of the oldest
+arts of which there is any human
+knowledge. Long before primitive man
+devised any method of recording his
+exploits or thoughts, he contrived—through
+necessity—a method of protecting
+his feet from the rough way or
+hot sands over which he was obliged to
+travel in his search for food and shelter.</p>
+
+<p>That foot covering antedates clothing
+or ornaments is shown from the fact
+that the primitive savage to-day, devoid
+of clothing or ornament, is almost invariably
+found with a crude form of
+foot protection and there is scarcely a
+tribe or nation without it’s traditions
+of the shoe—its mysterious power for
+good or evil.</p>
+
+<h3>What Was the First Foot Covering
+Like?</h3>
+
+<p>The first foot covering devised was
+undoubtedly a simple form of sandal—a
+rough bit of hide, wood or plaited
+grass held to the foot by means of thongs,
+generally brought up between the toes
+and tied about the ankle. This form
+of foot covering is depicted in records
+of the greatest antiquity: in the ruined
+temples at Thebes Egypt, the ancient
+sandal maker is <a href="#Fig541">shown</a> at his task; the
+Assyrian bricks show the ancient warriors
+and people of that time wearing
+the simple sandal.</p>
+
+<p>The dispersion of the human races
+and the wandering of tribes into colder
+climates brought the necessity for more
+thorough protection for the feet and<span class="pagenum" id="Page542">[542]</span>
+body, and that this was accomplished
+was shown in the gradual increase in
+the number of straps or thongs which
+held the sandal in place and, in the
+colder climates, in the contrivance of
+a bag-like foot covering—traces of
+which are found even now in the Indian
+moccasin and the foot covering of the
+Eskimo. In all colder countries this
+type of footwear is still in evidence, the
+seam around the outline of the foot
+being a relic of the puckering string
+which held the bag-like covering to
+the foot.</p>
+
+<div class="container w50emmax">
+
+<div class="split5050">
+
+<div class="left5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo542a.jpg" alt="Ancient sandal" id="Fig542a">
+
+</div><!--leftsplit-->
+
+<div class="right5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo542b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig542b">
+
+<p class="caption">JAPANESE “ZORI”</p>
+
+</div><!--rightsplit-->
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--split-->
+
+<div class="split5050">
+
+<div class="left5050">
+
+<p class="caption">Ancient sandal showing puckering string and
+thongs for holding it on foot.</p>
+
+</div><!--leftsplit-->
+
+<div class="right5050">
+
+<p class="caption">A flat sandal with felt sole. Also showing
+“Tabi” or glove-like sock worn by Japanese.</p>
+
+</div><!--rightsplit-->
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--split-->
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>The sandal was developed and adorned
+by the Greeks, but it was not until the
+days of the Roman Empire that anything
+approaching the present form of
+shoes was designed. In this period
+a form of foot covering was developed—that
+was appropriated by the Emperor
+and worn by him only—which covered
+the entire foot with the exception of
+the toes.</p>
+
+<div class="container w45emmax" id="Fig542c">
+
+<img src="images/illo542c.jpg" alt="">
+
+<div class="illotext w10emmax">
+
+<p class="center fsize90">THE<br>
+EVOLUTION<br>
+OF THE<br>
+SANDAL<br>
+TO THE
+SHOE</p>
+
+</div><!--illotext-->
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page543">[543]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">ANCIENT AND MODERN FORMS OF SANDALS</p>
+
+<div class="split5050">
+
+<div class="left5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo543a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig543a">
+
+</div><!--left5050-->
+
+<div class="right5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo543b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig543b">
+
+</div><!--right5050-->
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--split-->
+
+<div class="split5050">
+
+<div class="left5050">
+
+<p class="caption">Japanese Astrida or Rough Weather Clog.</p>
+
+</div><!--left5050-->
+
+<div class="right5050">
+
+<p class="caption">Ancient Turkish Bath Slipper.</p>
+
+</div><!--right5050-->
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--split-->
+
+<div class="split5050">
+
+<div class="left5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo543c.jpg" alt="" id="Fig543c" class="blankbefore">
+
+</div><!--left5050-->
+
+<div class="right5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo543d.jpg" alt="" id="Fig543d" class="blankbefore">
+
+</div><!--right5050-->
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--split-->
+
+<div class="split5050">
+
+<div class="left5050">
+
+<p class="caption long">The Crakrow or Poulaine showing clearly
+traces of the oriental origin of this design.</p>
+
+</div><!--left5050-->
+
+<div class="right5050">
+
+<p class="caption long">Home made sandal of Siberian Peasant.
+Showing puckering string and key strap.</p>
+
+</div><!--right5050-->
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--split-->
+
+<div class="split6040">
+
+<div class="left6040">
+
+<img src="images/illo543e.jpg" alt="" id="Fig543e" class="blankbefore">
+
+</div><!--left6040-->
+
+<div class="right6040">
+
+<p class="caption blankbefore2">JAPANESE WARY</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">A primitive form of foot covering very
+generally used by Japanese at the present
+time.</p>
+
+</div><!--right6040-->
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--split-->
+
+<div class="split4060">
+
+<div class="left4060">
+
+<p class="caption long blankbefore4">Modern sandal issued by the Mexican
+Government for wear of soldiers.</p>
+
+</div><!--left4060-->
+
+<div class="right4060">
+
+<img src="images/illo543f.jpg" alt="" id="Fig543f" class="blankbefore">
+
+</div><!--right4060-->
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--split-->
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page544">[544]</span></p>
+
+<h3>The Boot Developed from the Sandal.</h3>
+
+<p>It was but a step from this form of
+foot covering to the boot which covered
+not only the foot but the lower leg as
+well and which came widely into use
+afterwards in the form of the Jack-boot.</p>
+
+<p>Up to the fourteenth century there
+had been little in the way of development
+of foot covering, but it is well
+established that in the year 1408 there
+were shoemakers’ guilds in Europe.
+Some of these were semi-religious in
+character, the members working in
+communities and sharing in the general
+product of their toil. Guilds of this
+period were very generally dedicated
+to either Saint Crispin or Saint Crispianus
+(the patron saint of shoemaking),
+and even to this day the birthday of
+Saint Crispin is celebrated in some of
+the English shoemaking guilds on October
+25. The ceremonies attending
+the celebration in the olden days were
+of a very elaborate nature.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>THE SHOE WHICH THE CHURCH<br>
+AND LAW FORBADE</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>In the process of time the shoes began
+to lose the crude nature and design in
+which the Dark Ages had held them
+and developed a style the first of which
+was apparent in the gradual elongation
+of the toes, the custom said to
+have been introduced by Henry, Duke
+of Anjou, and these shoes were known
+as “Crakrows” or “Poulaines.” The
+style finally ran to such extremes that
+effort was made to stop it by the
+church and government, but with indifferent
+success until finally its end
+was accomplished by the imposing of
+summary fines and threat of excommunication
+by the church.</p>
+
+<div class="container w45emmax" id="Fig544">
+
+<img src="images/illo544.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">THE CRAKROW OR PEAKED SHOE OF THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>Immediately the style went to the
+other extreme and the toes became very
+broad, as evidenced in the period of
+Elizabeth, and in some instances the
+shoes were as broad as six inches at
+the toe. They were made of velvet
+and were slashed to show the satin
+lining.</p>
+
+<h3>Who Made the First Shoes in America?</h3>
+
+<p>The first shoemaking in America is
+recorded when Thomas Baird arrived
+on the second voyage of the Mayflower
+in 1628. Baird was under contract
+with the Plymouth Company to
+make shoes for the colonists and brought
+with him divers hides, etc., for this
+purpose. It was recorded that in 1636
+a planter in Virginia employed six
+shoemakers to make shoes for his slaves.</p>
+
+<p>That in the early history of the
+country the art of making shoes had
+become of considerable importance is
+shown by the very summary laws passed
+by the different colonies regulating the
+industry. Particularly was this so in
+the Province of Pennsylvania which,
+in 1721, placed upon its statute book
+most drastic laws regarding the making
+of shoes and regulating the prices to
+be charged therefor.</p>
+
+<p>Shoemaking in New England early
+received impetus from the arrival of
+one Phillip Kirtland, a Welshman, who
+came to Lynn, Mass., in 1636. He
+was an experienced shoemaker and
+taught his art to many of the colonists
+in his vicinity.</p>
+
+<p>Shoemaking in this locality was
+further advanced by the arrival of
+John Adams Dagyr, who settled in
+Lynn in the year 1750. Dagyr was a
+celebrated shoemaker and was enabled,
+from his own means, to secure the best
+examples of work from abroad. He<span class="pagenum" id="Page545">[545]</span>
+possessed the peculiar quality of being
+able to teach the art to those who came
+under his charge.</p>
+
+<p>The fame of New England made
+shoes was due largely to the teachings
+of these men and the industry has
+continued to be one of the first in
+importance. In Massachusetts alone,
+according to the census of 1910, over
+40 per cent of the entire value of shoes
+in the United States was produced.</p>
+
+<p>The young man of this period, who
+essayed to learn the shoemaking trade,
+was ordinarily apprenticed for a term
+of seven years under the most rigorous
+terms, as shown in some of the indentures
+of that period which are still in
+existence. He was instructed in every
+part of the trade and, upon completion
+of his term of service, it was the
+custom for the newly fledged shoemaker
+to start what was known as
+“whipping the cat”—which meant
+journeying from town to town, living
+with a family while making a year’s
+supply of shoes for each member
+thereof, and then leaving to fill other
+engagements previously made.</p>
+
+<p>It was soon found that the master
+workman could largely increase his
+income by employing other men to do
+certain portions of the work, while
+he directed their efforts, and this
+gradually lead to a division of the labor
+and was the beginning of a factory
+system—which has been in process
+of development from that time.</p>
+
+<p>In the year 1795 it is recorded that
+there were in the city of Lynn, Mass.,
+over two hundred master workmen,
+employing over six hundred journeymen,
+and that they manufactured
+shoes at the rate of about one pair
+per day per man.</p>
+
+<p>Factory buildings, as the words
+would be known to-day, were practically
+unknown at that time. The
+small buildings, about ten feet square,
+were in the back yards of many homes
+and in these little shops were employed
+from three to eight men.</p>
+
+<p>Strange as it may seem, prior to the
+year 1845 there had been little change
+in the tools employed in making
+shoes. The workman of that period,
+seated at his low bench, used practically
+the same implements that were
+employed by his prototype, the ancient
+sandal-maker of Egypt. The lap stone,
+the hammer, the crude needle and the
+knife being practically the only tools
+used. Not that there had been no
+effort to perfect machinery for this
+purpose; Napoleon I, in his endeavor to
+secure better shoes for his soldiers,
+had offered great rewards for the perfecting
+of shoe machinery that would
+accomplish this purpose, but although
+great effort had been made there had
+been no successful machinery produced.</p>
+
+<p>In this year 1845 the first machine to
+be widely adopted by the industry
+was perfected. It was a simple form
+of rolling machine, which took the
+place of the lap stone and hammer
+used by the shoemakers for toughening
+the leather, and it is said that a man
+could, in half an hour, obtain the same
+results from this machine that would
+require a day’s labor on the part of
+the hand workman employing the
+old method of pounding.</p>
+
+<p>This was followed in 1848 by the very
+important invention by Elias Howe
+of the sewing machine—which was not
+adapted for use in connection with
+sewing leather until several years later.
+It started, however, an era of great
+activity among inventors and in 1857
+there was perfected a machine for driving
+pegs, which came into successful
+operation.</p>
+
+<h3>The First Machine for Making Shoes.</h3>
+
+<p>This was shortly followed by a very
+important invention by Lyman E.
+Blake, of Abington, Mass., of a machine
+for sewing the soles of shoes and this
+afterwards became famous as the
+“McKay Sewing Machine.” This invention
+of Blake’s was purchased by
+Gordon McKay, who spent large sums
+of money in perfecting it, and the first
+machine was established in Lynn in
+1861. The results obtained in the
+early stages of the machines were of
+an indifferent nature and it was only
+after large expenditures and the hiring
+of a number of different inventors to
+work upon it that a successful machine
+was produced.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page546">[546]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">BOOTS OF THE CAVALIERS AND POSTILLIONS</p>
+
+<div class="split5050">
+
+<div class="left5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo546a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig546a">
+
+</div><!--leftsplit-->
+
+<div class="right5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo546b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig546b">
+
+</div><!--rightsplit-->
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--split-->
+
+<div class="split5050">
+
+<div class="left5050">
+
+<p class="caption">FRENCH POSTILLION BOOT OF THE
+FIFTEENTH CENTURY</p>
+
+</div><!--leftsplit-->
+
+<div class="right5050">
+
+<p class="caption">THE CAVALIER BOOT OF THE
+FIFTEENTH CENTURY</p>
+
+</div><!--rightsplit-->
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--split-->
+
+<div class="split5050">
+
+<div class="left5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo546c.jpg" alt="" id="Fig546c" class="blankbefore">
+
+</div><!--leftsplit-->
+
+<div class="right5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo546d.jpg" alt="" id="Fig546d" class="blankbefore">
+
+</div><!--rightsplit-->
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--split-->
+
+<div class="split5050">
+
+<div class="left5050">
+
+<p class="caption">MILITARY JACK BOOT OF CROMWELL’S TIME</p>
+
+</div><!--leftsplit-->
+
+<div class="right5050">
+
+<p class="caption">MILITARY JACK BOOT OF SIXTEENTH CENTURY.</p>
+
+</div><!--rightsplit-->
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--split-->
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page547">[547]</span></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>HOW SHOE MACHINERY<br>
+WAS DEVELOPED</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>While the quality of work was pronounced
+by manufacturers to be a
+success, few had any faith in the
+possibility of manufacturing shoes by
+machinery and McKay met with constant
+rebuffs in his endeavor to introduce
+his machine. It is recorded that
+in his desperation he finally offered
+to sell all the patent rights in machines
+which he owned to a syndicate of
+Lynn manufacturers for the sum of
+$250,000.00—the amount he had expended—but
+the offer was refused.</p>
+
+<p>In his dilemma McKay at last offered
+to shoe manufacturers the use of his
+machines on a basis, which afterwards
+became famous and an inherent part of
+the shoe industry known as “royalty,”
+whereby McKay placed his machines
+with manufacturers and participated
+to a small extent in the amount of
+money saved. Owing to the fact that
+shoemakers were leaving rapidly for
+the front and that there was a great
+scarcity of footwear, the manufacturers
+gladly accepted this proposition and the
+machines were very rapidly introduced.</p>
+
+<p>The success of his early machines
+accomplished, McKay set about the
+perfecting of others that would do
+different parts of the work and there
+was accordingly great activity on the
+part of inventors in their endeavor to
+perfect machines for the wide variety
+of uses made necessary in the preparation
+of leather for shoemaking. There
+were soon machines on the market for
+a wide variety of purposes—including
+the lasting of the shoe, cutting the
+leather and for many other processes
+necessary in making a complete shoe.</p>
+
+<p>Contemporary with the early success
+of the McKay machines, a French
+inventor, August Destoney, conceived
+the idea of making a machine which
+would sew turned shoes—then a popular
+type of footwear for women. After
+several years of endeavor he finally
+secured the interest of John Hanan,
+a famous shoemaker of that time in
+New York City, and through him the
+interest of Charles Goodyear—nephew
+of Goodyear of India-rubber fame.</p>
+
+<p>No sooner had the machine become
+perfected for the sewing of turned
+shoes, however, than he set to work to
+make changes which would fit it to
+sew welt shoes. (The welt shoe has
+always been considered the highest
+type of shoemaking, as, by a very
+ingenious process, a shoe is made which
+is perfectly smooth inside; all the other
+types having a seam of thread or
+tacks inside which make them of
+considerable disadvantage. He was
+able to accomplish this a few years
+later, although the machines were not
+in extended use until about 1893,
+when auxiliary machines for performing
+important parts of the work were
+perfected; and from that time headway
+was made in the manufacture of
+this high grade type of footwear.</p>
+
+<p>The development of the industry—which
+has been very rapid with the
+introduction of machinery—suffered
+materially in the latter part of the
+last century through the bitter rivalry
+of machinery manufacturers, a common
+process being the enjoining of manufacturers
+from the use of machines on
+which it was claimed the patents were
+infringed and this created a state of
+great uncertainty in the minds of many
+of those manufacturing shoes.</p>
+
+<p>This condition finally found its solution
+in the formation of one large corporation,
+known in the shoe industry
+as the “United Shoe Machinery Company,”
+which purchased the patents
+for a sufficient number of machines
+to form a complete system for the
+“bottoming”—or fastening the soles
+and heels of shoes—and finishing them.</p>
+
+<p>These machines have been the subject
+of constant improvement and others
+have been perfected to take care of
+operations which, prior to their introduction,
+were purely hand operations.
+Each machine has been standardized
+and so adapted to meet the requirements
+of those used in connection with
+it that they collectively form the most
+remarkable and efficient system of
+machines used at the present time.</p>
+
+<p>Mention is made of this company
+owing to the important position it
+has taken in the organization and
+advancement of the industry, the
+American-made shoe being the one
+commodity of world-wide consumption
+whose supremacy is not contested.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page548">[548]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">MY LADY’S SLIPPERS OF EARLY TIMES</p>
+
+<div class="split3367">
+
+<div class="left3367">
+
+<img src="images/illo548a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig548a">
+
+</div><!--left3367-->
+
+<div class="right3367">
+
+<div class="split5050">
+
+<div class="left5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo548b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig548b">
+
+</div><!--left5050-->
+
+<div class="right5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo548c.jpg" alt="" id="Fig548c">
+
+</div><!--right5050-->
+
+</div><!--split5050-->
+
+</div><!--right3367-->
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--split3367-->
+
+<div class="split3367">
+
+<div class="left3367">
+
+<p class="caption">EMBROIDERED RIDING BOOT
+WORN BY NOBLES DURING
+LAST DAYS OF POLISH
+INDEPENDENCE</p>
+
+</div><!--left3367-->
+
+<div class="right3367">
+
+<div class="split5050">
+
+<div class="left5050">
+
+<p class="caption">EMBROIDERED RIDING BOOT
+FROM PERSIA OF ABOUT
+1850</p>
+
+</div><!--left5050-->
+
+<div class="right5050">
+
+<p class="caption">FRENCH CALF BOOT MADE
+IN NEW YORK CITY,
+1835</p>
+
+</div><!--right5050-->
+
+</div><!--split5050-->
+
+</div><!--right3367-->
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--split3367-->
+
+<div class="split5050">
+
+<div class="left5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo548d.jpg" alt="" id="Fig548d" class="blankbefore">
+
+</div><!--left5050-->
+
+<div class="right5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo548e.jpg" alt="" id="Fig548e" class="blankbefore">
+
+</div><!--right5050-->
+
+</div><!--split5050-->
+
+<div class="split5050">
+
+<div class="left5050">
+
+<p class="caption">LADY’S SHOE—PERIOD OF THE FRENCH
+REVOLUTION</p>
+
+</div><!--left5050-->
+
+<div class="right5050">
+
+<p class="caption">LADY’S SHOE—PERIOD OF LOUIS XVI.<br>
+Has wooden heel.</p>
+
+</div><!--right5050-->
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--split5050-->
+
+<div class="container w25emmax">
+
+<img src="images/illo548f.jpg" alt="" id="Fig548f">
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p class="caption">LADY’S ADELAID OR SIDE LACED SHOE—PERIOD 1830 TO 1870</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page549">[549]</span></p>
+
+<div class="container w35emmax" id="Fig549">
+
+<img src="images/illo549.jpg" alt="">
+
+<div class="illotext">
+
+<div class="split5050">
+
+<div class="left5050">
+
+<p>&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--left5050-->
+
+<div class="right5050">
+
+<p class="center">CHANNEL LIP</p>
+
+<p class="center">CROSS-SECTION
+OF INSOLE</p>
+
+</div><!--right5050-->
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--split5050-->
+
+<div class="split3367">
+
+<div class="left3367">
+
+<p class="center blankbefore75">WOODEN LAST—DETERMINES 
+SIZE AND SHAPE OF SHOE</p>
+
+</div><!--left3367-->
+
+<div class="right3367">
+
+<div class="split5050">
+
+<div class="left5050">
+
+<p class="center blankbefore75">AN INSOLE</p>
+
+</div><!--left5050-->
+
+<div class="right5050">
+
+<p class="center blankbefore75">AN INSOLE TACKED TO BOTTOM OF LAST</p>
+
+</div><!--right5050-->
+
+</div><!--split5050-->
+
+</div><!--right3367-->
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--split3367-->
+
+</div><!--illotext-->
+
+<p class="caption">THE BEGINNING OF A SHOE</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<h2 class="nobreak">How Shoes Are Made by Machinery</h2>
+
+</div><!--chapter-->
+
+<p>At the present time the types of
+shoes ordinarily made are but five:
+the “peg” shoe, which is the cheapest
+type of shoe made; the “standard
+screw,” which is used in the soles of
+the heaviest types of boots; the
+“McKay sewed,” which is made after
+the fashion established by Gordon
+McKay; the “turn” shoe, a light
+type of shoe which was invented centuries
+ago and which is still worn at
+this time to a limited extent; and the
+“Goodyear welt,” which has been
+universally adopted as the highest
+type of footwear.</p>
+
+<p>For this reason, this type of shoe has
+been selected to show the methods employed
+in making shoes.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Goodyear Welt Shoe.</span>—A
+Goodyear Welt shoe in its evolution
+from the embryonic state in which it
+is “mere leather and thread” to the
+completed product, passes through one
+hundred and six different pairs of hands
+and is obliged to conform to the requirements
+of fifty-eight different machines,
+each performing with unyielding
+accuracy the various operations for
+which they were designed.</p>
+
+<p>It might seem that in all this multiplicity
+of operations confusion would
+occur, and that the many details and
+specifications regarding material and
+design of any given lot of shoes in process
+of manufacture would become
+hopelessly entangled with those of
+similar lots undergoing the same operations.
+But such is not the case; for,
+when an order is received in any modern
+and well-organized factory, the factory
+management promptly take the precaution
+to see that all the details
+regarding the samples to which the
+finished product is to conform are set
+down in the order book. Each lot is
+given an order number and this number,
+together with the details affecting the
+preparation of the shoe upper, are
+written on tags—one for each two dozen
+shoes—which are sent to the foreman
+of the cutting room. Others containing
+details regarding the sole leather are
+sent to the sole leather room, while
+a third lot is made out for the guidance
+of the foreman of the making or bottoming
+room, when the different parts
+which have received attention and
+been prepared according to specifications
+in the cutting and sole leather
+rooms are ready to be assembled for
+the making or bottoming process. If
+the tags which were sent to the cutting
+room were followed, it would be
+found that on their receipt the foreman
+of this department figured out
+the amount and kind of leather required,
+the kind of linings, stays, etc.,
+and that the leather, together with the<span class="pagenum" id="Page550">[550]</span>
+tags which gave directions regarding
+the size, etc., was sent to one of the
+operators of the Ideal Clicking Machine.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>SHOEMAKING MACHINERY<br>
+IS ALL BUT HUMAN</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>This machine has been pronounced
+one of the most important innovations
+that have been made in the shoe manufacturing
+industry during recent years,
+as it performs an operation which has
+heretofore successfully withstood every
+attempt at mechanical aid. Prior to
+its introduction, the cutting of upper
+leather was accomplished by the use of
+patterns made with metal edges, which
+were laid upon the leather by cutter,
+who then ran a small sharp knife along
+the edges of the pattern, cutting the
+leather to conform to it. This was a
+slow and laborious process, and if
+great care was not taken, there was a
+tendency to cut away from the pattern;
+and in many cases, through some slip
+of the knife, the leather was cut beyond
+the required limits.</p>
+
+<p>This machine has a cutting board
+very similar to those which were used
+by the hand workman and over it
+is a beam which can be swung either
+to the right or to the left, as desired,
+and over any portion of the board.
+Any kind of skin to be cut is placed
+on the board, and the operator places
+a die of unusual design on it. Grasping
+the handle, which is a part of the swinging
+beam, he swings the beam over the
+die, and on downward pressure of the
+handle a clutch is engaged which
+brings the beam downward, pressing
+the die through the leather. As soon
+as this is accomplished, the beam automatically
+returns to its full height and
+remains there until the handle is again
+pressed.</p>
+
+<p>The dies used are but three-quarters
+of an inch in height and are so light
+that they do not mar the most delicate
+leather when placed upon it.
+They enable the operator to see clearly
+the entire surface of the leather he is
+cutting out, and it is obvious that
+the pieces cut by the use of any given
+die must be identically the same.</p>
+
+<p>After the different parts required by
+the tag have been cut out by the operator
+of the Clicking Machine, some of
+the edges which show in the finished
+shoe must be skived or thinned down
+to a beveled edge. This work is
+performed by the Amazeen Skiving
+Machine—a wonderful little machine
+in which the edge to be skived is fed
+to a sharp revolving disk that cuts
+it down to the desired bevel. The
+machine does the work in a very
+efficient manner, conforming to all the
+curves and angles. This skiving is
+done in order that the edges may be
+folded, to give the particular edge on
+which it is performed a more finished
+appearance. The skived edges are
+then given a little coating of cement and
+afterwards folded on a machine which
+turns back the edge and incidentally
+pounds it down, so that it presents
+a very smooth and finished appearance.</p>
+
+<p>Aside from the work of skiving toe
+caps and folding them, there is generally
+a series of ornamental perforations cut
+along the edge of the cap. This is
+done very often by the Power Tip
+Press, by means of which the piece to
+be perforated is placed under a series
+of dies which cuts the perforations in
+the leather according to a predetermined
+design, doing the work all at
+one time. The number of designs
+used for this purpose are many and
+varied, combinations of different sized
+perforations being worked out in innumerable
+designs.</p>
+
+<p>On one of the top linings of each shoe
+there has been stamped the order number,
+together with the size of the
+shoe for which the linings were
+intended. After all the linings have
+been prepared in accordance with the
+instructions on the tag, they, in connection
+with the various parts of the shoe,
+receive attention from the Stitchers,
+where all the different parts of the upper
+are united. The work is performed
+on a range of wonderful machines,
+which perform all the different operations
+with great rapidity and accuracy.</p>
+
+<p>At the completion of these operations
+the shoe is ready to receive the eyelets,
+which are placed with remarkable
+speed and accuracy by the Duplex
+Eyeletting Machine. This machine
+eyelets both sides of the shoe at one
+time with bewildering rapidity. The
+eyelets are securely placed and accurately
+spaced; and as both sides of<span class="pagenum" id="Page551">[551]</span>
+the upper are eyeletted at one time,
+the eyelets are placed directly opposite
+each other, which greatly helps the
+fitting of the shoe, as thereby the
+wrinkling of the shoe upper is avoided.</p>
+
+<p>With the completion of this operation,
+the preparation of the shoe upper is
+finished, and the different lots with
+their tags are sent to the bottoming
+room to await the coming of the different
+sole leather portions of the shoe.
+These have been undergoing preparation
+in the sole leather room, where
+on receipt of tag the foreman has given
+directions for the preparation of outsoles,
+insoles, counters, toe boxes and
+heels, to conform with the requirements
+of the order.</p>
+
+<p>The soles are roughly died out from
+sides of sole leather on large Dieing-out
+Machines, which press heavy dies
+down through the leather; but to make
+them conform exactly to the required
+shape, they are generally rounded out
+on a machine known as the “Planet
+Rounding Machine,” in which the
+roughly died-out piece of leather is
+held between clamps, one of which
+is the exact pattern of the sole. On
+starting the machine, a little knife
+darts around this pattern, cutting the
+sole exactly to conform with it.</p>
+
+<p>The outsole is now passed to a heavy
+Rolling Machine, where it is subjected
+to tons of pressure between heavy rolls.
+This takes the place of the hammering
+which the old-time shoemaker gave
+his leather and brings the fibres very
+closely together, greatly increasing its
+wear.</p>
+
+<p>This sole is next fed to a machine
+called the “Summit Splitting Machine—Model
+M,” which reduces it to an
+exactly even thickness. The insole—which
+is made of very much lighter
+leather—is prepared in much the same
+manner, and in this way it will be
+noticed that both the insole and outsole
+are reduced to an absolutely uniform
+thickness.</p>
+
+<p>The insole also receives further
+preparation; it is channeled on the
+Goodyear Channeling Machine. This
+machine cuts a little slit along the
+edge of the insole, extending about
+one-half inch towards its center. It also
+cuts a small channel along the surface.</p>
+
+<p>The lip which has been formed by
+the Goodyear Channeling Machine is
+now turned up on the Goodyear Lip
+Turning Machine, so that it extends
+out at a right angle from the insole,
+forming a lip or shoulder against which
+the welt is sewed. The cut which has
+been made on the surface inside this
+lip serves as a guide for the operator
+of the Welt Sewing Machine, when
+the shoe reaches that stage.</p>
+
+<p>The heels to be used on these shoes
+have also been formed from different
+lifts of leather which are cemented
+together. The heel is then placed
+under great pressure, giving it exact
+form and greatly increasing its wear.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>THE DIFFERENT PARTS OF<br>
+THE SHOE COME TOGETHER</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>The counters are also prepared in
+this room, as well as the toe boxes or
+stiffening, which is placed between the
+toe cap and the vamp of the shoe.
+When these are all completed, they are
+sent to the making or bottoming
+room, where the completed shoe upper
+is awaiting them. Here a wonderfully
+ingenious little machine called
+the “Ensign Lacing Machine,” passes
+strong twine through the eyelets and
+in a twinkling ties it automatically.
+This is done so that all parts of the
+shoe will be held in their normal
+position while the shoe is being made.
+The knot tied by this machine is perfect
+and is performed with mechanical
+exactness. On high-grade shoes this
+work was formerly performed by hand
+and it will be readily recognized how
+difficult it was to obtain uniformity.
+The spread of the upper at the throat
+can be regulated perfectly when this
+machine is used. The different parts
+of the shoe now commence to come
+together. The workman places the
+toe box, or stiffening, in the proper
+location as well as the counter at the
+heel, and draws the upper over the last.
+To the bottom of this last has already
+been tacked by means of the U. S. M.
+Co. Insole Tacking Machine—which
+drives tacks automatically—the insole,
+which, it will be noticed, conforms
+exactly to the shape of the bottom of
+the last. This last, made of wood, is of
+the utmost importance, for upon the
+last depends the shape of the shoe.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page552">[552]</span></p>
+
+<div class="container w30emmax" id="Fig552a">
+
+<p class="caption">EACH SHOE MACHINE DOES SOMETHING DIFFERENT</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo552a.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">ASSEMBLING
+MACHINE</p>
+
+<p class="caption">Operator locates
+back seam of upper
+on last. Machine
+drives two tacks
+which hold it in
+place.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>The shoe as completed up to this
+point with the parts mentioned fastened
+together as shown, is now ready for
+assembling. The workman, after
+placing the last inside the shoe upper,
+puts it on the spindle of the Rex
+Assembling Machine, where he takes
+care that the seam at the heel is
+properly located. He presses a foot
+lever and a small tack is driven part
+way in, to hold the upper in place.
+He then hands it over to the operator
+of the Rex Pulling-Over Machine.</p>
+
+<div class="container w35emmax" id="Fig552b">
+
+<img src="images/illo552b.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">PULLING-OVER MACHINE</p>
+
+<p class="caption">Draws shoe upper smoothly down to last.
+Operator adjusts it so that each seam occupies
+correct position on last. Machine automatically
+drives back to hold it in place.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>This machine is a very important
+one; for as the parts of the shoe upper
+have been cut to exactly conform to
+the shape of the last, it is necessary
+that they should be correctly placed on
+the last to secure the desired results.
+The pincers of this machine grasp the
+leather at different points on each side
+of the toe; and the operator, standing<span class="pagenum" id="Page553">[553]</span>
+in a position from which he can see
+when the upper is exactly centered,
+presses a foot lever, the pincers close
+and draw the leather securely against
+the wood of the last. At this point
+the operation of the machine halts.
+By moving different levers, the workman
+is able to adjust the shoe upper
+accurately, so that each part of it
+lies in the exact position it was intended
+when the shoe was designed. When
+this important operation has been
+completed, the operator again presses
+a foot lever, the pincers move toward
+each other, drawing the leather securely
+around the last, and at the same time
+there are driven automatically two
+tacks on each side and one at the toe,
+which hold the upper securely in position.
+These tacks are driven but
+part way in, so that they may be afterward
+removed.</p>
+
+<div class="container w50emmax">
+
+<p class="caption">THE LASTING MACHINE ONE OF THE MOST IMPORTANT</p>
+
+<div class="split5050">
+
+<div class="left5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo553a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig553a">
+
+</div><!--leftsplit-->
+
+<div class="right5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo553b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig553b">
+
+</div><!--rightsplit-->
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--split-->
+
+<div class="split5050">
+
+<div class="left5050">
+
+<p class="caption">HAND METHOD
+LASTING MACHINE</p>
+
+<p class="caption">Last sides of shoe.</p>
+
+</div><!--leftsplit-->
+
+<div class="right5050">
+
+<p class="caption">LASTING MACHINE</p>
+
+<p class="caption">Last toe and heel
+of shoe.</p>
+
+</div><!--rightsplit-->
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--split-->
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>The shoe is now ready for lasting.
+This is one of the most difficult and
+important parts of the shoemaking
+process, for upon the success of this
+operation depends in a great measure
+the beauty and comfort of the shoe.
+The Consolidated Hand Method Welt
+Lasting Machine, which is used for
+this purpose, takes its name from the
+almost human way in which it performs
+this part of the work. It is
+wonderful to observe how evenly and
+tightly it draws the leather around
+the last. At each pull of the pincers
+a small tack driven automatically
+part way in holds the edge of the upper
+exactly in place, so that in the finished
+shoe every part of the upper has been
+stretched in all directions equally.
+The toe and heel of the shoe are considered
+particularly difficult portions
+to last properly. This important part
+of the work is now being very generally
+performed on the U. S. M. Co.
+Lasting Machine—No. 5, a machine
+of what is known as the “bed type.”
+It is provided with a series of wipers
+for toe and heel, which draw the
+leather simultaneously from all directions.
+There can be no wrinkles at
+the toe or heel of shoe on which it is
+properly used and the quality of work
+produced by it has been very generally
+recognized as a distinct advance in
+this important part of shoemaking.
+After the leather has been brought
+smoothly around the toe it is held
+there by a little tape fastened on each
+side of the toe and which is held securely
+in place by the surplus leather crimpled
+in at this point. The surplus leather<span class="pagenum" id="Page554">[554]</span>
+crimpled in at the heel is forced smoothly
+down against the insole and held there
+by tacks driven by a very ingenious
+hand tool in which there is a constantly
+renewed supply of tacks.</p>
+
+<div class="container w50emmax">
+
+<p class="caption">A MACHINE THAT FORMS AND DRIVES TACKS</p>
+
+<div class="split5050">
+
+<div class="left5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo554a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig554a">
+
+</div><!--leftsplit-->
+
+<div class="right5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo554b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig554b">
+
+</div><!--rightsplit-->
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--split-->
+
+<div class="split5050">
+
+<div class="left5050">
+
+<p class="caption">UPPER STAPLING
+MACHINE</p>
+
+<p class="caption">Forms small staples
+from wire.</p>
+
+<p class="caption">Holds shoe upper
+to lip of insole.</p>
+
+</div><!--leftsplit-->
+
+<div class="right5050">
+
+<p class="caption">UPPER TRIMMING
+MACHINE.</p>
+
+<p class="caption">Trims off surplus
+part of shoe upper
+and lining.</p>
+
+</div><!--rightsplit-->
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--split-->
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>In all of the lasting operations the
+tacks are driven but part way in,
+except at the heel portion of the
+shoe, where they are driven through the
+insole and clinched on the iron heel
+of the last. The tacks are driven only
+part way in, in order that they may be
+afterward withdrawn so as to leave
+the inside of the shoe perfectly smooth.
+In making shoes other than Goodyear
+Welts, with the exception of the Goodyear
+Turn Shoe, it is necessary to drive
+the tacks through the insole and clinch
+them inside the shoe, so that the different
+portions of the sole inside the
+shoe have clinched tacks. These are
+left even after the shoe is finished.
+This smooth interior of the shoe is
+one of the essential features of the
+Goodyear Welt Process.</p>
+
+<p>In the lasting operation there is
+naturally a surplus amount of leather
+left at the toe and sometimes around
+the sides of the shoe, and this is removed
+on the Rex Upper Trimming Machine
+in which a little knife cuts away the
+surplus portion of the leather very
+smoothly and evenly, and simultaneously
+a small hammer operating in
+connection with the knife pounds the
+leather smooth along the sides and
+the toe of the shoe. The shoe then
+passes to the Rex Pounding Machine,
+in which a hammer pounds the leather
+and counter around the heel so that the
+stiff portion of the shoe conforms
+exactly to the shape of the last.</p>
+
+<p>The shoe is now ready to receive the
+welt, which is a narrow strip of leather
+that is sewed along the edge of the shoe,
+beginning where the heel is placed
+and ending at the same spot on the
+opposite edge. This welt is sewed
+from the inside lip of the insole, so
+that the needle passes through the
+lip, upper and welt, uniting all three
+securely and allowing the welt to
+protrude evenly along the edge. The
+needle in making this stitch does not
+go inside the shoe, but passes through
+only a portion of the insole, leaving the
+inside perfectly smooth. This part of
+the work was formerly one of the most
+difficult and laborious tasks in shoemaking.
+As it was performed entirely
+by hand, the drawing of each stitch<span class="pagenum" id="Page555">[555]</span>
+depended upon the strength and mood
+of the workman. It is of course
+obvious that with different operators
+stitches were oftentimes of different
+lengths and drawn at different tensions;
+for human nature is much the
+same everywhere, and it is impossible
+for a workman who has labored hard
+all day to draw a stitch with the same
+tension at night as might have been
+possible in the morning.</p>
+
+<div class="container w40emmax" id="Fig555">
+
+<p class="caption">AN AUTOMATIC SEWING MACHINE WHICH NEVER TIRES</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo555.jpg" alt="">
+
+<div class="illotext w15emmax">
+
+<p class="noindent">Welt Stitch
+<span class="righttext">Welt</span></p>
+
+</div><!--illotext-->
+
+<p class="caption">WELT AND TURNED SHOE SEWING MACHINE</p>
+
+<p class="caption">Upper portion shows operator at machine. The lower shows formation and location of
+stitch formed by this machine.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>It is surprising how quickly and
+easily the work is done on the Goodyear
+Welt Sewing Machine. This famous
+machine has been the leading
+factor in the great revolution that has
+taken place in shoe manufacturing.
+Its work should be carefully noted—all
+stitches of equal length and measured
+automatically, the strong linen
+thread thoroughly waxed and drawn
+evenly and tightly; for the machine
+never tires, and it draws the thread
+as strongly in the evening as in the
+morning. Every completed movement
+of the needle forms a stitch of great
+strength, which holds the welt, upper
+and insole securely together.</p>
+
+<p>As the lasting tacks as well as the
+tacks which hold the insole in place
+on the last were withdrawn just prior
+to this operation, it will be seen that
+the inside of the shoe is left perfectly
+smooth. After this process the surplus
+portions of the lip, upper and welt
+which protrude beyond the stitches
+made by the Goodyear Welt Machine
+are trimmed off by the Goodyear
+Inseam Trimming Machine—a most
+efficient machine, in which a revolving
+cup-shaped knife comes in contact
+with the surplus portions of the leather<span class="pagenum" id="Page556">[556]</span>
+and trims them off very smoothly
+down to the stitches.</p>
+
+<div class="container w50emmax">
+
+<p class="caption">PUTTING THE GROUND CORK AND RUBBER CEMENT IN SHOES</p>
+
+<div class="split5050">
+
+<div class="left5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo556a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig556a">
+
+</div><!--leftsplit-->
+
+<div class="right5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo556b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig556b">
+
+</div><!--rightsplit-->
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--split-->
+
+<div class="split5050">
+
+<div class="left5050">
+
+<p class="caption">INSEAM TRIMMING
+MACHINE.</p>
+
+<p class="caption">Trims shoe upper
+lining and lip of insole
+smooth down
+to stitches.</p>
+
+</div><!--leftsplit-->
+
+<div class="right5050">
+
+<p class="caption">WELT BEATING AND
+SLASHING MACHINE</p>
+
+<p class="caption">Beats welt so that
+it stands out evenly
+round edge of shoe.</p>
+
+</div><!--rightsplit-->
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--split-->
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<div class="container w25emmax" id="Fig556c">
+
+<img src="images/illo556c.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">PLACING SHANK
+AND FILLING BOTTOM.</p>
+
+<p class="caption">Workman tacks
+shank in place and
+fills bottom with
+ground cork and
+rubber cement.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>At this stage the shoe is passed to
+the Universal Welt Beater, in which a
+little hammer vibrating very rapidly
+beats the welt so that it stands out
+evenly from the side of the shoe. As
+the leather is bent around the toe, it
+is the natural tendency of the welt
+to draw more tightly at that place,
+and this is taken care of by a little
+knife which the operator forces into
+operation, in the beating process, the
+toe is being taken care of, and it makes
+a series of little cuts diagonally along
+the edge of it. The insole and welt
+now receive a coating of rubber cement.
+This cement is contained in an air-tight
+tank and is applied by means of
+a revolving brush, which takes its
+supply of cement, as required, from a
+can.</p>
+
+<p>In this way, an even coating of any
+desired thickness is given to the insole
+and welt. This machine has many
+advantages; the cement being closely
+confined in the tank, there is almost
+no waste in its use. Formerly, when
+this was done by hand, the waste
+through evaporation or lack of care on
+the part of the workman was very
+material.</p>
+
+<p>The heavy outsole of the shoe also
+receives at this time proper attention.
+The flesh side of this sole, or the side
+next to the animal, receives a coating
+of rubber cement, and after it has dried
+slightly the operator of the Goodyear
+Improved Twin Sole Laying Machine<span class="pagenum" id="Page557">[557]</span>
+takes the work in hand. In this
+machine there is a rubber pad, or
+mould, which has been made to conform
+to the curve in the sole of the
+shoe. After placing the last on the
+spindle, which is suspended from the
+machine and hangs over the rubber
+mould, the outsole having been previously
+pressed against the bottom
+of the shoe, the operator by pressing
+the foot lever causes this arm to
+descend, forcing the shoe down into
+the mould, so that every portion of
+the sole is pressed against the bottom
+of the shoe and welt. Here they
+are allowed to remain for a sufficient
+length of time for the cement to properly
+set, the operation being repeated
+on a duplicate part of the machine,
+the operator leaving one shoe under
+pressure while he is preparing another.</p>
+
+<div class="container w25emmax" id="Fig557a">
+
+<p class="caption">MACHINES WHICH PUT THE SOLES ON SHOES</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo557a.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">SOLE LAYING
+MACHINE.</p>
+
+<p class="caption">Presses outsole
+to bottom of
+shoe where it is
+held by rubber
+cement.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<div class="container w40emmax" id="Fig557b">
+
+<img src="images/illo557b.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">ROUNDING AND CHANNELLING MACHINE.</p>
+
+<p class="caption">Roughly rounds outsole and welt to conform
+to shape of last. Cuts small channel along
+edge for stitches.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>The next operation is that of trimming
+the sole and welt so that they<span class="pagenum" id="Page558">[558]</span>
+will protrude a uniform distance from
+the edge of the shoe. This work is
+performed on the Goodyear Universal
+Rough Rounding Machine, which
+gauges the distance exactly from the
+edge of the last. It is often desired
+to have the edge extended further on
+the outside of the shoe than it does on
+the inside and also that the width of
+the edge should be considerably reduced
+in the shank of the shoe. This
+is taken care of with great accuracy
+by the use of this machine. The
+operator is able to change the width
+at will. By the use of this remarkable
+machine the operator is also enabled
+to make the sole of the shoe conform
+exactly to all others of similar size
+and design.</p>
+
+<div class="container w50emmax">
+
+<div class="split5050">
+
+<div class="left5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo558a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig558a">
+
+<p class="caption">CHANNEL OPENING
+MACHINE.</p>
+
+<p class="caption">Turns back lip of
+channel preparatory
+to stitching.</p>
+
+</div><!--leftsplit-->
+
+<div class="right5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo558b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig558b">
+
+<p class="caption">CHANNEL CEMENTING
+MACHINE.</p>
+
+<p class="caption">Coats surface of
+channel so it may
+be laid to cover
+stitches.</p>
+
+</div><!--rightsplit-->
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--split-->
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>The surplus portion of the leather
+is now trimmed off on the Heel-Seat
+Rounding Machine, and the channel
+cut by the knife on the Rough Rounding
+Machine is turned up so that it
+leaves the channel open. This is done
+by the Goodyear Universal Channel
+Opening Machine, in which a little
+wheel, turning very rapidly, lays the
+lip smoothly back.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>SEWING THE SOLE<br>
+TO THE SHOE</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>The outsole is now sewed to the welt.
+This operation is performed on the
+Goodyear Outsole Rapid Lockstitch
+Machine, which is very similar in
+operation to the Goodyear Welt Sewing
+Machine used in sewing the welt to
+the shoe. The stitch, however, is
+finer and extends from the channel
+which was cut for it to the upper side
+of the welt, where it shows after the
+shoe has been finished. The lockstitch
+formed by this machine is a most
+durable one. Using a thoroughly waxed
+thread, it holds the outsole securely
+in place, even after the connecting
+stitches have been worn off. This
+is one of the most important machines
+in the shoemaking process. It is able
+to sew even in the narrow shank, where a
+machine using a straight needle could
+not possibly place its stitch.</p>
+
+<p>The “Star Channel Cementing
+Machine—Model A” is again called
+into operation for the purpose of coating
+with cement the inside of the channel
+in which this stitch has been made.
+A special brush with guard is used for
+this purpose, and the operation is
+very quickly performed by the skilled
+operator.</p>
+
+<p>After this cement has been allowed
+to set a sufficient length of time, the
+channel lip, which has previously been<span class="pagenum" id="Page559">[559]</span>
+laid back against the sole, is again
+forced into its former position and
+held securely in place by rubber cement.
+This work is done by the Goodyear
+Channel Laying Machine, in which a
+rapidly revolving wheel provided with
+a peculiar arrangement of flanges forces
+back into place, securely hiding the
+stitches from observation on this portion
+of the shoe.</p>
+
+<div class="container w50emmax">
+
+<p class="caption">MACHINES WHICH PUNCH THE SOLES OF SHOES</p>
+
+<div class="split5050">
+
+<div class="left5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo559a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig559a">
+
+</div><!--leftsplit-->
+
+<div class="right5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo559b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig559b">
+
+</div><!--rightsplit-->
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--split-->
+
+<div class="split5050">
+
+<div class="left5050">
+
+<p class="caption">CHANNEL LAYING
+MACHINE.</p>
+
+<p class="caption">Rubs channel lip
+down to cover
+stitches.</p>
+
+</div><!--leftsplit-->
+
+<div class="right5050">
+
+<p class="caption">LOOSE
+NAILING
+MACHINE</p>
+
+<p class="caption">Drives small
+nails which
+hold outsole
+in place at
+heel.</p>
+
+</div><!--rightsplit-->
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--split-->
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>The next operation is that of leveling,
+which is performed on the Automatic
+Sole Levelling Machine—one of the
+most interesting used in the shoemaking
+process. This is a double
+machine provided with two spindles,
+on one of which the operator places a
+shoe to be levelled. It is securely
+held by the spindle and a toe rest,
+and on the operator’s pressing a foot
+lever, the shoe passes automatically
+beneath a vibrating roll under heavy
+pressure. This roll moves forward
+with a vibrating motion over the sole
+of the shoe down into the shank,
+passes back again to the toe, then
+cants to the right, and repeats the
+operation on that side of the shoe,
+returning to the toe and canting to
+the left, repeating the operation on
+that side; after which the shoe automatically
+drops forward and is relieved
+from pressure. This rolling motion
+removes every possibility of there
+being any unevenness in the bottom of
+the shoe, and while one shoe is under
+pressure the operator is preparing a
+second one for the operation.</p>
+
+<div class="container w25emmax" id="Fig559c">
+
+<img src="images/illo559c.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">AUTOMATIC LEVELLING
+MACHINE.</p>
+
+<p class="caption">Rolls out any
+unevenness in soles.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page560">[560]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">HOW THE HEEL OF A SHOE IS PUT ON</p>
+
+<div class="split5050">
+
+<div class="left5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo560a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig560a">
+
+</div><!--left5050-->
+
+<div class="right5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo560b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig560b">
+
+</div><!--right5050-->
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--split5050-->
+
+<div class="split5050">
+
+<div class="left5050">
+
+<p class="caption">WORK PERFORMED BY HEELING MACHINES.</p>
+
+<div class="illotext w20emmax">
+
+<p class="center">TOP LIFT<br>
+COMPRESSED HEEL</p>
+
+<p class="center fsize90"><span class="padr2">BEFORE OPERATION</span>
+<span class="padl2">AFTER OPERATION</span></p>
+
+<p class="center">Heel Attaching</p>
+
+</div><!--illotext-->
+
+</div><!--left5050-->
+
+<div class="right5050">
+
+<p class="caption">AUTOMATIC HEEL LOADING AND ATTACHING
+MACHINE.</p>
+
+</div><!--right5050-->
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--split5050-->
+
+<div class="split5050">
+
+<div class="left5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo560c.jpg" alt="" id="Fig560c" class="blankbefore">
+
+</div><!--left5050-->
+
+<div class="right5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo560d.jpg" alt="" id="Fig560d" class="blankbefore">
+
+</div><!--right5050-->
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--split5050-->
+
+<div class="split5050">
+
+<div class="left5050">
+
+<p class="caption">SLUGGING MACHINE.</p>
+
+<p class="caption">Drives small pieces
+of ornamental metal
+which protect
+the heel.</p>
+
+</div><!--left5050-->
+
+<div class="right5050">
+
+<p class="caption">HEEL TRIMMING
+MACHINE.</p>
+
+<p class="caption">Trims rough lifts
+of heel to desired
+shape.</p>
+
+</div><!--right5050-->
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--split5050-->
+
+<div class="split5050">
+
+<div class="left5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo560e.jpg" alt="" id="Fig560e" class="blankbefore">
+
+</div><!--left5050-->
+
+<div class="right5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo560f.jpg" alt="" id="Fig560f" class="blankbefore">
+
+</div><!--right5050-->
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--split5050-->
+
+<div class="split5050">
+
+<div class="left5050">
+
+<p class="caption">HEEL BREASTING
+MACHINE.</p>
+
+<p class="caption">Cuts the breast
+of the heel to correct
+angle and
+curve.</p>
+
+</div><!--left5050-->
+
+<div class="right5050">
+
+<p class="caption">EDGE TRIMMING
+MACHINE.</p>
+
+<p class="caption">Trims edge of
+outsole smoothly.</p>
+
+</div><!--right5050-->
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--split5050-->
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page561">[561]</span></p>
+
+<div class="container w45emmax" id="Fig561">
+
+<img src="images/illo561.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">A LUMP OF PULP.</p>
+
+<p class="caption">Paper such as found in this book is made from trunks and limbs of trees.</p>
+
+<p class="caption">The use of good fibers in book paper is a guarantee of quality and durability. The above
+illustration represents a lump of this pulp prepared for the beaters.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<h2 class="nobreak">How the Paper in this Book is Made</h2>
+
+</div><!--chapter-->
+
+<h3>Where Does Paper Come From?</h3>
+
+<p>Egyptians were the first people to
+make what would today be called paper.
+They made it from a plant called papyrus
+and that is where the name comes
+from.</p>
+
+<p>This plant is a species of reed. The
+Egyptians took stalks of reed cut into
+as thin slices as they could, laid them
+side by side; then they arranged another
+layer on top with the slices the
+other way and put this in a press.
+When dried and rubbed until smooth, it
+made a kind of paper, which could be
+written upon.</p>
+
+<p>One of the first substances used for
+making the kind of paper we have today
+was cotton. Paper was made from
+cotton about 1100 A. D. From this thin
+cotton paper our present papers are a
+development, i.e., paper today is largely
+made of vegetable fibers. Vegetable
+fibers consist mostly of cellulose surrounded
+by other things which hold the
+short vegetable fibers together.</p>
+
+<p>The fibers best adapted for making
+paper are those of the cotton and flax
+plants, and while the uses of paper were
+few, no other material was needed when
+it was once learned that cotton and
+linen fibers would do for making paper.
+All we had to do was to save all the
+old rags and sell them to the paper man.</p>
+
+<p>In making paper from rags, the rags
+were allowed to rot to remove the substances
+that incrust the cellulose, and
+then beaten into a pulp, to which a large
+quantity of water was added. This
+pulp was put into a sieve, until the
+greater part of the water had been
+drained off by shaking, and the fibers
+remaining formed a thin layer on the
+bottom of the sieve. This layer of fiber
+was put into a pile with other similar<span class="pagenum" id="Page562">[562]</span>
+layers, and the whole pile was placed
+under a press, where more of the water
+was removed. When they were dry, we
+had a very fair kind of paper which
+was, however, not much better than
+blotting paper and could not be written
+on with ink because it was loose in
+texture and very absorbent.</p>
+
+<p>To give it good writing surface it
+was necessary to fill the pores. This
+was done by sizing which gave the
+paper great firmness. Paper was sized
+by drawing the layers of paper through
+a solution of alum and glue, or some
+similar substances, and then drying
+them, then finally passed between highly
+polished rollers to iron it. This gave
+it the necessary smooth hard surface.</p>
+
+<p>In the modern method of making
+rag paper by machinery, the rags are
+boiled with caustic soda, which separates
+the cellulose fibers, and placed in
+a machine in which rollers set with
+knives tear the rags to pieces and mix
+them with water to form a pulp. This
+is called a breaker. The pulp is then
+bleached with chloride of lime, and is
+passed on to the sizing machine. This
+machine mixes the pulp with alum and
+with a kind of soap, made from suitable
+resins which serves the purpose
+better than glue.</p>
+
+<div class="container w45emmax" id="Fig562">
+
+<img src="images/illo562.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">NOT A WOOD YARD BUT THE OUTSIDE OF A PAPER MILL.</p>
+
+<p class="caption">This shows the great piles of trunks and limbs of trees near a wood pulp paper mill used in
+making paper for newspapers, books, magazines, etc.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<h3>How Is the Water Mark Put Into
+Paper?</h3>
+
+<p>The pulp, which is now ready to be
+made into paper, is poured out upon an
+endless cloth made of fine brass wire.
+This cloth travels constantly in one
+direction, by means of rollers, and is
+given at the same time a sort of vibratory
+motion, to cause the paper fibers
+to become more closely felted together.
+On the wire cloth web are usually
+woven words, or designs, in wire, that
+rise above the rest of the surface. These
+are transferred to the paper, and are
+called water marks. The machine then
+winds the finished paper into rolls, so
+that it may be handled conveniently.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>HOW PAPER IS NOW<br>
+MADE FROM WOOD</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>During the past few years the uses
+for paper have increased so greatly that
+there have not been enough rags available
+to meet the demand for material,
+and a successful effort was made to find
+other material from which paper could
+be made. Many fibers were tried before
+it was found that wood pulp could be
+used. Straw and esparto grass, a plant
+that grows wild in North America, were
+found to yield cellulose having the desired
+qualities and were used to some
+extent. But the problem was solved
+when it was learned that pulp made<span class="pagenum" id="Page563">[563]</span>
+from trunks and limbs of trees would
+serve even then. At first the powder
+formed by grinding up logs was used,
+but the paper produced was not strong,
+and could be used for very few purposes.</p>
+
+<div class="container w35emmax" id="Fig563a">
+
+<p class="caption">GREAT FORESTS TURNED INTO PAPER</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo563a.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">PAPER TREES.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">This picture shows the trees as they grow
+in the woods. These trees are good for making
+paper. Your morning paper, may some
+morning be printed on what is left of one of
+these trees.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>It was discovered finally that if wood
+shavings were boiled in strong solutions
+of caustic soda, in receptacles that
+would withstand very high pressure, the
+wood fibers were separated, and a very
+good quality of cellulose for paper
+manufacture produced, provided it was
+bleached before being made into paper,
+and most of our paper to-day is, therefore,
+made of wood.</p>
+
+<p>Later on this process gave way to
+the sulphite process. In the sulphite
+process, a solution of sulphite of lime
+is used. Acid sulphite of lime results
+when the fumes from burning sulphur
+are passed through chimneys filled with
+lime. By this process the separation
+of the fibers and the bleaching are done
+at the same time and an even whiter
+paper making material is obtained.</p>
+
+<p>The sulphite process is now used almost
+exclusively in making paper from
+wood.</p>
+
+<div class="container w35emmax" id="Fig563b">
+
+<img src="images/illo563b.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">GRINDING ROOM.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">In this picture we see how the trees are first
+cut into smaller chunks before being reduced
+to chips for making pulp.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>The discovery of the process of making
+paper from wood has led to the
+use of paper for many purposes for
+which it could otherwise never have
+been used. The wood pulp is also used
+in the form of papier-mâché, a tough,
+plastic substance, which is made by
+mixing glue with it, or by pressing together
+a number of layers of paper having
+glue between. Papier-mâché can
+easily be molded into almost any form,
+and after drying forms a very tough
+substance and one that will stand rough
+usage. It has been employed for making
+dishes, water baskets and utensils of
+many other kinds, for making the matrices
+for and from electrotype plates,
+for car wheels, and many other purposes.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page564">[564]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">WHERE THE INGREDIENTS FOR MAKING PAPER ARE MIXED</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo564a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig564a">
+
+<p class="caption">MIXING ROOM.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">The wood fiber must be mixed with other ingredients when paper is made from it. This
+shows a corner of the large electro-chemical department for the production of bleach and soda
+used in the preparation of rag and wood fibres.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo564b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig564b" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption">THE WATER SUPPLY.</p>
+
+<p class="caption">A good deal of water is needed in making paper. From twelve to fifteen million gallons
+daily are drawn from the river and filtered through this plant in Maine; clean paper of bright
+color being dependent upon the use of pure water.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page565">[565]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">BEATING THE INGREDIENTS FOR MAKING PULP</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo565a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig565a">
+
+<p class="caption">BEATER ROOM.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">The ingredients for making paper are first mixed thoroughly in machines called “beaters”
+before going to the paper making machines. The operation of beating is one of the most
+important in paper making.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo565b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig565b" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption">THE PAPER COMING OFF IN ROLLS.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">As the paper progresses through the machines, it passes over a long series of heated cylinders,
+drying and hardening the stock until it reaches the finished end. This illustration shows a
+web 135 inches wide being cut into two rolls. The air pressure in the machine room is slightly
+greater than the atmospheric pressure outside, preventing dust from entering.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page566">[566]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage landscape">
+
+<p class="paghead">GREAT PAPER-MAKING MACHINES IN OPERATION</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo566.jpg" alt="" id="Fig566">
+
+<p class="caption">PAPER MAKING MACHINES.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">In the foreground is the so-called wet end showing the vats in which the liquid pulp, about
+98 per cent water, is pumped. It is screened and then flows on to an endless wire web
+beyond, where the free water is taken out by drainage and by suction boxes.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page567">[567]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">PUTTING THE PRINTING SURFACE ON THE PAPER</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo567a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig567a">
+
+<p class="caption">PAPER STOCK.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">A large amount of
+stock of paper mills.
+This paper is seasoned
+by holding it in stock
+and will be later given
+such surface as is
+called for.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo567b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig567b" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption">COATING
+MACHINES.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">Where the
+paper passes
+through a bath
+of coating mixture
+to a long
+drying gallery at
+the end of which
+it is rewound
+preparatory to
+being given the
+highly finished
+surface on the
+calendaring machine.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo567c.jpg" alt="" id="Fig567c" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption long">A section of Finishing
+Room department
+where
+paper is passed
+through alternating
+compressed fiber
+and steel rolls
+giving it the surface
+required for different
+classes of
+printing. The paper
+on which the
+Book of Wonders
+is printed has a
+highly finished
+smooth surface so
+that the pictures
+will come out clear.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page568">[568]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">WHERE THE PAPER IS CUT IN SHEETS</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo568a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig568a">
+
+<p class="caption long hind">The finished rolls of stock pass through rotary cutters which produce the sheets of various required
+sizes. The paper in the Book of Wonders was cut in sheets 41x55 inches, thus making it
+possible to print 32 pages on each side of each sheet.</p>
+
+<div class="container w30emmax">
+
+<img src="images/illo568b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig568b">
+
+<p class="caption">Rotary Boiler for cooking rags or wood in making pulp for use in manufacture of paper.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p class="center highline2 fsize90">Illustrations showing manufacture of paper by courtesy of S. D. Warren &amp; Co.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page569">[569]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">HOW THE PRINTED TYPE OF THIS BOOK WAS SET</p>
+
+<div class="container w40emmax">
+
+<img src="images/illo569.jpg" alt="" id="Fig569">
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p class="caption long">This picture shows the wonderful Linotype machine by which the type of this book was
+“set,” as the printers say. The men who operate the machine are compositors. Originally
+the type matter of books was set by hand and the compositor composed in type what the
+author of the book had written. By pressing down on the keys which you see in the <a href="#Fig570">picture</a>, the
+compositor sets the words in lines of metal. This machine is almost human. By touching the
+proper keys, the operator assembles a line of matrices the details of which are explained in another
+<a href="#Fig571a">picture</a>, and after this is done the machine automatically casts a slug from them, turns and
+delivers a slug into a galley ready for use and finally distributes the matrices back into their
+respective channels in the magazine, where they are ready to be called down again, by the touch
+of the key button. The latest model linotype has four magazines and can be equipped with
+matrices which when assembled will cast lines in from six to twelve different sizes and styles of
+type.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">The assembling mechanism is the only part of the linotype where the human mind is applied
+to the working of the machine. It is necessary for the eye to read what is to be printed, and the
+mind, through the medium of the fingers, to translate this into assembled lines of matrices;
+after that the machine acts automatically.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page570">[570]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">THE LINOTYPE—FOUR MACHINES IN ONE</p>
+
+<div class="container w40emmax">
+
+<img src="images/illo570.jpg" alt="" id="Fig570">
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p class="caption long">The keyboard is made up of 90 keys, which act directly on the matrices in their channels
+in the magazine. The slightest touch on the keybuttons releases the matrix, which drops to
+the assembler belt and is carried swiftly to the assembler. When a word is assembled, the
+spaceband key is touched and a spaceband drops into the assembler. When the necessary
+matrices and spacebands to fill the line have been assembled, the operator raises the assembler
+by pressing a lever on the side of the keyboard. When the assembler reaches its highest point
+it automatically starts the machine and the matrices are transferred to the casting position.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">This illustration shows the manner in which matrices are constantly circulated in the
+Linotype. From the magazine they are carried to the assembler, then passed to the mold, where
+the line is cast, and from the mold after casting they are raised to the top of the machine and
+redistributed to their proper channels in the magazine.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">The Linotype is sometimes called a typesetting machine, but this is not correct: it does
+not set type. It is a substitute for typesetting. It is strictly speaking a composing machine,
+as it does composition but its product is not set type, but solid slugs in the form of lines of type
+with the printing face cast on the edge.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">It is in reality four machines so arranged that they work together in harmony—the magazine,
+the assembling mechanism, the casting mechanism and the distributing mechanism. The
+magazine is at the top of the machine sloping to the front at an angle of about 31 degrees, and
+consists of two brass plates placed together with a space of about five-eighths of an inch between.
+The two inner surfaces are cut with 92 grooves or channels running the up and down way of the
+magazine, for carrying the matrices. The matrices slide down these channels on edge, with
+the face or punched edge down, and the V-end extending toward the upper part of the magazine.
+Each of these channels will hold twenty matrices.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page571">[571]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">LITTLE PIECES OF BRASS WHICH PRODUCE SOLID TYPE</p>
+
+<div class="container w25emmax" id="Fig571a">
+
+<img src="images/illo571a.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">ONE-LETTER AND TWO-LETTER MATRICES.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p class="caption long">Linotype matrices are made of brass.
+In the edge of each matrix is either one or
+two letters or characters in intaglio. The
+thickness of the individual matrices is
+dependent on the width of the character.
+By an ingenious arrangement either one-letter
+or two-letter matrices can be used
+in the same machine, and either character
+on a two-letter matrix can be used at will.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">The two-letter matrix bears two characters,
+one above the other, one of which
+may be a Roman face and the other an
+italic, small capital, or black face. If a
+line is to be composed partly of the Roman
+face, which is in the upper position on
+the matrix, and partly of the other face,
+which is in the lower position, this is
+accomplished by means of a slide on the
+assembler operated by a small lever.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">When the lower characters on the matrices
+are required, the slide is shifted and
+the matrices are arrested at a higher level, so that the lower characters align with the upper
+characters of the other matrices in the assembler. When the slide is withdrawn the matrices are
+assembled at the lower level. By means of this simple contrivance, a line may be composed
+partly of one face, partly of the other face, or entirely of either face.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo571b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig571b" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption">THIS SHOWS HOW THE HEADINGS ARE MADE IN CAPITALS OF DIFFERENT TYPE.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">Linotypes are guaranteed to be capable of setting above 5000 ems of 6 point per hour, and
+this output is widely obtained in commercial printing offices with first class operators. When
+a compositor speaks of the amount of type he sets per hour or day he speaks of “ems.” A
+column of type matter is so many “ems” wide. The term “em” means the square of the
+particular size of type that is being set. Thus if a column is said to be 13 ems wide it means
+that an em quad or square, could be set 13 times in the width of the column. Type is graded
+according to size by points. Machine type for book work runs from 5 points to 12 points.
+A point is one seventy-second of an inch, that is, there are 72 points to an inch. This guarantee,
+however, by no means indicates the limit of speed at which the machine can be operated, as
+evidenced by records of 10,000 to 11,000 ems per hour maintained for an entire day. The
+rapidity of the Linotype is limited only by the ability of the operator to manipulate the
+keys, and the extreme capacity of the machine has never yet been attained.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page572">[572]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">HOW THE LINOTYPE MAKES SOLID TYPE</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo572a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig572a">
+
+<p class="caption">SECTIONAL VIEW OF MAGAZINE SHOWING CHANNEL FULL OF MATRICES.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">This picture shows the machine with part of the magazine top and side removed. We
+can thus see how the matrices are arranged in their respective grooves in the magazine. When
+one of the keys of the keyboard is pressed down the first matrix in the corresponding grove
+in the magazine escapes and drops upon a conveyor belt and is carried in its proper order to an
+assembler, which answers much the same purpose as a printer’s stick. The correct spacing
+or justification of the line of matrices is accomplished by means of spacebands, which are
+assembled automatically between the words in the line by the touch of a lever at the left of the
+keyboard.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo572b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig572b" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption">LINOTYPE SLUGS.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">Instead of producing single type characters, the Linotype machine casts metal bars, or
+slugs, of any length desired up to 36 ems, each complete in one piece and having on the upper
+edge, properly justified, the characters to print a line. These slugs are automatically assembled
+in proper order as they are delivered from the machine, when they are immediately available
+either for printing from direct or for making electrotype or stereotype plates. They answer the
+same purpose and are used in the same manner as composed type matter.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page573">[573]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">CASTING THE SLUGS OF SOLID METAL</p>
+
+<div class="container w35emmax">
+
+<img src="images/illo573a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig573a">
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p class="caption">LINE OF MATRICES BEING LIFTED TO DISTRIBUTOR</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">After the slug has been cast,
+the matrices are carried up to the
+second transfer position, where
+they are pushed to the right, and
+the teeth in the V at the top of the
+matrices engage the grooves in the
+distributor bar of the second elevator,
+which descends from the distributor
+box at the same time
+that the matrices rise to the second
+transfer position. The second
+elevator then rises toward the
+distributor box, taking the matrices
+with it, but leaving the
+spacebands; these are then pushed
+to the right and slide into the
+spaceband box, to be used again.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">As the second elevator rises
+toward the distributor box with
+its load of matrices, the distributor
+shifter lever moves to the left
+until the elevator head has
+reached its place by the distributor
+box. It then moves back
+to the right and pushes the
+matrices off the second elevator
+distributor bar into the distributor
+box, where they meet the “matrix
+lift” and are lifted, one at a
+time, to the distributor screws
+and distributor bar proper. The
+teeth in the matrix and the
+grooves in the bar are so arranged
+that when a matrix arrives at a
+point directly over the channel
+in which it belongs, it “lets go”
+and drops into its channel.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">If, however, there is a matrix in
+the line which was not designed
+to drop into one of the channels
+operated from the keyboard, it
+will be carried clear across the
+distributor bar and dropped into
+the last channel, and from there
+it will find its way to the sorts
+box.</p>
+
+<div class="container w30emmax" id="Fig573b">
+
+<img src="images/illo573b.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="caption">SECTIONAL VIEW OF METAL POT WITH LINE OF
+MATRICES IN POSITION BEFORE THE MOLD</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p class="caption long">The casting mechanism consists of the metal
+pot, mold disk, mold, ejector, and trimming
+knives. The illustration shows a cross-section
+of the metal pot, mold disk, and mold,
+with a line of matrices in the casting position.
+When the line of matrices leaves the assembler,
+they pass to a position in front of the mold
+disk. The disk makes a one-quarter turn to
+the left, which brings the mold from the ejecting
+position, where it stands while the machine
+is at rest, to the casting position. It then
+advances until the face of the mold comes in
+contact with the matrices. The metal pot
+advances until the pot mouthpiece comes in
+contact with the back of the mold; at this
+point the pump plunger descends and forces
+the metal into the mold and against the
+matrices. The pot then recedes, the mold
+disk withdraws from the matrices and makes
+three-fourths of a revolution to the left, stopping
+in the ejecting position, from which it
+started. The slug is ejected and assembled
+in the galley.</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">During the last revolution of the disk the
+bottom of the slug is trimmed off, and in the
+process of ejection the sides of the slug are
+trimmed, so that when it drops in the galley
+the slug is a perfect line of type, ready for the
+form.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page574">[574]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">HOW THE PRINTED PART OF A BOOK LOOKS AT FIRST</p>
+
+<div class="split5050">
+
+<div class="left5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo574.jpg" alt="Example of galley proof" >
+
+</div><!--left5050-->
+
+<div class="right5050">
+
+<div class="padl3 padr3">
+
+<p class="caption long">As the slugs of type, each of which represents
+a line, come from the linotype machine, they
+are arranged in order in a brass holder the
+width of the line of type, called a “galley.”
+This holder is about twenty inches long. As
+soon as it is filled one of the men in the typesetting
+office takes it to a proof press where he
+makes a rough impression of it. He runs an
+ink covered roller over the top of the slugs,
+lays a piece of blank paper on it and then
+either runs another roller over it or puts it in
+a hand press and secures an impression of the
+type just as it is. This is called making a
+“galley proof.”</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">The galley proof is then sent to the proof-reader
+who reads it carefully and indicates such
+errors in setting as appear and must be changed.
+Before correcting the actual type, however, the
+composing room sends the galley proof to the
+one who is publishing the book. The publisher
+also reads the proof over carefully and, if he
+does not wish to change any of the wording,
+he sends it back to the composing room with
+his “O. K.” attached in writing. If he wishes
+to change the wording, he does so and the
+galley proof is then returned to the composing
+room marked “O. K. after corrections and
+changes are made.”</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">The linotype operator then makes whatever
+changes are desired or necessary by
+setting new lines where mistakes or changes
+occur. If there is only one wrong letter in a
+line, he must reset the whole line as the machine,
+as you remember, only turns out solid
+lines of type. A revised proof is then sent to
+the publishing office and, if no further changes
+are to be made, he gives instructions to have
+the “galley” made up into pages. How the
+pages are made up is shown in the next <a href="#Page575">picture</a>.</p>
+
+</div><!--padding-->
+
+</div><!--right5050-->
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--split5050-->
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page575">[575]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage landscape">
+
+<p class="paghead">HOW THE PAGES OF A BOOK ARE MADE UP</p>
+
+<div class="container w60emmax">
+
+<div class="split5050">
+
+<div class="left5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo575a.jpg" alt="Lay-out of page 126 of this book" id="Fig575a">
+
+</div><!--left5050-->
+
+<div class="right5050">
+
+<img src="images/illo575b.jpg" alt="Lay-out of page 127 of this book" id="Fig575b">
+
+</div><!--right5050-->
+
+<p class="thinline allclear">&#160;</p>
+
+</div><!--split5050-->
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p class="caption long">When the revised proofs come back from the publisher ready to be made into
+pages, the publisher has marked on same what pictures are to go on the pages of the “make
+up” as this is called. The compositor then picks out the pictures in the form of cuts
+which are to go on the different pages and puts them in the page first. He then arranges
+the type matter from the galley proof around, above or below the pictures, puts in the
+proper headings and takes a “final proof” of how the pages are arranged to look. If
+this is satisfactory the publisher puts a “final O. K.” on the proof in writing and the page
+is ready to be printed. Thus the book is made up page by page. No page is printed
+without the O. K. of the publisher and so, if there are any errors still in the page, the publisher
+is responsible.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page576">[576]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage landscape">
+
+<p class="paghead">HOW THIS BOOK IS PRINTED</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo576.jpg" alt="" id="Fig576">
+
+<p class="caption">PRINTING THE BOOK OF WONDERS</p>
+
+<p class="caption long">This picture shows the pages of the Book of Wonders being printed. 
+Thirty-two pages are printed on each side of a sheet of paper at one time.
+A printing office is a busy place as can be seen from the picture. As soon as the 
+ink is dry on the printed sheets they are taken to the bindery
+where they are folded and sewed ready to have the covers put on.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page577">[577]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">HOW THE BOOK OF WONDERS IS BOUND</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo577a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig577a">
+
+<p class="caption long">When the printed sheets are received in the bindery they are fed into a folding machine
+which is shown here. A sheet of 64 pages is folded and cut and delivered in four sections of
+16 pages each ready to be gathered.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo577b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig577b" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption long">Here we see a machine which takes the folded sections of 16 pages each, which are called
+“signatures,” and sorts them, dropping them into compartments in order, so that each compartment
+finally contains the printed matter for one book all arranged in the order which it will
+be bound.</p>
+
+<p class="center highline2 fsize90">Courtesy of the J. F. Tapley Co. New York.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page578">[578]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">SEWING THE PAGES OF THE BOOK OF WONDERS</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo578a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig578a">
+
+<p class="caption long">Here we see the girls at work operating the sewing machines which sew the sections together
+at the back side of the book.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo578b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig578b" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption long">The men in this picture are making the backs of the books round and preparing them for
+the putting on of covers.</p>
+
+<p class="center highline2 fsize90">Courtesy of the J. F. Tapley Co., New York.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page579">[579]</span></p>
+
+<div class="illopage">
+
+<p class="paghead">THE BOOK OF WONDERS IS READY TO READ</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo579a.jpg" alt="" id="Fig579a">
+
+<p class="caption long">In this picture we see the “case makers” at work making the covers on which the actual
+book is bound.</p>
+
+<img src="images/illo579b.jpg" alt="" id="Fig579b" class="blankbefore">
+
+<p class="caption long">The book is now “bound” by having the covers put on and is ready for distribution.</p>
+
+<p class="center highline2 fsize90">Courtesy of the J. F. Tapley Co., New York.</p>
+
+</div><!--illopage-->
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page580">[580]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="minor">How Is Photo Engraving Done?</h2>
+
+<div class="container left w20emmax" id="Fig580a">
+
+<div class="container nomargins w10emmax">
+
+<img src="images/illo580a.jpg" alt="">
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p class="caption long">This cut shows a section of
+a photo-engraving screen
+enlarged, illustrating the
+squares above-mentioned. In
+reality it would take from
+100 to 400 of these dots to
+make an inch, according to
+the fineness of screen.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+
+<p>HOW THE PICTURES IN<br>
+THIS BOOK ARE MADE</p>
+
+</div><!--sidenote-->
+
+<p>The first step is the making of the
+halftone negative which differs from
+an ordinary negative in being made up
+of different sized dots instead of shades
+of gray. This result is obtained by
+photographing the picture through a
+halftone screen consisting of two pieces
+of glass, ruled with black lines and
+cemented together so the lines cross at
+right angles and leave small squares
+of clear glass.</p>
+
+<p>The effect of making the negative
+in this way is to represent the different
+shades from black to white by large
+or small dots. Wet plate photography
+is usually used in this process
+because the film is thinner and more
+intensely black besides being cheaper
+than dry plates.</p>
+
+<div class="container right w15emmax" id="Fig580b">
+
+<div class="container nomargins w10emmax">
+
+<img src="images/illo580b.jpg" alt="">
+
+<p class="illocredit">New Process Engraving Co.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p class="caption long">This cut
+shows a
+portion of
+a halftone
+cut enlarged
+so
+that the
+dots can be
+seen very
+plainly.</p>
+
+</div><!--container-->
+
+<p>Having made the negative the next
+step is to make a printing plate from
+it. To do this, a piece of metal, copper
+if the work is fine, and zinc for coarser
+work, is coated with a solution which is
+sensative to light, fish glue is commonly
+used to which is added a small amount
+of ammonium bichromate. The metal
+being coated and dried, it is put in
+a very strong frame with the negative
+and squeezed together so that they
+are in perfect contact. A powerful
+light is now directed upon the negative
+with the metal behind it, the result
+being that wherever the light goes
+through the white spaces in the negative,
+the coating on the metal is rendered
+insoluble. Where the dots on the
+negative are, the light is unable to get
+at the coating so that when the metal
+is removed from the frame and thoroughly
+washed this part of the coating
+washes away, leaving the part which
+the light got at attached to the metal.
+This is now heated until the enamel,
+as the coating is called, turns dark
+brown and the picture can be easily
+seen.</p>
+
+<p>The picture is now on the metal but
+it must be made to stand out in relief
+before it can be used for printing
+from, so it is put in a bath of acid
+which eats away that part of the metal
+left uncovered by the washing away
+of the coating and this leaves the
+dots which make up the picture standing
+up in relief. A roller covered with
+very thick paste-like ink is now rolled
+over the picture, or cut as it is now
+called, and when a piece of paper is
+pressed against the ink covered cut
+each little dot leaves a mark of ink
+on the paper the total making up the
+picture as we see it.</p>
+
+<p>There are many more wonderful
+things connected with the making of
+cuts such as the routing machine
+which has a tool that revolves so fast
+that it turns around 300 times while
+the clock ticks once, and other machines
+which cut hard metal as easily as you
+can cut a potato with a knife.</p>
+
+<p>Colored pictures are also made by
+the process outlined above. The picture
+is photographed three times with
+a different colored piece of glass in
+front of the lens, the result being three
+negatives, one of which has all the
+blue, one all the red and the other all
+the yellow in the picture. By making
+cuts from each negative and printing
+them on top of one another in yellow,
+red, and blue, the original picture is
+reproduced in all its colors. This
+is how all our pretty magazine covers
+are made.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page581">[581]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak">ACKNOWLEDGMENT</h2>
+
+</div><!--chapter-->
+
+<p>The Editors of the Book of Wonders make acknowledgment herewith to the
+following. All mentioned have been a great assistance in making the book
+not only possible but authentic:</p>
+
+<ul class="contrib">
+
+<li>Spencerian Pen Co.</li>
+<li>Eastman Kodak Co.</li>
+<li>American Telephone &amp; Telegraph Co.</li>
+<li>Remington Arms Co.</li>
+<li>Bethlehem Steel Co.</li>
+<li>American Portland Cement Manufacturers Assn.</li>
+<li>Brainerd &amp; Armstrong Silk Co.</li>
+<li>Corticelli Silk Co.</li>
+<li>Curtiss Aeroplane Co.</li>
+<li>U. S. Beet Sugar Industry.</li>
+<li>Hartford Carpet Co.</li>
+<li>Haynes Automobile Co.</li>
+<li>Jacobs &amp; Davis, Engineers.</li>
+<li>Pennsylvania Railroad Co.</li>
+<li>Endicott, Johnson &amp; Co.</li>
+<li>United Shoe Machinery Co.</li>
+<li>Sherwin-Williams Co.</li>
+<li>Pittsburgh Plate Glass Co.</li>
+<li>The Colliery Engineer.</li>
+<li>Lake Torpedo Boat Co.</li>
+<li>Western Union Telegraph Co.</li>
+<li>New York Edison Co.</li>
+<li>Westinghouse Lamp Co.</li>
+<li>Consolidated Gas, Electric Light and Power Co. of Baltimore.</li>
+<li>Browning Engineering Co.</li>
+<li>The White Star Line.</li>
+<li>Marconi Wireless Co.</li>
+<li>Plymouth Cordage Co.</li>
+<li>American Woolen Co.</li>
+<li>The Vitagraph Co.</li>
+<li>The B. F. Goodrich Co.</li>
+<li>The Goodyear Rubber and Tire Co.</li>
+<li>The Lexington Chocolate Co.</li>
+<li>The Hecker-Jones Milling Co.</li>
+<li>The White Oak Mills.</li>
+<li>The H. C. White Company.</li>
+<li>A. I. Root Company.</li>
+<li>Kohler &amp; Campbell.</li>
+<li>Browne &amp; Howell Co.</li>
+<li>P. &amp; F. Corbin.</li>
+<li>Otis Elevator Co.</li>
+<li>Scientific American.</li>
+<li>Joseph Dixon Crucible Co.</li>
+<li>Homer W. Laughlin Co.</li>
+<li>S. D. Warren &amp; Co.</li>
+<li>C. B. Cottrell &amp; Sons Co.</li>
+<li>Mergenthaler Linotype Co.</li>
+<li>J. F. Tapley &amp; Co.</li>
+<li>New Process Engraving Co.</li>
+<li>Mutual Film Corporation.</li>
+<li>Tobacco Trade Journal Co.</li>
+<li>McClure’s Magazine.</li>
+<li>James Arthur.</li>
+<li>Seth Thomas.</li>
+<li>American Locomotive Co.</li>
+<li>New York Central Railroad Co.</li>
+<li>Columbia Rope Co.</li>
+<li>Carl Werner.</li>
+<li>National Wool Growers Assn.</li>
+
+</ul>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page582">[582-<br>583]
+<a id="Page583"></a></span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak">INDEX</h2>
+
+</div><!--chapter-->
+
+<ul class="index">
+
+<li><b>Acid</b>, carbonic, what it is, <a href="#Page509">509</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Aerial</b>, on ship, (illus.), <a href="#Page455">455</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Aeroplanes</b>, English Channel crossing (illus.), <a href="#Page132">132</a></li>
+<li class="level1">Curtiss biplane (illus.), <a href="#Page131">131</a></li>
+<li class="level1">first demonstrations of, <a href="#Page130">130</a></li>
+<li class="level1">first flight in Europe, <a href="#Page129">129</a></li>
+<li class="level1">first man-carrying (illus.), <a href="#Page128">128</a></li>
+<li class="level1">first successful (illus.), <a href="#Page126">126</a></li>
+<li class="level1">gas motors used in, <a href="#Page130">130</a></li>
+<li class="level1">gliding, <a href="#Page137">137</a></li>
+<li class="level1">greatest present value of, <a href="#Page136">136</a></li>
+<li class="level1">records of, <a href="#Page131">131</a></li>
+<li class="level1">red wing (illus.), <a href="#Page131">131</a></li>
+<li class="level1">what two brothers accomplished for, <a href="#Page130">130</a></li>
+<li class="level1">Wright Bros.’ inventions, <a href="#Page130">130</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Age</b>, why do we, <a href="#Page196">196</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Air</b>, does it move with the earth? <a href="#Page400">400</a></li>
+<li class="level1">does it weigh anything? <a href="#Page398">398</a></li>
+<li class="level1">dust in, <a href="#Page38">38</a></li>
+<li class="level1">extend, how far does, <a href="#Page243">243</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Airlocks</b>, description of in tunnel building, <a href="#Page213">213</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Ammunition</b>, first invention of, <a href="#Page40">40</a></li>
+<li class="level1">fixed, <a href="#Page47">47</a></li>
+<li class="level1">in prehistoric times, <a href="#Page40">40</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Animals</b>, can they think? <a href="#Page194">194</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is man an, <a href="#Page180">180</a></li>
+<li class="level1">that leap greatest distance, <a href="#Page122">122</a></li>
+<li class="level1">which foretell weather, <a href="#Page240">240</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Anthracite seams</b> (illus.), <a href="#Page260">260</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Aqueduct</b> (illus.), <a href="#Page505">505</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Are</b> matches poisonous, <a href="#Page294">294</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Armor</b>, in the Middle Ages, <a href="#Page44">44</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Army</b>, wireless in the, <a href="#Page448">448</a>-<a href="#Page451">451</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Are</b> there two sides to the rainbow? <a href="#Page254">254</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Arrow</b>, what causes it to fly? <a href="#Page408">408</a></li>
+
+<li><b>At</b> what point does water boil? <a href="#Page220">220</a></li>
+
+<li><b>At</b> what rate does thought travel? <a href="#Page242">242</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Australian Ballot</b>, where first used, <a href="#Page122">122</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Automobile</b> (illus.), axle, location of, <a href="#Page186">186</a></li>
+<li class="level1">beginning of, <a href="#Page183">183</a></li>
+<li class="level1">carburetor, location of, <a href="#Page184">184</a></li>
+<li class="level1">carburetor, use of, <a href="#Page184">184</a></li>
+<li class="level1">chassis, complete, <a href="#Page188">188</a></li>
+<li class="level1">cog-wheels, use of, <a href="#Page183">183</a></li>
+<li class="level1">cog-wheels, location of (illus.), <a href="#Page183">183</a></li>
+<li class="level1">crankcase, location of (illus.), <a href="#Page183">183</a></li>
+<li class="level1">cylinder, location of (illus.), <a href="#Page184">184</a></li>
+<li class="level1">drive shaft, location of (illus.), <a href="#Page187">187</a></li>
+<li class="level1">electric generator, use of, <a href="#Page185">185</a></li>
+<li class="level1">exhaust, <a href="#Page184">184</a></li>
+<li class="level1">fenders, location of, <a href="#Page188">188</a></li>
+<li class="level1">fenders, use of, <a href="#Page188">188</a></li>
+<li class="level1">finished car (illus.), <a href="#Page189">189</a></li>
+<li class="level1">first American (illus.), <a href="#Page189">189</a></li>
+<li class="level1">fly-wheel, location of (illus.), <a href="#Page183">183</a></li>
+<li class="level1">fly-wheel, use of, <a href="#Page183">183</a></li>
+<li class="level1">frame (illus.), <a href="#Page186">186</a></li>
+<li class="level1">gasoline, what it does, <a href="#Page183">183</a></li>
+<li class="level1">gasoline tank, location of, <a href="#Page187">187</a></li>
+<li class="level1">gears, location of (illus.), <a href="#Page183">183</a></li>
+<li class="level1">gears, use of, <a href="#Page183">183</a></li>
+<li class="level1">heart of (illus.), <a href="#Page184">184</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how improved, <a href="#Page190">190</a></li>
+<li class="level1">magneto, location of, <a href="#Page185">185</a></li>
+<li class="level1">magneto, use of, <a href="#Page185">185</a></li>
+<li class="level1">marvellous growth of twenty years, <a href="#Page189">189</a></li>
+<li class="level1">modern power plant complete, <a href="#Page190">190</a></li>
+<li class="level1">oil pan, use of, <a href="#Page184">184</a></li>
+<li class="level1">oil pump, location of, <a href="#Page184">184</a></li>
+<li class="level1">piston, location of (illus.), <a href="#Page183">183</a></li>
+<li class="level1">piston, use of, <a href="#Page183">183</a></li>
+<li class="level1">power plant, an (illus.), <a href="#Page185">185</a></li>
+<li class="level1">radiator, location of (illus.), <a href="#Page188">188</a></li>
+<li class="level1">radiator, use of, <a href="#Page188">188</a></li>
+<li class="level1">ready for the wheels, <a href="#Page187">187</a></li>
+<li class="level1">second stage of construction (illus.), <a href="#Page186">186</a></li>
+<li class="level1">self-starter, location of, <a href="#Page185">185</a></li>
+<li class="level1">self starter, use of, <a href="#Page185">185</a></li>
+<li class="level1">Smithsonian exhibit of complete power plant, <a href="#Page190">190</a></li>
+<li class="level1">springs, location of (illus.), <a href="#Page186">186</a></li>
+<li class="level1">springs, use of, <a href="#Page186">186</a></li>
+<li class="level1">steering gear, location of (illus.), <a href="#Page187">187</a></li>
+<li class="level1">street scene 20 years ago, <a href="#Page189">189</a></li>
+<li class="level1">transmission, location of, <a href="#Page186">186</a></li>
+<li class="level1">tire pump, use of, <a href="#Page185">185</a></li>
+<li class="level1">tires, how made, <a href="#Page382">382</a></li>
+<li class="level1">transmission, use of, <a href="#Page186">186</a></li>
+<li class="level1">water pump, location of, <a href="#Page185">185</a></li>
+<li class="level1">water pump, use of, <a href="#Page185">185</a></li>
+<li class="level1">what the completed chassis looks like (illus.), <a href="#Page188">188</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Bacon, Roger</b>, discoverer of gunpowder, <a href="#Page44">44</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Balance</b>, effect of sunlight on, <a href="#Page37">37</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Baldness</b>, chief course of, <a href="#Page143">143</a></li>
+<li class="level1">why some people are, <a href="#Page143">143</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Ball</b>, why it bounces, <a href="#Page63">63</a></li>
+<li class="level1">bearings, what they are, <a href="#Page180">180</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Balloon</b>, what keeps it up, <a href="#Page199">199</a></li>
+<li class="level1">why it goes up, <a href="#Page199">199</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Ballot</b>, when first used, <a href="#Page122">122</a></li>
+<li class="level1">Australian, where first used, <a href="#Page122">122</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Bearings, Ball</b>, what they are, <a href="#Page180">180</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Bee</b>, how it lives, <a href="#Page336">336</a></li>
+<li class="level1">why it has a sting, <a href="#Page336">336</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Bell, Alexander Graham</b> (illus.), <a href="#Page70">70</a></li>
+<li class="level1">first telephone, <a href="#Page72">72</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Bend</b>, why things, <a href="#Page62">62</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Biplanes</b>, Curtiss (illus.), <a href="#Page131">131</a></li>
+<li class="level1">in flight, Curtiss (illus.), <a href="#Page136">136</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Birds</b>, how do they find the old home? <a href="#Page408">408</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how they learn to fly, <a href="#Page178">178</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how they find their way, <a href="#Page407">407</a></li>
+<li class="level1">reproduction of life in, <a href="#Page179">179</a></li>
+<li class="level1">why do they sing? <a href="#Page408">408</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Birds’ Eggs</b>, why different colors, <a href="#Page233">233</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Blasting</b> gelatin, definition of, <a href="#Page206">206</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Bleriot, M.</b>, first European flights, <a href="#Page129">129</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Blotter</b>, capillary attraction of, <a href="#Page18">18</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how it takes up ink, <a href="#Page18">18</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Blush</b>, why do we, <a href="#Page194">194</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Boat</b>, how it can sail under water, <a href="#Page269">269</a></li>
+<li class="level1">hydroplane of submarine, <a href="#Page270">270</a></li>
+<li class="level1">inside of a submarine (illus.), <a href="#Page272">272</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Bodies</b>, swiftest moving, <a href="#Page25">25</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Boiling</b> point of water<span class="pagenum" id="Page584">[584]</span>, <a href="#Page220">220</a></li>
+<li class="level1">what makes water, <a href="#Page220">220</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Boring mill</b> (illus.), <a href="#Page56">56</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Bottles</b>, gurgle in, <a href="#Page63">63</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Bounce</b>, why a ball will, <a href="#Page63">63</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Bow</b>, long (illus.), <a href="#Page42">42</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Bow-and-Arrow</b>, invention of, <a href="#Page43">43</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Boxes</b>, match, how made, <a href="#Page294">294</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Brazil, Emperor of</b>, receives first words over telephone, <a href="#Page74">74</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Bread</b>, how flour is made, <a href="#Page462">462</a></li>
+<li class="level1">difference in Graham and whole wheat, <a href="#Page461">461</a></li>
+<li class="level1">grinding wheat (illus.), <a href="#Page464">464</a></li>
+<li class="level1">harvesting wheat, <a href="#Page460">460</a></li>
+<li class="level1">loaves of world (illus.), <a href="#Page459">459</a></li>
+<li class="level1">origin and meaning of, <a href="#Page460">460</a></li>
+<li class="level1">purifying machine (illus.), <a href="#Page463">463</a></li>
+<li class="level1">separating fibre germs (illus.), <a href="#Page463">463</a></li>
+<li class="level1">wheat conditioning (illus.), <a href="#Page462">462</a></li>
+<li class="level1">when wheat was first used in making, <a href="#Page461">461</a></li>
+<li class="level1">where it comes from, <a href="#Page460">460</a></li>
+<li class="level1">why so important, <a href="#Page460">460</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Break</b>, why things, <a href="#Page62">62</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Breech</b>, of a big gun, <a href="#Page53">53</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Breech-loaders</b> in Civil War, <a href="#Page48">48</a></li>
+<li class="level1">in rifle, <a href="#Page47">47</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Brush</b>, in writing, invention of, <a href="#Page13">13</a></li>
+<li class="level1">in writing (illus.), <a href="#Page13">13</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Bullets</b>, cupro-nickel used in, <a href="#Page50">50</a></li>
+<li class="level1">grading of, <a href="#Page51">51</a></li>
+<li class="level1">weighing of (illus.), <a href="#Page49">49</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Buildings</b>, concrete, how made (illus.), <a href="#Page100">100</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Buttons</b>, on sleeves, <a href="#Page64">64</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Building</b>, tallest in the world (illus.), <a href="#Page395">395</a>-<a href="#Page508">508</a></li>
+<li class="level1">what holds it up? <a href="#Page496">496</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Building foundations</b>, construction of, <a href="#Page496">496</a></li>
+<li class="level1">compressed air, use of (illus.), <a href="#Page500">500</a></li>
+<li class="level1">cutting piles with a hot flame (illus.), <a href="#Page498">498</a></li>
+<li class="level1">driving steel piles, <a href="#Page496">496</a></li>
+<li class="level1">piles filled with concrete (illus.), <a href="#Page499">499</a></li>
+<li class="level1">piles, length of, <a href="#Page497">497</a></li>
+<li class="level1">piles, sinking of (illus.), <a href="#Page497">497</a></li>
+<li class="level1">use of oxyacetylene, <a href="#Page498">498</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Cable, laying</b> armoring machine (illus.), <a href="#Page437">437</a></li>
+<li class="level1">arrived on other side, <a href="#Page433">433</a></li>
+<li class="level1">bulge (illus.), <a href="#Page437">437</a></li>
+<li class="level1">gear-paying-out (illus.), <a href="#Page431">431</a></li>
+<li class="level1">Great Eastern, the, <a href="#Page434">434</a>, <a href="#Page437">437</a></li>
+<li class="level1">landing of (illus.), <a href="#Page433">433</a></li>
+<li class="level1">machinery on cable ship (illus.), <a href="#Page431">431</a></li>
+<li class="level1">paying-out machine (illus.), <a href="#Page431">431</a></li>
+<li class="level1">shore end of (illus.), <a href="#Page429">429</a></li>
+<li class="level1">storing of, aboard ship (illus.), <a href="#Page430">430</a></li>
+<li class="level1">what they look like when cut in two (illus.), <a href="#Page428">428</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Cable, ocean</b>, Continental Morse Code, <a href="#Page438">438</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how dropped (illus.), <a href="#Page432">432</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how repaired (illus.), <a href="#Page435">435</a></li>
+<li class="level1">inventor of, <a href="#Page434">434</a></li>
+<li class="level1">laid, how, <a href="#Page429">429</a></li>
+<li class="level1">man who made it possible, <a href="#Page434">434</a></li>
+<li class="level1">pioneers of, <a href="#Page434">434</a></li>
+<li class="level1">signals as received (illus.), <a href="#Page438">438</a></li>
+<li class="level1">what is it made of, <a href="#Page429">429</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Cable, repairing</b>, grapnels (illus.), <a href="#Page435">435</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how repaired, <a href="#Page435">435</a></li>
+<li class="level1">on rocky shore, (illus.), <a href="#Page438">438</a></li>
+<li class="level1">powerful engines used (illus.), <a href="#Page436">436</a></li>
+<li class="level1">splicing of (illus.), <a href="#Page436">436</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Cable, service</b>, map of Trans-Atlantic, <a href="#Page439">439</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Cable, vault</b>, of telephone (illus.), <a href="#Page67">67</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Cabriolet</b>, <a href="#Page122">122</a></li>
+
+<li id="Ref04"><b>Cacao, beans</b>, bags of (illus.), <a href="#Page388">388</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how cured, <a href="#Page392">392</a></li>
+<li class="level1">nibs, <a href="#Page392">392</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Cacao</b>, flaked, how made, <a href="#Page392">392</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how gathered, <a href="#Page391">391</a></li>
+<li class="level1">pods, how gathered, <a href="#Page391">391</a></li>
+<li class="level1">free, discovery of, <a href="#Page388">388</a></li>
+<li class="level1">and chocolate, difference between, <a href="#Page389">389</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Cackling</b>, why a hen, <a href="#Page233">233</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Calibre</b> of a gun, <a href="#Page53">53</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Calico</b>, name, where from, <a href="#Page123">123</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Camera</b>, <a href="#Page22">22</a></li>
+<li class="level1">first moving picture, <a href="#Page375">375</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Can</b> a bee sting? <a href="#Page536">536</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Can</b> animals think? <a href="#Page194">194</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Candles</b>, did they come before lamps? <a href="#Page294">294</a></li>
+<li class="level1">why it burns, <a href="#Page21">21</a></li>
+<li class="level1">why it gives light, <a href="#Page21">21</a></li>
+<li class="level1">why you can blow out, <a href="#Page21">21</a>-<a href="#Page36">36</a></li>
+<li class="level1">when introduced, <a href="#Page296">296</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Candy</b>, why do children like? <a href="#Page409">409</a></li>
+<li class="level1">why does eating candy make some people fat? <a href="#Page409">409</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Carbon</b>, <a href="#Page352">352</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Carbonate of Soda</b>, used in developing, <a href="#Page23">23</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Carburetor</b>, in gas engine, <a href="#Page184">184</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Carpets</b>, carding machine (illus.), <a href="#Page170">170</a></li>
+<li class="level1">dyeing the yarn, (illus.), <a href="#Page170">170</a></li>
+<li class="level1">examining and repairing (illus.), <a href="#Page173">173</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how yarn is dyed, <a href="#Page170">170</a></li>
+<li class="level1">manufacture of (illus.), <a href="#Page169">169</a></li>
+<li class="level1">modern, how made, <a href="#Page169">169</a></li>
+<li class="level1">packing for shipment (illus.), <a href="#Page173">173</a></li>
+<li class="level1">processes, <a href="#Page169">169</a>-<a href="#Page170">170</a>-<a href="#Page171">171</a>, <a href="#Page173">173</a></li>
+<li class="level1">stamping designs, <a href="#Page173">173</a></li>
+<li class="level1">view of factory (illus.), <a href="#Page172">172</a></li>
+<li class="level1">weaving, by machine (illus.), <a href="#Page171">171</a></li>
+<li class="level1">wool, packing machine (illus.), <a href="#Page169">169</a></li>
+<li class="level1">wool sorting, <a href="#Page170">170</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Cartridges</b>, invention of, <a href="#Page48">48</a></li>
+<li class="level1">types of (illus.), <a href="#Page49">49</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Cave</b>, man who invented ammunition, <a href="#Page40">40</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Cement</b>, alumina in, <a href="#Page95">95</a></li>
+<li class="level1">amount used in United States, <a href="#Page95">95</a></li>
+<li class="level1">arch, <a href="#Page95">95</a></li>
+<li class="level1">bagging (illus.), <a href="#Page99">99</a></li>
+<li class="level1">bridges, <a href="#Page95">95</a></li>
+<li class="level1">bucket (illus.), <a href="#Page97">97</a></li>
+<li class="level1">burned (illus.), <a href="#Page98">98</a></li>
+<li class="level1">calcined (illus.), <a href="#Page98">98</a></li>
+<li class="level1">clay in, <a href="#Page95">95</a></li>
+<li class="level1">crusher (illus.), <a href="#Page97">97</a></li>
+<li class="level1">dams, <a href="#Page95">95</a></li>
+<li class="level1">fireproof, <a href="#Page95">95</a></li>
+<li class="level1">grinders (illus.), <a href="#Page98">98</a></li>
+<li class="level1">industry, <a href="#Page95">95</a></li>
+<li class="level1">in water, <a href="#Page95">95</a></li>
+<li class="level1">kiln (illus.), <a href="#Page98">98</a></li>
+<li class="level1">lime in, <a href="#Page95">95</a></li>
+<li class="level1">machine (illus.), <a href="#Page97">97</a></li>
+<li class="level1">marl in, <a href="#Page95">95</a></li>
+<li class="level1">mill (illus.), <a href="#Page96">96</a>-<a href="#Page98">98</a></li>
+<li class="level1">mixing (illus.), <a href="#Page99">99</a></li>
+<li class="level1">mortar, <a href="#Page99">99</a></li>
+<li class="level1">on farms, <a href="#Page95">95</a></li>
+<li class="level1">origin, <a href="#Page95">95</a></li>
+<li class="level1">plastic, <a href="#Page95">95</a></li>
+<li class="level1">Portland<span class="pagenum" id="Page585">[585]</span>, <a href="#Page95">95</a></li>
+<li class="level1">powder (illus.), <a href="#Page98">98</a></li>
+<li class="level1">quarry (illus.), <a href="#Page96">96</a></li>
+<li class="level1">reinforced, <a href="#Page95">95</a></li>
+<li class="level1">rock (illus.), <a href="#Page95">95</a>-<a href="#Page97">97</a></li>
+<li class="level1">sewers, <a href="#Page95">95</a></li>
+<li class="level1">shale in, <a href="#Page95">95</a></li>
+<li class="level1">shovel (illus.), <a href="#Page96">96</a></li>
+<li class="level1">sidewalks, <a href="#Page95">95</a></li>
+<li class="level1">silica in, <a href="#Page95">95</a></li>
+<li class="level1">strength of, <a href="#Page95">95</a></li>
+<li class="level1">subways, <a href="#Page95">95</a></li>
+<li class="level1">tunnels, <a href="#Page95">95</a></li>
+<li class="level1">walls, <a href="#Page95">95</a></li>
+<li class="level1">what is it, <a href="#Page95">95</a></li>
+<li class="level1">what made of, <a href="#Page95">95</a></li>
+<li class="level1">what used for, <a href="#Page95">95</a></li>
+<li class="level1">weighing (illus.), <a href="#Page99">99</a></li>
+<li class="level1">where obtained (illus.), <a href="#Page97">97</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Chalk</b>, where it comes from, <a href="#Page18">18</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Chattering</b>, why do my teeth, <a href="#Page218">218</a></li>
+
+<li><b>China-making</b>, blungers, <a href="#Page404">404</a></li>
+<li class="level1">clay, in making dishes, <a href="#Page405">405</a></li>
+<li class="level1">decorating cups (illus.), <a href="#Page404">404</a>-<a href="#Page406">406</a></li>
+<li class="level1">dishes, how shaped, <a href="#Page405">405</a></li>
+<li class="level1">glazing plates (illus.), <a href="#Page404">404</a></li>
+<li class="level1">grinders (illus.), <a href="#Page404">404</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how the dishes are shaped, <a href="#Page405">405</a></li>
+<li class="level1">molding (illus.), <a href="#Page405">405</a></li>
+<li class="level1">pressing water from clay (illus.), <a href="#Page405">405</a></li>
+<li class="level1">pulverizing materials, <a href="#Page404">404</a></li>
+<li class="level1">pulverizing mill (illus.), <a href="#Page404">404</a></li>
+<li class="level1">saggers (illus.), <a href="#Page406">406</a></li>
+<li class="level1">taking the dishes from kiln (illus.), <a href="#Page406">406</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Chinese</b>, probable discovers of gun powder, <a href="#Page44">44</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Chocolate</b>, broma, what it is, <a href="#Page390">390</a></li>
+<li class="level1">cacao beans (illus.), <a href="#Page388">388</a></li>
+<li class="level1">cacao pods, (illus.), <a href="#Page391">391</a></li>
+<li class="level1">cacao tree, discovery of, <a href="#Page388">388</a></li>
+<li class="level1">cocoa butter, <a href="#Page390">390</a></li>
+<li class="level1">cocoa mill (illus.), <a href="#Page390">390</a></li>
+<li class="level1">cocoa roaster (illus.), <a href="#Page390">390</a></li>
+<li class="level1">cocoa shells, <a href="#Page390">390</a></li>
+<li class="level1">cracking mill, <a href="#Page389">389</a></li>
+<li class="level1">cream mixing (illus.), <a href="#Page393">393</a></li>
+<li class="level1">difference between and cacao, <a href="#Page394">394</a></li>
+<li class="level1">dipping department, <a href="#Page394">394</a></li>
+<li class="level1">finisher (illus.), <a href="#Page392">392</a></li>
+<li class="level1">flaked cocoa, <a href="#Page392">392</a></li>
+<li class="level1">heating machine (illus.), <a href="#Page393">393</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how are chocolate candies made? <a href="#Page394">394</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how made, <a href="#Page392">392</a></li>
+<li class="level1">making, <a href="#Page393">393</a></li>
+<li class="level1">milk, how made, <a href="#Page394">394</a></li>
+<li class="level1">mill (illus.), <a href="#Page392">392</a></li>
+<li class="level1">mixer (illus.), <a href="#Page393">393</a></li>
+<li class="level1">shell separator (illus.), <a href="#Page389">389</a></li>
+<li class="level1">what cocoa butter is, <a href="#Page390">390</a></li>
+<li class="level1">wrapping individual, <a href="#Page394">394</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Cigars</b>, how they are made, <a href="#Page517">517</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Clay</b>, what is, <a href="#Page495">495</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Circles</b>, tendency to walk in, <a href="#Page91">91</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Clinking</b> glasses, how it originated? <a href="#Page232">232</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Clock</b>, age of, <a href="#Page319">319</a></li>
+<li class="level1">largest in the world (illus.), <a href="#Page321">321</a></li>
+<li class="level1">machinery which runs a big (illus.), <a href="#Page322">322</a></li>
+<li class="level1">in Independence Hall (illus.), <a href="#Page323">323</a></li>
+<li class="level1">in New York City Hall, <a href="#Page323">323</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Cloth</b>, beaming (illus.), <a href="#Page89">89</a></li>
+<li class="level1">Burling (illus.), <a href="#Page88">88</a></li>
+<li class="level1">Burr picker, <a href="#Page87">87</a></li>
+<li class="level1">chloride of aluminum in making, <a href="#Page98">98</a></li>
+<li class="level1">English cap spinning (illus.), <a href="#Page89">89</a></li>
+<li class="level1">finished, ready for market (illus.), <a href="#Page90">90</a></li>
+<li class="level1">finish perching (illus.), <a href="#Page90">90</a></li>
+<li class="level1">fulling (illus.), <a href="#Page90">90</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how made from wool, <a href="#Page85">85</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how made perfect, <a href="#Page83">83</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how woolen is dyed, <a href="#Page87">87</a></li>
+<li class="level1">mending perching (illus.), <a href="#Page88">88</a></li>
+<li class="level1">napping, <a href="#Page89">89</a></li>
+<li class="level1">piece dyeing (illus.), <a href="#Page90">90</a></li>
+<li class="level1">ring twisting (illus.), <a href="#Page89">89</a></li>
+<li class="level1">sulphuric acid solution in making, <a href="#Page87">87</a></li>
+<li class="level1">teasel, <a href="#Page89">89</a></li>
+<li class="level1">weaving and scouring (illus.), <a href="#Page88">88</a></li>
+<li class="level1">web, <a href="#Page86">86</a></li>
+<li class="level1">woolen mule spinning (illus.), <a href="#Page89">89</a></li>
+<li class="level1">worsted carding (illus.), <a href="#Page85">85</a></li>
+<li class="level1">yarn inspecting (illus.), <a href="#Page89">89</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Clothes</b>, cost of wool in a suit of, <a href="#Page83">83</a></li>
+<li class="level1">of wool, <a href="#Page80">80</a></li>
+<li class="level1">wool in one suit of, <a href="#Page83">83</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Coal</b>, anthracite, <a href="#Page257">257</a>, <a href="#Page258">258</a></li>
+<li class="level1">anthracite seams (illus.), <a href="#Page260">260</a></li>
+<li class="level1">breaker (illus.), <a href="#Page257">257</a></li>
+<li class="level1">cars ready to go to surface (illus.), <a href="#Page260">260</a></li>
+<li class="level1">dangers to the miners, <a href="#Page262">262</a></li>
+<li class="level1">electric cap lamp (illus.), <a href="#Page264">264</a></li>
+<li class="level1">firedamp, <a href="#Page262">262</a></li>
+<li class="level1">gas illuminating from, <a href="#Page299">299</a></li>
+<li class="level1">gases, <a href="#Page262">262</a></li>
+<li class="level1">history of the safety lamp (illus.), <a href="#Page263">263</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how the miners loosen the coal (illus.), <a href="#Page261">261</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how the slate pickers work (illus.), <a href="#Page259">259</a></li>
+<li class="level1">lamp which saves many lives, <a href="#Page263">263</a></li>
+<li class="level1">man who invented the safety lamp, <a href="#Page264">264</a></li>
+<li class="level1">mine workers that never see day light, <a href="#Page258">258</a></li>
+<li class="level1">mules and their drivers (illus.), <a href="#Page258">258</a></li>
+<li class="level1">peat, <a href="#Page262">262</a></li>
+<li class="level1">safety lamp and firedamp, <a href="#Page262">262</a></li>
+<li class="level1">seams (illus.), <a href="#Page260">260</a></li>
+<li class="level1">shaft gate (illus.), <a href="#Page260">260</a></li>
+<li class="level1">slate pickers (illus.), <a href="#Page259">259</a></li>
+<li class="level1">soft, <a href="#Page259">259</a></li>
+<li class="level1">spiral slate pickers (illus.), <a href="#Page259">259</a></li>
+<li class="level1">stable underground (illus.), <a href="#Page258">258</a></li>
+<li class="level1">undercutting with compressed air machines (illus.), <a href="#Page261">261</a></li>
+<li class="level1">undercutting with pick (illus.), <a href="#Page261">261</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Cocoa</b>, see <a href="#Ref04">Cacao</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Cocoon</b>, description of, <a href="#Page115">115</a></li>
+<li class="level1">completed (illus.), <a href="#Page116">116</a></li>
+<li class="level1">from which moths have emerged (illus.), <a href="#Page117">117</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how silk is reeled from, <a href="#Page118">118</a></li>
+<li class="level1">moths emerging from (illus.), <a href="#Page117">117</a></li>
+<li class="level1">number required to one pound of silk, <a href="#Page117">117</a></li>
+<li class="level1">silkworm beginning of (illus.), <a href="#Page116">116</a></li>
+<li class="level1">silkworm, preparing for making of (illus.), <a href="#Page116">116</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Coins</b>, gold, <a href="#Page266">266</a></li>
+<li class="level1">in glass of water, <a href="#Page38">38</a></li>
+<li class="level1">silver, <a href="#Page266">266</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Cohesion</b>, definition of, <a href="#Page219">219</a>, <a href="#Page220">220</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Cold</b>, why some things are, <a href="#Page144">144</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Color</b>, exposed to light rays, <a href="#Page36">36</a></li>
+<li class="level1">in paint, <a href="#Page229">229</a></li>
+<li class="level1">what it is, <a href="#Page123">123</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Colors</b>, different in birds’ eggs, <a href="#Page233">233</a></li>
+<li class="level1">in sunset, cause of, <a href="#Page253">253</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Color</b>, of rainbow<span class="pagenum" id="Page586">[586]</span>, <a href="#Page253">253</a></li>
+<li class="level1">red, why it makes a bull angry, <a href="#Page490">490</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Columbus</b>, brought first sheep to America, <a href="#Page80">80</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Comb honey</b>, development of (illus.), <a href="#Page529">529</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Compounds</b>, compared with elements, <a href="#Page349">349</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Compressed air</b>, method in building tunnels, <a href="#Page211">211</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Concrete</b>, buildings (illus.), <a href="#Page100">100</a></li>
+<li class="level1">construction (illus.), <a href="#Page100">100</a></li>
+<li class="level1">decay, <a href="#Page101">101</a></li>
+<li class="level1">engineering, <a href="#Page102">102</a></li>
+<li class="level1">forms (illus.), <a href="#Page100">100</a></li>
+<li class="level1">houses (illus.), <a href="#Page101">101</a></li>
+<li class="level1">loads (illus.), <a href="#Page100">100</a></li>
+<li class="level1">mold, <a href="#Page101">101</a></li>
+<li class="level1">ornamental (illus.), <a href="#Page100">100</a></li>
+<li class="level1">practical uses of (illus.), <a href="#Page100">100</a></li>
+<li class="level1">rusting, <a href="#Page100">100</a></li>
+<li class="level1">Silo (illus.), <a href="#Page102">102</a></li>
+<li class="level1">stable (illus.), <a href="#Page102">102</a></li>
+<li class="level1">sun dial (illus.), <a href="#Page101">101</a></li>
+<li class="level1">tensile strain, <a href="#Page104">104</a></li>
+<li class="level1">tower (illus.), <a href="#Page102">102</a></li>
+<li class="level1">walls (illus.), <a href="#Page100">100</a></li>
+<li class="level1">water tower (illus.), <a href="#Page102">102</a></li>
+<li class="level1">what it is, <a href="#Page95">95</a></li>
+<li class="level1">wood, <a href="#Page102">102</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Confucius</b>, philosophy written with brush, <a href="#Page13">13</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Cooking</b>, when first used, <a href="#Page308">308</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Copper</b>, as a conductor of electricity, <a href="#Page267">267</a></li>
+<li class="level1">wire, telegraph, <a href="#Page266">266</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Corn plant</b>, how pollen fertilizes, <a href="#Page170">170</a></li>
+<li class="level1">why it has silk, <a href="#Page176">176</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Corn Silk</b>, what it is for, <a href="#Page176">176</a></li>
+<li class="level1">baling presses (illus.), <a href="#Page476">476</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Cotton</b>, drawing frames (illus.), <a href="#Page472">472</a></li>
+<li class="level1">slashers (illus.), <a href="#Page475">475</a></li>
+<li class="level1">spinning frames (illus.), <a href="#Page473">473</a></li>
+<li class="level1">warping machine (illus.), <a href="#Page474">474</a></li>
+<li class="level1">what nation produces the most, <a href="#Page477">477</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how much cloth will a pound of cotton make, <a href="#Page477">477</a></li>
+<li class="level1">mill (illus.), <a href="#Page471">471</a></li>
+<li class="level1">cloth, first steps in making, <a href="#Page472">472</a></li>
+<li class="level1">putting fiber on bobbins (illus.), <a href="#Page473">473</a></li>
+<li class="level1">cloth finished (illus.), <a href="#Page476">476</a></li>
+<li class="level1">who discovered, <a href="#Page477">477</a></li>
+<li class="level1">weave room, <a href="#Page475">475</a></li>
+<li class="level1">where it comes from, <a href="#Page470">470</a></li>
+<li class="level1">lapper machines, <a href="#Page471">471</a></li>
+<li class="level1">card room (illus.), <a href="#Page472">472</a></li>
+<li class="level1">bobbins (illus.), <a href="#Page473">473</a></li>
+<li class="level1">dye-house (illus.), <a href="#Page474">474</a></li>
+<li class="level1">beaming frames (illus.), <a href="#Page475">475</a></li>
+<li class="level1">inspecting tables (illus.), <a href="#Page476">476</a></li>
+<li class="level1">field a southern (illus.), <a href="#Page470">470</a></li>
+<li class="level1">breaker machines (illus.), <a href="#Page471">471</a></li>
+<li class="level1">slubber machines (illus.), <a href="#Page472">472</a></li>
+<li class="level1">speeders (illus.), <a href="#Page473">473</a></li>
+<li class="level1">spooling machine (illus.), <a href="#Page474">474</a></li>
+<li class="level1">shipping (illus.), <a href="#Page476">476</a></li>
+<li class="level1">what used for, <a href="#Page477">477</a></li>
+<li class="level1">cloths, what are the principle, <a href="#Page477">477</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Counting</b>, man, himself, <a href="#Page19">19</a></li>
+<li class="level1">in tens, <a href="#Page19">19</a></li>
+<li class="level1">in twelves, <a href="#Page20">20</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Crying</b>, what makes us, <a href="#Page195">195</a></li>
+<li class="level1">when hurt, why we, <a href="#Page93">93</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Cross-bow</b>, invention of, <a href="#Page44">44</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Crude rubber</b>, how treated, <a href="#Page378">378</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Culverins</b>, early type of, <a href="#Page45">45</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Cylinder in gas engine</b> (illus.), <a href="#Page184">184</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Darkness</b>, cats can see in, <a href="#Page91">91</a></li>
+<li class="level1">some animals can see in, <a href="#Page91">91</a></li>
+<li class="level1">why we cannot see in, <a href="#Page91">91</a></li>
+<li class="level1">why we fear, <a href="#Page352">352</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Deep sea diving</b>, the telephone adjusting (illus.), <a href="#Page202">202</a></li>
+<li class="level1">coming up (illus.), <a href="#Page204">204</a></li>
+<li class="level1">cost of outfit, <a href="#Page203">203</a></li>
+<li class="level1">helmet, putting on (illus.), <a href="#Page202">202</a></li>
+<li class="level1">just before going down (illus.), <a href="#Page204">204</a></li>
+<li class="level1">outfit, <a href="#Page202">202</a></li>
+<li class="level1">shoes, putting on (illus.), <a href="#Page202">202</a></li>
+<li class="level1">suit, putting on (illus.), <a href="#Page202">202</a></li>
+<li class="level1">telephoning from bottom, <a href="#Page203">203</a></li>
+<li class="level1">telephone, testing the (illus.), <a href="#Page203">203</a></li>
+<li class="level1">testing, final (illus.), <a href="#Page203">203</a></li>
+<li class="level1">water pressure at varying depths, <a href="#Page203">203</a></li>
+<li class="level1">wealth recovered by diving, <a href="#Page204">204</a></li>
+<li class="level1">weight of outfit, <a href="#Page203">203</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Deer-stalking with the cross-bow</b> (illus.), <a href="#Page42">42</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Detonators</b>, in firearms, <a href="#Page47">47</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Developer</b>, Pyro, in photography, <a href="#Page23">23</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Diamonds</b>, what made of, <a href="#Page351">351</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Did</b> candles come before lamps? <a href="#Page294">294</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Die</b>, why do we have to, <a href="#Page245">245</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Difference</b> in woolens and worsteds, <a href="#Page84">84</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Dimples</b>, what causes, <a href="#Page352">352</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Discovery</b> of gunpowder, <a href="#Page44">44</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Discovery</b> of stringed musical instruments, <a href="#Page479">479</a></li>
+<li class="level1">telephone, <a href="#Page71">71</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Diver’s</b> task made easy (illus.), <a href="#Page284">284</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Diving, deep-sea</b>, the telephone adjusting, (illus.), <a href="#Page202">202</a></li>
+<li class="level1">cost of outfit, <a href="#Page203">203</a></li>
+<li class="level1">hats of divers, <a href="#Page204">204</a></li>
+<li class="level1">just before going down (illus.), <a href="#Page204">204</a></li>
+<li class="level1">helmet, putting on (illus.), <a href="#Page202">202</a></li>
+<li class="level1">shoes, putting on (illus.), <a href="#Page202">202</a></li>
+<li class="level1">suit, putting on the (illus.), <a href="#Page202">202</a></li>
+<li class="level1">suit, what consists of, <a href="#Page202">202</a></li>
+<li class="level1">telephone from bottom, <a href="#Page203">203</a></li>
+<li class="level1">telephoning, testing the (illus.), <a href="#Page203">203</a></li>
+<li class="level1">testing final (illus.), <a href="#Page203">203</a></li>
+<li class="level1">water pressure at varying depths, <a href="#Page203">203</a></li>
+<li class="level1">wealth recovered by diving, <a href="#Page204">204</a></li>
+<li class="level1">weight of outfit, <a href="#Page203">203</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Dixie</b>, what name means, <a href="#Page124">124</a></li>
+<li class="level1">where name originated, <a href="#Page123">123</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Does</b> air weigh anything, <a href="#Page398">398</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Does</b> the air surrounding the earth move with it? <a href="#Page400">400</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Does</b> thunder sour milk, <a href="#Page196">196</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Does</b> light weigh anything? <a href="#Page37">37</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Does</b> the sun revolve on its axis? <a href="#Page511">511</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Do</b> father and mother plants always live together? <a href="#Page176">176</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Do</b> the ends of the rainbow rest on land? <a href="#Page254">254</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Do</b> the stars really shoot down? <a href="#Page255">255</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Dog</b>, why he turns round before lying down, <a href="#Page229">229</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Dolls</b>, why girls like, <a href="#Page368">368</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Dom Pedro</b>, Emperor of Brazil, who saved the telephone, <a href="#Page73">73</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Do</b> plants breathe? <a href="#Page241">241</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Draft</b>, created by chimney, <a href="#Page37">37</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Dreams</b>, cause of, <a href="#Page366">366</a></li>
+<li class="level1">nightmare, <a href="#Page367">367</a></li>
+<li class="level1">what makes us? <a href="#Page366">366</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Drinking</b>, origin of clinking glasses, <a href="#Page232">232</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Driving shield</b>, airlock bulkhead (illus.)<span class="pagenum" id="Page587">[587]</span>, <a href="#Page210">210</a></li>
+<li class="level1">erector (illus.), <a href="#Page210">210</a></li>
+<li class="level1">in tunnel building (illus.), <a href="#Page208">208</a></li>
+<li class="level1">inventor of, <a href="#Page209">209</a></li>
+<li class="level1">tunnels, front view (illus.), <a href="#Page209">209</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Ducks</b>, why water runs off backs of, <a href="#Page233">233</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Dust</b>, in air, <a href="#Page38">38</a></li>
+<li class="level1">what it is, <a href="#Page104">104</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Dyeing</b>, silk, <a href="#Page121">121</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Earache</b>, what causes, <a href="#Page410">410</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Earth</b>, how big it is, <a href="#Page124">124</a></li>
+<li class="level1">light surrounding, <a href="#Page38">38</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Echo</b>, what makes an, <a href="#Page200">200</a></li>
+<li class="level1">whispering gallery, <a href="#Page201">201</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Eggs</b>, birds why different colors, <a href="#Page233">233</a></li>
+<li class="level1">silkworm, how imported, <a href="#Page111">111</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Egyptians</b>, how ancients wrote, <a href="#Page12">12</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Electric arc</b>, temperature of, <a href="#Page35">35</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Electric current</b>, what it is, <a href="#Page334">334</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Electricity</b>, conductors of, <a href="#Page331">331</a></li>
+<li class="level1">current, <a href="#Page334">334</a></li>
+<li class="level1">good conductors, <a href="#Page331">331</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how discovered, <a href="#Page333">333</a></li>
+<li class="level1">non-conductors, <a href="#Page331">331</a></li>
+<li class="level1">what is, <a href="#Page329">329</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Electric lighting</b>, arc-light, <a href="#Page307">307</a></li>
+<li class="level1">Edison’s first lamp (illus.), <a href="#Page306">306</a></li>
+<li class="level1">incandescent carbon lamp (illus.), <a href="#Page306">306</a></li>
+<li class="level1">Mazda lamp (illus.), <a href="#Page306">306</a></li>
+<li class="level1">tantalum lamp (illus.), <a href="#Page306">306</a></li>
+<li class="level1">Tungsten metal lamps, <a href="#Page305">305</a></li>
+<li class="level1">when introduced, <a href="#Page305">305</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Elements</b>, carbon, <a href="#Page352">352</a></li>
+<li class="level1">compared with compounds, <a href="#Page349">349</a></li>
+<li class="level1">hydrogen, <a href="#Page349">349</a></li>
+<li class="level1">nitrogen, <a href="#Page350">350</a></li>
+<li class="level1">oxygen, <a href="#Page349">349</a></li>
+<li class="level1">what an is, <a href="#Page349">349</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Elevator</b>, description of (illus.), <a href="#Page397">397</a></li>
+<li class="level1">installation (illus.), <a href="#Page396">396</a></li>
+<li class="level1">principal parts of, <a href="#Page396">396</a></li>
+<li class="level1">why does not the car fall? <a href="#Page397">397</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Emperor</b>, saved the telephone, <a href="#Page73">73</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Emperor of Brazil</b>, receives first message over first telephone, <a href="#Page74">74</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Engine, gas</b> (illus.), <a href="#Page181">181</a>-<a href="#Page182">182</a></li>
+<li class="level1">carburetor, <a href="#Page184">184</a></li>
+<li class="level1">cylinder (illus.), <a href="#Page184">184</a></li>
+<li class="level1">horse-power, of, <a href="#Page256">256</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Exchange</b>, first telephone, <a href="#Page75">75</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Exhibition</b>, of first telephone at Centennial, <a href="#Page74">74</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Experiments</b>, with mirror resultant in photograph, <a href="#Page22">22</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Exploding</b>, a submarine mine, <a href="#Page34">34</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Explosions</b>, how they break windows, <a href="#Page62">62</a></li>
+<li class="level1">in gas engines (illus.), <a href="#Page182">182</a></li>
+<li class="level1">of submarine mines (illus.), <a href="#Page34">34</a></li>
+<li class="level1">what happens in, <a href="#Page205">205</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Explosives</b>, definition of, <a href="#Page205">205</a></li>
+<li class="level1">blasting gelatin, <a href="#Page206">206</a></li>
+<li class="level1">gun-cotton, <a href="#Page206">206</a></li>
+<li class="level1">nitroglycerine, <a href="#Page206">206</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Eye</b>, of a submarine (illus.), <a href="#Page274">274</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Eyes</b>, closed, walking with, <a href="#Page91">91</a></li>
+<li class="level1">hand quicker than, <a href="#Page376">376</a></li>
+<li class="level1">help brain in walking, <a href="#Page91">91</a></li>
+<li class="level1">in some pictures follow you, why, <a href="#Page36">36</a></li>
+<li class="level1">keeping body balanced, <a href="#Page91">91</a></li>
+<li class="level1">nature’s way of protecting, <a href="#Page38">38</a></li>
+<li class="level1">protecting with tears, <a href="#Page38">38</a></li>
+<li class="level1">sparkle when merry, why, <a href="#Page92">92</a></li>
+<li class="level1">why we can’t sleep when open, <a href="#Page92">92</a></li>
+<li class="level1">why we see stars when hit on, <a href="#Page268">268</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Eye-wash</b>, tears as an, <a href="#Page38">38</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Fabrics</b>, worsted, <a href="#Page85">85</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Fahrenheit</b>, what is meant by, <a href="#Page221">221</a></li>
+<li class="level1">why so called, <a href="#Page221">221</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Fastest</b> camera in the world, <a href="#Page25">25</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Fathers and Mothers</b>, do plants have, <a href="#Page175">175</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Federal Government</b>, grazing fee paid to, <a href="#Page82">82</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Fertilization</b>, in birds, <a href="#Page179">179</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how corn plant fertilizes, <a href="#Page176">176</a></li>
+<li class="level1">of fishes, <a href="#Page177">177</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Fight</b>, of Merrimac and Monitor, <a href="#Page32">32</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Film</b>, before and after snapshot, <a href="#Page23">23</a></li>
+<li class="level1">sensitive, <a href="#Page23">23</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Finger prints</b>, arch, (illus.), <a href="#Page520">520</a></li>
+<li class="level1">composite (illus.), <a href="#Page521">521</a></li>
+<li class="level1">of different people, <a href="#Page521">521</a></li>
+<li class="level1">enlargements of, <a href="#Page524">524</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how they identify us, <a href="#Page520">520</a></li>
+<li class="level1">impressions of orang-outang (illus.), <a href="#Page522">522</a></li>
+<li class="level1">loop (illus.), <a href="#Page520">520</a></li>
+<li class="level1">palmary impressions (illus.), <a href="#Page522">522</a></li>
+<li class="level1">specimen form of, record (illus.), <a href="#Page525">525</a></li>
+<li class="level1">spike that caught a criminal (illus.), <a href="#Page524">524</a></li>
+<li class="level1">thieves caught through their, <a href="#Page523">523</a></li>
+<li class="level1">thumb imprint on bottle (illus.), <a href="#Page523">523</a></li>
+<li class="level1">thumb impression on cash box (illus.), <a href="#Page523">523</a></li>
+<li class="level1">thumb mark on a candle (illus.), <a href="#Page523">523</a></li>
+<li class="level1">where first used, <a href="#Page522">522</a></li>
+<li class="level1">whorl (illus.), <a href="#Page521">521</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Fingers</b>, why they hurt when cut, <a href="#Page143">143</a></li>
+<li class="level1">why we have ten, <a href="#Page142">142</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Finger nails</b>, why we have, <a href="#Page142">142</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Fire</b>, alarms when first used, <a href="#Page308">308</a></li>
+<li class="level1">first apparatus to fight, <a href="#Page308">308</a></li>
+<li class="level1">first fire department, <a href="#Page308">308</a></li>
+<li class="level1">first real, fire engine, <a href="#Page308">308</a></li>
+<li class="level1">gases put out, <a href="#Page37">37</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how man discovered, <a href="#Page289">289</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how man learned to fight, <a href="#Page208">208</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how man learned to make a, <a href="#Page289">289</a></li>
+<li class="level1">mark, of civilization, <a href="#Page290">290</a></li>
+<li class="level1">why it goes out, <a href="#Page37">37</a></li>
+<li class="level1">why is it hot? <a href="#Page401">401</a></li>
+<li class="level1">why put out by water, <a href="#Page222">222</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Fire making</b>, drilling (illus.), <a href="#Page289">289</a></li>
+<li class="level1">drilling with bow string (illus.), <a href="#Page290">290</a></li>
+<li class="level1">drilling, two persons (illus.), <a href="#Page290">290</a></li>
+<li class="level1">first matches (illus.), <a href="#Page292">292</a></li>
+<li class="level1">flint and pyrites (illus.), <a href="#Page290">290</a></li>
+<li class="level1">flint, introduction of (illus.), <a href="#Page291">291</a></li>
+<li class="level1">plowing (illus.), <a href="#Page290">290</a></li>
+<li class="level1">pyrites (illus.), <a href="#Page290">290</a></li>
+<li class="level1">rubbing sticks together, <a href="#Page42">42</a></li>
+<li class="level1">sawing (illus.), <a href="#Page289">289</a></li>
+<li class="level1">steel and flint (illus.), <a href="#Page291">291</a></li>
+<li class="level1">tinder box (illus.), <a href="#Page291">291</a></li>
+<li class="level1">tinder box, pistol (illus.), <a href="#Page291">291</a></li>
+<li class="level1">with matches, <a href="#Page292">292</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Firedamp</b>, <a href="#Page262">262</a></li>
+<li class="level1">explosion in safety lamp, <a href="#Page262">262</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Firearms</b>, first crude efforts of, <a href="#Page45">45</a></li>
+<li class="level1">first real (illus.), <a href="#Page45">45</a></li>
+<li class="level1">fuse of, <a href="#Page45">45</a></li>
+<li class="level1">in early Chinese history, <a href="#Page44">44</a></li>
+<li class="level1">first trigger of, <a href="#Page45">45</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Firing</b>, mortar, causes gas-rings, <a href="#Page27">27</a></li>
+
+<li><b>First</b> man-carrying aeroplane<span class="pagenum" id="Page588">[588]</span>, <a href="#Page128">128</a></li>
+<li class="level1">real telegraph, <a href="#Page421">421</a></li>
+<li class="level1">stringed musical instrument, <a href="#Page480">480</a></li>
+<li class="level1">telephone (illus.), <a href="#Page72">72</a></li>
+<li class="level1">telephone line, <a href="#Page72">72</a></li>
+<li class="level1">telephone switchboard (illus.), <a href="#Page74">74</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Fishes</b>, how they are born, <a href="#Page177">177</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how they come to life, <a href="#Page177">177</a></li>
+<li class="level1">motion in swimming, <a href="#Page233">233</a></li>
+<li class="level1">what the eggs are, <a href="#Page177">177</a></li>
+<li class="level1">why they cannot live in air, <a href="#Page232">232</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Flag</b>, made, how was American, <a href="#Page310">310</a></li>
+<li class="level1">made, when was American? <a href="#Page310">310</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Flash pan</b>, early type, <a href="#Page45">45</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Flaxseed oil</b>, what it is, <a href="#Page227">227</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Flight</b>, of projectile, long, <a href="#Page30">30</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Flint-lock</b>, invented in seventeenth century, <a href="#Page46">46</a></li>
+<li class="level1">invented by thieves, <a href="#Page46">46</a></li>
+<li class="level1">still in use in Orient, <a href="#Page46">46</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Floor</b>, sounds through a, <a href="#Page79">79</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Flour</b>, bolters (illus.), <a href="#Page465">465</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how made, <a href="#Page462">462</a></li>
+<li class="level1">purifying machine (illus.), <a href="#Page463">463</a></li>
+<li class="level1">sieves, <a href="#Page465">465</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Flowers</b>, why they have smells, <a href="#Page176">176</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Flying</b>, how birds learn, <a href="#Page178">178</a></li>
+<li class="level1">boat, wonderful (illus.), <a href="#Page133">133</a></li>
+<li class="level1">first Langley monoplane, <a href="#Page126">126</a></li>
+<li class="level1">first successful aeroplane (illus.), <a href="#Page126">126</a></li>
+<li class="level1">machine, first models, <a href="#Page127">127</a></li>
+<li class="level1">some of the men who helped, <a href="#Page126">126</a></li>
+<li class="level1">ten years of (illus.), <a href="#Page137">137</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Flying boat</b>, fun in (illus.), <a href="#Page135">135</a></li>
+<li class="level1">gliding by, <a href="#Page137">137</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Flying boat</b>, interior arrangement (illus.), <a href="#Page134">134</a></li>
+<li class="level1">monoplane type (illus.), <a href="#Page135">135</a></li>
+<li class="level1">six-passenger hull (illus.), <a href="#Page134">134</a></li>
+<li class="level1">speed of (illus.), <a href="#Page135">135</a></li>
+<li class="level1">the wonderful, <a href="#Page133">133</a></li>
+<li class="level1">views of (illus.), <a href="#Page133">133</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Flying machines</b>, <a href="#Page126">126</a></li>
+<li class="level1">Bleriot flew in Europe (illus.), <a href="#Page129">129</a></li>
+<li class="level1">Curtis biplane in flight (illus.), <a href="#Page136">136</a></li>
+<li class="level1">Dr. Langley’s flying (illus.), <a href="#Page127">127</a></li>
+<li class="level1">early types of, <a href="#Page127">127</a></li>
+<li class="level1">first demonstrations, <a href="#Page130">130</a></li>
+<li class="level1">first flight in Europe with, <a href="#Page129">129</a></li>
+<li class="level1">first man-carrying aeroplane, <a href="#Page128">128</a></li>
+<li class="level1">first models, <a href="#Page127">127</a></li>
+<li class="level1">flying boat, <a href="#Page133">133</a></li>
+<li class="level1">flying boat, exterior arrangement, <a href="#Page134">134</a></li>
+<li class="level1">gliding experiments, <a href="#Page137">137</a></li>
+<li class="level1">government interest in, <a href="#Page138">138</a></li>
+<li class="level1">hull of flying boat, <a href="#Page134">134</a></li>
+<li class="level1">interesting governments in, <a href="#Page138">138</a></li>
+<li class="level1">Wright Bros., first flights, <a href="#Page130">130</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Focus</b>, in eye, <a href="#Page22">22</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Fog</b>, what it is, <a href="#Page105">105</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Food</b>, how we learned to cook, <a href="#Page308">308</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Foreign monoplanes</b>, some famous (illus.), <a href="#Page132">132</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Forsythe, LL.D. J.</b>, inventor of the primer, <a href="#Page47">47</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Freckles</b>, what makes them come, <a href="#Page125">125</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Fuse</b>, for firearms in early history, <a href="#Page45">45</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Funditor</b>, <a href="#Page42">42</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Gas</b>, acetylene, <a href="#Page305">305</a></li>
+<li class="level1">definition, <a href="#Page348">348</a></li>
+<li class="level1">first structure to be lighted by, <a href="#Page302">302</a></li>
+<li class="level1">in coal mines, <a href="#Page262">262</a></li>
+<li class="level1">water, <a href="#Page305">305</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Gas, illuminating</b>, Baltimore first city to use, <a href="#Page302">302</a></li>
+<li class="level1">carbon in, <a href="#Page302">302</a></li>
+<li class="level1">discovered, when, <a href="#Page302">302</a></li>
+<li class="level1">first American house to use, <a href="#Page302">302</a></li>
+<li class="level1">first practical demonstration of, <a href="#Page302">302</a></li>
+<li class="level1">generator house (illus.), <a href="#Page299">299</a></li>
+<li class="level1">holder (illus.), <a href="#Page298">298</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how it gets into jet, <a href="#Page302">302</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how it is purified, <a href="#Page303">303</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how made, <a href="#Page303">303</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how the meter works, <a href="#Page304">304</a></li>
+<li class="level1">hydrogen in, <a href="#Page302">302</a></li>
+<li class="level1">impurities removed from (illus.), <a href="#Page301">301</a></li>
+<li class="level1">jet, the story in a, <a href="#Page303">303</a></li>
+<li class="level1">made of, <a href="#Page302">302</a></li>
+<li class="level1">meter, description, <a href="#Page304">304</a></li>
+<li class="level1">purifying boxes (illus.), <a href="#Page301">301</a></li>
+<li class="level1">removing tar from, <a href="#Page300">300</a></li>
+<li class="level1">shaving scrubbers (illus.), <a href="#Page300">300</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Gasoline engine</b> (illus.), <a href="#Page181">181</a>, <a href="#Page182">182</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Gases</b>, generated at gun muzzle, <a href="#Page27">27</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how expelled in gun ingot, <a href="#Page55">55</a></li>
+<li class="level1">hydrogen, <a href="#Page349">349</a></li>
+<li class="level1">nitrogen, <a href="#Page350">350</a></li>
+<li class="level1">oxygen, <a href="#Page349">349</a></li>
+<li class="level1">tendency to put out fire, <a href="#Page37">37</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Gas-rings</b>, in firing motor, <a href="#Page27">27</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Gatling</b>, inventor of guns, <a href="#Page310">310</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Gelatine</b>, in photography, <a href="#Page23">23</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Gestures</b>, talking by, <a href="#Page18">18</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Ghosts</b>, what are they? <a href="#Page367">367</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Glad</b>, why do we laugh when, <a href="#Page92">92</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Glass</b>, why it cracks, <a href="#Page63">63</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how long known, <a href="#Page247">247</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Glass, plate</b>, casting (illus.), <a href="#Page249">249</a></li>
+<li class="level1">commercial, <a href="#Page246">246</a></li>
+<li class="level1">plate and window glass compared (illus.), <a href="#Page252">252</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Glass, plate, making</b>, annealing, oven, <a href="#Page249">249</a></li>
+<li class="level1">beveling, <a href="#Page247">247</a></li>
+<li class="level1">blanketing, <a href="#Page252">252</a></li>
+<li class="level1">clay mixing (illus.), <a href="#Page248">248</a></li>
+<li class="level1">clay trampling (illus.), <a href="#Page248">248</a></li>
+<li class="level1">clay used, <a href="#Page247">247</a></li>
+<li class="level1">grinding table, <a href="#Page250">250</a></li>
+<li class="level1">materials used in, <a href="#Page247">247</a></li>
+<li class="level1">mercury, <a href="#Page253">253</a></li>
+<li class="level1">nitrate of silver, <a href="#Page253">253</a></li>
+<li class="level1">pots (illus.), <a href="#Page248">248</a></li>
+<li class="level1">pots, drying of, <a href="#Page248">248</a></li>
+<li class="level1">pots, length of usefulness, <a href="#Page248">248</a></li>
+<li class="level1">silvering, <a href="#Page247">247</a></li>
+<li class="level1">skimming the pot (illus.), <a href="#Page249">249</a></li>
+<li class="level1">treading, <a href="#Page247">247</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Glow-worm</b>, why does it glow? <a href="#Page231">231</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Gold</b>, why is it called precious? <a href="#Page266">266</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Gong</b>, why does it stop when it has been sounded, <a href="#Page78">78</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Good luck</b>, why a horseshoe brings? <a href="#Page311">311</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Graphite</b> in lead pencils, <a href="#Page468">468</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Gravitation</b>, what is, <a href="#Page267">267</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Gravity</b>, center of, in gun, <a href="#Page61">61</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Gravity</b>, force of, <a href="#Page61">61</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Greek fire</b>, in early history, <a href="#Page44">44</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Growing</b>, why do we stop, <a href="#Page195">195</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Gun</b>, action at muzzle, <a href="#Page27">27</a></li>
+<li class="level1">annealing a gun ingot, <a href="#Page57">57</a></li>
+<li class="level1">assembling of, <a href="#Page48">48</a>-<a href="#Page54">54</a></li>
+<li class="level1">arquebus of, 1537, <a href="#Page47">47</a></li>
+<li class="level1">barrels, erosion of<span class="pagenum" id="Page589">[589]</span>, <a href="#Page35">35</a></li>
+<li class="level1">blow-holes, <a href="#Page56">56</a></li>
+<li class="level1">bore searcher, <a href="#Page59">59</a></li>
+<li class="level1">breech of a, <a href="#Page53">53</a></li>
+<li class="level1">discharges, force of, <a href="#Page33">33</a></li>
+<li class="level1">calibre of a, <a href="#Page53">53</a></li>
+<li class="level1">elastic limit, <a href="#Page58">58</a></li>
+<li class="level1">elongation, <a href="#Page58">58</a></li>
+<li class="level1">forging a (illus.), <a href="#Page52">52</a></li>
+<li class="level1">heat treatment, <a href="#Page58">58</a></li>
+<li class="level1">hoops of a, <a href="#Page54">54</a></li>
+<li class="level1">improvements in, <a href="#Page45">45</a></li>
+<li class="level1">ingot, calibre of, <a href="#Page55">55</a></li>
+<li class="level1">jacket of, <a href="#Page54">54</a></li>
+<li class="level1">length of a, <a href="#Page53">53</a></li>
+<li class="level1">liner of, <a href="#Page54">54</a></li>
+<li class="level1">life of, <a href="#Page35">35</a></li>
+<li class="level1">manufacture in America, <a href="#Page48">48</a></li>
+<li class="level1">measuring inside diameter (illus.), <a href="#Page59">59</a></li>
+<li class="level1">modern built-up (illus.), <a href="#Page54">54</a></li>
+<li class="level1">mold for ingot, <a href="#Page55">55</a></li>
+<li class="level1">muzzle of, <a href="#Page53">53</a></li>
+<li class="level1">pressure generated in a big gun, <a href="#Page54">54</a></li>
+<li class="level1">photography (illus.), <a href="#Page33">33</a></li>
+<li class="level1">piping, <a href="#Page56">56</a></li>
+<li class="level1">powder chamber of a, <a href="#Page53">53</a></li>
+<li class="level1">rifling (illus.), <a href="#Page60">60</a></li>
+<li class="level1">rifling of, <a href="#Page53">53</a></li>
+<li class="level1">shrinking pit, <a href="#Page59">59</a></li>
+<li class="level1">tensile strength of, <a href="#Page58">58</a></li>
+<li class="level1">factory, testing materials, (illus.), <a href="#Page50">50</a></li>
+<li class="level1">tube of, <a href="#Page54">54</a></li>
+<li class="level1">tube, how it is tempered, <a href="#Page57">57</a></li>
+<li class="level1">why called gatling, <a href="#Page310">310</a></li>
+<li class="level1">wire-wound, <a href="#Page54">54</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Gun-barrels</b>, imported from England, <a href="#Page49">49</a></li>
+<li class="level1">resisting pressure of, <a href="#Page34">34</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Gun-cotton</b>, in smokeless powder, <a href="#Page35">35</a>, <a href="#Page206">206</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Gunpowder</b>, Chinese probable discovers of, <a href="#Page44">44</a></li>
+<li class="level1">discoverer of, <a href="#Page44">44</a></li>
+<li class="level1">experiments by Schwartz, <a href="#Page45">45</a></li>
+<li class="level1">formula of Roger Bacon, <a href="#Page45">45</a></li>
+<li class="level1">ingredients in, <a href="#Page205">205</a></li>
+<li class="level1">manufactured in monasteries, <a href="#Page44">44</a></li>
+<li class="level1">what causes the smoke? <a href="#Page206">206</a></li>
+<li class="level1">smokeless, what made of, <a href="#Page206">206</a></li>
+<li class="level1">why some is fine and others large grained, <a href="#Page206">206</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Gurgle</b>, in bottles, <a href="#Page63">63</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Hail</b>, what causes, <a href="#Page124">124</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Hair</b>, what causes baldness, <a href="#Page143">143</a></li>
+<li class="level1">why it don’t hurt when cut, <a href="#Page143">143</a></li>
+<li class="level1">why it keeps growing, <a href="#Page144">144</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Hand bombards</b>, early types, <a href="#Page45">45</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Hands</b>, shaking, why with the right, <a href="#Page231">231</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Hansom</b>, why so called, <a href="#Page122">122</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Have</b> plants fathers and mothers? <a href="#Page175">175</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Heart</b>, why beats during sleep, <a href="#Page191">191</a></li>
+<li class="level1">why beats faster when scared, <a href="#Page191">191</a></li>
+<li class="level1">why beats faster when running, <a href="#Page191">191</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Heat</b>, light wave changed into, <a href="#Page36">36</a></li>
+<li class="level1">why a nail gets hot when hammered, <a href="#Page230">230</a></li>
+<li class="level1">why some things are warm, <a href="#Page144">144</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how we obtain, <a href="#Page231">231</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Hemp</b>, Manilla (illus.), <a href="#Page356">356</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Hobson’s choice</b>, how originated, <a href="#Page311">311</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Honey</b>, apiary in summer (illus.), <a href="#Page534">534</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how produced, <a href="#Page527">527</a></li>
+<li class="level1">worker comb (illus.), <a href="#Page532">532</a></li>
+<li class="level1">manner of using German bee-brush, <a href="#Page533">533</a></li>
+<li class="level1">finished product (illus.), <a href="#Page533">533</a></li>
+<li class="level1">frame (illus.), <a href="#Page535">535</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how to bump the bees off a comb (illus.), <a href="#Page533">533</a></li>
+<li class="level1">bee-hat (illus.), <a href="#Page535">535</a></li>
+<li class="level1">a study in cell-making (illus.), <a href="#Page532">532</a></li>
+<li class="level1">bee sting, can a, <a href="#Page536">536</a></li>
+<li class="level1">frame of bees (illus.), <a href="#Page535">535</a></li>
+<li class="level1">comb, how bees build, <a href="#Page536">536</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Honey-bee</b>, poison-bag, <a href="#Page537">537</a></li>
+<li class="level1">egg of queen, under microscope (illus.), <a href="#Page529">529</a></li>
+<li class="level1">preparing for rearing, <a href="#Page531">531</a></li>
+<li class="level1">living on combs in open air, (illus.), <a href="#Page527">527</a></li>
+<li class="level1">the daily growth of larvæ (illus.), <a href="#Page532">532</a></li>
+<li class="level1">effect of a sting (illus.), <a href="#Page536">536</a></li>
+<li class="level1">worker-bee (illus.), <a href="#Page527">527</a></li>
+<li class="level1">what the queen-bee does? <a href="#Page528">528</a></li>
+<li class="level1">drone-comb (illus.), <a href="#Page532">532</a></li>
+<li class="level1">clipping queen bees wings (illus.), <a href="#Page533">533</a></li>
+<li class="level1">cucumber blossom with bee on it (illus.), <a href="#Page528">528</a></li>
+<li class="level1">queen-bee (illus.), <a href="#Page527">527</a></li>
+<li class="level1">the queen and her retinue (illus.), <a href="#Page529">529</a></li>
+<li class="level1">queen-rearing, <a href="#Page531">531</a></li>
+<li class="level1">queen-cells (illus.), <a href="#Page529">529</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Honeymoon</b>, why do they call it a? <a href="#Page311">311</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Horizon</b>, how far away is the, <a href="#Page245">245</a></li>
+<li class="level1">what is it, <a href="#Page244">244</a></li>
+<li class="level1">where is it, <a href="#Page244">244</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Horse-power</b>, a, what it is, <a href="#Page256">256</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Horseshoes</b>, why it is said to bring good luck? <a href="#Page311">311</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Hot box</b>, cause of, <a href="#Page368">368</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Houiller</b>, French gunsmith, <a href="#Page48">48</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Houses</b>, concrete (illus.), <a href="#Page101">101</a></li>
+
+<li><b>How</b> far does the air extend? <a href="#Page243">243</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is ammunition made (illus.)? <a href="#Page49">49</a></li>
+<li class="level1">does an arc light burn? <a href="#Page307">307</a></li>
+<li class="level1">are automobile tires made? <a href="#Page382">382</a></li>
+<li class="level1">does a honey bee live? <a href="#Page336">336</a></li>
+<li class="level1">does a bee make honey? <a href="#Page527">527</a></li>
+<li class="level1">do bees build the honey comb? <a href="#Page536">536</a></li>
+<li class="level1">does the honey bee defend itself? <a href="#Page536">536</a></li>
+<li class="level1">does honey develop in a comb (illus.)? <a href="#Page530">530</a></li>
+<li class="level1">do birds learn to fly? <a href="#Page178">178</a></li>
+<li class="level1">do birds find their way? <a href="#Page407">407</a></li>
+<li class="level1">does the blotter take up the ink of a blot? <a href="#Page18">18</a></li>
+<li class="level1">this book is bound, <a href="#Page578">578</a></li>
+<li class="level1">this book is made, <a href="#Page561">561</a></li>
+<li class="level1">the paper in this book is made, <a href="#Page561">561</a></li>
+<li class="level1">the pictures in this book are made, <a href="#Page581">581</a></li>
+<li class="level1">are bullets made? <a href="#Page51">51</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is an ocean cable laid? <a href="#Page429">429</a></li>
+<li class="level1">does a camera take a picture? <a href="#Page22">22</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is a cable dropped into the ocean (illus.)? <a href="#Page432">432</a></li>
+<li class="level1">are modern carpets made? <a href="#Page169">169</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is a carpet woven by machinery? <a href="#Page171">171</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is china decorated? <a href="#Page406">406</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is china made? <a href="#Page404">404</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is chocolate made? <a href="#Page392">392</a></li>
+<li class="level1">did the custom of clinking glasses in drinking originate? <a href="#Page232">232</a></li>
+<li class="level1">are cigars made? <a href="#Page517">517</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is cloth made from wool? <a href="#Page86">86</a></li>
+<li class="level1">did the coal get into the coal mines? <a href="#Page257">257</a></li>
+<li class="level1">does a coal mine look inside? <a href="#Page260">260</a></li>
+<li class="level1">do the cocoa beans grow (illus.)? <a href="#Page391">391</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is the color put on the outside of the pencil? <a href="#Page469">469</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is the honey comb made? <a href="#Page532">532</a></li>
+<li class="level1">are concrete roads built (illus.)? <a href="#Page103">103</a></li>
+<li class="level1">did man learn to cook his food? <a href="#Page308">308</a></li>
+<li class="level1">are concrete buildings made (illus.)?<span class="pagenum" id="Page590">[590]</span> <a href="#Page100">100</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is woolen cloth dyed? <a href="#Page87">87</a></li>
+<li class="level1">big is the earth? <a href="#Page124">124</a></li>
+<li class="level1">much of the earth does the sun shine on at one time? <a href="#Page324">324</a></li>
+<li class="level1">does an elevator go up and down (illus.)? <a href="#Page396">396</a></li>
+<li class="level1">was electricity discovered? <a href="#Page333">333</a></li>
+<li class="level1">does the light get into the electric bulb? <a href="#Page305">305</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is the eraser put on a pencil? <a href="#Page469">469</a></li>
+<li class="level1">can an explosion break windows? <a href="#Page62">62</a></li>
+<li class="level1">explosions may occur on submarines, <a href="#Page278">278</a></li>
+<li class="level1">does the farmer use concrete (illus.)? <a href="#Page102">102</a></li>
+<li class="level1">do our finger prints identify us? <a href="#Page520">520</a></li>
+<li class="level1">did man learn to fight fire? <a href="#Page308">308</a></li>
+<li class="level1">did man learn to make a fire? <a href="#Page289">289</a></li>
+<li class="level1">are fishes born? <a href="#Page177">177</a></li>
+<li class="level1">was the flag made? <a href="#Page310">310</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is flour made? <a href="#Page462">462</a></li>
+<li class="level1">does a fly walk upside down? <a href="#Page454">454</a></li>
+<li class="level1">did men learn to fly? <a href="#Page126">126</a></li>
+<li class="level1">does the gas get into the gas jet? <a href="#Page302">302</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is illuminating gas made? <a href="#Page303">303</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is gas purified? <a href="#Page303">303</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is plate glass made? <a href="#Page246">246</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is plate glass ground? <a href="#Page250">250</a></li>
+<li class="level1">a wire-wound gun is made? <a href="#Page54">54</a></li>
+<li class="level1">was the first American gun made (illus.)? <a href="#Page47">47</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is a gun ingot made? <a href="#Page55">55</a></li>
+<li class="level1">do we find the length of a gun? <a href="#Page53">53</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is a gun tube tempered? <a href="#Page57">57</a></li>
+<li class="level1">do we obtain heat? <a href="#Page231">231</a></li>
+<li class="level1">the heel of a shoe is put on (illus.), <a href="#Page560">560</a></li>
+<li class="level1">did Hobson’s choice originate? <a href="#Page311">311</a></li>
+<li class="level1">far away is the horizon? <a href="#Page245">245</a></li>
+<li class="level1">does a key turn a lock (illus.)? <a href="#Page491">491</a></li>
+<li class="level1">does a spring lock work (illus.)? <a href="#Page492">492</a></li>
+<li class="level1">are lead pencils made? <a href="#Page467">467</a></li>
+<li class="level1">do the miners loosen the coal? <a href="#Page261">261</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is light produced, <a href="#Page230">230</a></li>
+<li class="level1">are magnets made? <a href="#Page335">335</a></li>
+<li class="level1">are matches made? <a href="#Page293">293</a></li>
+<li class="level1">are match boxes made? <a href="#Page294">294</a></li>
+<li class="level1">did man learn to send messages? <a href="#Page412">412</a></li>
+<li class="level1">does the meter measure the gas? <a href="#Page304">304</a></li>
+<li class="level1">can microbes spread through the body? <a href="#Page410">410</a></li>
+<li class="level1">are mirrors silvered? <a href="#Page522">522</a></li>
+<li class="level1">big is a molecule? <a href="#Page348">348</a></li>
+<li class="level1">did money originate? <a href="#Page455">455</a></li>
+<li class="level1">are moving pictures made? <a href="#Page369">369</a></li>
+<li class="level1">does the music get into the piano? <a href="#Page478">478</a>-<a href="#Page482">482</a></li>
+<li class="level1">did the word news originate? <a href="#Page312">312</a></li>
+<li class="level1">did a nod come to mean yes? <a href="#Page19">19</a></li>
+<li class="level1">did shaking the head come to mean no? <a href="#Page19">19</a></li>
+<li class="level1">are paints mixed? <a href="#Page228">228</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is a photograph developed? <a href="#Page23">23</a></li>
+<li class="level1">was the piano discovered? <a href="#Page479">479</a></li>
+<li class="level1">do plants breathe? <a href="#Page241">241</a></li>
+<li class="level1">do plants reproduce life? <a href="#Page175">175</a></li>
+<li class="level1">does the shield cut through the ground in tunnel building? <a href="#Page212">212</a></li>
+<li class="level1">are shooting shells photographed? <a href="#Page24">24</a></li>
+<li class="level1">shoes are made by machinery, <a href="#Page549">549</a></li>
+<li class="level1">shoe machinery was developed, <a href="#Page457">457</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is crude rubber secured? <a href="#Page377">377</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is rope turned and twisted? <a href="#Page358">358</a></li>
+<li class="level1">are rubber tires made? <a href="#Page378">378</a></li>
+<li class="level1">are modern rugs made? <a href="#Page169">169</a></li>
+<li class="level1">to splice a rope, <a href="#Page364">364</a></li>
+<li class="level1">do men go down to the bottom of the sea? <a href="#Page202">202</a></li>
+<li class="level1">did the sand get on the seashore? <a href="#Page108">108</a></li>
+<li class="level1">far back does the silkworm date? <a href="#Page109">109</a></li>
+<li class="level1">was silk introduced into Europe? <a href="#Page110">110</a></li>
+<li class="level1">are the silkworms cared for? <a href="#Page113">113</a></li>
+<li class="level1">do we know a thing is solid, liquid or gas? <a href="#Page348">348</a></li>
+<li class="level1">are sounds produced? <a href="#Page485">485</a></li>
+<li class="level1">fast does sound travel? <a href="#Page486">486</a></li>
+<li class="level1">can sound come through a thick wall? <a href="#Page79">79</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is the volume of sound measured? <a href="#Page242">242</a></li>
+<li class="level1">far does space reach? <a href="#Page256">256</a></li>
+<li class="level1">do the slate pickers work? <a href="#Page259">259</a></li>
+<li class="level1">does a captain steer his ship across the ocean? <a href="#Page407">407</a></li>
+<li class="level1">can a ship sail under water, <a href="#Page269">269</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is a submarine submerged? <a href="#Page270">270</a></li>
+<li class="level1">do sponges grow? <a href="#Page286">286</a></li>
+<li class="level1">do sponges eat? <a href="#Page287">287</a></li>
+<li class="level1">are sponges caught? <a href="#Page287">287</a></li>
+<li class="level1">are the stars counted? <a href="#Page241">241</a></li>
+<li class="level1">big is the sun? <a href="#Page141">141</a></li>
+<li class="level1">hot is the sun? <a href="#Page141">141</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is a steel pen made (illus.), <a href="#Page17">17</a></li>
+<li class="level1">did man learn to shoot, <a href="#Page40">40</a></li>
+<li class="level1">do we get wool off the sheep? <a href="#Page82">82</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is a stone thrown with a sling? <a href="#Page41">41</a></li>
+<li class="level1">are metallic and paper shells filled with powder? <a href="#Page50">50</a></li>
+<li class="level1">did man learn to talk? <a href="#Page18">18</a></li>
+<li class="level1">did the telephone come to be? <a href="#Page70">70</a></li>
+<li class="level1">fast does thought travel? <a href="#Page242">242</a></li>
+<li class="level1">does a telegram get there? <a href="#Page414">414</a></li>
+<li class="level1">did man learn to tell time? <a href="#Page313">313</a></li>
+<li class="level1">did man begin to measure time? <a href="#Page314">314</a></li>
+<li class="level1">did men tell time when the sun cast no shadows? <a href="#Page317">317</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is the time calculated at sea? <a href="#Page315">315</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is tobacco cultivated? <a href="#Page516">516</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is tobacco cured? <a href="#Page516">516</a></li>
+<li class="level1">was tobacco discovered? <a href="#Page512">512</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is tobacco harvested? <a href="#Page515">515</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is tobacco planted? <a href="#Page514">514</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is a tunnel dug under water? <a href="#Page208">208</a></li>
+<li class="level1">does water put fire out? <a href="#Page222">222</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is white lead made? <a href="#Page225">225</a></li>
+<li class="level1">are wires put under ground? <a href="#Page76">76</a></li>
+<li class="level1">did writing first come about? <a href="#Page11">11</a></li>
+<li class="level1">did the Chinese write? <a href="#Page13">13</a></li>
+<li class="level1">did the Monks do their writing? <a href="#Page14">14</a></li>
+<li class="level1">does a pen write? <a href="#Page18">18</a></li>
+<li class="level1">much does the wool in a suit of clothes cost? <a href="#Page83">83</a></li>
+<li class="level1">much wool does America produce? <a href="#Page82">82</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is wool taken from the sheep? <a href="#Page82">82</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is the yarn for carpets dyed? <a href="#Page170">170</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is oxide of zinc obtained? <a href="#Page226">226</a></li>
+<li class="level1">does the water get into the faucet? <a href="#Page501">501</a></li>
+<li class="level1">are the big water pipes laid? <a href="#Page504">504</a></li>
+<li class="level1">did the name Uncle Sam originate? <a href="#Page458">458</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Human body</b>, wonders of the, <a href="#Page311">311</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Hunting</b>, with the bow-and-arrow, <a href="#Page43">43</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Hurt</b>, why we cry when, <a href="#Page93">93</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Hydrogen</b>, what it is, <a href="#Page349">349</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Hypo</b>, used in developing, <a href="#Page23">23</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Impact</b>, of projectile from guns, <a href="#Page28">28</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Ink</b>, how does a blotter take up? <a href="#Page18">18</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Instruments</b>, artillery, testing, <a href="#Page24">24</a></li>
+<li class="level1">musical, <a href="#Page488">488</a></li>
+<li class="level1">optical, based on refraction, <a href="#Page38">38</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Incandescent lamp</b>, development of, <a href="#Page306">306</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Inside</b> of a mine planting submarine (illus.), <a href="#Page277">277</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Iron</b>, cast<span class="pagenum" id="Page591">[591]</span>, <a href="#Page265">265</a></li>
+<li class="level1">melts at, <a href="#Page35">35</a></li>
+<li class="level1">the most valuable metal, <a href="#Page265">265</a></li>
+<li class="level1">wrought, <a href="#Page265">265</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Is</b> a moth attracted by a light? <a href="#Page288">288</a></li>
+<li class="level1">man an animal? <a href="#Page180">180</a></li>
+<li class="level1">the hand quicker than the eye? <a href="#Page376">376</a></li>
+<li class="level1">there a reason for everything? <a href="#Page200">200</a></li>
+<li class="level1">there a man in the moon? <a href="#Page400">400</a></li>
+<li class="level1">yawning infectious? <a href="#Page192">192</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Jacket</b>, of a gun, <a href="#Page54">54</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Japan</b> the natural home of the silk worm (illus.), <a href="#Page112">112</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Kentucky rifles</b>, <a href="#Page45">45</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Key</b>, how it works in a lock (illus.), <a href="#Page491">491</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Knots</b>, different kinds of (illus.), <a href="#Page363">363</a></li>
+<li class="level1">what makes, in boards, <a href="#Page223">223</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Lambs</b>, Siberian, in South Dakota (illus.), <a href="#Page80">80</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Lamps</b>, first street light in America, <a href="#Page296">296</a></li>
+<li class="level1">the Clanny safety, <a href="#Page264">264</a></li>
+<li class="level1">did candles come before? <a href="#Page294">294</a></li>
+<li class="level1">earliest forms of, <a href="#Page295">295</a></li>
+<li class="level1">Edison’s first (illus.), <a href="#Page306">306</a></li>
+<li class="level1">incandescent carbon (illus.), <a href="#Page306">306</a></li>
+<li class="level1">incandescent, development of, <a href="#Page306">306</a></li>
+<li class="level1">incandescent, electric, when invented, <a href="#Page305">305</a></li>
+<li class="level1">French watch tower (illus.), <a href="#Page295">295</a></li>
+<li class="level1">Mazda (illus.), <a href="#Page306">306</a></li>
+<li class="level1">from Nushagak hanging (illus.), <a href="#Page297">297</a></li>
+<li class="level1">Pagan votive (illus.), <a href="#Page296">296</a></li>
+<li class="level1">Tantalum (illus.), <a href="#Page306">306</a></li>
+<li class="level1">street, when first used, <a href="#Page295">295</a></li>
+<li class="level1">chimney protects flame, <a href="#Page37">37</a></li>
+<li class="level1">coal miners and safety, <a href="#Page262">262</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Lamp chimney</b>, why it makes a better light, <a href="#Page37">37</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Langley, Dr. Samuel P.</b>, 1914 flight of aeroplane, <a href="#Page128">128</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Languages</b>, why so many, <a href="#Page197">197</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Lantern</b>, the first oil (illus.), <a href="#Page297">297</a></li>
+<li class="level1">the “Réverbère” (illus.), <a href="#Page297">297</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Laugh</b>, when glad, why we, <a href="#Page92">92</a></li>
+<li class="level1">nerves, <a href="#Page93">93</a></li>
+<li class="level1">when tickled, why we, <a href="#Page93">93</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Laughter</b>, reflex action, <a href="#Page93">93</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Lead</b>, as used in making paint, <a href="#Page267">267</a></li>
+<li class="level1">in a pencil, <a href="#Page468">468</a></li>
+<li class="level1">why so heavy, <a href="#Page267">267</a></li>
+<li class="level1">as used in pipes for plumbing, <a href="#Page267">267</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Leather</b>, how the hides are treated, <a href="#Page539">539</a></li>
+<li class="level1">treatment of hides, <a href="#Page538">538</a></li>
+<li class="level1">unhairing machine (illus.), <a href="#Page540">540</a></li>
+<li class="level1">hide house (illus.), <a href="#Page538">538</a></li>
+<li class="level1">tanning process, <a href="#Page539">539</a></li>
+<li class="level1">rolling room (illus.), <a href="#Page539">539</a></li>
+<li class="level1">tanning sole leather, <a href="#Page539">539</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how upper leather is tanned (illus.), <a href="#Page540">540</a></li>
+<li class="level1">disposing of waste material, <a href="#Page540">540</a></li>
+<li class="level1">wringers, <a href="#Page539">539</a></li>
+<li class="level1">tan yard (illus.), <a href="#Page539">539</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Legs</b>, not same length, <a href="#Page91">91</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Lens</b>, in the eye, <a href="#Page22">22</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Leyden jar</b>, what it is, <a href="#Page332">332</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Life</b>, beginning of, <a href="#Page174">174</a></li>
+<li class="level1">beginning of man’s, <a href="#Page174">174</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how plants reproduce, <a href="#Page175">175</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Light</b>, attracting moths, <a href="#Page288">288</a></li>
+<li class="level1">glow-worms why they glow? <a href="#Page231">231</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how produced, <a href="#Page230">230</a></li>
+<li class="level1">lightning bugs, made by, <a href="#Page231">231</a></li>
+<li class="level1">where it goes when it goes out, <a href="#Page36">36</a></li>
+<li class="level1">what makes match, <a href="#Page198">198</a></li>
+<li class="level1">in mirror, <a href="#Page22">22</a></li>
+<li class="level1">in negative, <a href="#Page23">23</a></li>
+<li class="level1">rays, <a href="#Page36">36</a>, <a href="#Page495">495</a></li>
+<li class="level1">broken rays of, <a href="#Page38">38</a></li>
+<li class="level1">rays, heat from, <a href="#Page36">36</a></li>
+<li class="level1">and refraction, <a href="#Page38">38</a></li>
+<li class="level1">speed of, <a href="#Page36">36</a>, <a href="#Page140">140</a></li>
+<li class="level1">travels faster than anything in the world, <a href="#Page36">36</a></li>
+<li class="level1">surrounding earth, <a href="#Page38">38</a></li>
+<li class="level1">wave changed into heat, <a href="#Page36">36</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Lighting</b>, arc, how does it burn, <a href="#Page307">307</a></li>
+<li class="level1">in America, first street (illus.), <a href="#Page296">296</a></li>
+<li class="level1">first oil lantern, <a href="#Page297">297</a></li>
+<li class="level1">electric, when introduced, <a href="#Page305">305</a></li>
+<li class="level1">first street light in Paris, <a href="#Page297">297</a></li>
+<li class="level1">gas tank, (illus.), <a href="#Page298">298</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Lightning</b>, why it follows thunder, <a href="#Page140">140</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Lightning bugs</b>, why they produce light, <a href="#Page231">231</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Lignite</b>, found in coal mines, <a href="#Page262">262</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Liner</b>, of a gun, <a href="#Page54">54</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Linseed oil</b>, extraction of, <a href="#Page228">228</a></li>
+<li class="level1">what it is, <a href="#Page227">227</a></li>
+<li class="level1">where it comes from, <a href="#Page227">227</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Liquid</b>, definition, <a href="#Page348">348</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Living</b>, why do some people live longer, <a href="#Page199">199</a></li>
+<li class="level1">reproduction necessary why, <a href="#Page174">174</a></li>
+<li class="level1">reproduction of, in birds, <a href="#Page179">179</a></li>
+<li class="level1">reproduction of, in fishes, <a href="#Page177">177</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Loading</b> machines in powder factory, <a href="#Page50">50</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Lobsters</b>, red, what makes them, <a href="#Page245">245</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Lock</b>, cylinder (illus.), <a href="#Page492">492</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how a key turns a (illus.), <a href="#Page491">491</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how key changes are provided (illus.), <a href="#Page491">491</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how a spring lock works (illus.), <a href="#Page492">492</a></li>
+<li class="level1">master-keyed cylinder (illus.), <a href="#Page492">492</a></li>
+<li class="level1">what happens when the key is turned? (illus.), <a href="#Page491">491</a></li>
+<li class="level1">what happens when the knob is turned? (illus.), <a href="#Page491">491</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Locomotives</b>, boiler of articulate type (illus.), <a href="#Page440">440</a></li>
+<li class="level1">boiler of (illus.), <a href="#Page442">442</a></li>
+<li class="level1">cab of (illus.), <a href="#Page442">442</a></li>
+<li class="level1">cylinders description of, <a href="#Page441">441</a></li>
+<li class="level1">low pressure cylinders of (illus.), <a href="#Page441">441</a></li>
+<li class="level1">electric, newest (illus.), <a href="#Page443">443</a></li>
+<li class="level1">one of the largest (illus.), <a href="#Page440">440</a></li>
+<li class="level1">signal tower, latest (illus.), <a href="#Page444">444</a></li>
+<li class="level1">stoker, automatic (illus.), <a href="#Page443">443</a></li>
+<li class="level1">water tank (illus.), <a href="#Page444">444</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Lodestone</b>, what it is, <a href="#Page327">327</a></li>
+
+<li>“<b>Long Bow</b>,” in Sherwood Forest (illus.), <a href="#Page42">42</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Loom</b>, cloth making machine, <a href="#Page86">86</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Magnet</b>, breaking iron (illus.), <a href="#Page330">330</a></li>
+<li class="level1">electro (illus.), <a href="#Page326">326</a>, <a href="#Page328">328</a>, <a href="#Page335">335</a></li>
+<li class="level1">electric lift (illus.), <a href="#Page326">326</a></li>
+<li class="level1">experiments with, <a href="#Page327">327</a></li>
+<li class="level1">great lifting by (illus.), <a href="#Page330">330</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how made, <a href="#Page335">335</a></li>
+<li class="level1">what makes it lift things? <a href="#Page326">326</a></li>
+<li class="level1">wonders performed by, <a href="#Page326">326</a></li>
+<li class="level1">work it can do (illus.), <a href="#Page328">328</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Man</b>, writing, how man learned, <a href="#Page11">11</a></li>
+<li class="level1">counting himself, <a href="#Page19">19</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is he an animal? <a href="#Page180">180</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Matches</b>, are they poisonous? <a href="#Page294">294</a></li>
+<li class="level1">first, <a href="#Page292">292</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how made, <a href="#Page293">293</a></li>
+<li class="level1">lucifer (illus.), <a href="#Page292">292</a></li>
+<li class="level1">making by machinery<span class="pagenum" id="Page592">[592]</span>, <a href="#Page293">293</a></li>
+<li class="level1">modern safety (illus.), <a href="#Page292">292</a></li>
+<li class="level1">oxymuriate (illus.), <a href="#Page292">292</a></li>
+<li class="level1">promethean (illus.), <a href="#Page292">292</a></li>
+<li class="level1">what we would do without, <a href="#Page292">292</a></li>
+<li class="level1">when first used (illus.), <a href="#Page292">292</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Match-lock</b>, of early firearms, <a href="#Page45">45</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Melting</b> of iron, <a href="#Page35">35</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Men</b> who made the telephone, <a href="#Page70">70</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Mercury</b>, fulminate of, <a href="#Page49">49</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Merrimac and Monitor</b>, fight of, <a href="#Page32">32</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Merry</b>, why eyes sparkle when, <a href="#Page92">92</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Messages</b>, how men learned to send, <a href="#Page412">412</a></li>
+<li class="level1">Indian smoke signals, <a href="#Page412">412</a></li>
+<li class="level1">marathon runner by (illus.), <a href="#Page413">413</a></li>
+<li class="level1">pony telegraph (illus.), <a href="#Page413">413</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Messenger boy</b>, how to call a (illus.), <a href="#Page414">414</a></li>
+<li class="level1">the first (illus.), <a href="#Page413">413</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Metal</b>, what is a, <a href="#Page265">265</a></li>
+<li class="level1">what is the most valuable? <a href="#Page265">265</a></li>
+<li class="level1">why we use for coining, <a href="#Page456">456</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Meter</b>, description of gas, <a href="#Page304">304</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how it measures gas, <a href="#Page304">304</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Milk</b>, does thunder sour? <a href="#Page196">196</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Milky way</b>, why is it called, <a href="#Page255">255</a></li>
+<li class="level1">what is, <a href="#Page255">255</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Mine cars</b> (illus.), <a href="#Page260">260</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Mines</b>, clearing channel of buoyant, <a href="#Page283">283</a></li>
+<li class="level1">exploding submarine, <a href="#Page34">34</a></li>
+<li class="level1">planting submarine, inside of (illus.), <a href="#Page277">277</a></li>
+<li class="level1">workers that never see daylight, <a href="#Page258">258</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Mirror</b>, collects rays of light, <a href="#Page22">22</a></li>
+<li class="level1">reflection in, <a href="#Page22">22</a></li>
+<li class="level1">reflects rays of light, <a href="#Page22">22</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Mirrors</b>, beveling (illus.), <a href="#Page251">251</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how made, <a href="#Page251">251</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how silvered, <a href="#Page252">252</a></li>
+<li class="level1">polishing, <a href="#Page251">251</a></li>
+<li class="level1">roughing, <a href="#Page251">251</a></li>
+<li class="level1">silvered with mercury, <a href="#Page253">253</a></li>
+<li class="level1">silvering mirror plates (illus.), <a href="#Page252">252</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Molecule</b>, how big is a, <a href="#Page348">348</a></li>
+<li class="level1">what is a, <a href="#Page348">348</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Monasteries</b>, where gunpowder was manufactured, <a href="#Page44">44</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Money</b>, how originated, <a href="#Page455">455</a></li>
+<li class="level1">metallic forms of, <a href="#Page456">456</a></li>
+<li class="level1">who made the first cent, <a href="#Page458">458</a></li>
+<li class="level1">who originated, <a href="#Page455">455</a></li>
+<li class="level1">why do we need, <a href="#Page455">455</a></li>
+<li class="level1">why gold and silver are best for coining, <a href="#Page457">457</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Monitor and Merrimac</b>, fight of, <a href="#Page32">32</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Monks</b>, making gunpowder, <a href="#Page44">44</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Monoplane</b>, flying boat (illus.), <a href="#Page135">135</a></li>
+<li class="level1">German (illus.), <a href="#Page132">132</a></li>
+<li class="level1">over Mediterranean (illus.), <a href="#Page132">132</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Moon</b>, why it travels with us, <a href="#Page399">399</a></li>
+<li class="level1">the man in the, <a href="#Page400">400</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Morse, S. B.</b>, inventor of telegraph, <a href="#Page420">420</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Mortars</b> (illus.), <a href="#Page26">26</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Mothers and Fathers</b>, do plants have, <a href="#Page175">175</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Moths</b>, attracted by light, <a href="#Page288">288</a></li>
+<li class="level1">emerging from cocoon (illus.), <a href="#Page117">117</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Motion</b> bodies, swiftest, <a href="#Page25">25</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Motion</b>, is train harder to stop than start? <a href="#Page223">223</a></li>
+<li class="level1">of light, <a href="#Page140">140</a></li>
+<li class="level1">of sound, <a href="#Page140">140</a></li>
+<li class="level1">perpetual, <a href="#Page61">61</a></li>
+<li class="level1">perpetual, in mechanics, <a href="#Page240">240</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Motors</b>, gas, used in aeroplanes, <a href="#Page130">130</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Mountains</b>, what made them, <a href="#Page401">401</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Moving pictures</b>, Board of Censors, <a href="#Page373">373</a></li>
+<li class="level1">developing room (illus.), <a href="#Page372">372</a></li>
+<li class="level1">drying room (illus.), <a href="#Page373">373</a></li>
+<li class="level1">continuous movement of film, <a href="#Page376">376</a></li>
+<li class="level1">exact size of film, <a href="#Page370">370</a></li>
+<li class="level1">first camera, <a href="#Page375">375</a></li>
+<li class="level1">first exhibited at studio, <a href="#Page372">372</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how made, <a href="#Page369">369</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how freak pictures are made, <a href="#Page376">376</a></li>
+<li class="level1">negative, stock, <a href="#Page370">370</a></li>
+<li class="level1">negative, perforated, <a href="#Page370">370</a></li>
+<li class="level1">“Pigs is Pigs” (illus.), <a href="#Page374">374</a></li>
+<li class="level1">rehearsing (illus.), <a href="#Page371">371</a></li>
+<li class="level1">scenario (illus.), <a href="#Page374">374</a></li>
+<li class="level1">staging, <a href="#Page371">371</a></li>
+<li class="level1">taking a (illus.), <a href="#Page373">373</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Mulberry trees</b>, food for silk worms (illus.), <a href="#Page112">112</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Mules and drivers</b> (illus.), <a href="#Page258">258</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Multiple switchboard</b> of telephone, <a href="#Page69">69</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Music</b>, harp, <a href="#Page479">479</a></li>
+<li class="level1">lyre, <a href="#Page479">479</a></li>
+<li class="level1">note, what it is, <a href="#Page490">490</a></li>
+<li class="level1">what pitch is, <a href="#Page489">489</a></li>
+<li class="level1">what is, <a href="#Page478">478</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Musical talking machines</b>, <a href="#Page490">490</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Muzzle</b>, of a big gun, <a href="#Page53">53</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Muzzle-loaders</b>, in Civil War, <a href="#Page47">47</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Nails</b>, why they get hot when hammered, <a href="#Page230">230</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Names</b>, of people, <a href="#Page20">20</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Nature</b>, protecting eyes, ways of, <a href="#Page38">38</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Navigating</b> on bottom of sea, <a href="#Page283">283</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Negative</b> in photography, <a href="#Page23">23</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Nerves</b>, sensory, receive impression, <a href="#Page93">93</a></li>
+<li class="level1">transmitting impression, <a href="#Page22">22</a></li>
+
+<li><b>News</b>, how did the word originate? <a href="#Page312">312</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Nightmare</b>, cause of, <a href="#Page367">367</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Nitrogen</b>, what it is, <a href="#Page350">350</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Ocean</b>, why is it blue? <a href="#Page219">219</a></li>
+<li class="level1">what makes it green? <a href="#Page219">219</a></li>
+<li class="level1">why don’t water sink in? <a href="#Page219">219</a></li>
+<li class="level1">where did all the water in, come from? <a href="#Page218">218</a></li>
+<li class="level1">where is water at low tide, <a href="#Page219">219</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Of</b> what use is my hair? <a href="#Page143">143</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Of</b> what use are pains and aches? <a href="#Page410">410</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Oil baths</b>, for gun (illus.), <a href="#Page57">57</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Oil cake</b>, from linseed, <a href="#Page228">228</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Oil</b>, palm olive, in soap, <a href="#Page411">411</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Omniscope</b>, of submarine boat, <a href="#Page271">271</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Onions</b>, make tears, <a href="#Page38">38</a></li>
+<li class="level1">bad effect of on eyes, <a href="#Page38">38</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Operatives</b>, in powder factory, girls as, <a href="#Page49">49</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Optical instruments</b>, based on refraction, <a href="#Page38">38</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Organic matter</b>, what it is, <a href="#Page174">174</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Origin of cement</b>, <a href="#Page95">95</a></li>
+<li class="level1">of counting in tens, <a href="#Page19">19</a></li>
+<li class="level1">names of people, <a href="#Page20">20</a></li>
+<li class="level1">of nodding to indicate yes, <a href="#Page19">19</a></li>
+<li class="level1">of shaking head to indicate no, <a href="#Page19">19</a></li>
+<li class="level1">of turnpike, <a href="#Page104">104</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Oxide of zinc smelter</b> (illus.), <a href="#Page227">227</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how obtained, <a href="#Page226">226</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Oxygen</b>, what it is, <a href="#Page349">349</a></li>
+<li class="level1">in air, <a href="#Page37">37</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Pain</b>, of what use is, <a href="#Page410">410</a></li>
+<li class="level1">what it is, <a href="#Page244">244</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Paint</b>, care of, story in, <a href="#Page224">224</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how mixed, <a href="#Page228">228</a></li>
+<li class="level1">uses of, <a href="#Page224">224</a></li>
+<li class="level1">what used for, <a href="#Page224">224</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Paint manufacturing</b>, colors, what makes different<span class="pagenum" id="Page593">[593]</span>, <a href="#Page229">229</a></li>
+<li class="level1">buckles before corrosion (illus.), <a href="#Page225">225</a></li>
+<li class="level1">buckles after corrosion (illus.), <a href="#Page225">225</a></li>
+<li class="level1">buckles placed in stacks (illus.), <a href="#Page225">225</a></li>
+<li class="level1">buckles taken from stacks (illus.), <a href="#Page225">225</a></li>
+<li class="level1">first step in making (illus.), <a href="#Page224">224</a></li>
+<li class="level1">lead buckles making (illus.), <a href="#Page224">224</a></li>
+<li class="level1">lead, white, how made, <a href="#Page224">224</a>-<a href="#Page225">225</a></li>
+<li class="level1">lead white used in, <a href="#Page224">224</a></li>
+<li class="level1">grinding lead in oil (illus.), <a href="#Page228">228</a></li>
+<li class="level1">washing the lead (illus.), <a href="#Page226">226</a></li>
+<li class="level1">mixing, <a href="#Page228">228</a></li>
+<li class="level1">where paints are mixed (illus.), <a href="#Page228">228</a></li>
+<li class="level1">linseed oil, where obtained, <a href="#Page227">227</a></li>
+<li class="level1">pressing oil from flaxseed (illus.), <a href="#Page228">228</a></li>
+<li class="level1">removing oil cake from press, <a href="#Page228">228</a></li>
+<li class="level1">sulphur roasting furnace (illus.), <a href="#Page226">226</a></li>
+<li class="level1">zinc smelter (illus.), <a href="#Page227">227</a></li>
+<li class="level1">oxide of zinc, how made, <a href="#Page226">226</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Paper</b>, earliest forms of, <a href="#Page14">14</a></li>
+<li class="level1">sensitive in photography, <a href="#Page23">23</a></li>
+<li class="level1">shells, inspection of (illus), <a href="#Page49">49</a></li>
+<li class="level1">papyrus, the first, <a href="#Page14">14</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Papyrus</b>, invention of, <a href="#Page14">14</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Patents</b>, of original telephone, <a href="#Page73">73</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Peat</b>, as a fuel, <a href="#Page262">262</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Pen</b>, first metallic (illus.), <a href="#Page15">15</a></li>
+<li class="level1">first steel (illus.), <a href="#Page15">15</a></li>
+<li class="level1">first metallic pen, how made, <a href="#Page15">15</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how it writes, <a href="#Page18">18</a></li>
+<li class="level1">invention of the, <a href="#Page15">15</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Pencils, “lead”</b> where from, <a href="#Page466">466</a></li>
+<li class="level1">eraser is put on, <a href="#Page469">469</a></li>
+<li class="level1">making description of (illus.), <a href="#Page467">467</a></li>
+<li class="level1">who made the first? <a href="#Page466">466</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Periscope</b>, description of, <a href="#Page275">275</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how we look through a (illus.), <a href="#Page276">276</a></li>
+<li class="level1">mirror of, <a href="#Page275">275</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Perpetual motion</b>, nearest approach to, <a href="#Page240">240</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is it possible? <a href="#Page61">61</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Persian rug</b>, antique (illus.), <a href="#Page167">167</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how made, <a href="#Page167">167</a></li>
+<li class="level1">imitation (illus.), <a href="#Page167">167</a></li>
+<li class="level1">Kurdistan (illus.), <a href="#Page167">167</a></li>
+<li class="level1">where best are made, <a href="#Page167">167</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Photographs</b>, of projectiles, <a href="#Page25">25</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Photography</b>, resultant from experiments with mirror, <a href="#Page22">22</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Piano</b>, pitch, <a href="#Page489">489</a></li>
+<li class="level1">finishing (illus.), <a href="#Page484">484</a></li>
+<li class="level1">why not more than seven octaves, <a href="#Page480">480</a></li>
+<li class="level1">Dulcimer (illus.), <a href="#Page479">479</a></li>
+<li class="level1">spinet (illus.), <a href="#Page480">480</a>-<a href="#Page481">481</a></li>
+<li class="level1">note what it is, <a href="#Page490">490</a></li>
+<li class="level1">sounding board, <a href="#Page488">488</a></li>
+<li class="level1">tuning, (illus.), <a href="#Page484">484</a></li>
+<li class="level1">building case around (illus.), <a href="#Page483">483</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how the music gets into the, <a href="#Page482">482</a></li>
+<li class="level1">clavichord (illus.), <a href="#Page480">480</a></li>
+<li class="level1">instruments, musical, <a href="#Page488">488</a></li>
+<li class="level1">strings, fastening on (illus.), <a href="#Page482">482</a></li>
+<li class="level1">psaltery, <a href="#Page480">480</a></li>
+<li class="level1">sound box, the first, <a href="#Page479">479</a></li>
+<li class="level1">who made the first, <a href="#Page478">478</a></li>
+<li class="level1">hammers (illus.), <a href="#Page483">483</a></li>
+<li class="level1">action regulation (illus.), <a href="#Page484">484</a></li>
+<li class="level1">virginal (illus.), <a href="#Page480">480</a>-<a href="#Page481">481</a></li>
+<li class="level1">first (illus.), <a href="#Page478">478</a></li>
+<li class="level1">tuning fork, <a href="#Page488">488</a></li>
+<li class="level1">polishing (illus.), <a href="#Page484">484</a></li>
+<li class="level1">sounding board, putting on the (illus.), <a href="#Page482">482</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how discovered, <a href="#Page479">479</a></li>
+<li class="level1">lyre, <a href="#Page479">479</a></li>
+<li class="level1">octave, <a href="#Page480">480</a></li>
+<li class="level1">harpsichord (illus.), <a href="#Page480">480</a>-<a href="#Page481">481</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Pickers</b>, boy, slate (illus.), <a href="#Page259">259</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Pictures</b>, with a fast camera, <a href="#Page39">39</a></li>
+<li class="level1">moving, how made, <a href="#Page369">369</a></li>
+<li class="level1">size of moving film, <a href="#Page370">370</a></li>
+<li class="level1">never seen by the human eye, <a href="#Page31">31</a></li>
+<li class="level1">taken in one five-thousandth of a second, <a href="#Page31">31</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Pin money</b>, why they call it? <a href="#Page231">231</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how name originated, <a href="#Page231">231</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Pistols</b>, invented in Pistola, Italy, <a href="#Page46">46</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Plants</b>, corn, why it has silk? <a href="#Page176">176</a></li>
+<li class="level1">do father and mother plants live together, <a href="#Page176">176</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how they eat, <a href="#Page511">511</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how they reproduce, <a href="#Page175">175</a></li>
+<li class="level1">why do flowers have smells? <a href="#Page176">176</a></li>
+<li class="level1">why they produce leaves, <a href="#Page175">175</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Plate glass</b>, (illus.), <a href="#Page246">246</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Portland Cement</b>, why called, <a href="#Page95">95</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Powder</b>, filling shells, <a href="#Page50">50</a></li>
+<li class="level1">gun-cotton in smokeless, <a href="#Page35">35</a></li>
+<li class="level1">secret of smokeless powder, <a href="#Page35">35</a></li>
+<li class="level1">smokeless, <a href="#Page35">35</a></li>
+<li class="level1">in submarine mines, amount of, <a href="#Page34">34</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Pressure</b>, generated in bore of a big gun, <a href="#Page54">54</a></li>
+<li class="level1">inside of a gun at discharge, <a href="#Page33">33</a></li>
+<li class="level1">in gun-barrel, resistance of, <a href="#Page34">34</a></li>
+<li class="level1">of light, on scales, <a href="#Page37">37</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Primer</b>, invented by, <a href="#Page47">47</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Prof. Bell’s</b> vibrating reed (illus.), <a href="#Page71">71</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Projectiles</b>, photographs of, <a href="#Page25">25</a></li>
+<li class="level1">arrival at target, <a href="#Page24">24</a></li>
+<li class="level1">clear of smoke-zone (illus.), <a href="#Page30">30</a></li>
+<li class="level1">smoke-zone, emerging from (illus.), <a href="#Page29">29</a></li>
+<li class="level1">height in air from mortar, <a href="#Page30">30</a></li>
+<li class="level1">impact of, from guns, <a href="#Page28">28</a></li>
+<li class="level1">leaving gun muzzle (illus.), <a href="#Page27">27</a></li>
+<li class="level1">travel faster than sound, <a href="#Page32">32</a></li>
+<li class="level1">velocity of, <a href="#Page33">33</a></li>
+<li class="level1">viewed in transit, <a href="#Page33">33</a></li>
+<li class="level1">weight of, <a href="#Page53">53</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Proving grounds</b>, for big guns, (illus.), <a href="#Page53">53</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Pyro</b>, used in developing, <a href="#Page23">23</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Quarry</b>, cement (illus.), <a href="#Page96">96</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Quill the</b>, in writing (illus.), <a href="#Page14">14</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Quills</b>, raising geese for, <a href="#Page14">14</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Rails, steel making</b>, blast furnace (illus.), <a href="#Page234">234</a></li>
+<li class="level1">blooming mill (illus.), <a href="#Page237">237</a></li>
+<li class="level1">crane, carrying ingot, (illus.), <a href="#Page236">236</a></li>
+<li class="level1">length of, <a href="#Page238">238</a></li>
+<li class="level1">mixer (illus.), <a href="#Page234">234</a></li>
+<li class="level1">molten steel, pouring (illus.), <a href="#Page236">236</a></li>
+<li class="level1">open hearth furnace (illus.), <a href="#Page235">235</a></li>
+<li class="level1">pouring side of open hearth furnace, <a href="#Page235">235</a></li>
+<li class="level1">shrinkage of, <a href="#Page238">238</a></li>
+<li class="level1">soaking pit (illus.), <a href="#Page236">236</a></li>
+<li class="level1">temperature in furnace, <a href="#Page235">235</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Rain</b>, where it goes, <a href="#Page222">222</a></li>
+<li class="level1">why it freshens the air, <a href="#Page222">222</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Rainbow</b>, cause of, <a href="#Page253">253</a></li>
+<li class="level1">colors in, what makes? <a href="#Page254">254</a></li>
+<li class="level1">ends of, <a href="#Page254">254</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Rays</b>, change their course, <a href="#Page38">38</a></li>
+<li class="level1">heat from light, <a href="#Page36">36</a></li>
+<li class="level1">of light, <a href="#Page36">36</a></li>
+<li class="level1">Roentgen, <a href="#Page307">307</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Rays-X</b>, what are they?<span class="pagenum" id="Page594">[594]</span> <a href="#Page307">307</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Reason</b>, is there one for everything? <a href="#Page200">200</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Reed</b>, the (illus.), <a href="#Page12">12</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Reflection</b>, in mirror, <a href="#Page22">22</a>, <a href="#Page91">91</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Refraction</b>, changing light rays called, <a href="#Page38">38</a></li>
+<li class="level1">of light, <a href="#Page38">38</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Reproduction</b>, of life, in birds, <a href="#Page179">179</a></li>
+<li class="level1">in fishes, <a href="#Page177">177</a></li>
+<li class="level1">in plants, <a href="#Page175">175</a></li>
+<li class="level1">why we must have, <a href="#Page174">174</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Rifle</b>, Kentucky, <a href="#Page45">45</a></li>
+<li class="level1">kick of, <a href="#Page47">47</a></li>
+<li class="level1">modern automatic, <a href="#Page47">47</a></li>
+<li class="level1">over-loading, <a href="#Page47">47</a></li>
+<li class="level1">wheel-lock (illus.), <a href="#Page46">46</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Rifling</b>, causes rotation of projectile, <a href="#Page32">32</a></li>
+<li class="level1">a big gun (illus.), <a href="#Page60">60</a></li>
+<li class="level1">of a gun, <a href="#Page53">53</a></li>
+<li class="level1">invented in Austria, <a href="#Page46">46</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Roads</b>, concrete (illus.), <a href="#Page103">103</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Roentgen Rays</b>, <a href="#Page307">307</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Rope</b>, breaker (illus.), <a href="#Page360">360</a></li>
+<li class="level1">compound laying machine (illus.), <a href="#Page361">361</a></li>
+<li class="level1">cross-section, <a href="#Page362">362</a></li>
+<li class="level1">draw frame (illus.), <a href="#Page360">360</a></li>
+<li class="level1">drying fiber, <a href="#Page354">354</a></li>
+<li class="level1">Egyptian kitchen (illus.), <a href="#Page354">354</a></li>
+<li class="level1">Egyptians making (illus.), <a href="#Page353">353</a></li>
+<li class="level1">preparing the fiber in (illus.), <a href="#Page359">359</a></li>
+<li class="level1">four-strand (illus.), <a href="#Page362">362</a></li>
+<li class="level1">hackling, <a href="#Page354">354</a></li>
+<li class="level1">hemp (illus.), <a href="#Page356">356</a></li>
+<li class="level1">hemp in warehouse (illus.), <a href="#Page356">356</a></li>
+<li class="level1">knots, <a href="#Page363">363</a></li>
+<li class="level1">lengths, standard, <a href="#Page362">362</a></li>
+<li class="level1">oiling in manufacture, <a href="#Page356">356</a></li>
+<li class="level1">long made by hand, <a href="#Page354">354</a></li>
+<li class="level1">machine (illus.), <a href="#Page358">358</a></li>
+<li class="level1">opening bales of fiber (illus.), <a href="#Page359">359</a></li>
+<li class="level1">preparation room (illus.), <a href="#Page359">359</a></li>
+<li class="level1">scraping fiber (illus.), <a href="#Page354">354</a></li>
+<li class="level1">sliver formation of (illus.), <a href="#Page360">360</a></li>
+<li class="level1">spindles, <a href="#Page355">355</a></li>
+<li class="level1">spinning after turn, <a href="#Page355">355</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Rope spinning</b>, after turn, <a href="#Page355">355</a></li>
+<li class="level1">foreturn, <a href="#Page355">355</a></li>
+<li class="level1">splicing (illus.), <a href="#Page364">364</a></li>
+<li class="level1">spreader (illus.), <a href="#Page360">360</a></li>
+<li class="level1">stakes, <a href="#Page355">355</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Rope walk</b>, modern (illus.), <a href="#Page357">357</a>-<a href="#Page358">358</a></li>
+<li class="level1">old-fashioned (illus.), <a href="#Page355">355</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Routine</b>, of a telephone call (illus.), <a href="#Page68">68</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Rubber</b>, automobile tires, <a href="#Page382">382</a></li>
+<li class="level1">biscuit, <a href="#Page377">377</a></li>
+<li class="level1">blisters, <a href="#Page379">379</a></li>
+<li class="level1">blow holes, <a href="#Page379">379</a></li>
+<li class="level1">breaker-strip, <a href="#Page384">384</a></li>
+<li class="level1">calendering, <a href="#Page381">381</a></li>
+<li class="level1">castilloa, <a href="#Page387">387</a></li>
+<li class="level1">cement, <a href="#Page381">381</a></li>
+<li class="level1">crude, <a href="#Page377">377</a>-<a href="#Page378">378</a></li>
+<li class="level1">curing room, <a href="#Page382">382</a>-<a href="#Page383">383</a></li>
+<li class="level1">dryer, <a href="#Page379">379</a></li>
+<li class="level1">fabric, <a href="#Page384">384</a></li>
+<li class="level1">furnishing pneumatic tires (illus.), <a href="#Page386">386</a></li>
+<li class="level1">gathering (illus.), <a href="#Page377">377</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how secured, <a href="#Page377">377</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how are inner tubes made, <a href="#Page385">385</a></li>
+<li class="level1">marketing balls of, <a href="#Page377">377</a></li>
+<li class="level1">mixing, <a href="#Page379">379</a></li>
+<li class="level1">Para, <a href="#Page387">387</a></li>
+<li class="level1">pneumatic tires, <a href="#Page383">383</a></li>
+<li class="level1">pure, why not used, <a href="#Page380">380</a></li>
+<li class="level1">spreading, <a href="#Page381">381</a></li>
+<li class="level1">spreader room (illus.), <a href="#Page383">383</a></li>
+<li class="level1">tapping (illus.), <a href="#Page377">377</a></li>
+<li class="level1">tire building machines (illus.), <a href="#Page385">385</a></li>
+<li class="level1">tires, how made, <a href="#Page378">378</a>-<a href="#Page379">379</a>-<a href="#Page380">380</a></li>
+<li class="level1">tread laying room, <a href="#Page384">384</a></li>
+<li class="level1">tubes, inner, how made, <a href="#Page385">385</a></li>
+<li class="level1">vulcanizing, <a href="#Page384">384</a></li>
+<li class="level1">washing, <a href="#Page378">378</a></li>
+<li class="level1">wild, what is, <a href="#Page387">387</a></li>
+<li class="level1">why not used pure, <a href="#Page380">380</a></li>
+<li class="level1">wrapping room, <a href="#Page386">386</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Rugs</b>, designs imitated by machinery, <a href="#Page168">168</a></li>
+<li class="level1">Persian (illus.), <a href="#Page167">167</a></li>
+<li class="level1">Persian, how made, <a href="#Page167">167</a></li>
+<li class="level1">Persian, imitation, <a href="#Page167">167</a></li>
+<li class="level1">Persian Kurdistan (illus.), <a href="#Page167">167</a></li>
+<li class="level1">Persian, where best are made, <a href="#Page167">167</a></li>
+<li class="level1">Tabriz, reproduction (illus.), <a href="#Page168">168</a></li>
+<li class="level1">weaving by machine (illus.), <a href="#Page171">171</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Rug manufacturing</b>, carding machine (illus.), <a href="#Page170">170</a></li>
+<li class="level1">examining and repairing (illus.), <a href="#Page173">173</a></li>
+<li class="level1">packing for shipment (illus.), <a href="#Page173">173</a></li>
+<li class="level1">processes, <a href="#Page169">169</a>-<a href="#Page170">170</a></li>
+<li class="level1">weaving by machinery (illus.), <a href="#Page171">171</a></li>
+<li class="level1">wool sorting, <a href="#Page170">170</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Sadness</b>, cause of tears, <a href="#Page38">38</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Salt</b>, beds, <a href="#Page493">493</a></li>
+<li class="level1">chemical name of, <a href="#Page493">493</a></li>
+<li class="level1">in water, <a href="#Page351">351</a></li>
+<li class="level1">mines, <a href="#Page493">493</a></li>
+<li class="level1">Salt Lake, <a href="#Page493">493</a></li>
+<li class="level1">soda, <a href="#Page493">493</a></li>
+<li class="level1">supply for United States, <a href="#Page493">493</a></li>
+<li class="level1">wells, <a href="#Page493">493</a></li>
+<li class="level1">where it comes from, <a href="#Page493">493</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Scales</b>, pressure of light on, <a href="#Page37">37</a></li>
+
+<li><b>School slates</b>, where they come from, <a href="#Page495">495</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Score</b>, origin of, <a href="#Page26">26</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Scouring</b>, wool (illus.), <a href="#Page85">85</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Scouring and weaving</b>, in making woolen cloth (illus.), <a href="#Page88">88</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Screens</b>, in shot tower, <a href="#Page51">51</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Sea</b>, diver, <a href="#Page202">202</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how men go down to the bottom of, <a href="#Page202">202</a></li>
+<li class="level1">navigating on bottom of, <a href="#Page283">283</a></li>
+<li class="level1">time calculated on the, <a href="#Page315">315</a></li>
+<li class="level1">what the bottom looks like, <a href="#Page202">202</a></li>
+<li class="level1">what makes it roar, <a href="#Page401">401</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Second</b>, reckoning in millionths of a, <a href="#Page25">25</a></li>
+<li class="level1">pictures taken in one five-thousandth of a, <a href="#Page31">31</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Seeds</b>, why plants produce, <a href="#Page175">175</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Seeing</b>, why we cannot see in dark, <a href="#Page91">91</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Sensation</b>, of sight, <a href="#Page22">22</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Sensitive</b>, paper, <a href="#Page23">23</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Service</b>, military, U. S., <a href="#Page24">24</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Shadows</b>, cause of, <a href="#Page495">495</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Shell</b>, sounds in a, <a href="#Page79">79</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Shells</b>, filling with powder, <a href="#Page50">50</a></li>
+<li class="level1">inspection of metallic (illus.), <a href="#Page49">49</a></li>
+<li class="level1">putting metal heads on paper, <a href="#Page50">50</a></li>
+<li class="level1">wad-paper in making, <a href="#Page50">50</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Sheep</b>, coming out of forest (illus.), <a href="#Page82">82</a></li>
+<li class="level1">first in America, <a href="#Page80">80</a></li>
+<li class="level1">fleece packing, <a href="#Page82">82</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how much wool does a sheep produce?<span class="pagenum" id="Page595">[595]</span> <a href="#Page83">83</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how wool is taken from the, <a href="#Page82">82</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how taken care of, <a href="#Page82">82</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how we get wool off of, <a href="#Page82">82</a></li>
+<li class="level1">industry in America, <a href="#Page80">80</a></li>
+<li class="level1">industry in the colonies, <a href="#Page81">81</a></li>
+<li class="level1">industry in the west, <a href="#Page81">81</a></li>
+<li class="level1">number in the west, <a href="#Page81">81</a></li>
+<li class="level1">shearing, <a href="#Page82">82</a></li>
+<li class="level1">shearing machines, <a href="#Page82">82</a></li>
+<li class="level1">wool-producing, <a href="#Page83">83</a></li>
+<li class="level1">why sheep precede the plow in civilizing a country, <a href="#Page81">81</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Shield driving</b>, air lock bulkhead (illus.), <a href="#Page210">210</a></li>
+<li class="level1">caulking the joints (illus.), <a href="#Page214">214</a></li>
+<li class="level1">description of airlocks, <a href="#Page213">213</a></li>
+<li class="level1">erector at work (illus.), <a href="#Page214">214</a></li>
+<li class="level1">erector (illus.), <a href="#Page210">210</a></li>
+<li class="level1">at end of journey (illus.), <a href="#Page216">216</a></li>
+<li class="level1">grommetting the bolts (illus.), <a href="#Page214">214</a></li>
+<li class="level1">grouting (illus.), <a href="#Page214">214</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how it cuts in tunnel building, <a href="#Page212">212</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how they meet exactly (illus.), <a href="#Page215">215</a></li>
+<li class="level1">in tunnel building (illus.), <a href="#Page208">208</a></li>
+<li class="level1">key plate (illus.), <a href="#Page214">214</a></li>
+<li class="level1">curves around (illus.), <a href="#Page216">216</a></li>
+<li class="level1">models of Penna. R.R. tunnel shields (illus.), <a href="#Page212">212</a></li>
+<li class="level1">rear end in tunnel building (illus.), <a href="#Page210">210</a></li>
+<li class="level1">tunnels, front view (illus.), <a href="#Page209">209</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Ship</b>, how does a captain steer his, <a href="#Page407">407</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how can it sail under water? <a href="#Page269">269</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Shoes</b>, Amazeen skiving machine, <a href="#Page550">550</a></li>
+<li class="level1">assembling machine (illus.), <a href="#Page552">552</a></li>
+<li class="level1">automatic heel loading and attaching machine (illus.), <a href="#Page560">560</a></li>
+<li class="level1">automatic leveling machine (illus.), <a href="#Page559">559</a></li>
+<li class="level1">automatic sewing machine, <a href="#Page555">555</a></li>
+<li class="level1">American made, <a href="#Page547">547</a></li>
+<li class="level1">ancient and modern forms of sandals, (illus.), <a href="#Page543">543</a></li>
+<li class="level1">ancient sandal maker (illus.), <a href="#Page541">541</a></li>
+<li class="level1">beginning of a shoe (illus.), <a href="#Page549">549</a></li>
+<li class="level1">boot developed from the sandal, <a href="#Page544">544</a></li>
+<li class="level1">boots (illus.), <a href="#Page546">546</a></li>
+<li class="level1">channel cementing machine (illus.), <a href="#Page558">558</a></li>
+<li class="level1">channel laying machine (illus.), <a href="#Page559">559</a></li>
+<li class="level1">channel opening machine (illus.), <a href="#Page558">558</a></li>
+<li class="level1">Crakrow or peaked (illus.), <a href="#Page544">544</a></li>
+<li class="level1">which church and law forbade (illus.), <a href="#Page544">544</a></li>
+<li class="level1">description of ancient sandal (illus.), <a href="#Page542">542</a></li>
+<li class="level1">dyeing out machine, <a href="#Page551">551</a></li>
+<li class="level1">different parts come together, <a href="#Page551">551</a></li>
+<li class="level1">duplex eyeletting machine, <a href="#Page550">550</a></li>
+<li class="level1">edge trimming machine (illus.), <a href="#Page560">560</a></li>
+<li class="level1">Ensign lacing machine, <a href="#Page551">551</a></li>
+<li class="level1">evolution cf the sandal to the shoe (illus.), <a href="#Page542">542</a></li>
+<li class="level1">first machine for making shoes, <a href="#Page545">545</a></li>
+<li class="level1">hand method lasting machine (illus.), <a href="#Page553">553</a></li>
+<li class="level1">heel breasting machine (illus.), <a href="#Page560">560</a></li>
+<li class="level1">heel trimming machine (illus.), <a href="#Page560">560</a></li>
+<li class="level1">ideal clicking machine, <a href="#Page550">550</a></li>
+<li class="level1">Inseam trimming machine (illus.), <a href="#Page556">556</a></li>
+<li class="level1">insole tacking, <a href="#Page551">551</a></li>
+<li class="level1">lasting machine (illus.), <a href="#Page553">553</a></li>
+<li class="level1">loose nailing machine (illus.), <a href="#Page559">559</a></li>
+<li class="level1">success of McKay machine, <a href="#Page547">547</a></li>
+<li class="level1">machine that forms and drives tacks, <a href="#Page554">554</a></li>
+<li class="level1">machines which punch the soles of, <a href="#Page559">559</a></li>
+<li class="level1">my lady’s slippers (illus.), <a href="#Page548">548</a></li>
+<li class="level1">placing shank and filling bottom, <a href="#Page556">556</a></li>
+<li class="level1">planet rounding machine, <a href="#Page551">551</a></li>
+<li class="level1">power tip press, <a href="#Page550">550</a></li>
+<li class="level1">pulling over machine (illus.), <a href="#Page552">552</a></li>
+<li class="level1">putting the ground cork and rubber cement in, <a href="#Page556">556</a></li>
+<li class="level1">rolling machine, <a href="#Page551">551</a></li>
+<li class="level1">rounding and channelling machine (illus.), <a href="#Page557">557</a></li>
+<li class="level1">sewing the sole on, <a href="#Page558">558</a></li>
+<li class="level1">slugging machine (illus.), <a href="#Page560">560</a></li>
+<li class="level1">sole laying machine (illus.), <a href="#Page557">557</a></li>
+<li class="level1">Summit splitting machine, <a href="#Page551">551</a></li>
+<li class="level1">upper stapling machine (illus.), <a href="#Page554">554</a></li>
+<li class="level1">upper trimming machine (illus.), <a href="#Page554">554</a></li>
+<li class="level1">welt and turned shoe machine (illus.), <a href="#Page555">555</a></li>
+<li class="level1">welt beating and washing machine, <a href="#Page556">556</a></li>
+<li class="level1">welt sewing machine, <a href="#Page551">551</a></li>
+<li class="level1">what was the first foot covering like? <a href="#Page541">541</a></li>
+<li class="level1">“whipping the cat,” <a href="#Page545">545</a></li>
+<li class="level1">who made the first shoe in America? <a href="#Page545">545</a></li>
+<li class="level1">work performed by heeling machine (illus.), <a href="#Page560">560</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Shooting tests</b> (illus.), <a href="#Page48">48</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Shotguns</b>, assembling of, (illus.), <a href="#Page48">48</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Shot pellets</b>, <a href="#Page51">51</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Shrinking</b>, pit for big gun, <a href="#Page59">59</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Shuttle</b>, In weaving wool, <a href="#Page86">86</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Siberian lambs</b>, in South Dakota (illus.), <a href="#Page80">80</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Signs</b>, talking by, <a href="#Page18">18</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Silica</b>, mine (illus.), <a href="#Page247">247</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Silk</b>, <a href="#Page109">109</a></li>
+<li class="level1">called “bomby-kia,” <a href="#Page110">110</a></li>
+<li class="level1">caring for young worms, <a href="#Page113">113</a></li>
+<li class="level1">culture, <a href="#Page110">110</a></li>
+<li class="level1">drying skeins of, <a href="#Page119">119</a></li>
+<li class="level1">dyeing, <a href="#Page121">121</a></li>
+<li class="level1">first step in manufacture, <a href="#Page119">119</a></li>
+<li class="level1">first used, <a href="#Page109">109</a></li>
+<li class="level1">hatching eggs, <a href="#Page113">113</a></li>
+<li class="level1">introduction of into Europe (illus.), <a href="#Page110">110</a></li>
+<li class="level1">number of cocoons in pound of, <a href="#Page117">117</a></li>
+<li class="level1">manufacture of, <a href="#Page119">119</a></li>
+<li class="level1">method of reeling, <a href="#Page113">113</a></li>
+<li class="level1">moths depositing eggs (illus.), <a href="#Page112">112</a></li>
+<li class="level1">preparing cocooning beds, <a href="#Page112">112</a></li>
+<li class="level1">reeling silk from cocoon (illus.), <a href="#Page118">118</a></li>
+<li class="level1">spinning (illus.), <a href="#Page120">120</a></li>
+<li class="level1">thread made uniform (illus.), <a href="#Page120">120</a></li>
+<li class="level1">threads ready for the weaver, <a href="#Page121">121</a></li>
+<li class="level1">twisting (illus.), <a href="#Page120">120</a></li>
+<li class="level1">use of, <a href="#Page109">109</a></li>
+<li class="level1">water-stretcher (illus.), <a href="#Page121">121</a></li>
+<li class="level1">winding (illus.), <a href="#Page119">119</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Silk manufacture</b>, doubling frames, <a href="#Page120">120</a></li>
+<li class="level1">spinning, <a href="#Page120">120</a></li>
+<li class="level1">twisting, <a href="#Page120">120</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Silk moth</b>, description of <a href="#Page114">114</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Silkworm</b>, age, <a href="#Page115">115</a></li>
+<li class="level1">first breeder of, <a href="#Page109">109</a></li>
+<li class="level1">chrysalis (illus.), <a href="#Page114">114</a></li>
+<li class="level1">cocoon, <a href="#Page115">115</a></li>
+<li class="level1">cocoon, beginning of (illus.), <a href="#Page116">116</a></li>
+<li class="level1">cocooning bed (illus.), <a href="#Page112">112</a></li>
+<li class="level1">description of, <a href="#Page114">114</a></li>
+<li class="level1">domestication of, <a href="#Page111">111</a></li>
+<li class="level1">eating (illus.), <a href="#Page115">115</a></li>
+<li class="level1">female moth (illus.), <a href="#Page114">114</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how cared for, <a href="#Page113">113</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how it eats<span class="pagenum" id="Page596">[596]</span>, <a href="#Page115">115</a></li>
+<li class="level1">home of, <a href="#Page112">112</a></li>
+<li class="level1">eggs, how imported, <a href="#Page111">111</a></li>
+<li class="level1">hatching the eggs (illus.), <a href="#Page113">113</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how he does his work, <a href="#Page114">114</a></li>
+<li class="level1">larvæ of, (illus.), <a href="#Page114">114</a></li>
+<li class="level1">motions of head in spinning, <a href="#Page115">115</a></li>
+<li class="level1">molting season, <a href="#Page115">115</a></li>
+<li class="level1">moths emerging from cocoon (illus.), <a href="#Page117">117</a></li>
+<li class="level1">male moth (illus.), <a href="#Page114">114</a></li>
+<li class="level1">mulberry branches for (illus.), <a href="#Page112">112</a></li>
+<li class="level1">one of the world’s greatest wonders, <a href="#Page116">116</a></li>
+<li class="level1">preparing for making cocoon (illus.), <a href="#Page116">116</a></li>
+<li class="level1">reared, how they (illus.), <a href="#Page115">115</a></li>
+<li class="level1">shedding old skin, <a href="#Page115">115</a></li>
+<li class="level1">spinneret of the, <a href="#Page115">115</a></li>
+<li class="level1">spinning cocoon, <a href="#Page115">115</a></li>
+<li class="level1">wild, <a href="#Page109">109</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Silver</b>, definition of, <a href="#Page207">207</a></li>
+<li class="level1">use, history of, <a href="#Page207">207</a></li>
+<li class="level1">why does it tarnish, <a href="#Page266">266</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Silver bromide</b>, in photography, <a href="#Page23">23</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Skins</b>, used for clothing, <a href="#Page80">80</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Sky</b>, will it ever fall? <a href="#Page255">255</a></li>
+<li class="level1">why is it blue? <a href="#Page253">253</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Soap</b>, lye in, <a href="#Page411">411</a></li>
+<li class="level1">palm olive oil in, <a href="#Page411">411</a></li>
+<li class="level1">what made of, <a href="#Page411">411</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Soda</b>, Leblanc process, <a href="#Page494">494</a></li>
+<li class="level1">Solvay process, <a href="#Page494">494</a></li>
+<li class="level1">where we get, <a href="#Page494">494</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Solids</b>, definition, <a href="#Page348">348</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Some</b> wonders of the human body, <a href="#Page311">311</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Sound</b>, deadening of, <a href="#Page79">79</a></li>
+<li class="level1">first over a wire, <a href="#Page71">71</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how measured, <a href="#Page242">242</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how produced, <a href="#Page485">485</a></li>
+<li class="level1">speed of, <a href="#Page140">140</a>-<a href="#Page486">486</a></li>
+<li class="level1">travels through air slowly, <a href="#Page31">31</a></li>
+<li class="level1">in a sea shell, <a href="#Page79">79</a></li>
+<li class="level1">what is, <a href="#Page78">78</a>-<a href="#Page485">485</a></li>
+<li class="level1">waves, <a href="#Page79">79</a></li>
+<li class="level1">waves, length of, <a href="#Page487">487</a></li>
+<li class="level1">where comes from, <a href="#Page78">78</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Slate pencil</b>, why cannot write on paper with, <a href="#Page18">18</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Sleep</b>, where are we when, <a href="#Page365">365</a></li>
+<li class="level1">with eyes open, why we cannot, <a href="#Page92">92</a></li>
+<li class="level1">ghosts, <a href="#Page367">367</a></li>
+<li class="level1">why heart beats during, <a href="#Page191">191</a></li>
+<li class="level1">why we go to, <a href="#Page365">365</a></li>
+<li class="level1">restless, <a href="#Page92">92</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Sling</b>, man in action (illus.), <a href="#Page41">41</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how first made, <a href="#Page41">41</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Slings</b>, and their drawbacks, <a href="#Page42">42</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Slow match</b>, of early firearms, <a href="#Page45">45</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Smells</b>, why do flowers have, <a href="#Page176">176</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Smoke-cone</b>, in gun-firing (illus.), <a href="#Page28">28</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Smokeless powder</b>, <a href="#Page35">35</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Smoke-rings</b>, hard as steel, <a href="#Page27">27</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Smoke signals</b>, of Indians, <a href="#Page412">412</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Smoke-zone</b>, in gun firing, <a href="#Page111">111</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Sneezing</b>, what makes us, <a href="#Page194">194</a></li>
+<li class="level1">why do we, <a href="#Page194">194</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Snowflakes</b>, what makes them white? <a href="#Page409">409</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Space</b>, extends, how far, <a href="#Page256">256</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Sparkle</b>, when merry, why eyes, <a href="#Page92">92</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Spear</b>, as a weapon, <a href="#Page42">42</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Specific gravity</b>, meaning of, <a href="#Page268">268</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Speed</b>, of light, <a href="#Page36">36</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Spinneret</b>, of the silkworm, <a href="#Page115">115</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Spinning wheel</b>, in making cloth from wool, <a href="#Page81">81</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Sponge</b>, capillary attraction of, <a href="#Page18">18</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Sponges</b>, breeding time of, <a href="#Page286">286</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how do they grow? <a href="#Page286">286</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how they eat, <a href="#Page287">287</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how they are caught, <a href="#Page287">287</a></li>
+<li class="level1">where they come from? <a href="#Page286">286</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Stable</b>, underground (illus.), <a href="#Page158">158</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Stars</b>, counted in photograph, <a href="#Page223">223</a></li>
+<li class="level1">do they shoot down? <a href="#Page255">255</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how counted, <a href="#Page241">241</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how many there are, <a href="#Page223">223</a></li>
+<li class="level1">photographed, <a href="#Page223">223</a></li>
+<li class="level1">what makes them twinkle, <a href="#Page38">38</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Steamship</b>, beginning of (illus.), <a href="#Page337">337</a></li>
+<li class="level1">cross-section, <a href="#Page346">346</a></li>
+<li class="level1">building of a (illus.), <a href="#Page337">337</a></li>
+<li class="level1">cradle of a, <a href="#Page338">338</a></li>
+<li class="level1">double bottom, <a href="#Page339">339</a></li>
+<li class="level1">end to end section, <a href="#Page346">346</a>-<a href="#Page347">347</a></li>
+<li class="level1">funnel (illus.), <a href="#Page345">345</a></li>
+<li class="level1">gantry (illus.), <a href="#Page338">338</a></li>
+<li class="level1">hull (illus.), <a href="#Page341">341</a></li>
+<li class="level1">hull before launching (illus.), <a href="#Page340">340</a></li>
+<li class="level1">inside of (illus.), <a href="#Page346">346</a>-<a href="#Page347">347</a></li>
+<li class="level1">launching of a (illus.), <a href="#Page340">340</a></li>
+<li class="level1">launching machinery (illus.), <a href="#Page341">341</a></li>
+<li class="level1">ready to launch (illus.), <a href="#Page340">340</a></li>
+<li class="level1">plates (illus.), <a href="#Page339">339</a></li>
+<li class="level1">ribs (illus.), <a href="#Page338">338</a></li>
+<li class="level1">skeleton (illus.), <a href="#Page339">339</a></li>
+<li class="level1">turbine, weight of, <a href="#Page344">344</a></li>
+<li class="level1">turbine (illus.), <a href="#Page344">344</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Steel pen</b>, how made, <a href="#Page16">16</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Steel rail making</b>, blast furnace (illus.), <a href="#Page234">234</a></li>
+<li class="level1">Blooming mill and engine (illus.), <a href="#Page237">237</a></li>
+<li class="level1">dump buggy, <a href="#Page237">237</a></li>
+<li class="level1">crane, carrying ingot (illus.), <a href="#Page236">236</a></li>
+<li class="level1">ingot, <a href="#Page237">237</a></li>
+<li class="level1">ingot becomes a rail (illus.), <a href="#Page238">238</a></li>
+<li class="level1">mixer (illus.), <a href="#Page234">234</a></li>
+<li class="level1">molten steel being poured into ladle (illus.), <a href="#Page236">236</a></li>
+<li class="level1">open-hearth furnace (illus.), <a href="#Page235">235</a></li>
+<li class="level1">furnace, pouring sides of an open hearth (illus.), <a href="#Page235">235</a></li>
+<li class="level1">iron, purification of, <a href="#Page235">235</a></li>
+<li class="level1">soaking pit (illus.), <a href="#Page236">236</a></li>
+<li class="level1">furnace, temperature in, <a href="#Page235">235</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Stick</b>, why it bends in water, <a href="#Page38">38</a></li>
+<li class="level1">making a fire with, <a href="#Page42">42</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Stockings</b>, where it goes when the hole comes, <a href="#Page64">64</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Stone-throwing</b>, <a href="#Page41">41</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Stones</b>, where they come from, <a href="#Page494">494</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Story</b> in an automobile, <a href="#Page181">181</a></li>
+<li class="level1">in a loaf of bread, <a href="#Page460">460</a></li>
+<li class="level1">in a book, <a href="#Page561">561</a></li>
+<li class="level1">in a building foundation, <a href="#Page496">496</a></li>
+<li class="level1">in a cablegram, <a href="#Page428">428</a></li>
+<li class="level1">in a barrel of cement, <a href="#Page95">95</a></li>
+<li class="level1">in a stick of chocolate, <a href="#Page388">388</a></li>
+<li class="level1">in a suit of clothes, <a href="#Page80">80</a></li>
+<li class="level1">in a lump of coal, <a href="#Page257">257</a></li>
+<li class="level1">in a bale of cotton, <a href="#Page470">470</a></li>
+<li class="level1">of a cup and saucer, <a href="#Page404">404</a></li>
+<li class="level1">of the deep sea diver, <a href="#Page203">203</a></li>
+<li class="level1">in an electric light, <a href="#Page305">305</a></li>
+<li class="level1">in an elevator, <a href="#Page395">395</a></li>
+<li class="level1">in a finger print<span class="pagenum" id="Page597">[597]</span>, <a href="#Page520">520</a></li>
+<li class="level1">in a flying machine, <a href="#Page126">126</a></li>
+<li class="level1">in a gas jet, <a href="#Page303">303</a></li>
+<li class="level1">in a gun, <a href="#Page40">40</a></li>
+<li class="level1">in a honey bee, <a href="#Page526">526</a></li>
+<li class="level1">in a magnet (illus.), <a href="#Page326">326</a></li>
+<li class="level1">in a lead pencil, <a href="#Page466">466</a></li>
+<li class="level1">in lighting a fire, <a href="#Page289">289</a></li>
+<li class="level1">in a lock, <a href="#Page491">491</a></li>
+<li class="level1">in a can of paint, <a href="#Page224">224</a></li>
+<li class="level1">in a pen, <a href="#Page11">11</a></li>
+<li class="level1">in a piano, <a href="#Page478">478</a></li>
+<li class="level1">in a photograph, <a href="#Page22">22</a></li>
+<li class="level1">in “Pigs is Pigs” (illus.), <a href="#Page374">374</a></li>
+<li class="level1">in a pipe and cigar, <a href="#Page512">512</a></li>
+<li class="level1">in a railroad engine, <a href="#Page440">440</a></li>
+<li class="level1">in a coil of rope, <a href="#Page353">353</a></li>
+<li class="level1">in a ball of rubber (illus.), <a href="#Page378">378</a></li>
+<li class="level1">in a rug, <a href="#Page167">167</a></li>
+<li class="level1">in a pair of shoes, <a href="#Page541">541</a></li>
+<li class="level1">in a steel rail (illus.), <a href="#Page234">234</a></li>
+<li class="level1">in a submarine boat (illus.), <a href="#Page269">269</a></li>
+<li class="level1">in a lump of sugar, <a href="#Page145">145</a></li>
+<li class="level1">in a telegram, <a href="#Page412">412</a></li>
+<li class="level1">in the telephone, <a href="#Page65">65</a></li>
+<li class="level1">in a time piece, <a href="#Page313">313</a></li>
+<li class="level1">in a tunnel, <a href="#Page208">208</a></li>
+<li class="level1">in a drink of water, <a href="#Page501">501</a></li>
+<li class="level1">in a window pane, <a href="#Page246">246</a></li>
+<li class="level1">in the wireless, <a href="#Page455">455</a></li>
+<li class="level1">in a yard of silk, <a href="#Page109">109</a></li>
+<li class="level1">in a piece of leather, <a href="#Page538">538</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Stringed instruments</b>, the first, <a href="#Page480">480</a></li>
+<li class="level1">discovery of, <a href="#Page479">479</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Stretching</b>, why do we, <a href="#Page192">192</a></li>
+<li class="level1">what happens when we, <a href="#Page193">193</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Stylus</b>, iron, <a href="#Page13">13</a></li>
+<li class="level1">the in writing (illus.), <a href="#Page11">11</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Submarine</b>, accidents and their causes, <a href="#Page278">278</a></li>
+<li class="level1">air and how it may become poisonous, <a href="#Page278">278</a></li>
+<li class="level1">buoyancy of, <a href="#Page270">270</a></li>
+<li class="level1">“Bushnell’s Turtle,” <a href="#Page280">280</a></li>
+<li class="level1">cargo, recovering of, <a href="#Page285">285</a></li>
+<li class="level1">clearing a channel of buoyant mines (illus.), <a href="#Page283">283</a></li>
+<li class="level1">development of, <a href="#Page280">280</a>-<a href="#Page281">281</a></li>
+<li class="level1">divers’ compartment, <a href="#Page270">270</a></li>
+<li class="level1">equilibrium, <a href="#Page270">270</a></li>
+<li class="level1">explosions, <a href="#Page278">278</a></li>
+<li class="level1">first practical (illus.), <a href="#Page271">271</a></li>
+<li class="level1">gas, explosion of, <a href="#Page278">278</a></li>
+<li class="level1">“G-1” (illus.), <a href="#Page272">272</a></li>
+<li class="level1">Holland, <a href="#Page282">282</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how we look through a periscope (illus.), <a href="#Page276">276</a></li>
+<li class="level1">hydroplanes on, <a href="#Page270">270</a></li>
+<li class="level1">hydroplane, <a href="#Page282">282</a></li>
+<li class="level1">ice, under (illus.), <a href="#Page279">279</a></li>
+<li class="level1">inside of a (illus.), <a href="#Page272">272</a></li>
+<li class="level1">lens, of periscope (illus.), <a href="#Page276">276</a></li>
+<li class="level1">living quarters (illus.), <a href="#Page285">285</a></li>
+<li class="level1">mice on, <a href="#Page278">278</a></li>
+<li class="level1">mine planting inside of (illus.), <a href="#Page277">277</a></li>
+<li class="level1">Omniscope, <a href="#Page271">271</a></li>
+<li class="level1">one of the first practical, <a href="#Page271">271</a></li>
+<li class="level1">“Proctor,” first practical, <a href="#Page271">271</a></li>
+<li class="level1">“Proctor” submerged (illus.), <a href="#Page271">271</a></li>
+<li class="level1">periscope top of (illus.), <a href="#Page276">276</a></li>
+<li class="level1">rudder, horizontal, <a href="#Page270">270</a></li>
+<li class="level1">sailing close to surface (illus.), <a href="#Page273">273</a></li>
+<li class="level1">seeing in all directions at once, <a href="#Page276">276</a></li>
+<li class="level1">Simon Lake, American inventor of, <a href="#Page282">282</a></li>
+<li class="level1">steadiness of (illus.), <a href="#Page273">273</a></li>
+<li class="level1">under the ice (illus.), <a href="#Page279">279</a></li>
+<li class="level1">submergence, <a href="#Page270">270</a></li>
+<li class="level1">water pressure on, <a href="#Page270">270</a></li>
+<li class="level1">who made the first, <a href="#Page280">280</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Submarine boat</b>, “Argonaut the First” (illus.), <a href="#Page269">269</a>-<a href="#Page282">282</a></li>
+<li class="level1">“Argonaut Junior” (illus.), <a href="#Page269">269</a>-<a href="#Page282">282</a></li>
+<li class="level1">who made the first, <a href="#Page280">280</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Submarine mines</b>, amount of powder used, <a href="#Page34">34</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Sugar</b>, carbonatation station (illus.), <a href="#Page150">150</a></li>
+<li class="level1">chemical laboratory in factory (illus.), <a href="#Page149">149</a></li>
+<li class="level1">circular diffusion battery in factory (illus.) <a href="#Page149">149</a></li>
+<li class="level1">filter presses (illus.), <a href="#Page150">150</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how taken from beets, <a href="#Page150">150</a></li>
+<li class="level1">sulphur station (illus.), <a href="#Page150">150</a></li>
+<li class="level1">washing the beets, <a href="#Page149">149</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Sugar factory</b>, carbonatation station (illus.), <a href="#Page150">150</a></li>
+<li class="level1">chemical laboratory in (illus.), <a href="#Page149">149</a></li>
+<li class="level1">circular diffusion battery (illus.), <a href="#Page149">149</a></li>
+<li class="level1">filter presses (illus.), <a href="#Page150">150</a></li>
+<li class="level1">sulphur station (illus.), <a href="#Page150">150</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Suit</b>, cost of wool in a, <a href="#Page83">83</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Sulphite of soda</b>, used in developing, <a href="#Page23">23</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Sun</b>, distance from earth, <a href="#Page141">141</a></li>
+<li class="level1">revolving on its axis, <a href="#Page511">511</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Sun-dial</b> (illus.), <a href="#Page315">315</a></li>
+<li class="level1">in determining noon (illus.), <a href="#Page316">316</a></li>
+<li class="level1">concrete (illus.), <a href="#Page101">101</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Sunlight</b>, effect on balance, <a href="#Page37">37</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Sunset</b>, cause of colors in, <a href="#Page253">253</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Swallowing</b>, what happens when we, <a href="#Page195">195</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Swimming</b>, why man must learn, <a href="#Page125">125</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Switchboard</b>, telephone, <a href="#Page69">69</a></li>
+<li class="level1">back of a, telephone (illus.), <a href="#Page69">69</a></li>
+<li class="level1">telephone, the first (illus.), <a href="#Page74">74</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Talking</b>, how man learned talking, <a href="#Page18">18</a></li>
+<li class="level1">signs and gestures, <a href="#Page18">18</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Talking machines</b>, <a href="#Page490">490</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Target</b>, floating, <a href="#Page31">31</a></li>
+<li class="level1">Never seen by men firing mortar, <a href="#Page29">29</a></li>
+<li class="level1">projectile, arrival at, <a href="#Page24">24</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Tears</b>, caused by onions, <a href="#Page38">38</a></li>
+<li class="level1">as an eye-wash, <a href="#Page38">38</a></li>
+<li class="level1">run along channel, <a href="#Page38">38</a></li>
+<li class="level1">where they come from, <a href="#Page94">94</a></li>
+<li class="level1">where they go, <a href="#Page94">94</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Teeth</b>, why they are called wisdom, <a href="#Page125">125</a></li>
+<li class="level1">why they chatter, <a href="#Page218">218</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Telegram</b>, how it gets there, <a href="#Page414">414</a></li>
+<li class="level1">story in a, <a href="#Page412">412</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Telegraph</b>, cables (illus.), <a href="#Page424">424</a></li>
+<li class="level1">code, <a href="#Page419">419</a></li>
+<li class="level1">calling a messenger, <a href="#Page414">414</a></li>
+<li class="level1">waiting calls (illus.), <a href="#Page414">414</a></li>
+<li class="level1">arrival at destination (illus.), <a href="#Page417">417</a></li>
+<li class="level1">duplex, <a href="#Page417">417</a></li>
+<li class="level1">electric, <a href="#Page420">420</a></li>
+<li class="level1">electric, first suggestion of, <a href="#Page420">420</a></li>
+<li class="level1">inventor of, <a href="#Page420">420</a></li>
+<li class="level1">two men inventors of, <a href="#Page421">421</a></li>
+<li class="level1">instruments, <a href="#Page425">425</a></li>
+<li class="level1">instruments, first sending (illus.), <a href="#Page426">426</a></li>
+<li class="level1">instrument, sending, <a href="#Page418">418</a></li>
+<li class="level1">key, modern (illus.), <a href="#Page427">427</a></li>
+<li class="level1">key, a later, <a href="#Page427">427</a></li>
+<li class="level1">key, sending (illus.)<span class="pagenum" id="Page598">[598]</span>, <a href="#Page418">418</a></li>
+<li class="level1">line, first, <a href="#Page422">422</a></li>
+<li class="level1">messenger receives message (illus.), <a href="#Page415">415</a></li>
+<li class="level1">messages, number sent in a day, <a href="#Page417">417</a></li>
+<li class="level1">multiplex, <a href="#Page417">417</a></li>
+<li class="level1">operating room (illus.), <a href="#Page423">423</a></li>
+<li class="level1">the pony (illus.), <a href="#Page413">413</a></li>
+<li class="level1">quadruple, <a href="#Page417">417</a></li>
+<li class="level1">Wheatstone, receiver (illus.), <a href="#Page425">425</a></li>
+<li class="level1">Wheatstone sender (illus.), <a href="#Page425">425</a></li>
+<li class="level1">receiving operator (illus.), <a href="#Page416">416</a></li>
+<li class="level1">relay, the first (illus.), <a href="#Page426">426</a></li>
+<li class="level1">relay, modern (illus.), <a href="#Page427">427</a></li>
+<li class="level1">recording apparatus first (illus.), <a href="#Page426">426</a></li>
+<li class="level1">recording instrument improved, (illus.), <a href="#Page427">427</a></li>
+<li class="level1">repeater room (illus.), <a href="#Page424">424</a></li>
+<li class="level1">sending operator (illus.), <a href="#Page416">416</a></li>
+<li class="level1">sounder, modern (illus.), <a href="#Page427">427</a></li>
+<li class="level1">main switchboard (illus.), <a href="#Page423">423</a></li>
+<li class="level1">automatic typewriter (illus.), <a href="#Page425">425</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Telephone</b>, apparatus, <a href="#Page65">65</a></li>
+<li class="level1">birthplace of (illus.), <a href="#Page70">70</a></li>
+<li class="level1">cost of number in use (illus.), <a href="#Page77">77</a></li>
+<li class="level1">display board (illus.), <a href="#Page65">65</a></li>
+<li class="level1">discovery of, <a href="#Page71">71</a></li>
+<li class="level1">feeding cable into duct (illus.), <a href="#Page76">76</a></li>
+<li class="level1">first outdoor demonstration, <a href="#Page75">75</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how an emperor saved the, <a href="#Page73">73</a></li>
+<li class="level1">forces behind your, <a href="#Page77">77</a></li>
+<li class="level1">modern distributing frame (illus.), <a href="#Page75">75</a></li>
+<li class="level1">line, the first, <a href="#Page72">72</a></li>
+<li class="level1">line lamp, <a href="#Page66">66</a></li>
+<li class="level1">pilot lamp, <a href="#Page66">66</a></li>
+<li class="level1">from bottom of ocean, <a href="#Page203">203</a></li>
+<li class="level1">operator, <a href="#Page67">67</a></li>
+<li class="level1">breaking up the asphalt pavement (illus.), <a href="#Page76">76</a></li>
+<li class="level1">a cable trouble (illus.), <a href="#Page76">76</a></li>
+<li class="level1">call routine of (illus.), <a href="#Page68">68</a></li>
+<li class="level1">beginning of service, <a href="#Page75">75</a></li>
+<li class="level1">the first switchboard, <a href="#Page72">72</a></li>
+<li class="level1">laying multiple duct subway (illus.), <a href="#Page76">76</a></li>
+<li class="level1">first practical commercial test of telephone, <a href="#Page75">75</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how wires are put underground (illus.), <a href="#Page76">76</a></li>
+<li class="level1">nine million in use, <a href="#Page75">75</a></li>
+<li class="level1">the first words over, <a href="#Page74">74</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Tens</b>, counting in, <a href="#Page19">19</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Test</b>, of big gun (illus.), <a href="#Page53">53</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Testing</b>, materials and products in gun factory (illus.), <a href="#Page50">50</a></li>
+<li class="level1">artillery instruments, <a href="#Page24">24</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Tests</b>, shooting (illus.), <a href="#Page48">48</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Things</b>, to know about a big gun, <a href="#Page53">53</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Throats</b>, making sounds with our, <a href="#Page78">78</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Thread</b>, silk, made uniform (illus.), <a href="#Page120">120</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Thunder</b>, why it precedes lighting, <a href="#Page140">140</a></li>
+<li class="level1">does it sour milk? <a href="#Page196">196</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Tickled</b>, why we laugh when, <a href="#Page93">93</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Tides</b>, where does water go at, low, <a href="#Page219">219</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Time</b>, age of clocks, <a href="#Page391">391</a></li>
+<li class="level1">blacksmith’s clock (illus.), <a href="#Page320">320</a></li>
+<li class="level1">first modern clock, <a href="#Page319">319</a></li>
+<li class="level1">hour-glass (illus.), <a href="#Page317">317</a></li>
+<li class="level1">time-boy of India (illus.), <a href="#Page317">317</a></li>
+<li class="level1">where the day changes, <a href="#Page325">325</a></li>
+<li class="level1">where is the hour changed? <a href="#Page325">325</a></li>
+<li class="level1">clock in Independence Hall (illus.), <a href="#Page323">323</a></li>
+<li class="level1">clock in New York City Hall (illus.), <a href="#Page323">323</a></li>
+<li class="level1">largest clock in the world, <a href="#Page321">321</a></li>
+<li class="level1">machinery which runs a big clock (illus.), <a href="#Page322">322</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how man measured, <a href="#Page314">314</a></li>
+<li class="level1">modern clock, description of (illus.), <a href="#Page319">319</a></li>
+<li class="level1">primitive twelve-hour clock, <a href="#Page318">318</a></li>
+<li class="level1">water clocks for, <a href="#Page317">317</a></li>
+<li class="level1">water-clock (illus.), <a href="#Page318">318</a></li>
+<li class="level1">man’s first divisions of, <a href="#Page314">314</a></li>
+<li class="level1">what it is, <a href="#Page313">313</a></li>
+<li class="level1">three great steps in measuring, <a href="#Page316">316</a></li>
+<li class="level1">first methods of telling (illus.), <a href="#Page313">313</a></li>
+<li class="level1">in New Testament, <a href="#Page314">314</a></li>
+<li class="level1">sun-dial (illus.), <a href="#Page315">315</a></li>
+<li class="level1">sun-dial in determining noon, <a href="#Page316">316</a></li>
+<li class="level1">calculated at sea, <a href="#Page315">315</a></li>
+<li class="level1">tower of the winds (illus.), <a href="#Page318">318</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how told when sun casts no shadows, <a href="#Page317">317</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Tin</b>, why used for cooking utensils, <a href="#Page267">267</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Tobacco</b>, barn, <a href="#Page515">515</a></li>
+<li class="level1">growing crop, care of, <a href="#Page514">514</a></li>
+<li class="level1">growing under cheesecloth (illus.), <a href="#Page512">512</a></li>
+<li class="level1">grown in Cuba, <a href="#Page513">513</a></li>
+<li class="level1">cultivation of, <a href="#Page516">516</a></li>
+<li class="level1">curing of, <a href="#Page515">515</a></li>
+<li class="level1">cigars, how made, <a href="#Page517">517</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how discovered, <a href="#Page512">512</a></li>
+<li class="level1">field (illus.), <a href="#Page515">515</a></li>
+<li class="level1">figures about, <a href="#Page519">519</a></li>
+<li class="level1">filler, <a href="#Page518">518</a></li>
+<li class="level1">fertilization, <a href="#Page514">514</a></li>
+<li class="level1">where it comes from, <a href="#Page512">512</a></li>
+<li class="level1">shade growing, <a href="#Page517">517</a></li>
+<li class="level1">where does it grow, <a href="#Page512">512</a></li>
+<li class="level1">harvesting, <a href="#Page515">515</a></li>
+<li class="level1">Havana, where grown, <a href="#Page513">513</a></li>
+<li class="level1">origin of name, <a href="#Page512">512</a></li>
+<li class="level1">planting, <a href="#Page514">514</a></li>
+<li class="level1">seed beds, <a href="#Page514">514</a></li>
+<li class="level1">first care in selection, <a href="#Page518">518</a></li>
+<li class="level1">strippers, <a href="#Page518">518</a></li>
+<li class="level1">bulk sweating, <a href="#Page516">516</a></li>
+<li class="level1">wrappers, <a href="#Page518">518</a></li>
+<li class="level1">butter worm, <a href="#Page514">514</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Toes</b>, why we have ten, <a href="#Page142">142</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Toothache</b>, what good can come from? <a href="#Page410">410</a></li>
+<li class="level1">cause of, <a href="#Page410">410</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Torches</b>, used in battles, <a href="#Page44">44</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Tow-line</b>, of floating target, <a href="#Page31">31</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Trains</b>, why harder to stop than start, <a href="#Page223">223</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Transparent</b>, why some things are, <a href="#Page350">350</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Trees</b>, found in coal, <a href="#Page261">261</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Tube</b>, of a gun, <a href="#Page54">54</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Tunnels</b>, accidents in, <a href="#Page218">218</a></li>
+<li class="level1">causes of accidents, <a href="#Page218">218</a></li>
+<li class="level1">accuracy of engineering, <a href="#Page215">215</a></li>
+<li class="level1">airlocks, description of, <a href="#Page213">213</a></li>
+<li class="level1">operation of airlocks, <a href="#Page213">213</a></li>
+<li class="level1">compressed air method, <a href="#Page211">211</a></li>
+<li class="level1">the bends, <a href="#Page213">213</a></li>
+<li class="level1">bends, the danger of, <a href="#Page213">213</a></li>
+<li class="level1">bends, the symptoms of, <a href="#Page213">213</a></li>
+<li class="level1">dangers in building, <a href="#Page218">218</a></li>
+<li class="level1">grommetting the bolts, (illus.), <a href="#Page214">214</a></li>
+<li class="level1">borings in ground (illus.), <a href="#Page216">216</a></li>
+<li class="level1">airlock bulkhead (illus.), <a href="#Page210">210</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how built, <a href="#Page209">209</a></li>
+<li class="level1">driving shield rear end of in tunnel building (illus.), <a href="#Page210">210</a></li>
+<li class="level1">caissons in Hudson tunnels (illus.), <a href="#Page217">217</a></li>
+<li class="level1">curves, how made (illus.), <a href="#Page216">216</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how shield cuts through, <a href="#Page212">212</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how dug under water, <a href="#Page208">208</a></li>
+<li class="level1">erector (illus.)<span class="pagenum" id="Page599">[599]</span>, <a href="#Page210">210</a></li>
+<li class="level1">erector at work (illus.), <a href="#Page214">214</a></li>
+<li class="level1">grouting (illus.), <a href="#Page214">214</a></li>
+<li class="level1">inventor of shield method, <a href="#Page209">209</a></li>
+<li class="level1">inventor of compressed air method, <a href="#Page211">211</a></li>
+<li class="level1">caulking the joints (illus.), <a href="#Page214">214</a></li>
+<li class="level1">making joints water tight, <a href="#Page214">214</a></li>
+<li class="level1">at end of journey (illus.), <a href="#Page216">216</a></li>
+<li class="level1">land end of Hudson tunnels (illus.), <a href="#Page217">217</a></li>
+<li class="level1">danger of leaks, <a href="#Page213">213</a></li>
+<li class="level1">result of leaks (illus.), <a href="#Page213">213</a></li>
+<li class="level1">concrete lining (illus.), <a href="#Page216">216</a></li>
+<li class="level1">key plate (illus.), <a href="#Page214">214</a></li>
+<li class="level1">diagrams of driving shield (illus.), <a href="#Page208">208</a></li>
+<li class="level1">biggest ever built by shield method, <a href="#Page209">209</a></li>
+<li class="level1">rear end of driving shield (illus.), <a href="#Page210">210</a></li>
+<li class="level1">driving shield front view (illus.), <a href="#Page209">209</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how the shields meet exactly (illus.), <a href="#Page215">215</a></li>
+<li class="level1">models of Penna RR. tunnel shield (illus.), <a href="#Page212">212</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Turbine</b>, how it works (illus.), <a href="#Page344">344</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Twinkle</b>, what makes stars, <a href="#Page38">38</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Twinkling stars</b>, due to interference, <a href="#Page38">38</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Types</b> of cartridges (illus.), <a href="#Page49">49</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Umbrella</b>, who made the first, <a href="#Page312">312</a></li>
+<li class="level1">who carried the first, <a href="#Page312">312</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Uncle Sam</b>, how name originated, <a href="#Page458">458</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Undercutting</b> with compressed air machine (illus.), <a href="#Page261">261</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Vault</b> of telephone cables (illus.), <a href="#Page67">67</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Velocity</b> of a projectile, <a href="#Page53">53</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Waking</b>, why we wake up, <a href="#Page365">365</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Walking</b>, difficult to, straight with eyes closed, <a href="#Page91">91</a></li>
+<li class="level1">why cannot babies walk as soon as born, <a href="#Page180">180</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Wall</b>, sounds through a thick, <a href="#Page79">79</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Water</b>, aqueduct (illus.), <a href="#Page505">505</a></li>
+<li class="level1">Ashokan Reservoir (illus.), <a href="#Page502">502</a></li>
+<li class="level1">boiling-point of, <a href="#Page35">35</a>-<a href="#Page220">220</a></li>
+<li class="level1">drinking, where does it come from, <a href="#Page501">501</a></li>
+<li class="level1">hard, <a href="#Page221">221</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how is a big dam built, <a href="#Page502">502</a></li>
+<li class="level1">Hudson River siphon (illus.), <a href="#Page507">507</a></li>
+<li class="level1">in ocean where it came from, <a href="#Page218">218</a></li>
+<li class="level1">pumping station (illus.), <a href="#Page503">503</a></li>
+<li class="level1">real source of the (illus.), <a href="#Page506">506</a></li>
+<li class="level1">regulating chamber (illus.), <a href="#Page506">506</a></li>
+<li class="level1">reservoir, <a href="#Page503">503</a></li>
+<li class="level1">soft, <a href="#Page221">221</a></li>
+<li class="level1">as standard in measuring specific gravity solids, <a href="#Page268">268</a></li>
+<li class="level1">what made of, <a href="#Page348">348</a></li>
+<li class="level1">what makes it boil, <a href="#Page220">220</a></li>
+<li class="level1">what makes water shoot in air, <a href="#Page198">198</a></li>
+<li class="level1">what hard is, <a href="#Page221">221</a></li>
+<li class="level1">what soft is, <a href="#Page221">221</a></li>
+<li class="level1">why don’t water in ocean sink in, <a href="#Page219">219</a></li>
+<li class="level1">why does it run, <a href="#Page219">219</a></li>
+<li class="level1">why it puts fire out, <a href="#Page222">222</a></li>
+<li class="level1">why runs off a duck’s back, <a href="#Page233">233</a></li>
+<li class="level1">why sea water is salty, <a href="#Page351">351</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Watson, Thomas A.</b>, (illus.), <a href="#Page70">70</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Wave</b>, of light changed into heat, <a href="#Page36">36</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Waves</b>, of sound, <a href="#Page79">79</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Weight</b>, of light, <a href="#Page37">37</a></li>
+<li class="level1">of projectiles, <a href="#Page53">53</a></li>
+
+<li><b>What</b> does the air weigh? <a href="#Page398">398</a></li>
+<li class="level1">animal can leap the greatest distance? <a href="#Page122">122</a></li>
+<li class="level1">causes an arrow to fly? <a href="#Page408">408</a></li>
+<li class="level1">makes some people bald? <a href="#Page143">143</a></li>
+<li class="level1">keeps a balloon up? <a href="#Page199">199</a></li>
+<li class="level1">makes a ball stop bouncing, <a href="#Page63">63</a></li>
+<li class="level1">are ball bearings? <a href="#Page180">180</a></li>
+<li class="level1">happens when a bee stings? <a href="#Page537">537</a></li>
+<li class="level1">makes the hills look blue sometimes? <a href="#Page255">255</a></li>
+<li class="level1">makes me blush? <a href="#Page194">194</a></li>
+<li class="level1">was the origin and meaning of bread? <a href="#Page460">460</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is the hottest spot on earth? <a href="#Page239">239</a></li>
+<li class="level1">holds a building up? <a href="#Page496">496</a></li>
+<li class="level1">makes a bubble explode, <a href="#Page108">108</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is carbonic acid? <a href="#Page509">509</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is a cable made of? <a href="#Page429">429</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is the eye of the camera? <a href="#Page22">22</a></li>
+<li class="level1">do ocean cables look like when cut in two? (illus.), <a href="#Page428">428</a></li>
+<li class="level1">do we mean by 18-carat fine? <a href="#Page266">266</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is clay? <a href="#Page495">495</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is color? <a href="#Page123">123</a></li>
+<li class="level1">produces the colors we see? <a href="#Page123">123</a></li>
+<li class="level1">makes the colors in the rainbow? <a href="#Page254">254</a></li>
+<li class="level1">makes the colors of the sunset? <a href="#Page253">253</a></li>
+<li class="level1">are cocoa shells? <a href="#Page390">390</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is cement? <a href="#Page95">95</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is cement used for? <a href="#Page95">95</a></li>
+<li class="level1">a cement mill looks like (illus.), <a href="#Page96">96</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is cement made of? <a href="#Page95">95</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is cement used for, <a href="#Page95">95</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is concrete? <a href="#Page95">95</a></li>
+<li class="level1">makes some things in the same room colder than others? <a href="#Page144">144</a></li>
+<li class="level1">does woolen cloth come from? <a href="#Page80">80</a></li>
+<li class="level1">was the cross-bow? <a href="#Page44">44</a></li>
+<li class="level1">are diamonds made of? <a href="#Page351">351</a></li>
+<li class="level1">causes dimples? <a href="#Page352">352</a></li>
+<li class="level1">makes us dream? <a href="#Page366">366</a></li>
+<li class="level1">were man’s first divisions of time? <a href="#Page314">314</a></li>
+<li class="level1">makes things whirl around when I am dizzy? <a href="#Page402">402</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is dust? <a href="#Page104">104</a></li>
+<li class="level1">becomes of the dust? <a href="#Page104">104</a></li>
+<li class="level1">are drone bees good for? <a href="#Page531">531</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is meant by deadening a floor or a wall? <a href="#Page79">79</a></li>
+<li class="level1">causes earache? <a href="#Page410">410</a></li>
+<li class="level1">makes an echo? <a href="#Page200">200</a></li>
+<li class="level1">are the principal parts of an elevator? <a href="#Page396">396</a></li>
+<li class="level1">causes the explosion in a gas engine? (illus.), <a href="#Page182">182</a></li>
+<li class="level1">happens when anything explodes? <a href="#Page205">205</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is an element? <a href="#Page349">349</a></li>
+<li class="level1">makes the hollow place in a boiled egg? <a href="#Page179">179</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is electricity? <a href="#Page329">329</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is an electric current? <a href="#Page334">334</a></li>
+<li class="level1">makes an electric magnet lift things? <a href="#Page326">326</a></li>
+<li class="level1">do we mean by Fahrenheit? <a href="#Page221">221</a></li>
+<li class="level1">makes a fish move in swimming? <a href="#Page233">233</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is fog? <a href="#Page105">105</a></li>
+<li class="level1">makes the water from a fountain shoot into the air? <a href="#Page198">198</a></li>
+<li class="level1">makes freckles come? <a href="#Page125">125</a></li>
+<li class="level1">makes a gasoline engine go? <a href="#Page181">181</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is gravitation? <a href="#Page267">267</a></li>
+<li class="level1">does specific gravity mean? <a href="#Page268">268</a></li>
+<li class="level1">makes a cold glass crack if we put hot water in it? <a href="#Page63">63</a></li>
+<li class="level1">are ghosts? <a href="#Page367">367</a></li>
+<li class="level1">causes the gurgle when I pour water from a bottle? <a href="#Page63">63</a></li>
+<li class="level1">causes hail? <a href="#Page124">124</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is the horizon? <a href="#Page244">244</a></li>
+<li class="level1">causes a hot box? <a href="#Page368">368</a></li>
+<li class="level1">good are the lines on the palms of our hands?<span class="pagenum" id="Page600">[600]</span> <a href="#Page402">402</a></li>
+<li class="level1">does horse-power mean? <a href="#Page256">256</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is hydrogen gas? <a href="#Page349">349</a></li>
+<li class="level1">makes us feel hungry? <a href="#Page243">243</a></li>
+<li class="level1">makes knots in boards? <a href="#Page223">223</a></li>
+<li class="level1">were the earliest lamps? <a href="#Page295">295</a></li>
+<li class="level1">were the lamps of the wise and foolish maidens? <a href="#Page295">295</a></li>
+<li class="level1">happens when we laugh? <a href="#Page93">93</a></li>
+<li class="level1">makes us laugh when glad? <a href="#Page92">92</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is a leyden jar? <a href="#Page332">332</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is a lodestone? <a href="#Page327">327</a></li>
+<li class="level1">makes lobsters turn red? <a href="#Page245">245</a></li>
+<li class="level1">makes the lump come in my throat when I cry? <a href="#Page195">195</a></li>
+<li class="level1">makes a match light when we strike it? <a href="#Page198">198</a></li>
+<li class="level1">would we do without matches? <a href="#Page292">292</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is a metal? <a href="#Page265">265</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is the most valuable metal? <a href="#Page265">265</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is the milky way? <a href="#Page255">255</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is a molecule? <a href="#Page348">348</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is money? <a href="#Page455">455</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is motion? <a href="#Page61">61</a></li>
+<li class="level1">made the mountains? <a href="#Page401">401</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is music? <a href="#Page478">478</a></li>
+<li class="level1">does a note in music consist of? <a href="#Page490">490</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is organic matter? <a href="#Page174">174</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is oxygen? <a href="#Page349">349</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is nitrogen? <a href="#Page350">350</a></li>
+<li class="level1">makes nitroglycerin explode so readily? <a href="#Page206">206</a></li>
+<li class="level1">causes nightmare? <a href="#Page367">367</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is pain and why does it hurt? <a href="#Page244">244</a></li>
+<li class="level1">makes the different colors in paint? <a href="#Page229">229</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is pitch in music? <a href="#Page489">489</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is the principle of the wireless? <a href="#Page455">455</a></li>
+<li class="level1">makes some pencils hard and others soft? <a href="#Page467">467</a></li>
+<li class="level1">makes rays of light? <a href="#Page230">230</a></li>
+<li class="level1">makes us red in the face? <a href="#Page192">192</a></li>
+<li class="level1">makes the rings in the water when I throw a stone into it? <a href="#Page197">197</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is rubber? <a href="#Page386">386</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is wild rubber? <a href="#Page387">387</a></li>
+<li class="level1">should I do if stung by a bee? <a href="#Page537">537</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is the cause of shadows? <a href="#Page495">495</a></li>
+<li class="level1">makes the sea roar? <a href="#Page401">401</a></li>
+<li class="level1">does the bottom of the sea look like? <a href="#Page220">220</a></li>
+<li class="level1">becomes of the smoke? <a href="#Page106">106</a></li>
+<li class="level1">and why is smoke? <a href="#Page105">105</a></li>
+<li class="level1">causes the smoke when a gun goes off? <a href="#Page206">206</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is smokeless powder made of? <a href="#Page206">206</a></li>
+<li class="level1">makes snowflakes white? <a href="#Page409">409</a></li>
+<li class="level1">depth of snow is equivalent to an inch of rain? <a href="#Page241">241</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is soap made of? <a href="#Page411">411</a></li>
+<li class="level1">makes a soap bubble? <a href="#Page108">108</a></li>
+<li class="level1">shot tower looks like? <a href="#Page51">51</a></li>
+<li class="level1">makes us sneeze? <a href="#Page194">194</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is silver? <a href="#Page207">207</a></li>
+<li class="level1">happens when we stretch? <a href="#Page193">193</a></li>
+<li class="level1">makes me want to stretch? <a href="#Page192">192</a></li>
+<li class="level1">happens when I swallow? <a href="#Page195">195</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is sound? <a href="#Page485">485</a></li>
+<li class="level1">are the properties of sound? <a href="#Page486">486</a></li>
+<li class="level1">are the sounds we hear in a sea shell? <a href="#Page79">79</a></li>
+<li class="level1">makes the sounds like waves in a sea shell? <a href="#Page79">79</a></li>
+<li class="level1">does a sounding board do? <a href="#Page488">488</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is meant by the length of sound waves? <a href="#Page487">487</a></li>
+<li class="level1">makes us thirsty? <a href="#Page243">243</a></li>
+<li class="level1">makes me tired? <a href="#Page403">403</a></li>
+<li class="level1">a great steamship looks like inside (illus.), <a href="#Page346">346</a></li>
+<li class="level1">did the first telephone look like? (illus.), <a href="#Page72">72</a></li>
+<li class="level1">occurs when we think? <a href="#Page194">194</a></li>
+<li class="level1">are the big tanks near the gas works for? <a href="#Page298">298</a></li>
+<li class="level1">makes the stars twinkle? <a href="#Page38">38</a></li>
+<li class="level1">a ship’s turbine looks like (illus.), <a href="#Page344">344</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is the largest tree in the world? <a href="#Page242">242</a></li>
+<li class="level1">happens when we telephone? <a href="#Page65">65</a></li>
+<li class="level1">makes water boil? <a href="#Page220">220</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is the boiling-point of water? <a href="#Page220">220</a></li>
+<li class="level1">causes a whispering gallery? <a href="#Page201">201</a></li>
+<li class="level1">makes a wireless message go? <a href="#Page455">455</a></li>
+<li class="level1">makes the works of a watch go? <a href="#Page368">368</a></li>
+<li class="level1">makes the white caps on the waves white? <a href="#Page410">410</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is worry? <a href="#Page207">207</a></li>
+<li class="level1">causes the wind’s whistle? <a href="#Page139">139</a></li>
+<li class="level1">makes the kettle whistle? <a href="#Page198">198</a></li>
+<li class="level1">causes wrinkles? <a href="#Page196">196</a></li>
+<li class="level1">are X-rays? <a href="#Page307">307</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is yeast? <a href="#Page288">288</a></li>
+
+<li><b>When</b> did man first try to fly? <a href="#Page126">126</a></li>
+<li class="level1">did man begin to live? <a href="#Page174">174</a></li>
+<li class="level1">were candles introduced? <a href="#Page296">296</a></li>
+<li class="level1">was illuminating gas discovered? <a href="#Page302">302</a></li>
+<li class="level1">was wheat first used in making bread? <a href="#Page461">461</a></li>
+<li class="level1">I throw a ball into the air, while walking why does it follow me? <a href="#Page401">401</a></li>
+<li class="level1">was silk culture introduced in America? <a href="#Page111">111</a></li>
+<li class="level1">were street lamps first used? <a href="#Page295">295</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Where</b> does bread come from? <a href="#Page460">460</a></li>
+<li class="level1">does water in the ocean go at low tide? <a href="#Page219">219</a></li>
+<li class="level1">does silk come from? <a href="#Page109">109</a></li>
+<li class="level1">are we when asleep? <a href="#Page365">365</a></li>
+<li class="level1">did the name calico come from? <a href="#Page123">123</a></li>
+<li class="level1">cement is obtained (illus.), <a href="#Page97">97</a></li>
+<li class="level1">does chalk come from? <a href="#Page18">18</a></li>
+<li class="level1">does chocolate come from? <a href="#Page388">388</a></li>
+<li class="level1">our coal comes from? <a href="#Page257">257</a></li>
+<li class="level1">does cotton come from? <a href="#Page470">470</a></li>
+<li class="level1">does the day begin? <a href="#Page324">324</a></li>
+<li class="level1">does the day change? <a href="#Page325">325</a></li>
+<li class="level1">did the term Dixie originate? <a href="#Page123">123</a></li>
+<li class="level1">does honey come from? <a href="#Page526">526</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is the horizon? <a href="#Page244">244</a></li>
+<li class="level1">does the hour change? <a href="#Page325">325</a></li>
+<li class="level1">the gas is taken from the coal (illus.), <a href="#Page299">299</a></li>
+<li class="level1">did all the names of people come from? <a href="#Page20">20</a></li>
+<li class="level1">did the expression “kick the bucket” originate? <a href="#Page321">321</a></li>
+<li class="level1">does leather come from? <a href="#Page538">538</a></li>
+<li class="level1">do living things come from? <a href="#Page174">174</a></li>
+<li class="level1">did life begin on earth? <a href="#Page174">174</a></li>
+<li class="level1">do we get ivory? <a href="#Page239">239</a></li>
+<li class="level1">do lead pencils come from? <a href="#Page466">466</a></li>
+<li class="level1">does the wooden part of a lead pencil come from? <a href="#Page469">469</a></li>
+<li class="level1">does a light go when it goes out? <a href="#Page36">36</a></li>
+<li class="level1">does linseed oil come from? <a href="#Page227">227</a></li>
+<li class="level1">does paint come from? <a href="#Page224">224</a></li>
+<li class="level1">does the rain go? <a href="#Page222">222</a></li>
+<li class="level1">are the best Persian rugs made? <a href="#Page167">167</a></li>
+<li class="level1">does rope come from? <a href="#Page353">353</a></li>
+<li class="level1">does salt come from? <a href="#Page493">493</a></li>
+<li class="level1">do we get soda? <a href="#Page494">494</a></li>
+<li class="level1">do all the little round stones come from? <a href="#Page494">494</a></li>
+<li class="level1">does the part of a stocking go that was where the hole comes? <a href="#Page64">64</a></li>
+<li class="level1">does sound come from? <a href="#Page78">78</a></li>
+<li class="level1">do school slates come from? <a href="#Page495">495</a></li>
+<li class="level1">do shoes come from?<span class="pagenum" id="Page601">[601]</span> <a href="#Page541">541</a></li>
+<li class="level1">do sponges come from? <a href="#Page286">286</a></li>
+<li class="level1">do tears come from? <a href="#Page94">94</a></li>
+<li class="level1">do the tears go? <a href="#Page94">94</a></li>
+<li class="level1">did the name tobacco originate? <a href="#Page512">512</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is Havana tobacco grown? <a href="#Page513">513</a></li>
+<li class="level1">does tobacco come from? <a href="#Page512">512</a></li>
+<li class="level1">does tobacco grow? <a href="#Page512">512</a></li>
+<li class="level1">did all the water in the ocean come from? <a href="#Page218">218</a></li>
+<li class="level1">does our drinking water come from? <a href="#Page501">501</a></li>
+<li class="level1">does most of our wool come from? <a href="#Page81">81</a></li>
+<li class="level1">does the wind begin? <a href="#Page139">139</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is the wind when it is not blowing? <a href="#Page139">139</a></li>
+<li class="level1">does wool come from? <a href="#Page80">80</a></li>
+<li class="level1">did the term Yankee originate? <a href="#Page243">243</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Wheat</b>, bread loaves of the world, <a href="#Page459">459</a></li>
+<li class="level1">grinding (illus.), <a href="#Page464">464</a></li>
+<li class="level1">harvesting (illus.), <a href="#Page460">460</a></li>
+<li class="level1">scouring of, <a href="#Page463">463</a></li>
+<li class="level1">tempering of, <a href="#Page463">463</a></li>
+<li class="level1">when first used in making bread, <a href="#Page461">461</a></li>
+<li class="level1">will it grow wild? <a href="#Page461">461</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Wheel-lock</b> rifle (illus.), <a href="#Page46">46</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Whispering gallery</b>, accidental, <a href="#Page201">201</a></li>
+<li class="level1">cause of, <a href="#Page201">201</a></li>
+<li class="level1">what it is, <a href="#Page201">201</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Whistle</b>, what makes the kettle? <a href="#Page198">198</a></li>
+
+<li><b>White Lead</b>, making (illus.), <a href="#Page225">225</a></li>
+<li class="level1">buckles, before corrosion (illus.), <a href="#Page225">225</a></li>
+<li class="level1">buckles after corrosion (illus.), <a href="#Page225">225</a></li>
+<li class="level1">buckles, making, <a href="#Page225">225</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Who</b> started to make clothing from wool in America? <a href="#Page81">81</a></li>
+<li class="level1">discovered electricity? <a href="#Page333">333</a></li>
+<li class="level1">invented electric telegraph? <a href="#Page420">420</a></li>
+<li class="level1">made the first felt hat? <a href="#Page239">239</a></li>
+<li class="level1">made the first cent? <a href="#Page458">458</a></li>
+<li class="level1">made the first submarine boat? <a href="#Page280">280</a></li>
+<li class="level1">first discovered the silkworm? <a href="#Page109">109</a></li>
+<li class="level1">first discovered the power of gunpowder? <a href="#Page44">44</a></li>
+<li class="level1">invented flying? <a href="#Page126">126</a></li>
+<li class="level1">made the first piano? <a href="#Page478">478</a></li>
+<li class="level1">brought the first sheep to America? <a href="#Page80">80</a></li>
+<li class="level1">first wove silk thread into cloth? <a href="#Page109">109</a></li>
+<li class="level1">make the first shoes? <a href="#Page541">541</a></li>
+<li class="level1">made the first umbrella? <a href="#Page312">312</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Why</b> don’t the air ever get used up? <a href="#Page140">140</a></li>
+<li class="level1">can’t we see air? <a href="#Page140">140</a></li>
+<li class="level1">do we grow aged? <a href="#Page196">196</a></li>
+<li class="level1">does an apple turn brown when cut? <a href="#Page106">106</a></li>
+<li class="level1">do coats have buttons on the sleeves? <a href="#Page64">64</a></li>
+<li class="level1">has a long coat buttons on the back? <a href="#Page64">64</a></li>
+<li class="level1">cannot babies walk as soon as born? <a href="#Page180">180</a></li>
+<li class="level1">are some people bald? <a href="#Page144">144</a></li>
+<li class="level1">don’t the birds stay South? <a href="#Page408">408</a></li>
+<li class="level1">does a ball bounce? <a href="#Page63">63</a></li>
+<li class="level1">does a balloon go up? <a href="#Page199">199</a></li>
+<li class="level1">do we call voting balloting? <a href="#Page122">122</a></li>
+<li class="level1">does a barber pole have stripes? <a href="#Page310">310</a></li>
+<li class="level1">do some things bend and others break? <a href="#Page62">62</a></li>
+<li class="level1">do the birds come back in the Spring? <a href="#Page407">407</a></li>
+<li class="level1">do birds sing? <a href="#Page408">408</a></li>
+<li class="level1">do birds go South in the Winter? <a href="#Page407">407</a></li>
+<li class="level1">are birds’ eggs of different colors? <a href="#Page233">233</a></li>
+<li class="level1">has a bee a sting? <a href="#Page336">336</a></li>
+<li class="level1">can you blow out a candle? <a href="#Page21">21</a>, <a href="#Page36">36</a></li>
+<li class="level1">are bubbles round? <a href="#Page108">108</a></li>
+<li class="level1">does red make a bull angry? <a href="#Page490">490</a></li>
+<li class="level1">do we get a bump instead of a dent when we knock our heads? <a href="#Page201">201</a></li>
+<li class="level1">can’t we burn stones? <a href="#Page105">105</a></li>
+<li class="level1">has a long coat buttons? <a href="#Page64">64</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is bread so important? <a href="#Page460">460</a></li>
+<li class="level1">do I get out of breath when running? <a href="#Page191">191</a></li>
+<li class="level1">do we call a cab a hansom? <a href="#Page122">122</a></li>
+<li class="level1">does a hen cackle after laying an egg? <a href="#Page233">233</a></li>
+<li class="level1">do children like candy? <a href="#Page409">409</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is cement called Portland cement? <a href="#Page95">95</a></li>
+<li class="level1">do I get cold in a warm room? <a href="#Page125">125</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is it cold in winter? <a href="#Page141">141</a></li>
+<li class="level1">does cold make our hands blue? <a href="#Page192">192</a></li>
+<li class="level1">does an ear of corn have silk? <a href="#Page170">170</a></li>
+<li class="level1">do we count in tens? <a href="#Page10">10</a></li>
+<li class="level1">we cannot see in the dark, <a href="#Page91">91</a></li>
+<li class="level1">does the dark cause fear? <a href="#Page352">352</a></li>
+<li class="level1">do we have to die? <a href="#Page245">245</a></li>
+<li class="level1">does a dog turn round and round before he lies down, <a href="#Page229">229</a></li>
+<li class="level1">do we know we have dreamed when we wake up? <a href="#Page367">367</a></li>
+<li class="level1">does eating candy make some people fat? <a href="#Page409">409</a></li>
+<li class="level1">doesn’t an elevator fall? <a href="#Page397">397</a></li>
+<li class="level1">do our eyes sparkle when we are merry? <a href="#Page92">92</a></li>
+<li class="level1">do the eyes of some pictures follow us? <a href="#Page35">35</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is it difficult to walk straight with my eyes closed? <a href="#Page91">91</a></li>
+<li class="level1">do I get red in the face? <a href="#Page192">192</a></li>
+<li class="level1">are some faculties stronger than others? <a href="#Page403">403</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is a fire hot? <a href="#Page401">401</a></li>
+<li class="level1">does a fire go out? <a href="#Page37">37</a></li>
+<li class="level1">we fear the dark? <a href="#Page352">352</a></li>
+<li class="level1">cannot fishes live in air? <a href="#Page232">232</a></li>
+<li class="level1">do we have finger nails? <a href="#Page142">142</a></li>
+<li class="level1">are our fingers of different lengths? <a href="#Page142">142</a></li>
+<li class="level1">have we five fingers on each hand and five toes on each foot? <a href="#Page142">142</a></li>
+<li class="level1">do we have finger nails? <a href="#Page142">142</a></li>
+<li class="level1">does a gasoline engine go? <a href="#Page181">181</a></li>
+<li class="level1">do girls like dolls? <a href="#Page368">368</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is gold called precious? <a href="#Page266">266</a></li>
+<li class="level1">are gold and silver best for coining? <a href="#Page457">457</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is some gun-powder fine and others coarse grained? <a href="#Page206">206</a></li>
+<li class="level1">are some guns called gatling guns? <a href="#Page310">310</a></li>
+<li class="level1">does a glow-worm glow? <a href="#Page231">231</a></li>
+<li class="level1">do we stop growing? <a href="#Page195">195</a></li>
+<li class="level1">do we have hair? <a href="#Page143">143</a></li>
+<li class="level1">does the hair grow after the body stops growing? <a href="#Page144">144</a></li>
+<li class="level1">don’t my hair hurt when it is being cut? <a href="#Page143">143</a></li>
+<li class="level1">does my hair stand on end when I am frightened? <a href="#Page143">143</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is the right hand stronger than the left? <a href="#Page309">309</a></li>
+<li class="level1">does my heart beat faster when I am scared? <a href="#Page191">191</a></li>
+<li class="level1">does the heart beat when the brain is asleep? <a href="#Page191">191</a></li>
+<li class="level1">do our hearts beat faster when we are running? <a href="#Page191">191</a></li>
+<li class="level1">do they call it a honeymoon? <a href="#Page31">31</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is a horseshoe said to bring good luck? <a href="#Page311">311</a></li>
+<li class="level1">does it hurt when I cut my finger? <a href="#Page143">143</a></li>
+<li class="level1">we cry when hurt, <a href="#Page93">93</a></li>
+<li class="level1">does iron turn red when red hot? <a href="#Page107">107</a></li>
+<li class="level1">does iron sink in water? <a href="#Page106">106</a></li>
+<li class="level1">doesn’t an iron ship sink? <a href="#Page106">106</a></li>
+<li class="level1">do we have twelve men on a jury? <a href="#Page239">239</a></li>
+<li class="level1">does a lamp give a better light with the chimney on? <a href="#Page37">37</a></li>
+<li class="level1">are there many languages? <a href="#Page197">197</a></li>
+<li class="level1">do we laugh when glad?<span class="pagenum" id="Page602">[602]</span> <a href="#Page92">92</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is lead so heavy? <a href="#Page267">267</a></li>
+<li class="level1">do they call them lead pencils? <a href="#Page466">466</a></li>
+<li class="level1">must life be reproduced? <a href="#Page174">174</a></li>
+<li class="level1">are some people light and others dark? <a href="#Page402">402</a></li>
+<li class="level1">did people of long ago live longer than we do now? <a href="#Page199">199</a></li>
+<li class="level1">do we use metal for coining? <a href="#Page456">456</a></li>
+<li class="level1">do they call it the milky way? <a href="#Page255">255</a></li>
+<li class="level1">do we need money? <a href="#Page455">455</a></li>
+<li class="level1">does the moon travel with us when we walk or ride? <a href="#Page399">399</a></li>
+<li class="level1">should we not sleep with the moon shining on us? <a href="#Page366">366</a></li>
+<li class="level1">do my muscles get sore when I play ball in the spring? <a href="#Page310">310</a></li>
+<li class="level1">does a nail get hot when hammered? <a href="#Page230">230</a></li>
+<li class="level1">do we have only seven octaves on a piano? <a href="#Page480">480</a></li>
+<li class="level1">does the ocean look blue at times? <a href="#Page219">219</a></li>
+<li class="level1">does oiling the axle make the wheel turn more easily? <a href="#Page400">400</a></li>
+<li class="level1">does an onion make the tears come? <a href="#Page38">38</a></li>
+<li class="level1">can’t I write on paper with a slate pencil? <a href="#Page18">18</a></li>
+<li class="level1">does a pencil write? <a href="#Page18">18</a></li>
+<li class="level1">are some races white and others black, yellow and brown? <a href="#Page537">537</a></li>
+<li class="level1">do they call it pin money? <a href="#Page231">231</a></li>
+<li class="level1">do we call them pistols? <a href="#Page46">46</a></li>
+<li class="level1">do plants produce seeds? <a href="#Page175">175</a></li>
+<li class="level1">does a poker get hot at both ends if left in the fire? <a href="#Page107">107</a></li>
+<li class="level1">does rain make the air fresh? <a href="#Page222">222</a></li>
+<li class="level1">are most people right-handed? <a href="#Page403">403</a></li>
+<li class="level1">don’t we make roads perfectly level? <a href="#Page104">104</a></li>
+<li class="level1">don’t we use pure rubber? <a href="#Page380">380</a></li>
+<li class="level1">does salt make us thirsty? <a href="#Page351">351</a></li>
+<li class="level1">don’t the scenery appear to move when I am in a street car? <a href="#Page399">399</a></li>
+<li class="level1">does the scenery appear to move when we are riding in a train? <a href="#Page399">399</a></li>
+<li class="level1">can cats and some other animals see in the dark? <a href="#Page91">91</a></li>
+<li class="level1">can we see farther when we are up high? <a href="#Page245">245</a></li>
+<li class="level1">do I turn white when scared? <a href="#Page193">193</a></li>
+<li class="level1">does silver tarnish? <a href="#Page266">266</a></li>
+<li class="level1">does the sheep precede the plow in civilizing a country? <a href="#Page81">81</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is the sky blue? <a href="#Page253">253</a></li>
+<li class="level1">do I sneeze? <a href="#Page194">194</a></li>
+<li class="level1">do we see stars when hit on eye? <a href="#Page268">268</a></li>
+<li class="level1">many stars are there? <a href="#Page223">223</a></li>
+<li class="level1">does a stick in water bend? <a href="#Page38">38</a></li>
+<li class="level1">does a sound stop when we touch a gong that has been sounded? <a href="#Page78">78</a></li>
+<li class="level1">can we make sounds with our throats? <a href="#Page78">78</a></li>
+<li class="level1">do people shake with the right hand? <a href="#Page231">231</a></li>
+<li class="level1">do we go to sleep? <a href="#Page365">365</a></li>
+<li class="level1">does it seem when we have slept all night that we have been asleep only a minute? <a href="#Page366">366</a></li>
+<li class="level1">can’t we sleep with our eye open? <a href="#Page92">92</a></li>
+<li class="level1">we can hear through speaking tubes, <a href="#Page487">487</a></li>
+<li class="level1">does a human being have to learn to swim? <a href="#Page125">125</a></li>
+<li class="level1">are cooking utensils made of tin? <a href="#Page267">267</a></li>
+<li class="level1">do we use copper telegraph wires? <a href="#Page266">266</a></li>
+<li class="level1">do my teeth chatter? <a href="#Page218">218</a></li>
+<li class="level1">are some things transparent and others are not? <a href="#Page350">350</a></li>
+<li class="level1">do I laugh when tickled? <a href="#Page93">93</a></li>
+<li class="level1">can we think of only one thing at a time? <a href="#Page193">193</a></li>
+<li class="level1">does thunder always come after the lightning? <a href="#Page140">140</a></li>
+<li class="level1">do we call them wisdom teeth? <a href="#Page125">125</a></li>
+<li class="level1">are some roads called turnpikes? <a href="#Page104">104</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is the sea water salt? <a href="#Page351">351</a></li>
+<li class="level1">will water run off a duck’s back? <a href="#Page233">233</a></li>
+<li class="level1">do we worry? <a href="#Page207">207</a></li>
+<li class="level1">don’t the water in the ocean sink in? <a href="#Page219">219</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is it warm in summer? <a href="#Page141">141</a></li>
+<li class="level1">does water run? <a href="#Page219">219</a></li>
+<li class="level1">do we say water is soft or hard? <a href="#Page221">221</a></li>
+<li class="level1">does a piece of wood float in water? <a href="#Page106">106</a></li>
+<li class="level1">do we wake up in the morning? <a href="#Page365">365</a></li>
+<li class="level1">do I yawn? <a href="#Page173">173</a></li>
+<li class="level1">does yeast make bread rise? <a href="#Page288">288</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Will</b> people all be bald sometime? <a href="#Page144">144</a></li>
+<li class="level1">the sky ever fall down? <a href="#Page255">255</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Windows</b>, how an explosion breaks them, <a href="#Page62">62</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Wireless</b>, accidents, prevention of, <a href="#Page449">449</a></li>
+<li class="level1">aerial on R. R. stations (illus.), <a href="#Page451">451</a></li>
+<li class="level1">aerial on ship (illus.), <a href="#Page455">455</a></li>
+<li class="level1">antennæ, <a href="#Page447">447</a></li>
+<li class="level1">antennæ on trains (illus.), <a href="#Page450">450</a></li>
+<li class="level1">battery, <a href="#Page447">447</a></li>
+<li class="level1">coil, <a href="#Page447">447</a></li>
+<li class="level1">compass, <a href="#Page454">454</a></li>
+<li class="level1">development of, <a href="#Page454">454</a></li>
+<li class="level1">direction finder, <a href="#Page454">454</a></li>
+<li class="level1">distance of sending, <a href="#Page448">448</a></li>
+<li class="level1">equipment, <a href="#Page446">446</a></li>
+<li class="level1">first Marconi station, <a href="#Page452">452</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how it reaches ships at sea, <a href="#Page446">446</a></li>
+<li class="level1">icebergs (illus.), <a href="#Page449">449</a></li>
+<li class="level1">in the army (illus.), <a href="#Page447">447</a>-<a href="#Page448">448</a></li>
+<li class="level1">inventor of, <a href="#Page452">452</a></li>
+<li class="level1">key, <a href="#Page447">447</a></li>
+<li class="level1">masts, height of, <a href="#Page448">448</a></li>
+<li class="level1">G. Marconi, portrait, <a href="#Page452">452</a></li>
+<li class="level1">on trains (illus.), <a href="#Page450">450</a></li>
+<li class="level1">prevents accidents, <a href="#Page449">449</a></li>
+<li class="level1">principles of, <a href="#Page455">455</a></li>
+<li class="level1">receiving station in U. S. Army (illus.), <a href="#Page451">451</a></li>
+<li class="level1">spark gap, <a href="#Page447">447</a></li>
+<li class="level1">stations, shore (illus.), <a href="#Page446">446</a></li>
+<li class="level1">stations on trains (illus.), <a href="#Page450">450</a></li>
+<li class="level1">transmission automatic (illus.), <a href="#Page453">453</a></li>
+<li class="level1">transmission of messages (illus.), <a href="#Page453">453</a></li>
+<li class="level1">what kind of signs are used in? <a href="#Page446">446</a></li>
+<li class="level1">why don’t the message go to the wrong stations, <a href="#Page455">455</a></li>
+<li class="level1">world-wide use, <a href="#Page454">454</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Wires</b>, copper telegraph, <a href="#Page266">266</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how put underground (illus.), <a href="#Page76">76</a></li>
+<li class="level1">wire-wound gun, <a href="#Page54">54</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Wonders</b> performed by electric lift magnet (illus.), <a href="#Page326">326</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Wool</b> beaming (illus.), <a href="#Page89">89</a></li>
+<li class="level1">bobbin in weaving machine, <a href="#Page86">86</a></li>
+<li class="level1">Burling (illus.), <a href="#Page88">88</a></li>
+<li class="level1">burr picker, <a href="#Page87">87</a></li>
+<li class="level1">carding, <a href="#Page85">85</a></li>
+<li class="level1">carding, finisher in cloth making (illus.), <a href="#Page89">89</a></li>
+<li class="level1">chloride of aluminum in making cloth, <a href="#Page87">87</a></li>
+<li class="level1">cleaning, <a href="#Page85">85</a></li>
+<li class="level1">made clothing from, <a href="#Page81">81</a></li>
+<li class="level1">combing (illus.), <a href="#Page86">86</a></li>
+<li class="level1">cost of in a suit of clothes, <a href="#Page83">83</a></li>
+<li class="level1">crop of the United States, <a href="#Page82">82</a></li>
+<li class="level1">dyeing<span class="pagenum" id="Page603">[603]</span>, <a href="#Page85">85</a>-<a href="#Page87">87</a></li>
+<li class="level1">fabrics, <a href="#Page85">85</a></li>
+<li class="level1">fiber description, <a href="#Page83">83</a></li>
+<li class="level1">finishing, box (illus.), <a href="#Page87">87</a></li>
+<li class="level1">finish, perching (illus.), <a href="#Page90">90</a></li>
+<li class="level1">fulling cloth (illus.), <a href="#Page90">90</a></li>
+<li class="level1">gilling after carding (illus.), <a href="#Page86">86</a></li>
+<li class="level1">gilling and making top after combing (illus.), <a href="#Page86">86</a></li>
+<li class="level1">gilling (illus.), <a href="#Page87">87</a></li>
+<li class="level1">greasy matter in, <a href="#Page84">84</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how we get it off the sheep, <a href="#Page82">82</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how much does a sheep produce, <a href="#Page83">83</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how much does America produce, <a href="#Page82">82</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how made into cloth, <a href="#Page85">85</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how woolen cloth is made perfect, <a href="#Page88">88</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how shipped, <a href="#Page82">82</a></li>
+<li class="level1">loom, <a href="#Page86">86</a></li>
+<li class="level1">mending, perching (illus.), <a href="#Page88">88</a></li>
+<li class="level1">mending room (illus.), <a href="#Page88">88</a></li>
+<li class="level1">woolen mule spinning (illus.), <a href="#Page89">89</a></li>
+<li class="level1">napping, <a href="#Page89">89</a></li>
+<li class="level1">next to food as a vital necessity, <a href="#Page81">81</a></li>
+<li class="level1">piece dyeing (illus.), <a href="#Page90">90</a></li>
+<li class="level1">quality of a hundred years ago, <a href="#Page83">83</a></li>
+<li class="level1">raised to sell to manufacturers, <a href="#Page81">81</a></li>
+<li class="level1">reducer machine in wool making (illus.), <a href="#Page87">87</a></li>
+<li class="level1">ring twisting (illus.), <a href="#Page89">89</a></li>
+<li class="level1">shipped to manufacturers, <a href="#Page82">82</a></li>
+<li class="level1">shuttle in weaving, <a href="#Page86">86</a></li>
+<li class="level1">scouring (illus.), <a href="#Page85">85</a></li>
+<li class="level1">sorting (illus.), <a href="#Page84">84</a></li>
+<li class="level1">spinning process, <a href="#Page86">86</a></li>
+<li class="level1">spinning, <a href="#Page89">89</a></li>
+<li class="level1">English cap spinning, <a href="#Page89">89</a></li>
+<li class="level1">in one suit of clothes, <a href="#Page83">83</a></li>
+<li class="level1">sulphuric acid solution in making cloth, <a href="#Page87">87</a></li>
+<li class="level1">teasel, <a href="#Page89">89</a></li>
+<li class="level1">tramper, <a href="#Page82">82</a></li>
+<li class="level1">in United States, bulk of, <a href="#Page82">82</a></li>
+<li class="level1">warp thread, <a href="#Page86">86</a></li>
+<li class="level1">web, <a href="#Page86">86</a></li>
+<li class="level1">weaving (illus.), <a href="#Page88">88</a></li>
+<li class="level1">where does most of our wool come from? <a href="#Page81">81</a></li>
+<li class="level1">woof of, <a href="#Page86">86</a></li>
+<li class="level1">made into yarn, <a href="#Page86">86</a></li>
+<li class="level1">yarn inspecting (illus.), <a href="#Page89">89</a></li>
+<li class="level1">yolk of, <a href="#Page84">84</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Woolen cloth</b>, ready for market (illus.), <a href="#Page90">90</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Woolens and worsteds</b>, difference between, <a href="#Page84">84</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Woolworth building</b> (illus.), <a href="#Page395">395</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Words</b>, formation of, <a href="#Page19">19</a></li>
+<li class="level1">the first over a telephone, <a href="#Page74">74</a></li>
+
+<li><b>World’s</b> bread loaves (illus.), <a href="#Page459">459</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Worry</b>, definition of, <a href="#Page207">207</a></li>
+<li class="level1">what it is, <a href="#Page207">207</a></li>
+<li class="level1">Why we, <a href="#Page207">207</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Worsted</b> carding (illus.), <a href="#Page85">85</a></li>
+<li class="level1">fabrics, <a href="#Page85">85</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Worsteds and woolens</b>, difference of, <a href="#Page84">84</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Wright Brothers</b>, first successful flights, <a href="#Page130">130</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Wrinkles</b>, what causes, <a href="#Page196">196</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Writing</b>, brush, the (illus.), <a href="#Page13">13</a></li>
+<li class="level1">earliest ways of, <a href="#Page12">12</a></li>
+<li class="level1">first done upon rocks, <a href="#Page11">11</a></li>
+<li class="level1">first imitation of, <a href="#Page12">12</a></li>
+<li class="level1">first metallic pen introduced, <a href="#Page15">15</a></li>
+<li class="level1">fluids for developing, <a href="#Page13">13</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how man learned to, <a href="#Page11">11</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how the monks did their, <a href="#Page14">14</a></li>
+<li class="level1">how a pen writes, <a href="#Page18">18</a></li>
+<li class="level1">modern way of, <a href="#Page16">16</a></li>
+<li class="level1">paper for, earliest, <a href="#Page14">14</a></li>
+<li class="level1">pen, invention of, <a href="#Page11">11</a></li>
+<li class="level1">pen, first steel (illus.), <a href="#Page15">15</a></li>
+<li class="level1">quill, the (illus.), <a href="#Page14">14</a></li>
+<li class="level1">Reed, the, in (illus.), <a href="#Page12">12</a></li>
+<li class="level1">steel tube pen in (illus.), <a href="#Page15">15</a></li>
+<li class="level1">steel pen, modern (illus.), <a href="#Page16">16</a></li>
+<li class="level1">Stylus, the (illus.), <a href="#Page11">11</a></li>
+<li class="level1">with chalk, <a href="#Page18">18</a></li>
+<li class="level1">why a pencil writes, <a href="#Page18">18</a></li>
+
+<li><b>X-rays</b>, what are they? <a href="#Page307">307</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Yankee</b>, where word originated, <a href="#Page243">243</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Yarn</b>, made from wool, <a href="#Page86">86</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Yawning</b>, why do, <a href="#Page173">173</a></li>
+<li class="level1">is it infectious, <a href="#Page192">192</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Yeast</b>, what it is, <a href="#Page288">288</a></li>
+<li class="level1">why it makes bread rise, <a href="#Page288">288</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Yes</b>, meaning of nod, <a href="#Page19">19</a></li>
+
+<li><b>Zollner, Casper</b>, inventor of rifling, <a href="#Page46">46</a></li>
+
+</ul>
+
+<hr class="full">
+
+<div class="tnbot" id="TN">
+
+<h2>Transcriber’s Notes</h2>
+
+<p>The language used in this ebook is that of the source document, including unusual or archaic spelling. The book 
+was partly written by representatives of the industries concerned; inconsistencies 
+in grammar, spelling, punctuation (including the use of decimal points and commas), style, lay-out, etc. have been retained. Contradictions and repetitions 
+have not been addressed. Alphabetical sorting inconsistencies in the index have not been corrected. 
+Not all illustrations in the source document are of the same quality, which is visible in this e-text.</p>
+
+<p>Page 59, ... the six points making a star ...: as printed in the source document, although 
+the six points do not make the star as printed.</p>
+
+<p>Page 218, ... and have them meet as shown in Fig. 13 ...: The illustrations in this chapter are not 
+numbered. The illustration on page 215 shows the described meeting of the shields; the hyperlink goes to this illustration.</p>
+
+<p>Page 305, ... (as shown in Fig. 4): the illustrations with this article are not numbered.</p>
+
+<p>Page 307, The X-rays are discharged in straight lines as shown in the figure: there is no such figure in the book.</p>
+
+<p>Pages 328 and 330: page headings WHAT A LODESTONE IS and WHAT ELECTRICITY IS do not relate to the contents 
+of the pages.</p>
+
+<p>Page 336, The pictures shown on the following pages ...: as printed; the illustrations are given on 
+previous pages.</p>
+
+<p>Page 364, reference to figure 6: presumably the four illustrations on this page together form figure 6.</p>
+
+<p>Page 368, When you put oil on the axle, however, ...: some text may be missing.</p>
+
+<p>Page 376, ... or three-sixty-fourths of a second, and: as printed in the source document; some text is 
+obviously missing.</p>
+
+<p>Page 489, ... of much importance. The two classes, only two of which are of much importance. The two 
+classes ...: the redundant text is as printed in the source document.</p>
+
+<p>Page 491: There is no Fig. 4 in the source document; the unnumbered figure in the bottom right of the 
+page is assumed to be Fig. 4.</p>
+
+<p>Page 502, captions with bottom illustration: at least one of the lengths given (4650 and 4560 feet) is 
+likely to be a typographical error.</p>
+
+<p>Page 530, illustration: as printed in the source document; presumably development starts at 
+the bottom right of the photograph.</p>
+
+<p>Page 547, (The welt shoe has always been considered ...: the closing bracket is lacking.</p>
+
+<p class="blankbefore75">Changes made:</p>
+
+<p>Some minor obvious punctuation and typographical errors and unnecessarily repeated words have been corrected silently.</p>
+
+<p>Illustrations have been moved out of text paragraphs. Page headers have been transcribed as illustration 
+captions (on top of illustrations) or as <span class="sidenote">side&#160;notes</span> at a suitable location on 
+the page concerned, so that their reference in the index is (at least approximately) correct.</p>
+
+<p>Text that was not present as such in the source document but that was transcribed from within illustrations is 
+given <span class="illotext">in a dashed box</span>.</p>
+
+<p>Page 29: ... never see the distance target or vessel ... changed to ... never see the distant target or vessel ....</p>
+
+<p>Page 46: Lock á là Miquelet changed to Lock à la Miquelet.</p>
+
+<p>Pages 74-75: closing double quotes inserted after ... went that very night.; ... had to look after it themselves.; 
+... speech had really been electrically reproduced. Opening double quotes inserted before Now, it so happened 
+there, ...; My friend, Mr. William Hubbard, ....</p>
+
+<p>Page 114: ... the white mulberry or osage orange are fed the young worms ... changed to ... the white mulberry 
+or osage orange are fed the young worm ....</p>
+
+<p>Page 124: ... called an ablate spheroid ... changed to ... called an oblate spheroid ....</p>
+
+<p>Page 126: Dr. Samuel Pierrpont Langley changed to Dr. Samuel Pierpont Langley.</p>
+
+<p>Page 167: ... against the loose row of cross threads to lighten it ... changed to ... against the loose row of 
+cross threads to tighten it ....</p>
+
+<p>Page 205: ... than the heat will cause the air to expand suddenly  ... changed to ... that the heat will cause 
+the air to expand suddenly  ...; ... a mixture of potassium, nitrate, or saltpeter, with powdered charcoal and phur 
+... changed to ... a mixture of potassium nitrate, or saltpeter, with powdered charcoal and sulphur ....</p>
+
+<p>Page 229: ... other machines called Mills,” ... changed to ... other machines called
+“Mills,” ....; ... which also adds in the drying and the working ... changed to ... which also aids in 
+the drying and the working ....</p>
+
+<p>Page 265: ... there is another, solium, which is solid ... changed to ... there is another, sodium, which is solid ...;
+... what is called a reverbratory furnace ... changed to what is called a reverberatory furnace ....</p>
+
+<p>Page 292: PROMOTHEAN MATCH changed to PROMETHEAN MATCH.</p>
+
+<p>Page 375: This toy we speak of was called a zoctrope changed to This toy we speak of was called a zoetrope.</p>
+
+<p>Page 376:  ... projected at the rate of fourteen or sixteen to the minute  ... changed to ... projected at the rate 
+of fourteen or sixteen to the second ....</p>
+
+<p>Page 377: Footnote anchor [4] inserted.</p>
+
+<p>Page 414 ff.: Ellipses (...) have been added surrounding the continuing page headings and illustration captions.</p>
+
+<p>Pages 419 and 438, Morse codes: for the sake of clarity, the spacing between individual dashes and dots has been increased 
+slightly.</p>
+
+<p>Page 490: ... if a red flag really makes a bull more exited ... changed to ... if a red flag really
+makes a bull more excited ....</p>
+
+<p>Page 493: The chemical name for salt is sodium which is derived ... changed to The chemical name for salt is sodium 
+chloride which is derived ...; ... substances around us are composed of these elements along, or ... changed to ... substances 
+around us are composed of these elements alone, or ....</p>
+
+<p>Page 522, illustration Palmary Impressions: rotated 90° clockwise.</p>
+
+<p>Page 550: ... for which the lingings were intended. After all the lingings have been prepared ... changed to ... for 
+which the linings were intended. After all the linings have been prepared ....</p>
+
+<p>Index: several missing punctuation marks inserted for consistency.</p>
+
+<p>Page 583: Curtis biplane changed to Curtiss biplane.</p>
+
+<p>Page 585: Burline (illus.) changed to Burling (illus.)</p>
+
+<p>Page 586: Culverines, early type of changed to Culverins, early type of.</p>
+
+<p>Page 587: steal and flint changed to steel and flint.</p>
+
+<p>Page 588: Flying boot, interior arrangement changed to Flying boat, interior arrangement.</p>
+
+<p>Page 589: (How) the pictures in this both are made changed to (How) the pictures in this book are made.</p>
+
+<p>Page 590: (How) did shaking the head come to come no? changed to (How) did shaking the head come to mean no?; (How) does 
+does the wool in a suit of clothes cost? changed to (How) much does the wool in a suit of clothes cost?; Hurt, why we cry 
+changed to Hurt, why we cry when, 93.</p>
+
+<p>Page 591: the “Reverbere” changed to the “Réverbère”; (Lamp) from Nashagak hanging changed to (Lamp) from Nushagak hanging.</p>
+
+<p>Page 592: promothean changed to promethean.</p>
+
+<p>Page 593: Kurdestan (illus.) changed to Kurdistan (illus.).</p>
+
+<p>Page 595: Crakron or peaked changed to Crakrow or peaked.</p>
+
+<p>Page 597: omniscope changed to Omniscope; cucular diffusion battery in factory changed to circular diffusion battery in factory.</p>
+
+<p>Page 601: (Who) who make the first felt hat? changed to (Who) made the first felt hat?; (Why) don’t an elevator fall? 
+changed to (Why) doesn’t an elevator fall?</p>
+
+<p>Page 603: (Writing) pen invention of, 00 changed to (Writing) pen, invention of, 11.</p>
+
+</div><!--TN-->
+
+<div style='text-align:center'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 75948 ***</div>
+</body>
+</html>
+
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+This book, including all associated images, markup, improvements,
+metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be
+in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES.
+
+Procedures for determining public domain status are described in
+the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org.
+
+No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in
+jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize
+this book outside of the United States should confirm copyright
+status under the laws that apply to them.
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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+book #75948 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/75948)