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+ </style> + </head> +<body> +<div style='text-align:center'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 75947 ***</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_i"></a>[i]</span></p> + +<h1><span class="smaller">AN INTRODUCTION<br> +<span class="smaller">TO THE</span></span><br> +STUDY OF MAMMALS</h1> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_ii"></a>[ii]</span></p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_iii"></a>[iii]</span></p> + +<p class="titlepage larger">AN INTRODUCTION<br> +<span class="smaller">TO THE STUDY OF</span><br> +<span class="larger gesperrt">MAMMALS</span><br> +LIVING AND EXTINCT</p> + +<p class="titlepage smaller">BY</p> + +<p class="center">WILLIAM HENRY FLOWER<br> +<span class="smaller">C.B., F.R.S., D.C.L., LL.D., P.Z.S., F.L.S., F.G.S., &c.<br> +DIRECTOR OF THE NATURAL HISTORY DEPARTMENTS, BRITISH MUSEUM</span></p> + +<p class="center smaller">AND</p> + +<p class="center">RICHARD LYDEKKER<br> +<span class="smaller">B.A., F.G.S., F.Z.S., &c.</span></p> + +<figure class="figcenter titlepage illowp100" id="opossum" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/opossum.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p>THE WOOLLY OPOSSUM</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p class="titlepage">LONDON: ADAM AND CHARLES BLACK<br> +<span class="smaller">MDCCCXCI</span></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_iv"></a>[iv]</span></p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_v"></a>[v]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="PREFACE">PREFACE</h2> + +</div> + +<p>One of the greatest difficulties experienced by all who undertake a +work of this nature, not professing to be an exhaustive treatise +on the subject with which it deals, is to determine the amount +of detail desirable to be introduced to meet the requirements of +the ordinary student, without rendering it too bulky or costly +for general use. The experience of those who endeavour to profit +by the book can alone decide how far the authors have succeeded +in this respect. It will be observed that in many instances certain +better-known or more interesting members of the class have been +described at considerable length, while it has been necessary to +treat others with much greater brevity.</p> + +<p>With regard to the references to the literature of the various +groups treated of, it has been the endeavour of the authors to +make a selection of such memoirs and works as are likely to prove +most valuable to the student for the amount of original information +which they contain, and more especially of those giving +full bibliographical data up to the time of their publication, the +repetition of which has been considered unnecessary.</p> + +<p>In a few instances new generic terms have been introduced to<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_vi"></a>[vi]</span> +replace some which were already occupied; these have been proposed +by Mr. Lydekker, and should be quoted as his.</p> + +<p>The work is based largely upon the article “Mammalia,” together +with forty shorter articles, written by the senior of the two +authors for the ninth edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica. The +account of the orders Rodentia, Insectivora, and Chiroptera contributed +to the article “Mammalia” by Dr. G. E. Dobson, F.R.S., +as well as the articles “Mole,” “Shrew,” and “Vampyre,” by the +same writer, the articles “Marmot,” “Mouse,” “Opossum,” “Phalanger,” +“Rat,” “Squirrel,” “Stoat,” “Vole,” and others, by Mr. +Oldfield Thomas, and likewise the article “Ape,” by Dr. St. G. +Mivart, F.R.S., have also been made use of to a greater or less +extent. The best thanks of the authors are due to these three +gentlemen for freely permitting the incorporation of their own +work in the present volume.</p> + +<p>Mr. Lydekker undertook the task of arranging the various +articles in their proper sequence, selecting from these such portions +as seemed suitable, filling up the gaps, and adding new matter +where necessary; a large amount of this new matter treating of the +extinct forms, and also of the group Artiodactyla.</p> + +<p>The subsequent revision, both before being sent to the printers, +and also when passing through the press, has been made by both +authors, who are thus jointly responsible for the whole work.</p> + +<p>The illustrations are to a great extent those prepared for the +various articles in the Encyclopædia, but many have been added—some +drawn expressly for the work, and some borrowed from +other publications. For most of the latter the authors take this +opportunity of expressing their thanks to the Publication Committee<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_vii"></a>[vii]</span> +of the Zoological Society of London, as well as to the +individual writers in whose works they first appeared.</p> + +<p>The authors have further much pleasure in acknowledging the +ready and obliging way in which Mr. Oldfield Thomas has, +throughout the progress of the work, placed his extensive knowledge +of the group of animals of which it treats at their disposal.</p> + +<p class="mt2"><span class="smcap">London</span>, <i>March</i> 1891.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_viii"></a>[viii]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="Corrigenda"><span class="smcap">Corrigenda.</span></h2> + +</div> + +<p><a href="#Page_280">Page 280</a>, <i>for</i> Chæropsis <i>read</i> Chœropsis.</p> + +<p><a href="#Page_292">Page 292</a>, <i>for</i> Chæropotamidæ and Chæropotamus <i>read</i> Chœropotamidæ and +Chœropotamus.</p> + +<p><a href="#Page_590">Page 590</a>, <i>for</i> Pæcilogale <i>read</i> Pœcilogale.</p> + +<div class="transnote"> +<p class="center"><b>Transcriber’s Note:</b> The corrections have been applied.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_ix"></a>[ix]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CONTENTS">CONTENTS</h2> + +</div> + +<table class="contents"> + <tr> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="td1"></td> + <td class="tdpg smaller">PAGE</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc" colspan="3">CHAPTER I</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Introductory Remarks</span></td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_I">1</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="td1">Use of term mammals, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>; Characters of mammals, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>; Development + of young, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>; Size of mammals, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>; Uses and products + of mammals, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</td> + <td class="tdpg"></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc" colspan="3">CHAPTER II</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">General Anatomical Characters</span></td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_II">7</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">I.</td> + <td>Tegumentary Structures</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_7">7</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="td1">Hair, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>; Colour, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>; Scales, etc., <a href="#Page_11">11</a>; Nails, claws, and + hoofs, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>; Odour-secreting glands, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</td> + <td class="tdpg"></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">II.</td> + <td>Dental System</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_13">13</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="td1">Teeth, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>; Structure of teeth, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>; Development of teeth, + <a href="#Page_15">15</a>; Forms of teeth, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>; Succession of teeth, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>; Arrangement, + homologies, and notation of teeth, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>; Dental formulæ, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>; + Modifications of teeth in relation to function, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>; Taxonomy, + <a href="#Page_30">30</a>; Trituberculism, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</td> + <td class="tdpg"></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">III.</td> + <td>The Skeleton</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_33">33</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="td1">Definition, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>; Axial skeleton, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>; Skull, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>; Vertebral + column, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>; Cervical vertebræ, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>; Dorsal vertebræ, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>; + Lumbar vertebræ, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>; Sacral vertebræ, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>; Caudal vertebræ, + <a href="#Page_43">43</a>; Sternum, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>; Ribs, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>; Appendicular skeleton, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>; + Anterior limb, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>; Shoulder-girdle, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>; Brachium and Antebrachium, + <a href="#Page_47">47</a>; Manus, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>; Carpus, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>; Metacarpus and Phalanges, + <a href="#Page_49">49</a>; Posterior limb, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>; Pelvic girdle, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>; Thigh and + Leg, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>; Pes, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</td> + <td class="tdpg"></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">IV.</td> + <td>The Digestive System</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_53">53</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="td1">General considerations, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>; Mouth, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>; Salivary glands, + <a href="#Page_55">55</a>; Stomach, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>; Intestinal canal, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>; Liver, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</td> + <td class="tdpg"></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">V.</td> + <td>Circulatory, Absorbent, Respiratory, and Urinary Systems</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_63">63</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="td1">Blood, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>; Heart, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>; Lymphatic vessels, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>; Ductless + glands, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>; Nostrils, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>; Trachea, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>; Larynx, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>; Diaphragm, + <a href="#Page_67">67</a>; Lungs, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>; Air-sacs, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>; Urinary Organs, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>; Bladder, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</td> + <td class="tdpg"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_x"></a>[x]</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">VI.</td> + <td>Nervous System and Organs of Sense</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_69">69</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="td1">Brain, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>; Nerves, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>; Sense of touch, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>; Taste and + smell, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>; Sight, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>; Hearing, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</td> + <td class="tdpg"></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">VII.</td> + <td>Reproductive Organs</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_74">74</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="td1">Testes, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>; Penis, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>; Ovaries and oviduct, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>; Mammary + glands, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>; Secondary sexual characters, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>; Placenta, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</td> + <td class="tdpg"></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc" colspan="3">CHAPTER III</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Origin and Classification of the Mammalia</span></td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_III">82</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="td1">Origin, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>; Classification, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>; Table of orders and + families, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</td> + <td class="tdpg"></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc" colspan="3">CHAPTER IV</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Geographical and Geological Distribution</span></td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">93</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">I.</td> + <td>Geographical Distribution</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_93">93</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="td1">Zoological regions, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>; Palæarctic region, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>; Ethiopian + region, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>; Oriental region, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>; Celebes, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>; Nearctic region, + <a href="#Page_102">102</a>; Neotropical region, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>; Aquatic mammals, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</td> + <td class="tdpg"></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">II.</td> + <td>Geological Distribution</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_107">107</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="td1">Sequence of strata, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>; Mesozoic mammals, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>; Multituberculata, + <a href="#Page_109">109</a>; Polyprotodont types, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>; Tertiary mammals, + <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</td> + <td class="tdpg"></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc" colspan="3">CHAPTER V</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">The Subclass Prototheria or Ornithodelphia</span></td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_V">117</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="td1">General characters, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Ornithorhynchidæ</span>, + <a href="#Page_119">119</a>; <i>Ornithorhynchus</i>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Echidnidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>; + <i>Echidna</i>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>; <i>Proechidna</i>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>; Fossil species, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</td> + <td class="tdpg"></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc" colspan="3">CHAPTER VI</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">The Subclass Metatheria Or Didelphia</span></td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">128</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="td1">General characters, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>; Distribution, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>; Classification, + <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</td> + <td class="tdpg"></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2"><i>Suborder</i> <span class="smcap">Polyprotodontia</span></td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_133">133</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="td1"><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Didelphyidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>; <i>Chironectes</i>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>; <i>Didelphys</i>, + <a href="#Page_135">135</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Dasyuridæ</span>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>; <i>Subfamily</i> Dasyurinæ, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>; + <i>Thylacinus</i>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>; <i>Sarcophilus</i>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>; <i>Dasyurus</i>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>; <i>Phascologale</i>, + <a href="#Page_139">139</a>; <i>Sminthopsis</i>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>; <i>Antechinomys</i>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>; <i>Subfamily</i> + Myrmecobiinæ, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>; <i>Myrmecobius</i>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Peramelidæ</span>, + <a href="#Page_141">141</a>; <i>Perameles</i>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>; <i>Peragale</i>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>; <i>Chœropus</i>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</td> + <td class="tdpg"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_xi"></a>[xi]</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2"><i>Suborder</i> <span class="smcap">Diprotodontia</span></td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_144">144</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="td1"><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Phascolomyidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>; <i>Phascolomys</i>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>; <i>Phascolonus</i>, + <a href="#Page_146">146</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Phalangeridæ</span>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>; <i>Subfamily</i> Tarsipedinæ, + <a href="#Page_148">148</a>; <i>Tarsipes</i>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>; <i>Subfamily</i> Phalangerinæ, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>; <i>Phalanger</i>, + <a href="#Page_149">149</a>; <i>Trichosurus</i>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>; <i>Pseudochirus</i>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>; <i>Petauroides</i>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>; + <i>Dactylopsila</i>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>; <i>Petaurus</i>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>; <i>Gymnobelideus</i>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>; + <i>Dromicia</i>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>; <i>Distœchurus</i>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>; <i>Acrobates</i>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>; <i>Subfamily</i> + Phascolarctinæ, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>; <i>Phascolarctus</i>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>. <span class="smcap">Extinct Phalangeroids</span>, + <a href="#Page_157">157</a>; <i>Thylacoleo</i>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Macropodidæ</span>, + <a href="#Page_158">158</a>; <i>Subfamily</i> Hypsiprymnodontinæ, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>; <i>Hypsiprymnodon</i>, + <a href="#Page_162">162</a>; <i>Triclis</i>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>; <i>Subfamily</i> Potoroinæ, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>; <i>Potorous</i>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>; + <i>Bettongia</i>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>; <i>Caloprymnus</i>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>; <i>Æpyprymnus</i>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>; <i>Subfamily</i> + Macropodinæ, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>; <i>Lagostrophus</i>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>; <i>Dendrolagus</i>, + <a href="#Page_165">165</a>; <i>Dorcopsis</i>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>; <i>Lagorchestes</i>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>; <i>Onychogale</i>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>; + <i>Petrogale</i>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>; <i>Macropus</i>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>; Extinct genera, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>. <span class="smcap">Extinct + Families</span>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>; <i>Diprotodon</i>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>; <i>Nototherium</i>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</td> + <td class="tdpg"></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc" colspan="3">CHAPTER VII</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">The Subclass Eutheria and the Order Edentata</span></td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">173</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="td1">General characters and classification of Eutheria, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</td> + <td class="tdpg"></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Order Edentata</span></td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_176">176</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="td1"><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Bradypodidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>; <i>Bradypus</i>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>; <i>Cholœpus</i>, + <a href="#Page_182">182</a>; <i>Nothropus</i>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Megatheriidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>; <i>Megatherium</i>, + <a href="#Page_185">185</a>; <i>Scelidotherium</i> and <i>Mylodon</i>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>; <i>Promegatherium</i>, + <a href="#Page_189">189</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Myrmecophagidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>; <i>Myrmecophaga</i>, + <a href="#Page_190">190</a>; <i>Tamandua</i>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>; <i>Cycloturus</i>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Dasypodidæ</span>, + <a href="#Page_194">194</a>; <i>Subfamily</i> Chlamydophorinæ, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>; <i>Chlamydophorus</i>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>; + <i>Subfamily</i> Dasypodinæ, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>; <i>Dasypus</i>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>; <i>Xenurus</i>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>; + <i>Priodon</i>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>; <i>Tolypeutes</i>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>; <i>Subfamily</i> Tatusiinæ, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>; + <i>Tatusia</i>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>; Extinct genera, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Glyptodontidæ</span>, + <a href="#Page_202">202</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Manidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>; <i>Manis</i>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>; <i>Palæomanis</i>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>. + <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Orycteropodidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>; <i>Orycteropus</i>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>. Bibliography, + <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</td> + <td class="tdpg"></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc" colspan="3">CHAPTER VIII</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">The Orders Sirenia and Cetacea</span></td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">212</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Order Sirenia</span></td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_212">212</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="td1"><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Manatidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>; <i>Manatus</i>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Halicoridæ</span>, + <a href="#Page_220">220</a>; <i>Halicore</i>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Rhytinidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>; + <i>Rhytina</i>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>. <span class="smcap">Extinct Sirenians</span>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>; <i>Halitherium</i>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>; + Other forms, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>. Bibliography, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</td> + <td class="tdpg"></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Order Cetacea</span></td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_225">225</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2"><i>Suborder</i> <span class="smcap">Mystacoceti</span></td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_234">234</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="td1"><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Balænidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>; <i>Balæna</i>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>; <i>Neobalæna</i>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>; + <i>Rhachianectes</i>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>; <i>Megaptera</i>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>; <i>Balænoptera</i>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>; Extinct + genera, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</td> + <td class="tdpg"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_xii"></a>[xii]</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2"><i>Suborder</i> <span class="smcap">Archæoceti</span></td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_246">246</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="td1"><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Zeuglodontidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>; <i>Zeuglodon</i>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</td> + <td class="tdpg"></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2"><i>Suborder</i> <span class="smcap">Odontoceti</span></td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_247">247</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="td1"><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Physeteridæ</span>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>; <i>Subfamily</i> Physeterinæ, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>; + <i>Physeter</i>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>; <i>Cogia</i>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>; Extinct physeteroids, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>; <i>Subfamily</i> + Ziphiinæ, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>; <i>Hyperoödon</i>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>; <i>Ziphius</i>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>; <i>Mesoplodon</i>, + <a href="#Page_254">254</a>; <i>Berardius</i>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>; <i>Choneziphius</i>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>. <i>Family</i> + <span class="smcap">Squalodontidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>; <i>Squalodon</i>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Platanistidæ</span>, + <a href="#Page_257">257</a>; <i>Platanista</i>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>; <i>Inia</i>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>; <i>Pontoporia</i>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>; Fossil forms, + <a href="#Page_259">259</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Delphinidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>; <i>Monodon</i>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>; <i>Delphinapterus</i>, + <a href="#Page_262">262</a>; <i>Phocæna</i>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>; <i>Cephalorhynchus</i>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>; <i>Orcella</i>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>; Orca, + <a href="#Page_267">267</a>; <i>Pseudorca</i>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>; <i>Globicephalus</i>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>; <i>Grampus</i>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>; + <i>Feresia</i>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>; <i>Lagenorhynchus</i>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>; <i>Delphinus</i>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>; <i>Tursiops</i>, + <a href="#Page_271">271</a>; <i>Prodelphinus</i>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>; <i>Steno</i>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>; <i>Sotalia</i>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>. Bibliography, + <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</td> + <td class="tdpg"></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc" colspan="3">CHAPTER IX</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">The Order Ungulata</span></td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_IX">273</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Ungulata Vera</span></td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_275">275</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2"><i>Suborder</i> <span class="smcap">Artiodactyla</span></td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_275">275</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="td1"><span class="smcap">Suina</span>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Hippopotamidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>; <i>Hippopotamus</i>, + <a href="#Page_278">278</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Suidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>; <i>Sus</i>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>; <i>Babirusa</i>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>; <i>Phacochœrus</i>, + <a href="#Page_288">288</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Dicotylidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>; <i>Dicotyles</i>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>; + <i>Hyotherium</i>, etc., <a href="#Page_291">291</a>. <span class="smcap">Extinct Transitional Artiodactyles</span>, + <a href="#Page_292">292</a>; Chœropotamidæ, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>; Anthracotheriidæ, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>; <i>Merycopotamus</i>, + <a href="#Page_293">293</a>; Cotylopidæ, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>; Anoplotheriidæ, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>; Cænotheriidæ, + <a href="#Page_294">294</a>; Dichodontidæ, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>. <span class="smcap">Tylopoda</span>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>. <i>Family</i> + <span class="smcap">Camelidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>; <i>Camelus</i>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>; <i>Auchenia</i>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>; Extinct + Cameloids, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>. <span class="smcap">Tragulina</span>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Tragulidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>; + <i>Tragulus</i>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>; <i>Dorcatherium</i>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>; Extinct Traguloids, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>. + <span class="smcap">Pecora</span>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>; Antlers, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>; Horns, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>; Teeth, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>; Stomach, + <a href="#Page_312">312</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Cervidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>; <i>Subfamily</i> Moschinæ, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>; + <i>Moschus</i>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>; <i>Subfamily</i> Cervinæ, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>; Plesiometacarpalia, + <a href="#Page_316">316</a>; <i>Cervulus</i>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>; <i>Elaphodus</i>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>; <i>Cervus</i>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>; Telemetacarpalia, + <a href="#Page_323">323</a>; <i>Rangifer</i>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>; <i>Alces</i>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>; <i>Cervalces</i>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>; + <i>Capreolus</i>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>; <i>Hydropotes</i>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>; <i>Cariacus</i>, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>; <i>Pudua</i>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>; + Extinct genera, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Giraffidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>; <i>Giraffa</i>, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>; + Allied extinct types, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Antilocapridæ</span>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>; + <i>Antilocapra</i>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Bovidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>; <i>Alcelaphus</i>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>; + <i>Connochætes</i>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>; <i>Cephalophus</i>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>; <i>Tetraceros</i>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>; <i>Neotragus</i>, + <a href="#Page_338">338</a>; <i>Nanotragus</i>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>; <i>Pelea</i>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>; <i>Cobus</i>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>; <i>Cervicapra</i>, + <a href="#Page_340">340</a>; <i>Antilope</i>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>; <i>Æpyceros</i>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>; <i>Saiga</i>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>; + <i>Pantholops</i>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>; <i>Gazella</i>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>; <i>Hippotragus</i>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>; <i>Oryx</i>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>; + <i>Addax</i>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>; <i>Boselaphus</i>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>; <i>Tragelaphus</i>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>; <i>Strepsiceros</i>, + <a href="#Page_347">347</a>; <i>Oreas</i>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>; Extinct types, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>; <i>Rupicapra</i>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>; <i>Nemorhædus</i>, + <a href="#Page_350">350</a>; <i>Haploceros</i>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>; <i>Budorcas</i>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>; <i>Capra</i>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>; + <i>Ovis</i>, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>; <i>Ovibos</i>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>; <i>Bos</i>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</td> + <td class="tdpg"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_xiii"></a>[xiii]</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2"><i>Suborder</i> <span class="smcap">Perissodactyla</span></td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_368">368</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="td1"><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Tapiridæ</span>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>; <i>Tapirus</i>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>; <i>Palæotapirus</i>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>. + <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Lophiodontidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Palæotheriidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>. + <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Equidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>; <i>Protohippus</i>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>; <i>Hipparion</i>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>; + <i>Equus</i>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Rhinocerotidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>; <i>Rhinoceros</i>, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>; + Extinct types, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>. <i>Families</i> <span class="smcap">Lambdotheriidæ</span>, <span class="smcap">Chalicotheriidæ</span>, + and <span class="smcap">Titanotheriidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Macraucheniidæ</span>, + <a href="#Page_414">414</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Proterotheriidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>.</td> + <td class="tdpg"></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Subungulata</span></td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_414">414</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2"><i>Suborder</i> <span class="smcap">Hyracoidea</span></td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_415">415</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="td1"><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Hyracidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>; <i>Hyrax</i>, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>; <i>Dendrohyrax</i>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>.</td> + <td class="tdpg"></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2"><i>Suborder</i> <span class="smcap">Proboscidea</span></td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_418">418</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="td1"><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Elephantidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>; <i>Elephas</i>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>; <i>Mastodon</i>, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>. + <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Dinotheriidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>; <i>Dinotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>.</td> + <td class="tdpg"></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2"><i>Suborder</i> <span class="smcap">Amblypoda</span></td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_436">436</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="td1"><i>Uintatherium</i>, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>; <i>Coryphodon</i>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>.</td> + <td class="tdpg"></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2"><i>Suborder</i> <span class="smcap">Condylarthra</span></td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_438">438</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2"><i>Suborder</i> <span class="smcap">Toxodontia</span></td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_439">439</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="td1"><i>Nesodon</i>, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>; <i>Toxodon</i>, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>; <i>Typotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>.</td> + <td class="tdpg"></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2"><i>Group</i> <span class="smcap">Tillodontia</span></td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_441">441</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="td1">Bibliography of Ungulates</td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_442">442</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc" colspan="3">CHAPTER X</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">The Order Rodentia</span></td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_X">443</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2"><i>Suborder</i> <span class="smcap">Simplicidentata</span></td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_448">448</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="td1"><i>Section</i> <span class="smcap">Sciuromorpha</span>, <a href="#Page_448">448</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Anomaluridæ</span>, <a href="#Page_449">449</a>; + <i>Anomalurus</i>, <a href="#Page_449">449</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Sciuridæ</span>, <a href="#Page_450">450</a>; <i>Sciurus</i>, <a href="#Page_450">450</a>; + <i>Rhithrosciurus</i>, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>; <i>Xerus</i>, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>; <i>Tamias</i>, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>; <i>Pteromys</i> and + <i>Sciuropterus</i>, <a href="#Page_453">453</a>; <i>Eupetaurus</i>, <a href="#Page_454">454</a>; Extinct genera, <a href="#Page_454">454</a>; + <i>Arctomys</i>, <a href="#Page_454">454</a>; <i>Cynomys</i>, <a href="#Page_455">455</a>; <i>Spermophilus</i>, <a href="#Page_456">456</a>; Extinct + genera, <a href="#Page_457">457</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Haplodontidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_457">457</a>; <i>Haplodon</i>, <a href="#Page_457">457</a>. + <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Castoridæ</span>, <a href="#Page_457">457</a>; <i>Castor</i>, <a href="#Page_457">457</a>. <i>Section</i> <span class="smcap">Myomorpha</span>, + <a href="#Page_459">459</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Myoxidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_459">459</a>; <i>Myoxus</i>, <a href="#Page_459">459</a>; <i>Eliomys</i>, <a href="#Page_459">459</a>; + <i>Graphiurus</i>, <a href="#Page_459">459</a>; <i>Claviglis</i>, <a href="#Page_460">460</a>; <i>Muscardinus</i>, <a href="#Page_460">460</a>. <i>Family</i> + <span class="smcap">Lophiomyidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_460">460</a>; <i>Lophiomys</i>, <a href="#Page_460">460</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Muridæ</span>, <a href="#Page_461">461</a>; + <i>Hydromys</i>, <a href="#Page_461">461</a>; <i>Xeromys</i>, <a href="#Page_461">461</a>; <i>Platacanthomys</i>, <a href="#Page_462">462</a>; <i>Gerbillus</i>, + <a href="#Page_462">462</a>; <i>Pachyuromys</i>, <a href="#Page_462">462</a>; <i>Mystromys</i>, <a href="#Page_462">462</a>; <i>Otomys</i> and <i>Dasymys</i>, + <a href="#Page_462">462</a>; <i>Malacomys</i>, <a href="#Page_462">462</a>; <i>Phlœomys</i>, <a href="#Page_462">462</a>; <i>Dendromys</i>, <a href="#Page_463">463</a>; + <i>Cricetus</i>, <a href="#Page_463">463</a>; <i>Holochilus</i>, <a href="#Page_464">464</a>; <i>Sigmodon</i>, <a href="#Page_464">464</a>; <i>Rhithrodon</i> + and <i>Ochetodon</i>, <a href="#Page_464">464</a>; <i>Neotoma</i>, <a href="#Page_464">464</a>; <i>Hypogeomys</i>, <a href="#Page_465">465</a>; <i>Nesomys</i>, + <a href="#Page_465">465</a>; <i>Brachytarsomys</i>, <a href="#Page_465">465</a>; <i>Hallomys</i>, <a href="#Page_465">465</a>; <i>Eliurus</i>, <a href="#Page_465">465</a>; + <i>Phenacomys</i>, <a href="#Page_466">466</a>; <i>Arvicola</i>, <a href="#Page_466">466</a>; <i>Synaptomys</i>, <a href="#Page_467">467</a>; <i>Myodes</i>, + <a href="#Page_467">467</a>; <i>Cuniculus</i>, <a href="#Page_470">470</a>; <i>Fiber</i>, <a href="#Page_470">470</a>; <i>Neofiber</i>, <a href="#Page_472">472</a>; <i>Ellobius</i>,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_xiv"></a>[xiv]</span> + <a href="#Page_472">472</a>; <i>Siphneus</i>, <a href="#Page_472">472</a>; <i>Deomys</i>, <a href="#Page_473">473</a>; <i>Mus</i>, <a href="#Page_473">473</a>; <i>Nesocia</i>, <a href="#Page_475">475</a>; + <i>Golunda</i>, <a href="#Page_476">476</a>; <i>Uromys</i>, <a href="#Page_476">476</a>; <i>Chiruromys</i>, <a href="#Page_476">476</a>; <i>Hapalotis</i>, + <a href="#Page_476">476</a>; <i>Mastacomys</i>, <a href="#Page_476">476</a>; <i>Acanthomys</i>, <a href="#Page_476">476</a>; <i>Echinothrix</i>, <a href="#Page_477">477</a>; + <i>Typhlomys</i>, <a href="#Page_477">477</a>; <i>Cricetomys</i> and <i>Saccostomus</i>, <a href="#Page_477">477</a>; <i>Pithechirus</i>, + <a href="#Page_477">477</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Spalacidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_477">477</a>; <i>Spalax</i>, <a href="#Page_477">477</a>; <i>Rhizomys</i>, <a href="#Page_477">477</a>; + <i>Bathyergus</i>, <a href="#Page_478">478</a>; <i>Georychus</i> and <i>Myoscalops</i>, <a href="#Page_478">478</a>; <i>Heterocephalus</i>, + <a href="#Page_478">478</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Geomyidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_478">478</a>; <i>Geomys</i>, <a href="#Page_478">478</a>; + <i>Thomomys</i>, <a href="#Page_478">478</a>; <i>Dipodomys</i>, <a href="#Page_479">479</a>; <i>Perognathus</i> and <i>Heteromys</i>, + <a href="#Page_479">479</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Dipodidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_479">479</a>; <i>Sminthus</i>, <a href="#Page_479">479</a>; <i>Zapus</i>, <a href="#Page_480">480</a>; + <i>Dipus</i>, <a href="#Page_480">480</a>; <i>Alactaga</i>, <a href="#Page_480">480</a>; <i>Platycercomys</i>, <a href="#Page_480">480</a>; <i>Pedetes</i>, <a href="#Page_480">480</a>. + <i>Section</i> <span class="smcap">Hystricomorpha</span>, <a href="#Page_480">480</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Octodontidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_480">480</a>. + <i>Ctenodactylus</i>, <a href="#Page_481">481</a>; <i>Pectinator</i>, <a href="#Page_481">481</a>; <i>Octodon</i>, <a href="#Page_481">481</a>; <i>Habrocoma</i>, + <a href="#Page_482">482</a>; <i>Schizodon</i>, <a href="#Page_482">482</a>; <i>Ctenomys</i>, <a href="#Page_482">482</a>; <i>Spalacopus</i>, <a href="#Page_482">482</a>; + <i>Petromys</i>, <a href="#Page_482">482</a>; <i>Myopotamus</i>, <a href="#Page_482">482</a>; <i>Capromys</i>, <a href="#Page_482">482</a>; <i>Aulacodus</i>, + <a href="#Page_483">483</a>; <i>Plagiodon</i>, <a href="#Page_483">483</a>; <i>Loncheres</i> and <i>Echinomys</i>, <a href="#Page_483">483</a>; <i>Mesomys</i>, + <a href="#Page_483">483</a>; <i>Dactylomys</i>, <a href="#Page_483">483</a>; <i>Cercomys</i>, <a href="#Page_483">483</a>; <i>Carterodon</i>, <a href="#Page_484">484</a>; + Fossil forms, <a href="#Page_484">484</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Theridomyidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_484">484</a>. <i>Family</i> + <span class="smcap">Hystricidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_484">484</a>; <i>Erethizon</i>, <a href="#Page_484">484</a>; <i>Synetheres</i>, <a href="#Page_485">485</a>; <i>Chætomys</i>, + <a href="#Page_486">486</a>; <i>Hystrix</i>, <a href="#Page_486">486</a>; <i>Atherura</i>, <a href="#Page_487">487</a>; <i>Trichys</i>, <a href="#Page_487">487</a>. <i>Family</i> + <span class="smcap">Chinchillidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_487">487</a>; <i>Chinchilla</i>, <a href="#Page_487">487</a>; <i>Lagidium</i> and <i>Lagostomus</i>, + <a href="#Page_488">488</a>; Extinct genera, <a href="#Page_488">488</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Castoroididæ</span>, <a href="#Page_488">488</a>; + <i>Castoroides</i>, <a href="#Page_488">488</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Dasyproctidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_488">488</a>; <i>Dasyprocta</i>, + <a href="#Page_488">488</a>; <i>Cælogenys</i>, <a href="#Page_489">489</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Dinomyidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_489">489</a>; <i>Dinomys</i>, <a href="#Page_489">489</a>. + <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Caviidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_489">489</a>; <i>Cavia</i>, <a href="#Page_489">489</a>; <i>Dolichotis</i>, <a href="#Page_490">490</a>; <i>Hydrochœrus</i>, + <a href="#Page_490">490</a>; Extinct genera, <a href="#Page_491">491</a>.</td> + <td class="tdpg"></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2"><i>Suborder</i> <span class="smcap">Duplicidentata</span></td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_491">491</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="td1"><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Lagomyidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_491">491</a>; <i>Lagomys</i>, <a href="#Page_491">491</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Leporidæ</span>, + <a href="#Page_492">492</a>; <i>Lepus</i>, <a href="#Page_492">492</a>.</td> + <td class="tdpg"></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc" colspan="3">CHAPTER XI</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">The Order Carnivora</span></td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_XI">496</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2"><i>Suborder</i> <span class="smcap">Carnivora Vera</span></td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_497">497</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="td1"><i>Section</i> <span class="smcap">Æluroidea</span>, <a href="#Page_501">501</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Felidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_502">502</a>; <i>Felis</i>, + <a href="#Page_502">502</a>; <i>Cynælurus</i>, <a href="#Page_523">523</a>; Extinct genera, <a href="#Page_523">523</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Viverridæ</span>, + <a href="#Page_525">525</a>; <i>Cryptoprocta</i>, <a href="#Page_525">525</a>; <i>Viverra</i>, <a href="#Page_526">526</a>; <i>Fossa</i>, <a href="#Page_527">527</a>; + <i>Genetta</i>, <a href="#Page_528">528</a>; <i>Prionodon</i>, <a href="#Page_530">530</a>; <i>Poiana</i>, <a href="#Page_531">531</a>; <i>Paradoxurus</i>, + <a href="#Page_532">532</a>; <i>Arctogale</i>, <a href="#Page_533">533</a>; <i>Hemigale</i>, <a href="#Page_533">533</a>; <i>Arctictis</i>, <a href="#Page_534">534</a>; <i>Nandinia</i>, + <a href="#Page_534">534</a>; <i>Cynogale</i>, <a href="#Page_534">534</a>; <i>Herpestes</i>, <a href="#Page_535">535</a>; <i>Helogale</i>, <a href="#Page_537">537</a>; <i>Bdeogale</i>, + <a href="#Page_537">537</a>; <i>Cynictis</i>, <a href="#Page_537">537</a>; <i>Rhinogale</i>, <a href="#Page_537">537</a>; <i>Crossarchus</i>, <a href="#Page_537">537</a>; <i>Suricata</i>, + <a href="#Page_538">538</a>; <i>Galidictis</i>, <i>Galidea</i>, and <i>Hemigalidea</i>, <a href="#Page_538">538</a>; <i>Eupleres</i>, + <a href="#Page_538">538</a>; Extinct genera, <a href="#Page_539">539</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Proteleidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_539">539</a>; <i>Proteles</i>, + <a href="#Page_539">539</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Hyænidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_540">540</a>; <i>Hyæna</i>, <a href="#Page_540">540</a>. <i>Section</i> <span class="smcap">Cynoidea</span>, + <a href="#Page_544">544</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Canidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_544">544</a>; <i>Canis</i>, <a href="#Page_546">546</a>; <i>Lycaon</i>, <a href="#Page_553">553</a>; <i>Icticyon</i>, + <a href="#Page_553">553</a>; <i>Otocyon</i>, <a href="#Page_554">554</a>; Extinct genera, <a href="#Page_555">555</a>. <i>Section</i> <span class="smcap">Arctoidea</span>, <a href="#Page_556">556</a>. + <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Ursidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_557">557</a>; <i>Ursus</i>, <a href="#Page_557">557</a>; <i>Melursus</i>, <a href="#Page_560">560</a>; <i>Æluropus</i>, + <a href="#Page_560">560</a>; Extinct genera, <a href="#Page_561">561</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Procyonidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_562">562</a>; + <i>Ælurus</i>, <a href="#Page_562">562</a>; <i>Procyon</i>, <a href="#Page_564">564</a>; <i>Bassaris</i>, <a href="#Page_566">566</a>; <i>Bassaricyon</i>, <a href="#Page_566">566</a>; + <i>Nasua</i>, <a href="#Page_566">566</a>; <i>Cercoleptes</i>, <a href="#Page_567">567</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Mustelidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_567">567</a>; + <i>Lutra</i>, <a href="#Page_567">567</a>; Extinct Otters, <a href="#Page_570">570</a>; <i>Latax</i>, <a href="#Page_570">570</a>; <i>Mephitis</i>, <a href="#Page_572">572</a>; + <i>Conepatus</i>, <a href="#Page_574">574</a>; <i>Arctonyx</i>, <a href="#Page_574">574</a>; <i>Mydaus</i>, <a href="#Page_575">575</a>; <i>Meles</i>, <a href="#Page_575">575</a>; + <i>Taxidea</i>, <a href="#Page_576">576</a>; <i>Mellivora</i>, <a href="#Page_576">576</a>; <i>Helictis</i>, <a href="#Page_578">578</a>; <i>Ictonyx</i>, <a href="#Page_579">579</a>; + <i>Galictis</i>, <a href="#Page_579">579</a>; <i>Mustela</i>, <a href="#Page_579">579</a>; Extinct Mustelines, <a href="#Page_590">590</a>; <i>Pœcilogale</i>, + <a href="#Page_590">590</a>; <i>Lyncodon</i>, <a href="#Page_590">590</a>; <i>Gulo</i>, <a href="#Page_591">591</a>.</td> + <td class="tdpg"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_xv"></a>[xv]</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2"><i>Suborder</i> <span class="smcap">Pinnipedia</span></td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_592">592</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="td1"><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Otariidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_593">593</a>; <i>Otaria</i>, <a href="#Page_593">593</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Trichechidæ</span>, + <a href="#Page_596">596</a>; <i>Trichechus</i>, <a href="#Page_597">597</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Phocidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_600">600</a>; + <i>Halichœrus</i>, <a href="#Page_601">601</a>; <i>Phoca</i>, <a href="#Page_601">601</a>; <i>Monachus</i>, <a href="#Page_604">604</a>; <i>Ogmorhinus</i>, + <a href="#Page_605">605</a>; <i>Lobodon</i>, <a href="#Page_605">605</a>; <i>Pœcilophoca</i>, <a href="#Page_605">605</a>; <i>Ommatophoca</i>, <a href="#Page_605">605</a>; + <i>Cystophora</i>, <a href="#Page_605">605</a>; <i>Macrorhinus</i>, <a href="#Page_606">606</a>; Extinct seals, <a href="#Page_606">606</a>.</td> + <td class="tdpg"></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2"><i>Suborder</i> <span class="smcap">Creodonta</span></td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_606">606</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="td1"><i>Hyænodontidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_608">608</a>; <i>Proviverridæ</i>, <a href="#Page_608">608</a>; <i>Arctocyonidæ</i> and + <i>Mesonychidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_609">609</a>.</td> + <td class="tdpg"></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc" colspan="3">CHAPTER XII</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">The Order Insectivora</span></td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_XII">610</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2"><i>Suborder</i> <span class="smcap">Dermoptera</span></td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_614">614</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="td1"><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Galeopithecidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_614">614</a>; <i>Galeopithecus</i>, <a href="#Page_614">614</a>.</td> + <td class="tdpg"></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2"><i>Suborder</i> <span class="smcap">Insectivora Vera</span></td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_616">616</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="td1"><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Tupaiidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_617">617</a>; <i>Tupaia</i>, <a href="#Page_617">617</a>; <i>Ptilocercus</i>, <a href="#Page_618">618</a>; Extinct + genera, <a href="#Page_618">618</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Macroscelididæ</span>, <a href="#Page_618">618</a>; <i>Macroscelides</i>, + <a href="#Page_618">618</a>; <i>Rhynchocyon</i>, <a href="#Page_618">618</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Erinaceidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_619">619</a>; + <i>Gymnura</i>, <a href="#Page_619">619</a>; <i>Erinaceus</i>, <a href="#Page_620">620</a>; Extinct genera, <a href="#Page_621">621</a>; <i>Family</i> + <span class="smcap">Soricidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_621">621</a>; <i>Sorex</i>, <a href="#Page_622">622</a>; <i>Soriculus</i>, <a href="#Page_624">624</a>; <i>Notiosorex</i>, <a href="#Page_624">624</a>; + <i>Blarina</i>, <a href="#Page_624">624</a>; <i>Crossopus</i>, <a href="#Page_625">625</a>; <i>Myosorex</i>, <a href="#Page_625">625</a>; <i>Crocidura</i>, <a href="#Page_626">626</a>; + <i>Diplomesodon</i>, <a href="#Page_626">626</a>; <i>Anurosorex</i>, <a href="#Page_626">626</a>; <i>Chimarrogale</i>, <a href="#Page_626">626</a>; <i>Nectogale</i>, + <a href="#Page_627">627</a>; Fossil Soricidæ, <a href="#Page_627">627</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Talpidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_628">628</a>; + <i>Myogale</i>, <a href="#Page_628">628</a>; <i>Urotrichus</i>, <a href="#Page_629">629</a>; <i>Uropsilus</i>, <a href="#Page_629">629</a>; <i>Scalops</i>, <a href="#Page_630">630</a>; + <i>Scapanus</i>, <a href="#Page_630">630</a>; <i>Condylura</i>, <a href="#Page_630">630</a>; <i>Scaptonyx</i>, <a href="#Page_630">630</a>; <i>Talpa</i>, <a href="#Page_630">630</a>; + Extinct genera, <a href="#Page_634">634</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Adapisoricidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_634">634</a>. <i>Family</i> + <span class="smcap">Potamogalidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_634">634</a>; <i>Potamogale</i>, <a href="#Page_635">635</a>; <i>Geogale</i>, <a href="#Page_635">635</a>. <i>Family</i> + <span class="smcap">Solenodontidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_635">635</a>; <i>Solenodon</i>, <a href="#Page_636">636</a>; <i>Centetes</i>, <a href="#Page_637">637</a>; <i>Hemicentetes</i>, + <a href="#Page_637">637</a>; <i>Ericulus</i>, <a href="#Page_638">638</a>; <i>Microgale</i>, <a href="#Page_638">638</a>; <i>Oryzorictes</i>, <a href="#Page_638">638</a>; + <i>Chrysochloris</i>, <a href="#Page_639">639</a>. <span class="smcap">Extinct Types</span>, <a href="#Page_640">640</a>. Bibliography, <a href="#Page_640">640</a>.</td> + <td class="tdpg"></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc" colspan="3">CHAPTER XIII</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">The Order Chiroptera</span></td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIII">641</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2"><i>Suborder</i> <span class="smcap">Megachiroptera</span></td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_650">650</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="td1"><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Pteropodidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_650">650</a>; <i>Epomophorus</i>, <a href="#Page_650">650</a>; <i>Pteropus</i>, + <a href="#Page_651">651</a>; <i>Xantharpyia</i>, <a href="#Page_652">652</a>; <i>Boncia</i>, <a href="#Page_653">653</a>; <i>Cynopterus</i>, <a href="#Page_653">653</a>; + <i>Harpyia</i>, <a href="#Page_653">653</a>; <i>Cephalotes</i>, <a href="#Page_653">653</a>; <i>Pteralopex</i>, <a href="#Page_654">654</a>; <i>Notopteris</i>, + <a href="#Page_654">654</a>; <i>Eonycteris</i>, <a href="#Page_654">654</a>; <i>Carponycteris</i> and <i>Melonycteris</i>, <a href="#Page_654">654</a>; + <i>Nesonycteris</i>, <a href="#Page_655">655</a>; <i>Callinycteris</i>, <a href="#Page_655">655</a>; <i>Trygenycteris</i>, <a href="#Page_655">655</a>.</td> + <td class="tdpg"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_xvi"></a>[xvi]</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2"><i>Suborder</i> <span class="smcap">Microchiroptera</span></td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_655">655</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="td1"><i>Section</i> <span class="smcap">Vespertilionina</span>, <a href="#Page_655">655</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Rhinolophidæ</span>, + <a href="#Page_656">656</a>; <i>Rhinolophus</i>, <a href="#Page_656">656</a>; <i>Hipposiderus</i>, <a href="#Page_657">657</a>; <i>Anthops</i>, <a href="#Page_657">657</a>; + <i>Rhinonycteris</i> and <i>Triænops</i>, <a href="#Page_658">658</a>; <i>Cœlops</i>, <a href="#Page_658">658</a>; <i>Megaderma</i>, + <a href="#Page_658">658</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Vespertilionidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_660">660</a>; <i>Plecotus</i>, <a href="#Page_660">660</a>; <i>Synotus</i>, + <a href="#Page_661">661</a>; <i>Otonycteris</i>, <a href="#Page_661">661</a>; <i>Nyctophilus</i>, <a href="#Page_661">661</a>; <i>Antrozous</i>, <a href="#Page_661">661</a>; + <i>Vesperugo</i>, <a href="#Page_661">661</a>; <i>Chalinolobus</i>, <a href="#Page_662">662</a>; <i>Scotophilus</i>, <a href="#Page_662">662</a>; <i>Nycticejus</i>, + <a href="#Page_663">663</a>; <i>Atalapha</i>, <a href="#Page_663">663</a>; <i>Harpyiocephalus</i>, <a href="#Page_663">663</a>; <i>Vespertilio</i>, + <a href="#Page_663">663</a>; <i>Cerivoula</i>, <a href="#Page_664">664</a>; <i>Natalus</i>, <a href="#Page_664">664</a>; <i>Miniopterus</i>, <a href="#Page_664">664</a>; <i>Thyroptera</i>, + <a href="#Page_665">665</a>; <i>Myxopoda</i>, <a href="#Page_665">665</a>; Fossil Vespertilionidæ, <a href="#Page_665">665</a>. + <i>Section</i> <span class="smcap">Emballonurina</span>, <a href="#Page_666">666</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Emballonuridæ</span>, <a href="#Page_666">666</a>; + <i>Furipterus</i> and <i>Antorphochilus</i>, <a href="#Page_666">666</a>; <i>Emballonura</i>, <a href="#Page_667">667</a>; <i>Coleüra</i>, + <a href="#Page_667">667</a>; <i>Rhynchonycteris</i>, <a href="#Page_667">667</a>; <i>Saccopteryx</i>, <a href="#Page_667">667</a>; <i>Taphozous</i>, <a href="#Page_667">667</a>; + <i>Diclidurus</i>, <a href="#Page_668">668</a>; <i>Noctilio</i>, <a href="#Page_668">668</a>; <i>Rhinopoma</i>, <a href="#Page_669">669</a>; <i>Chiromeles</i>, + <a href="#Page_669">669</a>; <i>Molossus</i>, <a href="#Page_670">670</a>; <i>Nyctinomus</i>, <a href="#Page_670">670</a>; <i>Mystacops</i>, <a href="#Page_671">671</a>. <i>Family</i> + <span class="smcap">Phyllostomatidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_672">672</a>; <i>Chilonycteris</i>, <a href="#Page_672">672</a>; <i>Mormops</i>, <a href="#Page_672">672</a>; + <i>Lonchorhina</i>, <i>Otopterus</i> and <i>Dolichophyllum</i>, <a href="#Page_673">673</a>; <i>Vampyrus</i>, + etc., <a href="#Page_673">673</a>; <i>Desmodus</i>, <a href="#Page_677">677</a>; <i>Diphylla</i>, <a href="#Page_678">678</a>.</td> + <td class="tdpg"></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc" colspan="3">CHAPTER XIV</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">The Order Primates</span></td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIV">680</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2"><i>Suborder</i> <span class="smcap">Lemuroidea</span></td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_682">682</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="td1"><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Lemuridæ</span>, <a href="#Page_683">683</a>; <i>Indris</i>, <a href="#Page_684">684</a>; <i>Propithecus</i>, <a href="#Page_684">684</a>; + <i>Avahis</i>, <a href="#Page_686">686</a>; <i>Lemur</i>, <a href="#Page_687">687</a>; <i>Hapalemur</i>, <a href="#Page_689">689</a>; <i>Lepidolemur</i>, + <a href="#Page_689">689</a>; <i>Chirogaleus</i>, <a href="#Page_689">689</a>; <i>Galago</i>, <a href="#Page_690">690</a>; <i>Nycticebus</i>, <a href="#Page_691">691</a>; <i>Loris</i>, + <a href="#Page_692">692</a>; <i>Perodicticus</i>, <a href="#Page_693">693</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Tarsiidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_694">694</a>; <i>Tarsius</i>, + <a href="#Page_694">694</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Chiromyidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_694">694</a>; <i>Chiromys</i>, <a href="#Page_695">695</a>. <span class="smcap">Extinct + Lemuroids</span>, <a href="#Page_696">696</a>.</td> + <td class="tdpg"></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2"><i>Suborder</i> <span class="smcap">Anthropoidea</span></td> + <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_699">699</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="td1"><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Hapalidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_709">709</a>; <i>Hapale</i>, <a href="#Page_710">710</a>; <i>Midas</i>, <a href="#Page_710">710</a>. <i>Family</i> + <span class="smcap">Cebidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_711">711</a>; <i>Mycetes</i>, <a href="#Page_711">711</a>; <i>Pithecia</i>, <a href="#Page_712">712</a>; <i>Uacaria</i>, <a href="#Page_712">712</a>; + <i>Callithrix</i>, <a href="#Page_713">713</a>; <i>Chrysothrix</i>, <a href="#Page_714">714</a>; <i>Nyctipithecus</i>, <a href="#Page_714">714</a>; <i>Ateles</i>, + <a href="#Page_715">715</a>; <i>Eriodes</i>, <a href="#Page_715">715</a>; <i>Lagothrix</i>, <a href="#Page_716">716</a>; <i>Cebus</i>, <a href="#Page_717">717</a>. <i>Family</i> + <span class="smcap">Cercopithecidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_718">718</a>; <i>Cynocephalus</i>, <a href="#Page_719">719</a>; <i>Theropithecus</i>, <a href="#Page_722">722</a>; + <i>Cynopithecus</i>, <a href="#Page_722">722</a>; <i>Macacus</i>, <a href="#Page_722">722</a>; <i>Cercocebus</i>, <a href="#Page_723">723</a>; <i>Cercopithecus</i>, + <a href="#Page_724">724</a>; <i>Nasalis</i>, <a href="#Page_725">725</a>; <i>Semnopithecus</i>, <a href="#Page_726">726</a>; <i>Colobus</i>, + <a href="#Page_727">727</a>; Extinct genera, <a href="#Page_727">727</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Simiidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_728">728</a>; <i>Hylobates</i>, + <a href="#Page_728">728</a>; <i>Simia</i>, <a href="#Page_731">731</a>; <i>Gorilla</i>, <a href="#Page_734">734</a>; <i>Anthropopithecus</i>, <a href="#Page_736">736</a>. <i>Family</i> + <span class="smcap">Hominidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_739">739</a>; <i>Homo</i>, <a href="#Page_740">740</a>. Classification of the varieties of + Man, <a href="#Page_743">743</a>.</td> + <td class="tdpg"></td> + </tr> +</table> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_1"></a>[1]</span></p> + +<h1><span class="smaller">AN INTRODUCTION<br> +<span class="smaller">TO</span></span><br> +THE STUDY OF MAMMALS<br> +<span class="smaller">LIVING AND EXTINCT</span></h1> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I<br> +<span class="smaller"><i>INTRODUCTORY REMARKS</i></span></h2> + +</div> + +<p>Mammalia (French, <i>Mammifères</i>; German, <i>Säugethiere</i>) is the name +invented by Linnæus (from the Latin <i>mamma</i>), and now commonly +used by zoologists, for one of the five great classes of vertebrated +animals, which, though the best known and undoubtedly the most +important group of the animal kingdom, has never received any +generally accepted vernacular designation in our language. The +unity of structure of the animals composing this class, and their +definite demarcation from other vertebrates, were not recognised +until comparatively modern times, and hence no word was thought +of to designate what zoologists now term a mammal. The nearest +equivalents in common use are “beast” and “quadruped,” both of +which, however, cover a different ground, since they are often used +to include the larger four-footed reptiles, and to exclude certain undoubted +mammals, as Man, Bats, and Whales.</p> + +<p>The limits of the class as now understood by zoologists are +perfectly well defined, and, although certain forms still existing on +the earth (but not those mentioned above as excluded by the popular +idea) are of exceedingly aberrant structure, and exhibit several well-marked +characters connecting them with the lower vertebrated +groups, common consent retains them in the class with which the +great proportion of their characters ally them, and hitherto no +traces of any species showing still more divergent or transitional +characters have been discovered. There is thus an interval, not +bridged over by any known forms, between mammals and other<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_2"></a>[2]</span> +vertebrates; although recent discoveries have shown evidence of a +more or less marked affinity between the most generalised mammals +and a peculiar group of extinct reptiles known as the Anomodontia +(or Theromora), which are themselves nearly related to the equally +extinct Labyrinthodont amphibians of the Palæozoic and Mesozoic +epochs.</p> + +<p>In the gradual order of evolution of living beings, mammals, +taken altogether, are certainly the highest in organisation, as, with +the possible exception of birds, they were the last to appear on +the earth’s surface. But, as in speaking of all other large and +greatly differentiated groups, this expression must not be understood +in too limited a sense. The tendency to gradual perfection for +their particular station in life, which all groups manifest, leads +to various lines of specialisation, or divergence from the common +or general type, which may or may not take the direction of +elevation. A too complex and sensitive condition of organisation +may in some circumstances of life be disadvantageous, and modification +may then take place in a retrograde direction. Thus in +mammals, as in other classes, there are low as well as high forms, +but by any tests that can be applied—especially those based on +the state of development of the central nervous system—it will +be seen that the average exceeds that of any other class; that +the class contains many species far excelling those of any other +in perfection of structure, and especially one form which is unquestionably +the culminating point yet arrived at amongst organised +beings.</p> + +<p>With regard to the time of the first appearance of mammals +upon the earth, the geological record is provokingly imperfect. At +the commencement of the Tertiary period they were abundant, and +already modified into most of the leading types at present existing. +It was at one time thought that they first came into being at this +date, but the discovery of more or less fragmentary remains of +numerous and generally small species has revealed the existence of +some forms of the class at various periods throughout almost the +whole of the age of the deposition of the Secondary or Mesozoic +rocks. This subject will be reverted to later on.</p> + +<p>It hardly need be said that mammals are vertebrated animals, +and possess all the characteristics common to the members of that +division of the animal kingdom. They are separated from the +<i>Ichthyopsida</i> (fishes and amphibians), and agree with the <i>Sauropsida</i> +(reptiles and birds), in the possession during their development of +an amnion and allantois, and in never having external branchiæ or +gills. They differ from reptiles and resemble birds in being warm-blooded, +and having a heart with four cavities and a complete +double circulation. They differ from both birds and reptiles in the +red corpuscles of the blood being non-nucleated and, with very few<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_3"></a>[3]</span> +exceptions, circular in outline; in the lungs being freely suspended +in a thoracic cavity, separated from the abdomen by a complete +muscular partition—the diaphragm—which is the principal agent +in inflating the lungs in respiration; in having but one aortic arch, +which curves over the left bronchus; in the skin being more or less +clothed with hair; in the greater perfection of the commissural +system of the cerebral hemispheres, which has either a complete +corpus callosum, or an incomplete one associated with a very +large anterior commissure; in having no syrinx or inferior vocal +organ, but a complete larynx at the upper end of the trachea; +in having a mandible of which each ramus (except in very early +developmental conditions) consists of a single bone on each side, +articulating to the squamosal without the intervention of a quadrate +bone; in having a pair of laterally placed occipital condyles +instead of one median one; and in the very obvious character of +the female being provided with mammary glands, by the secretion +of which the young (usually produced alive, although in the lowest +forms by means of externally hatched eggs) are nourished for some +time after birth.</p> + +<p>In common with all vertebrated animals, mammals never have +more than two pairs of limbs; as the larger number live ordinarily +on the surface of the earth, in the great majority of the class +both pairs are well-developed and functional, and adapted for terrestrial +progression. Mammals are, however, by no means limited to +this situation. Thus some species spend the greater part of their +lives beneath the surface, their fore limbs being specially modified +for burrowing; others, again, are habitually arboreal, their limbs +being fitted for climbing or hanging to boughs of trees; some are +as aerial as birds, the fore limbs being developed into wings of a +special character; while in others which are as aquatic as fishes, +the limbs assume the form of fins or paddles. In many of the +latter the hinder extremities are either completely suppressed, or +present only in a rudimentary state. In no known mammal are +the fore limbs absent.</p> + +<p>The hinder extremity of the axis of the body is usually prolonged +into a tail, which may be a mere pendent appendage, or may be +modified to perform various functions, as grasping boughs in +climbing, or even gathering food, in the case of the prehensile-tailed +Monkeys and Opossums, swimming in the Cetacea, and acting +as a flap to drive away troublesome insects from the skin in the +Ungulata.</p> + +<p>The state of development of the young at the time of birth +varies greatly in the different groups. Thus among the Marsupials +where there is no connection during intra-uterine life between the +circulatory systems of the parent and the fœtus, the young are +born in an exceedingly imperfectly developed condition. For their<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_4"></a>[4]</span> +protection the mother, in a large number of cases, has a special +pouch enclosing the mammæ, into which the young are transferred +at birth, and in which they remain till they are well developed. +Among the higher, or Placental types, however, where a connection +exists between the maternal and fœtal circulations previous to birth, +the young are always born in a much more highly developed state +than among the Marsupials, although we meet with great variations +in this respect. In those forms which habitually live in holes, like +many Rodents, the young are always very helpless at birth; and +the same is also true of many of the Carnivora, which are well able +to defend their young from attack. In the great order of +Ungulate, or Hoofed Mammals, where in the majority of cases +defence from foes depends upon fleetness of foot, or upon huge +corporeal bulk, the young are born in a very highly developed +condition, and are able almost at once to run by the side of the +parent. This state of relative maturity at birth reaches its highest +development in the Cetacea, where it is evidently associated with +the peculiar conditions under which these animals pass their +existence. In the Primates, however, we again find the young +produced in a more or less helpless condition, and requiring a long +period before they attain their full development, this being more +especially the case with those higher forms which approximate in +structure to man.</p> + +<p>In point of size mammals vary to a greater extent than the +existing members of any one class of animals, and include the +largest living inhabitants of the earth. The extremes of size are +marked on the one hand by the whale known as Sibbald’s Rorqual, +which attains a length of eighty feet and a weight of nearly as many +tons, and on the other by the Pigmy-Shrew and the minute Harvest-mouse, +which can climb a stem of wheat.</p> + +<p>Of all the living creatures inhabiting our globe, mammals are by +far the most important in their economic uses, since, in addition to +being the only animals capable of labour for human benefit, they +furnish the greater portion of the animal food of many races of man, +and likewise a large amount of their clothing. In these respects +the Ungulates hold the first place.</p> + +<p>As regards employment for labour, with the exception of the +Dogs used for sleighing by the Esquimaux, and those which among +some European nations draw light carts, all the mammals in general +use are Ungulates. Of the first importance are the Horses and +Asses, which are employed as beasts of draught or burden over +nearly the whole globe. Among many nations, however, cattle, as +represented by the true Oxen, the Buffalos, and the Yaks of Tibet, +occupy a still more important position, while in the highlands of +Tibet, Sheep are largely used for carrying burdens. In other regions, +again, the place of the Horse and the Ass is taken by the Camels,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_5"></a>[5]</span> +which are peculiarly fitted for traversing parched and arid deserts, +while in the Andes we find the Llamas serving the same office. +In Lapland and other parts of the northern regions the Reindeer is +the main agent employed in draught. Lastly, we must not omit +to mention the Indian Elephant, which, from its vast strength, is so +useful in transport through the wilder parts of its native country.</p> + +<p>As regards food, we again find the Ungulates, and more +especially the Artiodactyle division, taking the foremost place; and +in this connection we have only to mention, among animals kept +in a domestic condition, Swine, Cattle, Sheep, and Goats—the three +latter affording not only their flesh, but also milk and its resulting +cheese and butter. To many races, however, Mares and Camels are +the chief milk producers, while the Laps make use of the milk of +the Reindeer. The Rodents, as represented by Hares and Rabbits, +occupy a minor position as furnishers of food.</p> + +<p>In relation to clothing, the Ungulates are likewise of paramount +importance, as exemplified by the wool of the Sheep, which is so +valuable on account of its peculiar property of felting. Furs, +however, are mostly yielded by mammals of other orders, among +which the Fur-seals are perhaps the most important at the present +day. Many other Carnivores yield valuable furs, among which may +be mentioned Bears, Foxes, Raccoons, Skunks, Minks, Otters, and +Ermines. Of less importance are certain Rodents, such as the +Squirrels, Rabbits, Hares, etc., while the hair of the Beaver was +formerly much sought after for the manufacture of hats. Returning +to the Ungulates, we may notice the importance of horse-hair, the +employment of camel’s hair for brushes, and the many uses of the +bristles of the pig. Some of the Monkeys yield fur which has +been extensively used. Leather, again, is almost exclusively +supplied by mammals, and mainly by the Ungulates.</p> + +<p>Three other important products, namely horn, buck’s-horn, and +ivory, are likewise obtained solely from the same great order. +Horn, as we shall notice in the sequel, is the sheath covering the +bony horn-cores of the Oxen, while buck’s-horn is the commercial +term applied to the antlers of the Deer, which are largely used for +knife-handles and other purposes. True ivory is the product of +the two species of Elephant; but other kinds of ivory are obtained +from the teeth of the Sperm Whale and the tusks of the Walrus and +Hippopotamus, the latter kind having been extensively employed +some years ago for artificial teeth. For many purposes the place of +ivory is taken by bone, this being mostly obtained from Ungulates. +The bones of Camels are of an especially firm texture and good +colour, and are largely employed in India for inlaying. Other +important uses of bones are in the form of bone-dust as manure, +and also as a source of phosphoric acid. The horns of the African +Rhinoceros and the hide of the Hippopotamus are occasionally<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_6"></a>[6]</span> +manufactured into small canes or whips. Horns and hoofs are also +largely employed in the manufacture of glue.</p> + +<p>Formerly the so-called whalebone, or more properly baleen, +was much used, especially to form the ribs of umbrellas and in +stiffening ladies’ apparel, but the gradual destruction of the Right +Whales, its only source of supply, has largely restricted its use of +late years.</p> + +<p>The Cetacea are also of great economical importance from the +abundance of oil yielded by the thick layer of blubber underlying +the skin. Large quantities of valuable oil are also furnished by +the Walrus and the Seals. Spermaceti, which was at one time +extensively used in the manufacture of candles, is obtained from a +large cavity in the head of the Sperm Whale or Cachalot, and also +from the <i>Hyperoödon</i> or Bottle-nosed Whale.</p> + +<p>The nature of ambergris, a peculiar substance found floating on +the surface of the sea and employed in perfumery, was long a +matter of controversy; but it appears to be an intestinal concretion +of the Sperm Whale. Other substances of more importance to the +perfumer are musk, the product of the Musk-Deer of the Himalaya, +and civet, which is obtained from the so-called Civet Cat and other +allied Carnivores. A secretion of the Beaver has also been used in +perfumery and in medicine.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_7"></a>[7]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II<br> +<span class="smaller">GENERAL ANATOMICAL CHARACTERS</span></h2> + +</div> + +<h3>I. TEGUMENTARY STRUCTURES</h3> + +<p><i>Hair.</i>—The external surface of the greater number of members of +the class is thickly clothed with a peculiarly modified form of +epidermis, commonly called hair. This consists of hard, elongated, +slender, cylindrical or tapering, filiform, unbranched masses of +epidermic material, growing from a short papilla sunk at the +bottom of a follicle in the derm or true skin. Such hairs upon +different parts of the same animal, or upon different animals, assume +various forms, and are of various sizes and degrees of rigidity,—as +seen in the delicate soft velvety fur of the Mole, the stiff bristles +of the Pig, and the spines of the Hedgehog and Porcupine, +all modifications of the same structures. Each hair is composed +usually of a cellular pithy internal portion, containing much air, +and a denser or more horny cortical part. In some animals, as +Deer, the substance of the hair is almost entirely composed of the +medullary or cellular substance, and it is consequently very easily +broken; in others the horny part prevails almost exclusively, as in +the bristles of the Wild Boar. In the Three-toed Sloth (<i>Bradypus</i>) +the hairs have a central horny axis and a pithy exterior. Though +generally nearly smooth, or but slightly scaly, the surface of some +hairs is strongly imbricated, notably so in some Bats; while in the +Two-toed Sloth (<i>Cholœpus</i>) the hairs are longitudinally grooved or +fluted. Though usually more or less cylindrical or circular in +section, hairs are often elliptical or flattened, as in the curly-haired +races of men, the terminal portion of the hair of Moles and Shrews, +and conspicuously in the spines of the Rodents <i>Xerus</i> and <i>Platacanthomys</i>. +Hair having a property of mutual cohesion or “felting,” +which depends upon a roughened scaly surface and a tendency to +curl, as in domestic Sheep (in which animal this property has been +especially cultivated by selective breeding), is called “wool.”</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_8"></a>[8]</span></p> + +<p>In a large number of mammals hairs of one kind only are +scattered pretty evenly over the surface; but in many there are two +kinds, one longer, stiffer, and alone appearing on the surface, and +the other shorter, finer, and softer, constituting the under fur, +analogous to the down of birds. This under fur, or <i>pashm</i> as it is +called by the natives of Kashmir, is especially abundant in the +mammals inhabiting the cold plateau of Tibet and the adjacent +regions. In many cases hairs of a different character from those of +the general surface grow in special regions, forming ridges or tufts +on the median dorsal or ventral surface or elsewhere. The tail is +very often completed in this way by variously disposed elongated +hairs. The margins of the eyelids are almost always furnished with +a special row of stiffish hairs, called <i>cilia</i> or eyelashes; and in most +mammals specially modified hairs, constituting the <i>vibrissæ</i> or +whiskers, and endowed, through the abundant nerve supply of their +basal papillæ, with special tactile powers, grow from the lips and +cheeks. In some mammals the hairy covering is partial and limited +to particular regions; in others, as the Hippopotamus and the Sirenia, +though scattered over the whole surface, it is extremely short and +scanty; but in none is it reduced to so great an extent as in the +Cetacea, in which it is limited to a few small bristles confined to the +neighbourhood of the lips and nostrils, and often only present in +the young or even fœtal condition.</p> + +<p>Some kinds of hairs, as those of the mane and tail of the Horse, +appear to persist throughout the lifetime of the animal; but more +generally, as in the case of the body hair of the same animal, they +are shed and renewed periodically, generally annually. Many +mammals have a longer hairy coat in winter, which is shed as +summer comes on; and some few, which inhabit countries covered +in winter with snow, as the Arctic Fox, Variable Hare, and Ermine, +undergo a complete change of colour in the two seasons, being +white in winter, and gray or brown in summer. The several species +of Cape Mole (<i>Chrysochloris</i>), the Desmans or Water Moles (<i>Myogale</i>), +and <i>Potamogale velox</i>, are remarkable as being the only mammals +whose hair reflects those iridescent tints so common in the feathers +of tropical birds.</p> + +<p>The principal and most obvious purpose of the hairy covering is +to protect the skin against external influences, especially cold and +damp. Its function in the hairless Cetacea is supplied by the +specially modified and thickened layer of adipose tissue beneath the +skin, called “blubber.”</p> + +<p><i>Colour.</i>—From the consideration of hair we are easily led to +that of colour. As a general rule, bright and primary colours are +absent in the class; but among the Baboons we find brilliant patches +of scarlet or blue on some of the bare portions of the body, and one +of the South American Monkeys (<i>Brachyurus</i>) has its whole face of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_9"></a>[9]</span> +a bright crimson. The most general colours are various shades of +gray, brown, and tawny, with a frequent tendency to whiteness of +the ventral surface of the body; but among the Squirrels, and more +especially those provided with a parachute for flying, we find brilliant +russets, passing into orange and red. Dark brown or black is also +not very uncommon, as in the Bears and the Sable Antelope of +South Africa. Entirely white mammals are rare, and mostly +characteristic of the polar regions, or of countries having a long +and snowy winter. An entirely white Bat (<i>Diclidurus albus</i>) occurs, +however, in South America. In the large majority of mammals +that exhibit a varied coloration, the upper and most exposed parts +of the surface present the richest and darkest colours, the under +parts being pale or often quite white. The Ratels, Gluttons, <i>Ælurus</i>, +Hamsters, and some others are exceptions to this rule. A large +number of mammals having a ground colour of gray, tawny, or dun +are marked by stripes or spots, which are generally of a darker hue +than the ground colour, as in many Carnivora, but more rarely are +lighter, as in the Fallow and Axis Deer and several species of Antelope. +These stripes very generally run transversely to the axis of the +body, as in the Tasmanian Thylacine, the Tiger, and the Zebra; but +they may be longitudinal, as in several of the Civet family. There has +been considerable discussion as to whether the striped or the spotted +is the more primitive type of coloration; but no very conclusive +arguments have been brought forward in favour of either view. It +is, however, manifest that in several groups of mammals there is a +tendency to lose the spots, and more rarely the stripes, and to +assume a uniform colour. Thus the young of nearly all the species +of Deer are spotted, whereas the adults of only the Fallow and +Axis Deer are so marked. The same is true of most of the Pigs; +and the young of the Malayan and American Tapirs are marked +by light-coloured stripes and spots on a dark ground. In like +manner the young of the Lion and the Puma exhibit distinct spots +which disappear with advancing age. In most of our domestic +horses of various shades of bay and brown we may detect “dappling” +on the under hair when the outer coat has been removed, which +is not apparent on the surface of the latter. Many varieties of +the Ass and the Horse also exhibit a tendency to the presence of +stripes on the legs, which would seem to indicate a descent from a +striped Zebra-like type.</p> + +<p>A peculiar feature, which is, however, common to many other +groups of animals, is the tendency to what is known as melanism, +or the production of black or dark individuals or races of particular +species, due to an excess of pigment in the skin and hair. Thus we +may have black Leopards and Jaguars, black Wolves, and black +Rabbits.</p> + +<p>The opposite to melanism, and of more frequent occurrence, is<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_10"></a>[10]</span> +albinism—a condition in which the pigment or colouring matter +usually present in the tissues constituting the external coverings of +the body, and which gives them their characteristic hue, is absent. +When it occurs the hair is of an opaque white, the claws, hoofs, etc., of +a pale horn-colour, and the skin and eyes pink, in consequence of the +colour of the blood which circulates through them being no longer +concealed by the stronger hues of the pigments. An animal in this +condition is called an <i>albino</i>. In complete albinism there is a total +absence of pigment throughout the system. This condition occurs +occasionally as an individual peculiarity among wild animals of +many kinds; but it has never been perpetuated among them in distinct +races or species. The disadvantage of absence of pigment +in the eye, causing a certain amount of intolerance of light, is +probably sufficient to account for this. Several races of true +albinos, as White Ferrets, Rabbits, Rats, and Mice, have, however, +been established under the protection of man, and in them this abnormal +condition is propagated from generation to generation.</p> + +<p>Partial albinism—a condition in which the absence of pigment +is limited to portions of the surface, or, at all events, does not extend +to the eyes—is much more common as an individual variation both +in domestic and in wild animals. It is possible that the artificial +conditions incident to domestication increase the tendency to its +occurrence; but, whether this be so or not, it certainly becomes +perpetuated more frequently among domesticated than among wild +animals. This may be accounted for partly by its proving of no +disadvantage to them, and partly by the frequent selection by man +of animals of such colour in preference to others. The result is that +there is no completely domestic animal of which white races do not +exist. On the other hand, to most wild animals even partial +albinism seems to be a disadvantage in the struggle for existence, +since, except in the case of species inhabiting lands continually +covered with snow, it renders them more conspicuous objects both +to their enemies and their prey, and hence it is rarely perpetuated. +In northern regions, however, a large proportion of species are +regularly and normally of a white colour, either, as the Polar Bear, +all the year through, or, as the Ermine or Stoat, Arctic Fox, and +Alpine Hare, during the winter season. The coloration in these +cases is obviously protective, as it is also to a great extent in many +other instances throughout the class.</p> + +<p>Among conspicuously coloured mammals, it has been observed +that the vertical black and tawny stripes of the Tiger harmonise so +well with the brown and green grasses of its native jungle as to +render the animal almost invisible when lying among them; while +the dappled hide of the Giraffe is said to agree equally well +with the chequered splashes of light and shade in the clumps of tall +mimosas among which it feeds. The uniformly tawny hue of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_11"></a>[11]</span> +Lion accords well with the prevailing tint of its native desert; and +any one who has seen an Elephant or Buffalo in the deep shades of +an Indian forest will realise how perfectly adapted is their dull, +slaty colour to concealment in such a spot. The dun colour of the +Wild Ass of India is equally well suited to the sandy deserts of +Kutch; it is also stated that the brilliant stripes of the Zebras of +Africa are arranged in such proportion as exactly to match the pale +tint which arid ground possesses when seen by moonlight.<a id="FNanchor_1" href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> The +most remarkable instance of protective coloration is, however, to be +found in the Sloths of South America, in which the coarse gray +hairs so closely resemble a mass of lichenous growth that it is +almost impossible to distinguish these animals when at rest from +the gnarled and lichen-clad boughs from which they suspend themselves. +This resemblance is increased by the fact that the hairs +actually develop a growth of lichens upon themselves. That the +sombre coloration of these animals has been produced to harmonise +with their present surroundings seems to be evident by the circumstance +that when the long hair is plucked off the under fur is seen +to present a bold alternation of black and yellow stripes, which +may probably be regarded as the original primitive coloration of +this group.</p> + +<p><i>Scales, etc.</i>—True scales, or flat imbricated plates of horny +material, covering the greater part of the body, so frequently +occurring in reptiles, are found only in one family of mammals, the +<i>Manidæ</i> or Pangolins; but these are also associated with hairs +growing from the intervals between the scales, or on the parts of +the skin not covered by them. Similarly, imbricated epidermic +productions form the covering of the under surface of the tail of +the flying Rodents of the genus <i>Anomalurus</i>; and flat scutes, with +the edges in apposition, and not overlaid, clothe both surfaces of +the tail of the Beaver, Rats, and others of the same order, and also +of some Insectivores and Marsupials. The Armadillos alone have +an ossified exoskeleton, composed of plates of true bony tissue, +developed in the derm or corium, and covered with scutes of horny +epidermis. Other epidermic appendages are the horns of Ruminants +and Rhinoceroses,—the former being elongated, tapering, hollow +caps of hardened epidermis of fibrillated structure, fitting on and +growing from conical projections of the frontal bone, and always +arranged in pairs, while the latter are of similar structure, but +solid and without any internal bony support, and (in all existing +species) situated in the median line. Callosities, or bare patches +covered with hardened and thickened epidermis, are found covering +the pads under the soles of the feet and undersurfaces of the +toes of nearly all mammals, upon the ischial tuberosities of many +Apes, the sternum of Camels, on the inner side of the limbs of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_12"></a>[12]</span> +<i>Equidæ</i>, the grasping under surface of the tail of the prehensile-tailed +Monkeys, etc. The greater part of the skin of both species of +one-horned Asiatic Rhinoceros is immensely thickened and stiffened +by increase of the tissue both of the derm and epiderm, constituting +the well-known jointed “armour-plated” hide of those +animals.</p> + +<p><i>Nails, Claws, and Hoofs.</i>—With very few exceptions, the terminal +extremities of the digits of both limbs are more or less protected or +armed by epidermic plates or sheaths, constituting the various forms +of nails, claws, or hoofs. These are wanting in the Cetacea alone. +A perforated spur, with a special secreting gland in connection with +it, is found attached to the hind leg of the males of the three genera +of Monotremata, <i>Ornithorhynchus</i>, <i>Proechidna</i>, and <i>Echidna</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Odour-secreting Glands.</i>—Besides the universally distributed +sebaceous glands connected with the pilose system, most mammals +have special glands situated in modified portions of the integument, +often involuted to form a shallow recess or a deep sac with a narrow +opening, situated in various parts of the surface of the body, and +secreting odorous substances, by the aid of which individuals +appear to recognise one another, and probably affording the principal +means by which wild animals are able to become aware of +the presence of other members of the species, even at great distances. +Although the commencement of the modifications of +portions of the external covering for the formation of special +secretions may be at present difficult to understand, the principle +of natural selection will readily explain how such organs become +fixed and gradually increase in development in any species, especially +as there would probably be a corresponding modification and +increased sensibility of the olfactory organs. Such individuals as +by the intensity and peculiarity of their scent had greater power of +attracting the opposite sex would certainly be those most likely to +leave descendants to inherit and in their turn propagate the modification.</p> + +<p>To this group of structures belong the suborbital gland or +“crumen” of Antelopes and Deer, the frontal gland of the Muntjac +and of Bats of the genus <i>Hipposiderus</i>, the submental gland of the +Chevrotains and of <i>Taphozous</i> and some other Bats, the post-auditory +follicle of the Chamois, the temporal gland of the Elephant, the +lateral glands of the Musk-Shrew, the dorsal gland of the Peccary, +the inguinal glands of Antelopes, the preputial glands of the Musk-Deer +and Beaver (already alluded to in connection with the use +made of their powerfully odorous secretion in medicine and perfumery) +and also of the Swine and Hare, the anal glands of Carnivora, +the perineal gland of the Civet (also of commercial value), the +caudal glands of the Fox and Goat, the gland on the humeral +membrane of Bats of the genus <i>Saccopteryx</i>, the post-digital gland of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_13"></a>[13]</span> +the Rhinoceros, the interdigital glands of the Sheep and many +Ruminants, and numerous others. In some of these cases the +glands are peculiar to, or more largely developed in, the male; in +others they are found equally developed in both sexes.</p> + +<h3>II. DENTAL SYSTEM</h3> + +<p>The dental system of mammals may be considered rather +more in detail than space permits for some other portions of their +structure, not only on account of the important part it plays in the +economy of the animals of this class, but also for its interest to +zoologists as an aid in the classification and identification of species. +Owing to the imperishable nature of their tissues, teeth are +preserved for an indefinite time, and in the case of extinct +species frequently offer the only indications available from which +to derive an idea of the characters, affinities, and habits of the +animals to which they once belonged. Hence even their smallest +modifications have received great attention from comparative +anatomists, and they have formed the subject of many special +monographs.<a id="FNanchor_2" href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p> + +<p>Teeth are present in nearly all mammals, and are applied +to various purposes. They are, however, mainly subservient +to the function of alimentation, being used either in procuring +food, by seizing and killing living prey or gathering and biting +off portions of vegetable material, and more indirectly in tearing +or cutting through the hard protective coverings of food substances, +as the husks and shells of nuts, or in pounding, crushing, +or otherwise mechanically dividing the solid materials before +swallowing, so as to prepare them for digestion in the stomach. +Certain teeth are also in many animals most efficient weapons of +offence and defence, and for this purpose alone, quite irrespective +of subserviency to the digestive process, are they developed in the +male sex of many herbivorous animals, in the females of which +they are absent or rudimentary.</p> + +<p>Teeth belong essentially to the tegumentary or dermal system +of organs, and, as is well seen in the lower vertebrates, pass by +almost insensible gradations into the hardened spines and scutes +formed upon the integument covering the outer surface of the +body; but in mammals they are more specialised in structure and +limited in locality. In this class they are developed only in the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_14"></a>[14]</span> +gums or fibro-mucous membrane covering the alveolar borders of +the upper and lower jaws, or, in other words, the premaxillary +and maxillary bones and the mandible. In the process of development, +for the purpose of giving them that support which is needful +for the performance of their functions, they almost always become +implanted in the bone,—the osseous tissue growing up and moulding +itself around the lengthening root of the tooth, so that +ultimately they become apparently parts of the skeleton. In no +mammal, however, does ankylosis or bony union between the +tooth and jaw normally take place, as in many fishes and reptiles,—a +vascular layer of connective tissue, the alveolo-dental membrane, +always intervening.<a id="FNanchor_3" href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> The presence of two or more roots, +frequently met with in the cheek-teeth of mammals, implanted in +corresponding distinct sockets of the jaw, is now peculiar to animals +of this class.<a id="FNanchor_4" href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></p> + +<p><i>Structure.</i>—The greater number of mammalian teeth when fully +formed are not simple and homogeneous in structure, but are composed +of several distinct tissues, which are enumerated below.</p> + +<p>The <i>pulp</i>, a soft substance, consisting of a very delicate +gelatinous connective tissue, in which numerous cells are imbedded, +and abundantly supplied with blood-vessels and nerves, constitutes +the central axis of all the basal part of the tooth, and affords the +means by which the vitality of the whole is preserved. The +nerves which pass into the pulp and endow the tooth with +sensibility are branches of the fifth pair of cranial nerves. The +pulp occupies a larger relative space, and performs a more important +purpose, in the young growing tooth than afterwards, as by the +calcification and conversion of its outer layers the principal hard +constituent of the tooth, the dentine, is formed. In teeth which +have ceased to grow the pulp occupies a comparatively small space, +which in the dried tooth is called the pulp-cavity. This communicates +with the external surface of the tooth by a small aperture at +the apex of the root, through which the branches of the blood-vessels +and nerves, by which the tooth receives its nutrition and +sensitiveness, pass in to be distributed in the pulp. In growing +teeth the pulp-cavity is widely open, while in advanced age it often +becomes obliterated, and the pulp itself entirely converted into +bone-like material.</p> + +<p>The <i>dentine</i> or <i>ivory</i> forms the principal constituent of the +greater number of teeth. When developed in its most characteristic +form, it is a very hard but elastic substance, white, with a +yellowish tinge, and slightly translucent. It consists of an organic<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_15"></a>[15]</span> +matrix, something like, but not identical with, that of bone, richly +impregnated with calcareous salts (chiefly calcium phosphate), these +constituting in a fresh human tooth 72 per cent of its weight. +When subjected to microscopical examination it is seen to be everywhere +permeated by nearly parallel branching tubes which run, +in a slightly curving or wavy manner, in a general direction from +the centre towards the free surface of the tooth. These tubes communicate +by open mouths with the pulp-cavity, and usually terminate +near the periphery of the dentine by closed ends or loops, +though in Marsupials and certain other mammals they penetrate +into the enamel. They are occupied in the living tooth by soft +gelatinous fibrils connected with the cells of the pulp. A variety +of dentine, permeated by canals containing blood-vessels, met with +commonly in fishes and in some few mammals, as the <i>Megatherium</i>, is +called vaso-dentine. Other modifications of this tissue occasionally +met with are called osteodentine and secondary dentine,—the +latter being a dentine of irregular structure which often fills up the +pulp-cavity of old animals.</p> + +<p>The <i>enamel</i> constitutes a thin investing layer, complete or +partial, of the outer or exposed and working surface of the dentine +of the crown of the teeth of most mammals. This is the hardest +tissue met with in the animal body, containing from 95 to 97 per +cent of mineral substances (chiefly calcium phosphate and some +carbonate, with traces of fluoride). Its ultimate structure consists +of prismatic fibres, placed generally with their long axes at right +angles to the free surface of the tooth. Enamel is easily distinguished +from dentine with the naked eye by its clear, bluish-white, +translucent appearance.</p> + +<p>The <i>cement</i> or <i>crusta petrosa</i> is always the most externally placed +of the hard tissues of which teeth are composed, as will be understood +when the mode of development of these organs is considered. +It is often only found as a thin layer upon the surface of the root; +but sometimes, as in the complex-crowned molar teeth of the Horse +and Elephant, it is a structure which plays a very important part, +covering and filling in the interstices between the folds of the +enamel. In appearance, histological structure, and chemical composition +it is closely allied to osseous tissue, containing lacunæ and +canaliculi, though only when it is of considerable thickness are +Haversian canals present in it.</p> + +<p><i>Development.</i>—The two principal constituents of the teeth, the +dentine and the enamel, are developed from the two layers of the +mucous membrane of the jaw—the dentine from the deeper or vascular, +the enamel from the superficial or epithelial layer. The latter +dips down into the substance of the gum, and forms the enamel-organ +or germ, the first rudiment of the future tooth, which is constantly +present even in those animals in which the enamel is not found as a<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_16"></a>[16]</span> +constituent of the perfectly-formed tooth. Below the mass of epithelial +cells thus embedded in the substance of the gum, and remaining +connected by a narrow neck of similar structure with the epithelium +of the surface, a portion of the vascular areolar tissue becomes +gradually separated and defined from that which surrounds it, and +assumes a distinct form, which is that of the crown of the future +tooth,—a single cone in the case of simple teeth, or with two or +more eminences in the complex forms. This is called the dental +papilla or dentine germ, and by the gradual conversion of its tissue +into dentine the bulk of the future tooth is formed, the uncalcified +central portion remaining as the pulp. The conversion of the +papilla into hard tissue commences at the outer surface of the apex, +and gradually proceeds downwards and inwards, so that the form of +the papilla exactly determines the form of the future dentine, and +no alteration either in shape or size of this portion of the tooth, +when once calcified, can take place by addition to its outer surface. +In the meanwhile, calcification of a portion of the cells of the enamel-organ, +which adapts itself like a cap round the top of the dentinal +papilla, and has assumed a somewhat complex structure, results in +the formation of the enamel-coating of the crown of the tooth. +While these changes are taking place the tissues immediately surrounding +the tooth-germ become condensed and differentiated into +a capsule, which appears to grow up from the base of the dental +papilla, and encloses both this and the enamel-germ, constituting +the follicle or tooth-sac. By the ossification of the inner layer of +this follicle the cement is formed. This substance, therefore, unlike +the dentine, increases from within outwards, and its growth may +accordingly be the cause of considerable modification of form and +enlargement, especially of the roots, of certain teeth, as those of +Seals and some Cetacea. The delicate homogeneous layer coating the +enamel surface of newly-formed teeth, in which cement is not found +in the adult state, and known as Nasmyth’s membrane, is considered +by Tomes as probably a film of this substance, too thin to exhibit +its characteristic structure, though by others it is believed to be +derived from the external layer of the enamel-organ. The homology +of the teeth with the dermal appendages, hairs, scales, and claws, +has already been alluded to, and it will now be seen that in both cases +two of the primary embryonic layers are concerned in their development—the +mesoblast and epiblast—although in very different proportions +respectively. Thus in the hair or nail the part derived from +the epiblast forms the principal bulk of the organ, the mesoblast +only constituting the papilla or matrix. But in the tooth the epiblastic +portion is limited to the enamel, and is always of relatively +small bulk and often absent, while the dentine (the principal constituent +of the tooth) and the cement are formed from the mesoblast.</p> + +<p>When more than one set of teeth occur in mammals, those of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_17"></a>[17]</span> +the second set are developed in a precisely similar manner to the +first, but the enamel-germ, instead of being derived directly from an +independent part of the oral epithelium, is formed from a budding +out of the neck of the germ of the tooth succeeded. In the case of +the true molars, which have no predecessors, the germ of the first +has an independent origin, but that of the others is derived from the +neck of the germ of the tooth preceding it in the series. The +foundations of the permanent teeth are thus laid as it were almost +simultaneously with those of their predecessors, although they +remain in many cases for years before they are developed into +functional activity.</p> + +<p>Although the commencement of their formation takes place +at an early period of embryonic life, teeth are in nearly all mammals +still concealed beneath the gum at the time of birth. The +period of eruption, or “cutting” of the teeth as it is called, that is, +their piercing through and rising above the surface of the mucous +membrane, varies much in different species. In some, as Seals, the +whole series of teeth appears almost simultaneously; but more often +there are considerable intervals between the appearance of the +individual teeth, the front ones usually coming into place first, and +those at the back of the mouth at a later period.</p> + +<p><i>Forms of Teeth.</i>—The simplest form of tooth may be exemplified +on a large scale by the tusk of the Elephant (<a href="#figure001">Fig. 1</a>, I.) It is a +hard mass almost entirely composed of dentine, of a conical shape +at first, but during growth becoming more and more cylindrical or +uniform in width. The enamel-covering, present on the apex in +its earliest condition, soon disappears, but a thin layer of cement +covers the circumference of the tooth throughout life. In section +it will be seen that the basal portion is hollow, and contains a large +conical pulp, as broad at the base as the tooth itself, and deeply +imbedded in the bottom of a recess, or socket, in the maxillary +bone. This pulp continues to grow during the lifetime of the +animal, and at the same time is converted at its surface into dentine. +The tooth therefore continually elongates, but the use to which the +animal subjects it in its natural state causes the apex to wear away, +at a rate generally proportionate to the growth at the base, otherwise +it would become of inconvenient length and weight. Such +teeth of indefinite growth are said to be “rootless,” or to have +“persistent pulps.”</p> + +<figure class="figleft illowp40" id="figure001" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure001.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1.</span>—Diagrammatic Sections of various forms of +Teeth. I. Incisor or tusk of Elephant, with pulp-cavity +persistently open at base. II. Human incisor +during development, with root imperfectly formed, +and pulp-cavity widely open at base. III. Completely +formed human incisor, with pulp-cavity contracted to +a small aperture at the end of the root. IV. Human +molar, with broad crown and two roots. V. Molar of +the Ox, with the enamel covering the crown deeply +folded, and the depressions filled up with cement. The +surface is worn by use; otherwise the enamel coating +would be continuous at the top of the ridges. In all +the figures the enamel is black, the pulp white, the +dentine represented by horizontal lines, and the cement +by dots.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>One of the corresponding front teeth of man (<a href="#figure002">Fig. 2</a>, II. and III.) +may be taken as an example of a very different condition. After its +crown is fully formed by calcification of the germ, the pulp, though +continuing to elongate, begins to contract in diameter; a neck or +slight constriction is formed; and the remainder of the pulp is converted +into the root (often, but incorrectly, called “fang”), a tapering +conical process imbedded in the alveolar cavity of the bone, and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_18"></a>[18]</span> +having at its extremity a minute perforation, through which the +vessels and nerves required to maintain the vitality of the tooth enter +the pulp-cavity, which is +very different from the +widely open cavity at +the base of the growing +tooth. When the crown +of the tooth is broad and +complex in character, instead +of having a single root, +it may be supported by +two or more roots, each of +which is implanted in a +distinct alveolar recess or +socket, and to the apex of +which a branch of the common +pulp-cavity is continued +(<a href="#figure001">Fig. 1</a>, IV.) Such teeth are +called “rooted teeth.” When +they have once attained their +position in the jaw, with the +neck a little way above the +level of the free margin of +the alveolus, and embraced +by the gum or tough fibrovascular +membrane covering +the alveolar border, and having +the root fully formed, +they can never increase in +length or alter their position; +if they appear to do +so in old age, it being only +in consequence of absorption +and retrocession of the surrounding +alveolar margins. +If, as often happens, their +surface wears away in mastication, +it is never renewed. +The open cavity at the base +of the imperfectly developed +tooth (<a href="#figure001">Fig. 1</a>, II.) causes it +to resemble the persistent +condition of the rootless +tooth. The latter is therefore a more primitive condition, the +formation of the root being a completion of the process of tooth +development. Functionally it is, however, difficult to say that the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_19"></a>[19]</span> +one is a higher form than the other, since they both serve important +and different purposes in the animal economy.</p> + +<p>As is almost always the case in nature, intermediate conditions +between these two forms of teeth are met with. Thus some teeth, +as the molars of the Horse, and of many Rodents, are for a time +rootless, and have growing pulps producing very long crowns with +parallel sides, the summits of which may be in use and beginning +to wear away while the bases are still growing; but ultimately the +pulp contracts, forms a neck and distinct roots, and ceases to grow. +The canine tusks of the Musk Deer and of the Walrus have +persistent pulps, and are open at their base until the animal is of +advanced age, when they close, and the pulp ceases to be renewed. +The same sometimes happens in the tusks of very old Boars.</p> + +<p>The simplest form of the crown of a tooth is that of a cone; +but this may be variously modified. Thus it may be flattened, with its +edges sharp and cutting, and pointed at the apex, as in the laterally +compressed premolars of most Carnivora; or it may be chisel- or +awl-shaped, with a straight truncated edge, as in the human incisors; +or it may be broad, with a flat or rounded upper surface. Very +often there is a more or less prominent ridge encircling the whole or +part of the base of the crown just above the neck, called the cingulum, +which serves as a protection to the edge of the gum in masticating, +and is most developed in flesh-eating and insectivorous +animals, in which the gums are liable to be injured by splinters of +bone or other hard fragments of their food. The form of the +crown is frequently rendered complex by the development upon its +surface of elevations or tubercules called cusps or cones, or by +ridges usually transverse, but sometimes variously curved or folded. +When the crown is broad and the ridges are greatly developed, as +in the molars of the Elephant, Horse, and Ox (<a href="#figure001">Fig. 1</a>, V.), the interspaces +between them are filled with cement, which supports them +and makes a solid compact mass of the whole tooth. When such a +tooth wears away at the surface by friction against the opposed +tooth of the other jaw, the different density of the layers of +the substances of which it is composed—enamel, dentine, and +cement—arranged in characteristic patterns, causes them to wear +unequally, the hard enamel ridges projecting beyond the others, +and thus giving rise to a grinding surface of great mechanical +advantage.</p> + +<p><i>Succession.</i>—The dentition of all mammals consists of a definite +set of teeth, almost always of constant and determinate number, +form, and situation, and, with few exceptions, persisting in a +functional condition throughout the natural term of the animal’s +life. In many species these are the only teeth which the animal +ever possesses,—the set which is first formed being permanent, or, if +accidentally lost, or decaying in extreme old age, not being replaced<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_20"></a>[20]</span> +by others. These animals are called Monophyodont. But in the +larger number of mammals, certain of the teeth are preceded by +others, which may be only of a very transient, rudimentary, and +functionless character (being in the Seals, for example, shed either +before or within a few days after birth), or may be considerably +developed, and functionally occupy the place of the permanent teeth +for a somewhat lengthened period, during the growth and development +of the latter and of the jaws. In all cases these teeth +disappear (by the absorption of their roots and shedding of the +crowns) before the frame of the animal has acquired complete +maturity, as evidenced by the coalescence of the epiphyses of the +osseous system. As these teeth are, as a general rule, present +during the period in which the animal is nourished by the milk of +the mother, the name of “milk-teeth” (French <i>dents de lait</i>, +German <i>milchzähne</i>) has been commonly accorded to them, although +it must be understood that the epoch of their presence is by no +means necessarily synchronous with that of lactation. Animals +possessing such teeth are called Diphyodont. No mammal is known +to have more than two sets of teeth; and the definite and orderly +replacement of certain members of the series is a process of quite a +different nature from the indefinite succession which takes place in +all the teeth continuously throughout the lifetime of the lower +vertebrates.</p> + +<p>When the milk-teeth are well developed, and continue in place +during the greater part of the animal’s growth, as is especially the +case with the Ungulata, and, though to a less degree, with the +Primates and Carnivora, their use is obvious, since taken all together +they form structurally a complete epitome on a small scale of the +more numerous and larger permanent set (see <a href="#figure003">Fig. 3</a>), and, consequently, +are able to perform the same functions, while time is +allowed for the gradual maturation of the latter, and especially +while the jaws of the growing animal are acquiring the size and +strength sufficient to support the permanent teeth. Those animals, +therefore, that have a well-developed and tolerably persistent set of +milk-teeth may be considered to be in a higher state of development, +as regards their dentition, than those that have the milk-teeth +absent or rudimentary.</p> + +<p>It is a very general rule that individual teeth of the milk and +permanent set have a close relationship to one another, being +originally formed, as mentioned above, in exceedingly near proximity, +and with, at all events so far as the enamel-germ is concerned, a +direct connection. Moreover, since the latter ultimately come to +occupy the position in the alveolar border temporarily held by the +former, they are spoken of respectively as the predecessors or successors +of each other. But it must be understood that milk-teeth +may be present which have no successors in the permanent series,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_21"></a>[21]</span> +and, what is far more general, permanent teeth may have no predecessors +in the milk series.</p> + +<p>The complete series of permanent teeth of most mammals forms +a complex machine, with its several parts adapted for different +functions,—the most obvious structural modification for this purpose +being an increased complexity of the individual components of the +series from the anterior towards the posterior extremity of such +series. Since, as has just been said, the complete series of the milk +teeth often presents structurally and functionally a similar machine, +but composed of fewer individual members, and the anterior of which +are as simple, and the posterior as complex as those occupying +corresponding positions in the permanent series,—and since the +milk-teeth are only developed in relation to the anterior or lateral, +never to the most posterior of the permanent series,—it follows +that the hinder milk-teeth are usually more complex than the teeth +of which they are the predecessors in the permanent series, and +represent functionally, not their immediate successors, but those +more posterior permanent teeth which have no direct predecessors. +This character is clearly seen in those animals in which the various +members of the molar series are well differentiated from each other +in form, as the Carnivora, and also in Man.</p> + +<p>In animals which have two sets of teeth the number of those +of the permanent series which are preceded by milk-teeth varies +greatly, being sometimes, as in Marsupials and some Rodents, as +few as one on each side of each jaw, and sometimes including the +larger portion of the series.</p> + +<p>Although there are difficulties in some cases in arriving at a +satisfactory solution of the question, it is, on the whole, safest to +assume that when only one set of teeth is present, this corresponds +to the permanent teeth of the Diphyodonts. When this one set +is completely developed, and remains in use throughout the +animal’s life, there can be no question on this subject. When, on +the other hand, the teeth are rudimentary and transient, as in the +Whalebone Whales, it is possible to consider them as representing +the milk series; but there are weighty reasons in favour of the +opposite conclusion.<a id="FNanchor_5" href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a></p> + +<p><i>Arrangement, Homologies, and Notation of Teeth.</i>—The teeth of +the two sides of the jaws are always alike in number and character,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_22"></a>[22]</span> +except in cases of accidental or abnormal variation, and in the one +remarkable instance of constant deviation from bilateral symmetry +among mammals, the tusks of the Narwhal (<i>Monodon</i>), in which +the left is of immense size, and the right rudimentary. In certain +mammals, such as the Dolphins and some Armadillos, which +have a very large series of similar teeth, not always constant in +number in different individuals, there may be differences in the two +sides; but, apart from these, in describing the dentition of any +mammal, it is quite sufficient to give the number and characters +of the teeth of one side only. Since the teeth of the upper and the +lower jaws work against each other in masticating, there is a general +correspondence or harmony between them, the projections of one +series, when the mouth is closed, fitting into corresponding depressions +of the other. There is also a general resemblance in the number, +characters, and mode of succession of both series, so that, although +individual teeth of the upper and lower jaws may not be in any +strict sense of the term homologous parts, there is a great convenience +in applying the same descriptive terms to the one as are +used for the other.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure002" style="max-width: 25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure002.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 2.</span>—Upper and Lower Teeth of one side of the Mouth of a Dolphin (<i>Lagenorhynchus</i>) as an +example of the homodont type of dentition. The bone covering the outer side of the roots of +the teeth has been removed to show their simple character.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The simplest dentition as a whole is that of many species of +Dolphin (<a href="#figure002">Fig. 2</a>), in which the crowns are single-pointed, slightly +curved cones, and the roots also single and tapering, and all alike in +form from the anterior to the posterior end of the series, though it +may be with some slight difference in size, those at the two extremities +of the series being rather smaller than the others. Such a dentition +is called Homodont, and in the case cited, as the teeth are never +changed, it is also Monophyodont. Such teeth are adapted only +for catching slippery living prey, as fish.</p> + +<p>In a very large number of mammals the teeth of different +parts of the series are more or less differentiated in character, +and have different functions to perform. The front teeth are +simple and one-rooted, and are adapted for cutting and seizing. +They are called “incisors.” The back- or cheek-teeth have broader +and more complex crowns, tuberculated or ridged, and are supported<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_23"></a>[23]</span> +on two or more roots. They crush or grind the food, and +are hence called “molars.” Many animals have, between these +two sets, a tooth at each corner of the mouth, longer and more +pointed than the others, adapted for tearing or stabbing, or for +fixing struggling prey. From the conspicuous development of +such teeth in the Carnivora, especially the Dogs, they have received +the name of “canines.” A dentition with its component parts so +differently formed that these distinctive terms are applicable to +them is called Heterodont. In most cases, though by no means +invariably, animals with Heterodont dentition are also Diphyodont.</p> + +<p>This general arrangement is extremely obvious in a considerable +number of mammals; and closer examination shows that, under +very great modification in detail, there is a remarkable uniformity +of essential characters in the dentition of a large number of +members of the class belonging to different orders and not otherwise +closely allied; so much so indeed that it has been possible (chiefly +through the researches of Sir Richard Owen) to formulate a common +plan of dentition from which the others have been derived by the +alteration of some and suppression of other members of the series, +and occasionally, but very rarely, by addition. The records of +palæontology fully confirm this view, as by tracing back many +groups now widely separated in dental characters we find a +gradual approximation to a common type. In this generalised form +of mammalian dentition (which is best exemplified in the genera +<i>Anoplotherium</i> and <i>Homalodontotherium</i>) the entire number of teeth +present is 44, or 11 above and 11 below on each side. Those of +each jaw are placed in continuous series without intervals between +them; and, although the anterior teeth are simple and single-rooted, +and the posterior teeth complex and with several roots, +the transition between the two kinds is gradual.</p> + +<p>In dividing and grouping such teeth for the purpose of description +and comparison, more definite characters are required than +those derived merely from form or function. The first step towards +a classification has been made by the observation that the upper +jaw is composed of two bones, the premaxilla and the maxilla, +and that the suture between these bones separates the three +anterior teeth from the others. These three teeth, then, which are +implanted by their roots in the premaxilla, form a distinct group, +to which the name of “incisor” is applied. This distinction is, +however, not so important as it appears at first sight, for, as +mentioned when speaking of the development of the teeth, their +connection with the bone is only of a secondary nature, and, although +it happens conveniently for our purpose that in the great majority +of cases the segmentation of the bone coincides with the interspace +between the third and fourth tooth of the series, still, when it does +not happen to do so, as in the case of the Mole, we must not give<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_24"></a>[24]</span> +too much weight to this fact, if it contravenes other reasons for +determining the homologies of the teeth. The eight remaining +teeth of the upper jaw offer a natural division, inasmuch as the +posterior three never have milk-predecessors; and, although some +of the anterior teeth may be in the same case, the particular one +preceding these three always has such a predecessor. These three +then are grouped apart as the “molars,” or, since some of the teeth +in front of them often have a molariform character, “true molars.” +Of the five teeth between the incisors and molars the most anterior, +or that which is usually situated close behind the premaxillary +suture, almost always, as soon as any departure takes place from +the simplest and most homogeneous type, assumes a lengthened +and pointed form, and is the tooth so developed as to constitute +the “canine” or “laniary” tooth of the Carnivora, the tusk of the +Boar, etc. It is customary therefore to call this tooth, whatever +its size or form, the “canine.” The remaining four are the “premolars” +or “false molars.” This system of nomenclature has been +objected to as being artificial, and in many cases not descriptive, +the distinction between premolars and canine especially being +sometimes not obvious; but the terms are now in such general use, +and are so practically convenient—especially if, as it is best to do +in all such cases, we forget their original signification and treat +them as arbitrary signs—that it is not likely they will be superseded +by any that have been proposed as substitutes for them.</p> + +<p>With regard to the lower teeth the difficulties are greater, +owing to the absence of any suture corresponding to that which +defines the incisors above; but since the number of the teeth is +the same, the corresponding teeth are preceded by milk-teeth, and +in the large majority of cases it is the fourth tooth of the series +which is modified in the same way as the canine (or fourth tooth) +of the upper jaw, it is quite reasonable to adopt the same divisions +as with the upper series, and to call the first three, which are +implanted in the part of the mandible opposite to the premaxilla, +the incisors, the next the canine, the next four the premolars, and +the last three the molars. It may be observed that when the +mouth is closed, especially when the opposed surfaces of the teeth +present an irregular outline, the corresponding upper and lower +teeth are not exactly opposite, otherwise the two series could not +fit into one another; but as a rule the points of the lower teeth +shut into the interspaces in front of the corresponding teeth of the +upper jaw. This is seen very distinctly in the canine teeth of the +Carnivora, and is a useful guide in determining the homologies of +the teeth of the two jaws. Objections have certainly been made +to this view, because, in certain rare cases, the tooth which, according +to it, would be called the lower canine has the form and +function of an incisor (as in Ruminants and Lemurs), and on the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_25"></a>[25]</span> +other hand (as in <i>Cotylops</i>, an extinct Ungulate from North America) +the tooth that would thus be determined as the first premolar has +the form of a canine; but it should not be forgotten that, as in all +such cases, definitions derived from form and function alone are +quite as open to objection as those derived from position and +relation to surrounding parts, or still more so.</p> + +<p><i>Dental formulæ.</i>—For the sake of brevity the complete dentition, +arranged according to these principles, is often described by the +following formula, the numbers above the line representing the +teeth of the upper, those below the line those of the lower jaw:—incisors +³⁻³⁄₃₋₃, canines ¹⁻¹⁄₁₋₁, premolars ⁴⁻⁴⁄₄₋₄, molars ³⁻³⁄₃₋₃ = ¹¹⁻¹¹⁄₁₁₋₁₁; +total 44. Since, however, initial letters may be substituted for +the names of each group, and it is quite unnecessary to give more +than the numbers of the teeth on one side of the mouth, the +formula may be conveniently abbreviated into—</p> + +<p class="center"><i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₄, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃ = ¹¹⁄₁₁; total 44.</p> + +<p>The individual teeth of each group are always enumerated from +before backwards, and by such a formula as the following—</p> + +<table> + <tr> + <td class="tdc"><i>i</i> 1, <i>i</i> 2, <i>i</i> 3, <i>c</i>, <i>p</i> 1, + <i>p</i> 2, <i>p</i> 3, <i>p</i> 4, <i>m</i> 1, <i>m</i> 2, <i>m</i> 3</td> + </tr> + <tr class="bt"> + <td class="tdc"><i>i</i> 1, <i>i</i> 2, <i>i</i> 3, <i>c</i>, <i>p</i> 1, + <i>p</i> 2, <i>p</i> 3, <i>p</i> 4, <i>m</i> 1, <i>m</i> 2, <i>m</i> 3</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p class="noindent">or more briefly—</p> + +<table> + <tr> + <td rowspan="2" class="tdr valign"><i>i</i></td> + <td class="tdc">1,2,3 </td> + <td rowspan="2" class="tdr valign"><i>c</i></td> + <td class="tdc">1 </td> + <td rowspan="2" class="tdr valign"><i>p</i></td> + <td class="tdc">1,2,3,4 </td> + <td rowspan="2" class="tdr valign"><i>m</i></td> + <td class="tdc">1,2,3</td> + <td rowspan="2" class="valign">.</td> + </tr> + <tr class="bt"> + <td class="tdc">1,2,3,</td> + <td class="tdc">1,</td> + <td class="tdc">1,2,3,4,</td> + <td class="tdc">1,2,3</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p class="noindent">A special numerical designation is thus given by which each one +can be indicated. In mentioning any single tooth, such a sign as +<i>m¹</i>⁄ will mean the first upper molar, ⁄<i>m₁</i> the first lower molar, and so on. +The use of such signs saves much time and space in description.<a id="FNanchor_6" href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a></p> + +<p>It was part of the view of the founder of this system of dental +notation that, at least throughout the group of mammals whose +dentition is derived from this general type, each tooth has its +strict homologue in all species, and that in those cases in which +fewer than the typical number are present (as in all existing +mammals except the genera <i>Sus</i>, <i>Gymnura</i>, <i>Talpa</i>, and <i>Myogale</i>), the +teeth that are missing can be accurately defined. According to +this view, when the number of incisors falls short of three it is +assumed that the absent ones are missing from the outer and +posterior end of the series. Thus, when there is but one incisor +present, it is <i>i</i> 1; when two, they are <i>i</i> 1 and <i>i</i> 2. Furthermore, +when the premolars and the molars are below their typical +number, the absent teeth are missing from the fore part of the +premolar series, and from the back part of the molar series. If +this were invariably so, the labours of those who describe teeth<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_26"></a>[26]</span> +would be greatly simplified; but there are so many exceptions that +a close scrutiny into the situation, relations, and development of a +tooth is required before its nature can be determined, and in some +cases the evidence at our disposal is scarcely sufficient for the +purpose. In other instances, however, as among the Polyprotodont +Marsupials, we have decisive evidence to show that the missing +premolar teeth are not those at the extremity of the series.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="figure003" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure003.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 3.</span>—Milk and Permanent Dentition of Upper (I.) and Lower (II.) Jaw of the Dog (<i>Canis +familiaris</i>), with the symbols by which the different teeth are commonly designated. The third +upper molar (<i>m.</i>3) is the only tooth wanting in this animal to complete the typical heterodont +mammalian dentition.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The milk-dentition is expressed by a similar formula, <i>d</i> +for deciduous or <i>m</i> for milk being commonly prefixed to the +letter expressive of the nature of the tooth. Since the three +molars, and almost invariably the first premolar of the permanent +series, have no predecessors, the typical milk-dentition would be +expressed as follows—<i>di</i> ³⁄₃, <i>dc</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>dm</i> ³⁄₃, = ⁷⁄₇, total 28. In a few +Ungulates, however, such as the Hyrax and Tapir, and in some +instances the Rhinoceros and the extinct <i>Palæotherium</i>, the whole of +the four premolars are preceded by milk-teeth; when we have the +fullest development of cheek-teeth in the whole of the Eutheria. The +teeth which precede the premolars of the permanent series are all +called molars in the milk-dentition, although as a general rule, in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_27"></a>[27]</span> +form and function they represent in a condensed form the whole +premolar and molar series of the adult. When there is a marked +difference between the premolars and molars of the permanent +dentition, the first milk-molar resembles a premolar, while the last +has the characters of the posterior true molar.</p> + +<p>The dentition of all the members of the orders Primates, +Carnivora, Insectivora, Chiroptera, and Ungulata can clearly be +derived from the above-described generalised type. The same +may be said of the Rodents, and even the Proboscidea, though +at least in the existing members of the order with greater modification. +It is also apparent in certain extinct Cetacea, as +<i>Zeuglodon</i> and <i>Squalodon</i>, but it is difficult to find any traces of +it in existing Cetacea, Sirenia, or any of the so-called Edentata. +All the Marsupials, different as they are in their general structure +and mode of life, and variously modified as is their dentition, +present in this system of organs some deep-lying common characters +which show their unity of origin. The generalised type to which +their dentition can be reduced presents considerable resemblance +to that of the placental mammals, yet differing in details. It is +markedly heterodont, and susceptible of division into incisors, +canines, premolars, and molars upon the same principles. The +whole number is, however, not limited to forty-four. The incisors +may be as numerous as five on each side above, and they are +almost always different in number in the upper and the lower jaw. +The premolars and molars are commonly seven, as in the placental +mammals, but their arrangement is reversed, as there are four +true molars and three premolars.</p> + +<p>The larger number of incisive and molar teeth among the +Marsupials suggests that their additional teeth have disappeared +in the Eutheria,<a id="FNanchor_7" href="#Footnote_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> and Mr. O. Thomas has endeavoured to construct +a generalised dental formula from which both the Marsupial and +Eutherian modifications may have been derived by the suppression +of particular teeth. Thus the hypothetical formula <i>i</i> ¹<sup>,</sup>²<sup>,</sup>³<sup>,</sup>⁴<sup>,</sup>⁵⁄₁<sub>,</sub>₂<sub>,</sub>₃<sub>,</sub>₄<sub>,</sub>₅, +<i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ¹<sup>,</sup>²<sup>,</sup>³<sup>,</sup>⁴⁄₁<sub>,</sub>₂<sub>,</sub>₃<sub>,</sub>₄, <i>m</i> ¹<sup>,</sup>²<sup>,</sup>³<sup>,</sup>⁴<sup>,</sup>⁵⁄₁<sub>,</sub>₂<sub>,</sub>₃<sub>,</sub>₄<sub>,</sub>₅, by the loss of the fifth lower incisor, +and of the second premolars (which we know to be those which +disappear in the Marsupials) and the fifth molars, will give +<i>i</i> ¹<sup>,</sup>²<sup>,</sup>³<sup>,</sup>⁴<sup>,</sup>⁵⁄₁<sub>,</sub>₂<sub>,</sub>₃<sub>,</sub>₄<sub>,</sub>₀, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ¹<sup>,</sup>⁰<sup>,</sup>³<sup>,</sup>⁴⁄₁<sub>,</sub>₀<sub>,</sub>₃<sub>,</sub>₄, <i>m</i> ¹<sup>,</sup>²<sup>,</sup>³<sup>,</sup>⁴⁄₁<sub>,</sub>₂<sub>,</sub>₃<sub>,</sub>₄; or the formula of the +Opossum (<i>Didelphys</i>), usually written <i>i</i> ⁵⁄₄, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ⁴⁄₄. Again, +in the same formula the loss of the fourth and fifth incisors in +both jaws, and also of the fourth molars, gives us <i>i</i> ¹<sup>,</sup>²<sup>,</sup>³<sup>,</sup>⁰<sup>,</sup>⁰⁄₁<sub>,</sub>₂<sub>,</sub>₃<sub>,</sub>₀<sub>,</sub>₀, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, +<i>p</i> ¹<sup>,</sup>²<sup>,</sup>³<sup>,</sup>⁴⁄₁<sub>,</sub>₂<sub>,</sub>₃<sub>,</sub>₄, <i>m</i> ¹<sup>,</sup>²<sup>,</sup>³⁄₁<sub>,</sub>₂<sub>,</sub>₃, or the formula of a typical Eutherian, like the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_28"></a>[28]</span> +Pig, which we generally write as <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₄, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃. Such a +generalised formula will admit of modification into that of all +existing, and a large number of fossil Marsupials, but it is possible +that some of the Mesozoic types may have had more than four +premolars, although there is no absolutely decisive evidence that +such was the case. The presence of seven or eight true molars in +some Mesozoic forms merely entails the addition of two or three +additional figures to the ideal generalised formula.</p> + +<p>The milk-dentition of all known Marsupials, existing or extinct, +is (if not entirely absent) limited to a single tooth on either side of +each jaw, this being the predecessor of the last permanent premolar. +And if the view that the milk-dentition is an additional series +grafted upon the original permanent series be correct, it is evident +that we have in this single replacement the first stage of this +additional development.</p> + +<p>In very few mammals are teeth entirely absent. Even in the +Whalebone Whales their germs are formed in the same manner +and at the same period of life as in other mammals, and even +become partially calcified, but they never rise above the gums, +and completely disappear before the birth of the animal. In some +species of the order Edentata, the true Anteaters and the Pangolins, +no traces of teeth have been found at any age. The adult +Monotremata are likewise devoid of teeth of the same structure +as those of ordinary mammals; but well-developed molars occur in +the young <i>Ornithorhynchus</i>, although no traces of teeth have hitherto +been detected in <i>Echidna</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Modifications of the Teeth in Relation to their Functions.</i>—The +principal functional modifications noticed in the dentition of +mammalia may be roughly grouped as piscivorous, carnivorous, +insectivorous, omnivorous, and herbivorous, each having, of course, +numerous variations and transitional conditions.</p> + +<p>The essential characters of a piscivorous dentition are best +exemplified in the Dolphins, and also (as modifications of the +carnivorous type) in the Seals. This type consists of an elongated, +rather narrow mouth, wide gape, with numerous subequal, conical, +sharp-pointed, recurved teeth, adapted simply to rapidly seize, but +not to divide or masticate, active, slippery, but not powerful prey. +All animals which feed on fish as a rule swallow and digest them +entire, a process which the structure of prey of this nature, especially +the intimate interblending of delicate, sharp-pointed bones with the +muscles, renders very advantageous, and for which the above-described +type of dentition is best adapted.</p> + +<p>The carnivorous type of dentition is shown in its most specialised +development among existing mammals in the <i>Felidæ</i>. The function +being here to seize and kill struggling animals, often of large size +and great muscular power, the canines are immensely developed,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_29"></a>[29]</span> +trenchant, and piercing, and are situated wide apart, so as to give +the firmest hold when fixed in the victim’s body. The jaws are as +short as is consistent with the free action of the canines, so that no +power may be lost. The incisors are very small, so as not to +interfere with the penetrating action of the canines, and the +crowns of the molar series are reduced to scissor-like blades, with +which to pare off the soft tissues from the large bones, or to divide +into small pieces the less dense portions of the bones for the sake of +nutriment afforded by the blood and marrow they contain. The +gradual modification between this and the two following types will +be noticed in their appropriate places.</p> + +<p>In the most typical insectivorous animals, as the Hedgehogs +and Shrews, the central incisors are elongated, pointed, and project +forwards, those of the upper and lower jaw meeting like the blades +of a pair of forceps, so as readily to secure small active prey, quick +to elude capture, but powerless to resist when once seized. The +crowns of the molars are covered with numerous sharp edges and +points, which, working against each other, rapidly cut up the hard-cased +insects into little pieces fit for swallowing and digestion.</p> + +<p>The omnivorous type, especially that adapted for the consumption +of soft vegetable substances, such as fruits of various +kinds, may be exemplified in the dentition of Man, of most +Monkeys, and of the less modified Pigs. The incisors are moderate, +subequal, and cutting. If the canines are enlarged, it is usually +for other purposes than those connected with food, and only in the +male sex. The molars have their crowns broad, flattened, and +elevated into rounded tubercles. The name <i>Bunodont</i>, or hillock-toothed, +has been proposed for molars of this type, and will +frequently be found convenient.</p> + +<p>In the most typically herbivorous forms of dentition, as seen in the +Horse and Kangaroo, the incisors are well developed, trenchant, and +adapted for cutting off the herbage on which the animals feed; the +canines are rudimentary or suppressed; the molars are large, with +broad crowns, which in the simplest forms have strong transverse +ridges, but may become variously complicated in the higher degrees +of modification which this type of tooth assumes.</p> + +<p>Various forms of teeth of this type will be noticed among the +Ungulates and Rodents.</p> + +<p>The natural groups of mammals, or those which in our present +state of knowledge we have reason to believe are truly related to +each other, may each contain examples of more than one of these +modifications. Thus the Primates have both omnivorous and +insectivorous forms. The Carnivora show piscivorous, carnivorous, +insectivorous, and omnivorous modifications of their common type +of dentition. The Ungulata and the Rodentia have among them +the omnivorous and various modifications, both simple and complex,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_30"></a>[30]</span> +of the herbivorous type. The Marsupialia exhibit examples of +all forms, except the purely piscivorous. Other orders, more +restricted in number or in habits, as the Proboscidea and Cetacea, +naturally do not show so great a variety in the dental structure of +their members.</p> + +<p><i>Taxonomy.</i>—In considering the taxonomic value to be assigned to +the modifications of teeth of mammals, two principles, often +opposed to each other, which have been at work in producing these +modifications, must be held in view:—(1) the type, or ancestral +form, as we generally now call it, characteristic of each group, +which in most mammals is itself derived from the still more +generalised type described above; and (2) variations which have +taken place from this type, generally in accordance with special +functions which the teeth are called upon to fulfil in particular +cases. These variations are sometimes so great as completely to +mask the primitive type, and in this way the dentition of many +animals of widely different origin has come to present a remarkable +superficial resemblance, as in the case of the Wombat (a Marsupial), +the Aye-Aye (a Lemur), and the Rodents, or as in the case of the +Thylacine and the Dog. In all these examples indications may +generally be found of the true nature of the case by examining the +earlier conditions of dentition; for the characters of the milk-teeth +or the presence of rudimentary or deciduous members of the +permanent set will generally indicate the route by which the +specialised dentition of the adult has been derived. It is perhaps +owing to the importance of the dental armature to the well-being +of the animal in procuring its sustenance, and preserving its life +from the attacks of enemies, that great changes appear to have +taken place so readily, and with such comparative rapidity, in the +forms of these organs—changes often accompanied with but little +modification in the general structure of the animal. Of this +proposition the Aye-Aye (<i>Chiromys</i>) among Lemurs, the Walrus +among Seals, and the Narwhal among Dolphins form striking +examples; since in all these forms the superficial characters of their +dentition would entirely separate them from the animals with which +all other evidence (even including the mode of development of their +teeth) proves their close affinity.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp94" id="figure004" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure004.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 4.</span>—Molar teeth of Mesozoic Mammals (enlarged). Triconodont type—1, <i>Dromatherium</i>; +2, <i>Microconodon</i>; 3, <i>Amphilestes</i>; 4, <i>Phascolotherium</i>; 5, <i>Triconodon</i>. Tritubercular type—6, 7, +<i>Spalacotherium</i>; 10, <i>Asthenodon</i>. Tubercular sectorial type—8, <i>Amphitherium</i>; 9, <i>Peramus</i>; 11-13, +<i>Amblotherium</i>; 14 (?) <i>Amblotherium</i>. <i>pr</i>, Protocone; <i>hy</i>, hypocone; <i>pa</i>, paracone; <i>me</i>, +metacone, in the upper teeth; and protoconid, hypoconid, paraconid, and metaconid in the +lower. 6 and 15 are upper molars, and the rest lower molars. (After Osborn.)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Trituberculism.</i>—Recent researches, and more especially those of +Professors Cope and Osborn, tend to show that almost all of the +extremely different forms of tooth-structure found among Mammals +may be traced to one common type, in which the crown of each +tooth carried three cusps, and hence termed the <i>tritubercular</i> type; +these three cusps being arranged in a triangle, with the apex +directed inwardly in the upper teeth (<a href="#figure004">Fig. 4</a>, ₆), and outwardly in +the lower ones (<a href="#figure004">Fig. 4</a>, ₇). It is further probable that this +tritubercular type was itself derived from a type of dentition in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_31"></a>[31]</span> +which the teeth were in the form of almost a quite simple cone; +such a presumably primitive type of dentition—being apparently +retained among some existing Edentates, like the Armadillos, while +it is possible that we should regard the dentition of the existing +Cetacea (<a href="#figure002">Fig. 2</a>) as a reversion to the same primitive type. None of +the Mesozoic mammals at present known exhibit this simple +conical type of teeth, although we have an approximation to it in +the extremely generalised genus <i>Dromatherium</i>. Starting then +from this presumed simple cone it appears that the teeth of <i>Dromatherium</i> +(<a href="#figure004">Fig. 4</a>, ₁) present the first stage towards trituberculism, the +crown of each tooth having one main cone, with minute lateral +cusps, and the root being grooved. In the next or true Triconodont +stage (<a href="#figure004">Fig. 4</a>, ₃₋₅) the crown has become elongated antero-posteriorly, +and consists of one central and two lateral cones or +cusps, while the root is divided. From this the transition is easy to +the tritubercular type, in which the three cusps, instead of being<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_32"></a>[32]</span> +placed in a line, are arranged in a triangle; the upper teeth (<a href="#figure004">Fig. +4</a>, ₆) having one inner and two outer cusps, while the reverse +condition obtains in those of the lower jaw (<a href="#figure004">Fig. 4</a>, ₇). These +three cusps of the simple tritubercular tooth are collectively designated +as the primitive triangle; in the upper tooth the inner cusp +is termed the protocone, the antero-external one the paracone, and +the postero-external the metacone; the corresponding cusps of the +lower tooth being named protoconid, paraconid, and metaconid—the +protoconid being here on the outer side of the crown.</p> + +<p>It is thus apparent that in the first, or haplodont type, as well +as in the triconodont type, the upper and lower molars are alike; +while in the simple tritubercular type they have a similar pattern, +but with the arrangement of the cusps reversed. This simple +tritubercular type occurs in the Mesozoic genus <i>Spalacotherium</i> +(<a href="#figure004">Fig. 4</a>, ₆ and ₇), and apparently in the existing <i>Chrysochloris</i>; but +in the majority of tritubercular forms, while this primitive triangle +forms the main portion of the crown, other secondary cusps are +added, the homologies of which in the upper and lower teeth are +somewhat doubtful. At the same time that we have the addition +of these secondary cusps we also find trituberculism differentiating +into a secodont and a bunodont series, according as to whether the +dentition becomes of a cutting or a crushing type.</p> + +<p>Thus in the lower molars (<a href="#figure004">Fig. 4</a>, ₈ and ₉) we very frequently +find the three cusps of the primitive triangle elevated and connected +by cross crests, while there is an additional low posterior heel or +talon, which may be termed the hypoconid. This tubercular-sectorial +sub-type, as it is termed, is found in the lower molars of +many Polyprotodont Marsupials and Insectivores, and it also occurs +in the lower carnassial teeth of the true Carnivora. The presence +of two cusps (inner and +outer) to the talon converts +this modification +into a quinquetubercular +form; while, by the suppression +of one of the +three primitive cusps, it +develops into the quadritubercular +type of the +bunodont series.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure005" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure005.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 5.</span>—Diagram of two upper and two lower left +quadritubercular molars in mutual apposition. The cusps +and ridges of the upper molars in double lines, and those +of the lower in black lines. The lower molars are looked +at from below, as if transparent. <i>pr</i>, Protocone; <i>hy</i>, hypocone; +<i>pa</i>, paracone; <i>me</i>, metacone; <i>ml</i>, protoconule; <i>pl</i>, +metaconule; <i>prd</i>, protoconid; <i>hyd</i>, hypoconid; <i>pad</i>, paraconid; +<i>med</i>, metaconid; <i>end</i>, entoconid. (After Osborn.)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>In the upper molars +the primitive triangle in +the secodont series may +remain purely tricuspid; +but the addition of intermediate +cusps, both in the secodont and bunodont series, may give +rise to a quinquetubercular type; these intermediate cusps being +respectively designated as the protoconule and metaconule (<a href="#figure005">Fig. 5</a>,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_33"></a>[33]</span> +<i>ml</i>, <i>pl</i>). Finally, in the bunodont series, the addition of a postero-internal +cusp (<a href="#figure005">Fig. 5</a>, <i>hy</i>), termed the hypocone, forms the sextubercular +molar.</p> + +<p>The following table exhibits, in a collective form, the names +and relations of all the above-mentioned cusps, and the letters by +which they are indicated in the figures:—</p> + +<table> + <tr> + <th colspan="5"><span class="smcap">Upper Molars.</span></th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Antero-internal cusp</td> + <td class="tdc">=</td> + <td>protocone</td> + <td class="tdc">=</td> + <td><i>pr</i>.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Postero <span class="ditto">”</span> or 6th cusp</td> + <td class="tdc">=</td> + <td>hypocone</td> + <td class="tdc">=</td> + <td><i>hy</i>.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Antero-external cusp</td> + <td class="tdc">=</td> + <td>paracone</td> + <td class="tdc">=</td> + <td><i>pa</i>.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Postero <span class="ditto">”</span> <span class="ditto">”</span></td> + <td class="tdc">=</td> + <td>metacone</td> + <td class="tdc">=</td> + <td><i>me</i>.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Anterior intermediate cusp</td> + <td class="tdc">=</td> + <td>protoconule</td> + <td class="tdc">=</td> + <td><i>ml</i>.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Posterior <span class="ditto">”</span> <span class="ditto">”</span></td> + <td class="tdc">=</td> + <td>metaconule</td> + <td class="tdc">=</td> + <td><i>pl</i>.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <th colspan="5"><span class="smcap">Lower Molars.</span></th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Antero-external cusp</td> + <td class="tdc">=</td> + <td>protoconid</td> + <td class="tdc">=</td> + <td><i>prd</i>.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Postero <span class="ditto">”</span> <span class="ditto">”</span></td> + <td class="tdc">=</td> + <td>hypoconid</td> + <td class="tdc">=</td> + <td><i>hyd</i>.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Antero-internal or 5th cusp</td> + <td class="tdc">=</td> + <td>paraconid</td> + <td class="tdc">=</td> + <td><i>pad</i>.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Intermediate (or in quadritubercular<br>molars antero-internal) cusp</td> + <td class="tdc">=</td> + <td>metaconid</td> + <td class="tdc">=</td> + <td><i>med</i>.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Postero-internal cusp</td> + <td class="tdc">=</td> + <td>entaconid</td> + <td class="tdc">=</td> + <td><i>end</i>.</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>The common occurrence of trituberculism in the mammals of +the earlier geological epochs is, as remarked by Osborn, very +significant of the uniformity of molar origin. Thus, among the +Mesozoic mammals (with the exception of the group known as +Multituberculata, in which the molars are constructed on a different +type), trituberculism occurs in the great majority of the genera; +while out of 82 species, belonging to five different suborders from +the Lowest or Puerco Eocene of the United States, all but four +exhibit this feature; and the same holds good for the mammals of +the corresponding European horizon. At the present day trituberculism +persists in the Lemuroidea, Insectivora, Carnivora, and Marsupialia. +In the Carnivora there is a tendency to lose the metaconid, +while in the bunodont molars of the Ungulata it is the +paraconid that disappears.</p> + +<h3>III. THE SKELETON.</h3> + +<p><i>Definition.</i>—The skeleton is a system of hard parts, forming a +framework which supports and protects the softer organs and +tissues of the body. It consists of dense fibrous and cartilaginous +tissues, portions of which remain through life in this state, but the +greater part is transformed during the growth of the animal into +bone or osseous tissue. This is characterised by a peculiar<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_34"></a>[34]</span> +histological structure and chemical composition, being formed +mainly of a gelatinous basis, strongly impregnated with salts of +calcium, chiefly phosphate, and disposed in a definite manner, containing +numerous minute nucleated spaces or cavities called lacunæ, +connected together by delicate channels or canaliculi, which radiate +in all directions from the sides of the lacunæ. Parts composed of +bone are, next to the teeth, the most imperishable of all the organs +of the body, often retaining their exact form and internal structure +for ages after every trace of all other portions of the organisation +has completely disappeared, and thus, in the case of extinct animals, +affording the only means of attaining a knowledge of their characters +and affinities.<a id="FNanchor_8" href="#Footnote_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a></p> + +<p>In the Armadillos and their extinct allies alone is there an +ossified exoskeleton, or bony covering developed in the skin. In +all other mammals the skeleton is completely internal. It may be +described as consisting of an axial portion belonging to the head +and trunk, and an appendicular portion belonging to the limbs. +There are also certain bones called splanchnic, being developed +within the substance of some of the viscera. Such are the <i>os cordis</i> +and <i>os penis</i> found in some mammals.</p> + +<p>It is characteristic of all the larger bones of the mammalia that +their ossification takes its origin from several distinct centres. One +near the middle of the bone, and spreading throughout its greater +portion, constitutes the <i>diaphysis</i>, or “shaft,” in the case of the long +bones. Others near the extremities, or in projecting parts, form +the <i>epiphyses</i>, which remain distinct during growth, but ultimately +coalesce with the rest of the bone.</p> + +<p><i>Axial skeleton.</i>—The axial skeleton consists of the skull, the +vertebral column (prolonged at the posterior extremity into the +tail), the sternum, and the ribs.</p> + +<p><i>Skull.</i>—In the <i>skull</i> of adult mammals, all the bones, except the +lower jaw, the auditory ossicles, and the bones of the hyoid arch, +are immovably articulated together, their edges being in close contact, +and often interlocking by means of fine denticulations projecting +from one bone and fitting into corresponding depressions of the +other; they are also held together by the investing periosteum, or +fibrous membrane, which passes directly from one to the other, +and permits no motion, beyond perhaps a slight yielding to external +pressure. In old animals there is a great tendency for the different +bones to become actually united by the extension of ossification +from one to the other, with consequent obliteration of the sutures.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_35"></a>[35]</span> +The cranium, thus formed of numerous originally independent +ossifications, which may retain throughout life more or less of their +individuality, or be all fused together, according to the species, the +age, or even individual peculiarity, consists of a brain-case, or bony +capsule for enclosing and protecting the brain, and a face for the +support of the organs of sight, smell, and taste, and of those concerned +in seizing and masticating the food. The brain-case articulates +directly with the anterior cervical vertebra, by means of a pair +of oval eminences, called condyles, placed on each side of the large +median foramen which transmits the spinal cord. It consists of a +basal axis, continuous serially with the axes or centra of the +vertebræ, and of an arch above, roofing over and enclosing the +cavity which contains the cephalic portion of the central nervous +system (see <a href="#figure006">Fig. 6</a>). The base with its arch is composed of three +segments placed one before the other, each of which is comparable +to a vertebra with a greatly expanded neural arch. The hinder or<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_36"></a>[36]</span> +occipital segment consists of the basioccipital, exoccipital, and +supraoccipital bones; the middle segment of the basisphenoid, alisphenoid, +and parietal bones; and the anterior segment of the +presphenoid, orbitosphenoid, and frontal bones. The axis is +continued forwards into the mesethmoid, or septum of the nose, +around which the bones of the face are arranged in a manner +so extremely modified for their special purposes that anatomists +who have attempted to trace their serial homologies with the more +simple portions of the axial skeleton have arrived at very diverse +interpretations. The characteristic form and structure of the face +of mammals is mainly dependent upon the size and shape of (1) the +orbits, a pair of cup-shaped cavities for containing the eyeball and +its muscles, which may be directed forwards or laterally, placed +near together or wide apart, and may be completely or only partially +encircled by bone; (2) the nasal fossæ, or cavities on each side of +the median nasal septum, forming the passage for the air to pass +between the external and the internal nares, and containing in their +upper part the organ of smell; (3) the zygomatic arch, a bridge of +bone for the purpose of muscular attachment, which extends from +the side of the face to the skull, overarching the temporal fossa; +(4) the roof of the mouth, with its alveolar margin for the implantation +of the upper teeth. The face is completed by the mandible, or +lower jaw, consisting of two lateral rami, articulated by a hinge +joint with the squamosal (a cranial bone interposed between the +posterior and penultimate segment of the brain-case, where also the +bony capsule of the organ of hearing is placed), each being composed +of a single solid piece of bone, and the two united together in the +middle line in front, at the symphysis,—which union may be permanently +ligamentous or become completely ossified. Into the +upper border of the mandibular rami the lower teeth are implanted.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure006" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure006.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 6.</span>—Longitudinal and vertical section of the skull of a Dog (<i>Canis familiaris</i>), with +mandible and hyoid arch. <i>an</i>, Anterior narial aperture; <i>MT</i>, maxillo-turbinal bone; <i>ET</i>, ethmo-turbinal; +<i>Na</i>, nasal; <i>ME</i>, ossified portion of the mesethmoid; <i>CE</i>, cribriform plate of the +ethmo-turbinal; <i>Fr</i>, frontal; <i>Pa</i>, parietal; <i>IP</i>, interparietal; <i>SO</i>, supraoccipital; <i>ExO</i>, exoccipital; +<i>BO</i>, basioccipital; <i>Per</i>, periotic; <i>BS</i>, basisphenoid; <i>Pt</i>, pterygoid; <i>AS</i>, alisphenoid; +<i>OS</i>, orbitosphenoid; <i>PS</i>, presphenoid; <i>PI</i>, palatine; <i>VO</i>, vomer; <i>Mx</i>, maxilla; +<i>PMx</i>, premaxilla; <i>sh</i>, stylohyal; <i>eh</i>, epihyal; <i>ch</i>, ceratohyal; <i>bh</i>, basihyal; <i>th</i>, thyrohyal; +<i>s</i>, symphysis of mandible; <i>cp</i>, coronoid process; <i>cd</i>, condyle; <i>a</i>, angle; <i>id</i>, inferior dental +canal. The mandible is displaced downwards, to show its entire form; the * indicates the +part of the cranium to which the condyle is articulated.<a id="FNanchor_9" href="#Footnote_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a></p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>In addition to the bones already mentioned as entering into the +formation of the cranium, there are many others, the most important +of which may be briefly noticed. The anterior extremity of the +skull is formed by the premaxillæ (<a href="#figure006">Figs. 6, 7</a>, <i>PMx</i>), which carry the +incisors; behind them are the maxillæ, in which all the remaining +upper teeth are implanted. Both the premaxillæ and maxillæ meet +in a median suture on the palate, where they form a floor to the nasal +passage; this floor being continued backwards by the plate-like palatines, +at the hinder extremity of which the posterior nares are usually +situated. In a few instances, however, as in certain Edentates and +Cetaceans, the small pair of bones forming the posterior continuation +of the lateral borders of the palatines, and known as the pterygoids +(<a href="#figure006">Fig. 6</a>, <i>Pt</i>), likewise meet in the middle line below the nasal passage, +and thus cause the aperture of the posterior nares to be situated +near the occiput. On the upper, or frontal aspect of the cranium the +paired nasals roof over the nasal passage and fill the interval left<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_37"></a>[37]</span> +between the premaxilla and maxilla of either side. Behind the nasals +and maxillæ, the anterior part of the brain-case is formed by the +large paired frontals (<a href="#figure006">Figs. 6, 7</a>, <i>Fr</i>), behind which are the parietals, +which may be of still +larger size, and form +the greater part of +the brain-case. A +median interparietal +ossification (<a href="#figure006">Fig. 6</a>, +<i>IP</i>) may divide the +parietals posteriorly, +and is itself articulated +with the supraoccipital, +to the lateral +borders of which +the parietals are also +joined. The squamosal +(<a href="#figure007">Fig. 7</a>, <i>Sq</i>) forms +the lateral wall of +the hinder part of +the brain-case, and +articulates superiorly with the parietal, and posteriorly with the +exoccipital. The glenoid cavity (<a href="#figure008">Fig. 8</a>), for the reception of the +articular condyle of the mandible, is formed by the inferior portion +of the squamosal, at the point where it gives off the zygomatic +process to form the hinder portion of the zygomatic arch. The +middle portion of that arch is formed by the jugal, or malar bone +(<a href="#figure007">Fig. 7</a>, <i>Ma</i>), which articulates posteriorly with the zygomatic process +of the squamosal, and anteriorly with the maxilla. The jugal (as +in <a href="#figure007">Fig. 7</a>) may also articulate with a small bone situated on the +anterior border of the orbit known as the lachrymal. It is important +to observe that the zygomatic or temporal arch is a +squamoso-maxillary one, and that an arcade thus composed is found +elsewhere only among the extinct Anomodont reptiles, which have +already been mentioned as showing signs of mammalian affinity. +The relative position occupied by the orbito- and alisphenoid is +sufficiently indicated in <a href="#figure007">Fig. 7</a>.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure007" style="max-width: 25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure007.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 7.</span>—Side view of skull of Cape Jumping Hare (<i>Pedetes +caffer</i>). × ⅗ <i>PMx</i>, Premaxilla; <i>Mx</i>, maxilla, <i>Ma</i>, jugal or +malar; <i>Fr</i>, frontal; <i>L</i>, lachrymal; <i>Pa</i>, parietal; <i>Na</i>, nasal; +<i>Sq</i>, squamosal; <i>Ty</i>, tympanic; <i>ExO</i>, exoccipital; <i>AS</i>, alisphenoid; +<i>OS</i>, orbitosphenoid; <i>Per</i>, mastoid bulla.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>Wedged in between the squamosal and the bones of the occipital +and basisphenoidal region are the bones connected with the organ +of hearing, known as the periotic and tympanic. The position of +the periotic, which encloses the labyrinth or essential organ of +hearing, is shown in <a href="#figure006">Fig. 6</a>. The periotic is divided into a very +dense antero-internal moiety known as the petrosal, and a postero-external +or mastoid portion (<a href="#figure008">Fig. 8</a>), which appears on the outer wall +of the brain-case. The tympanic is produced horizontally outwards +to form the external auditory meatus or tube of the ear, while the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_38"></a>[38]</span> +inner and under surface is frequently dilated into a shell-like +auditory bulla (<a href="#figure008">Fig. 8</a>). The small bones of the internal ear known +as the malleus, incus, and stapes are contained in the membranous +<i>tympanic cavity</i>, +which is situated in +a space left among +this group of bones. +Further mention of +these bones is made +below under the +head of the sense +organs.</p> + +<p>In the Carnivora +and some other +groups the foramina +on the base of +the skull for the +passage of blood-vessels +and nerves +are of considerable +taxonomic importance. +The position +of the more important +of these +foramina is indicated +in <a href="#figure008">Fig. 8</a>; +but for details the +reader may refer to +the work on the +<i>Osteology of the Mammalia</i> +already mentioned. +Attention +may, however, be +particularly directed +to the so-called +alisphenoid +canal, the position +of which is shown +in <a href="#figure008">Fig. 8</a>, since this is a feature of some importance in the classification +of the Carnivora. This canal is a short channel running horizontally +forward from near the foramen ovale through the alisphenoid, +and opening anteriorly with the foramen rotundum; it is traversed +by the external carotid artery.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp50" id="figure008" style="max-width: 29.6875em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure008.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 8.</span>—The right half of the hinder part of the base of the +cranium of the Wolf (<i>Canis lupus</i>). <i>c</i>, Condyloid foramen; <i>l</i>, foramen +lacerum posticum; <i>car</i>, carotid canal; <i>e</i>, eustachian canal; +<i>o</i>, foramen ovale; <i>a</i>, posterior, and <i>a′</i>, anterior aperture of alisphenoid +canal; <i>P</i>, paroccipital process of exoccipital; <i>m</i>, mastoid +process of periotic; <i>am</i>, external auditory meatus; <i>g</i>, glenoid foramen, +below which is the glenoid cavity for the condyle of the mandible. +(Flower, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i>, 1869, p. 25.)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>Only in those species, as Man and the smaller kinds of the +Primates and some other orders, in which the brain holds a large +relative proportion to the rest of the body, does the external form<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_39"></a>[39]</span> +of the skull receive much impress from the real shape of the cavity +containing the brain. The size and form of the mouth, and the +modifications of the jaws for the support of teeth of various shape +and number, the ridges and crests on the cranium for the attachment +of the muscles necessary to put this apparatus in motion, and outgrowths +of bone for the enlargement of the external surface required +for the support of sense organs or of weapons, such as horns or +antlers (which outgrowths, to prevent undue increase of weight, are +filled with cells containing air), cause the principal variations in the +general configuration of the skull. These variations are, however, +only characteristically developed in perfectly adult animals, and are +in many cases more strongly marked in the male than the female +sex. Throughout all the later stages of growth up to maturity the +size and form of the brain-case remain comparatively stationary, +while the accessory parts of the skull rapidly increase and assume +their distinctive development characteristic of the species.</p> + +<p>The hyoidean apparatus in mammals (<a href="#figure006">Fig. 6</a>) supports the tongue +and larynx, and consists of an inferior median portion termed the +basihyal, from which two pairs of half arches, or cornua, extend upwards +and outwards. The anterior is the more important, being +connected with the periotic bone of the cranium. It may be almost +entirely ligamentous, but more often has several ossifications, the +largest of which is usually the stylohyal. The posterior cornu +(thyrohyal) is united at its extremity with the thyroid cartilage of +the larynx, which it suspends in position. The median portion, +or basihyal, is sometimes, as in the Howling Monkeys, enormously +enlarged and hollowed, admitting into its cavity an air-sac connected +with the organ of voice.</p> + +<figure class="figright illowp68" id="figure009" style="max-width: 15.625em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure009.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 9.</span>—Anterior surface of Human +thoracic vertebra (fourth). <i>c</i>, Body or +centrum; <i>nc</i>, neural canal; <i>p</i>, pedicle, +and <i>l</i>, lamina of the arch; <i>t</i>, transverse +process; <i>az</i>, anterior zygapophysis.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Vertebral Column.</i>—The <i>vertebral column</i> consists of a series of +distinct bones called vertebræ, arranged in close connection with +each other along the dorsal side of the neck and trunk, and in the +median line.<a id="FNanchor_10" href="#Footnote_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> It is generally prolonged posteriorly beyond the +trunk, to form the axial support of the appendage called the tail. +Anteriorly it is articulated with the occipital region of the skull. +The number of distinct bones composing the vertebral column +varies greatly among the Mammalia, the main variation being +due to the degree of elongation of the tail. Apart from this, in +most mammals the number is not far from thirty, though it may +fall as low as twenty-six (as in some Bats), or rise as high as +forty (<i>Hyrax</i> and <i>Cholœpus</i>). The different vertebræ, with some +exceptions, remain through life quite distinct from each other, +though closely connected by means of fibrous structures which +allow of a certain, but limited, amount of motion between them. +The exceptions are the following:—(1) near the posterior part<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_40"></a>[40]</span> +of the trunk, in nearly all mammals which possess completely +developed hinder limbs, two or more vertebræ become ankylosed +together to form the “sacrum,” or portion of the vertebral column +to which the pelvic girdle is attached; (2) in some species of +Whales and Armadillos there are constant ossific unions of certain +vertebræ of the cervical region.</p> + +<figure class="figleft illowp68" id="figure010" style="max-width: 15.625em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure010.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 10.</span>—Side view of the first lumbar +vertebra of a Dog (<i>Canis familiaris</i>). +<i>s</i>, Spinous process; <i>az</i>, anterior zygapophysis; +<i>pz</i>, posterior zygapophysis; <i>m</i>, +metapophysis; <i>a</i>, anapophysis; <i>t</i>, transverse +process.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>Although the vertebræ of different regions of the column of the +same animal or of different animals present great diversities of +form, yet there is a certain general resemblance among them, or a +common plan on which they are constructed, which is more or less +modified by alteration of form or proportions, or by the addition or +suppression of parts to fit them to fulfil their special purpose in the +economy. An ordinary or typical vertebra consists, in the first +place, of a solid piece of bone, termed the body or centrum (<a href="#figure009">Fig. +9</a>, <i>c</i>), of the form of a disk or short cylinder. The bodies of contiguous +vertebræ are connected together by a very dense, tough, and +elastic material called the “intervertebral substance,” of peculiar and +complex arrangement. This substance forms the main, and in some +cases the only, union between the vertebræ. Its elasticity provides +for the vertebræ always returning to their normal relation to each +other and to the column generally, when they have been disturbed +therefrom by muscular action. A process (<i>p</i>) arises on each side +from the dorsal surface of the body. These processes, meeting in +the middle line above, form an arch, surmounting a space or short +canal (<i>nc</i>). Since it contains the posterior prolongation of the +great cerebro-spinal nervous axis, or spinal cord, this space is called +the neural canal, and the arch the neural arch, in contradistinction +to another arch on the ventral surface of the body of the vertebræ, +called the hæmal arch. The latter is, however, never formed<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_41"></a>[41]</span> +in mammals by any part of the vertebra itself, but by certain +distinct bones placed more or less in apposition to it, namely the +ribs in the thoracic, and the “chevron bones” in the caudal region. +In most cases the arch of one vertebra is articulated with that of +the next by distinct surfaces with synovial joints, placed one on +each side, called “zygapophyses” (<i>az</i>, <i>pz</i>), but these are often entirely +wanting when flexibility is more needed than strength, as in the +greater part of the caudal region of long-tailed animals. In addition +to the body and the arch, there are certain projecting parts called +processes, chiefly serving for the attachment of the numerous +muscles which move the vertebral column. Of these two are single +and median, viz. the spinous process, neural spine, or neurapophysis +(<i>s</i>), arising from the middle of the upper part of the arch, and the +hypapophysis from the under surface of the body. The latter, however, +is as frequently absent as the former is constant. The other +processes are paired and lateral. They are the transverse processes +(<i>t</i>), of which there may be two, an upper and a lower, in which case +the former is called, in the language of Owen (to whom we are +indebted for the terminology of the parts of vertebræ in common +use), “diapophysis,” and the latter “parapophysis.” Other processes +less constantly present are called respectively “metapophyses” (<i>m</i>) +and “anapophyses” (<i>a</i>).</p> + +<p>The vertebral column is divided for convenience of description +into five regions—the cervical, thoracic or dorsal, lumbar, sacral, and +caudal. This division is useful, especially as it is not entirely +arbitrary, and in most cases is capable of ready definition; but at +the contiguous extremities of the regions the characters of the +vertebræ of one are apt to blend into +those of the next region, either normally +or as peculiarities of individual skeletons.</p> + +<figure class="figright illowp62" id="figure011" style="max-width: 15.625em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure011.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 11.</span>—Anterior surface of +sixth cervical vertebra of Dog. +<i>s</i>, Spinous process; <i>az</i>, anterior +zygapophysis; <i>v</i>, vertebrarterial +canal; <i>t</i>, transverse process; <i>t′</i>, its +inferior lamella.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Cervical Vertebræ.</i>—The <i>cervical</i> region +constitutes the most anterior portion of +the column, or that which joins the +cranium. The vertebræ which belong to +it are either entirely destitute of movable +ribs, or if they have any these are small, +and do not join the sternum. As a general +rule they have a considerable perforation +through the base of the transverse process +(the vertebrarterial canal, <a href="#figure011">Fig. 11</a>, <i>v</i>); or, +as it is sometimes described, they have +two transverse processes, superior and +inferior, which meet at their extremities +to enclose a canal. This, however, rarely +applies to the last vertebra of the region, in which only the upper +transverse process is usually developed. The transverse process,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_42"></a>[42]</span> +moreover, very often sends down near its extremity a more or +less compressed plate (inferior lamella), which, being considered +serially homologous with the ribs of the thoracic vertebræ (though +not developed autogenously), is often called the “costal” or +“pleurapophysial” plate. This is usually largest on the sixth, and +altogether wanting on the seventh vertebra. The first and second +cervical vertebræ, called respectively “atlas” and “axis,” are +specially modified for the function of supporting and permitting +the free movements of the head. They are not united together +by the intervertebral substance, but connected only by ordinary +ligaments and synovial joints.</p> + +<p>The cervical region in mammals presents the remarkable +peculiarity that, whatever the length or flexibility of the neck, the +number of vertebræ is the same, viz. seven, with the exception of +the Manatee and Hoffman’s Two-toed Sloth (<i>Cholœpus hoffmanni</i>), +which both have but six, and the Three-toed Sloth (<i>Bradypus +tridactylus</i>), which has nine, though in this case the last two usually +support movable ribs, which are not sufficiently developed to reach +the sternum.</p> + +<p>According to Parker there may occasionally be eight cervicals +in the Pangolins (<i>Manis</i>).</p> + +<p><i>Dorsal Vertebræ.</i>—The <i>dorsal</i> (or, as it would be more correctly +termed, <i>thoracic</i>) region consists of the vertebræ succeeding those +of the neck, which have ribs movably articulated to them. These +ribs arch round the thorax—the anterior one, and usually the +greater number of those that follow, being attached below to the +sternum.</p> + +<p><i>Lumbar Vertebræ.</i>—The <i>lumbar</i> region consists of those vertebræ +of the trunk in front of the sacrum which bear no movable ribs. +It may happen that, as the ribs decrease in size posteriorly (the +last being sometimes more or less rudimentary), the step from the +thoracic to the lumbar region may be gradual and rather undetermined +in a given species; but most commonly this is not the +case, and the distinction is as well defined here as in any other +region. As a general rule there is a certain relation between the +number of the thoracic and lumbar vertebræ, the whole number +being tolerably constant in a given group of animals, and any +increase of the one being at the expense of the other. Thus in all +known Artiodactyle Ungulata there are 19 dorso-lumbar vertebræ; +but these may consist of 12 dorsal and 7 lumbar vertebræ, or 13 +dorsal and 6 lumbar, or 14 dorsal and 5 lumbar. The smallest +number of dorso-lumbar vertebræ in mammals occurs in some +Armadillos, which have but 14. The number found in Man, +the higher Apes, and most Bats, viz. 17, is exceptionally low; +19 prevails in the Artiodactyla, nearly all Marsupials, and very +many Rodents; 20 or 21 in Carnivora and most Insectivora;<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_43"></a>[43]</span> +and 23 in Perissodactyla. The highest and quite exceptional +numbers are in the Two-toed Sloth (<i>Cholœpus</i>) 27, and the Hyrax +30. The prevailing number of rib-bearing vertebræ is 12 or 13, +any variation being generally in excess of these numbers.</p> + +<p><i>Sacral Vertebræ.</i>—The <i>sacral</i> region offers more difficulties of +definition. Taking the human “os sacrum” as a guide for +comparison, it is generally defined as consisting of those vertebræ +between the lumbar and caudal regions which are ankylosed +together to form a single bone. It happens, however, that the +number of such vertebræ varies in different individuals of the +same or nearly allied species, especially as age advances, when a +certain number of the tail vertebræ generally become incorporated +with the true sacrum. Other suggested tests—as those vertebræ +which have a distinct additional (pleurapophysial) centre of ossification +between the body and the ilium, those to which the ilium is +directly articulated, or those in front of the insertion of the ischiosacral +ligaments—being equally unsatisfactory or unpractical, the +old one of ankylosis, as it is found to prevail in the average +condition of adults in each species, is used in the enumeration of +the vertebræ in the following pages. The Cetacea, having no iliac +bones, have no part of the vertebral column modified into a +sacrum.</p> + +<figure class="figright illowp62" id="figure012" style="max-width: 15.625em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure012.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 12.</span>—Anterior surface of fourth +caudal vertebræ of Porpoise (<i>Phocæna communis</i>). +<i>s</i>, Spinous process; <i>m</i>, metapophysis; +<i>t</i>, transverse process; <i>h</i>, chevron bone.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Caudal Vertebræ.</i>—The <i>caudal</i> vertebræ are those placed behind +the sacrum, and terminating the vertebral column. They vary +in number greatly—being reduced to 5, 4, or even 3, in a most +rudimentary condition, in Man +and in some Apes and Bats, and +being numerous and powerfully +developed, with strong and complex +processes, in many mammals, +especially among the Edentata, +Cetacea, and Marsupialia. The +highest known number, 46, is +possessed by the African Long-tailed +Pangolin. Connected with +the under surface of the caudal +vertebræ of many mammals which +have the tail well developed are +certain bones formed more or less +like an inverted arch, called chevron +bones, or by the French <i>os en +V</i>. These are always situated +nearly opposite to an intervertebral +space, and are generally articulated +both to the vertebra in front and the vertebra behind, but +sometimes chiefly or entirely either to one or the other.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_44"></a>[44]</span></p> + +<p>In some of the Anomodont Reptiles and Labyrinthodont +Amphibians these chevrons are attached to the intercentra—or +imperfect disks alternating with the true centra—which suggests +that they are primarily intercentral elements which have been transferred +to the edges of the centra by the disappearance of the intercentra.</p> + +<p><i>Sternum.</i>—The <i>sternum</i> of mammals is a bone, or generally a +series of bones, placed longitudinally in the mesial line, on the +inferior or ventral aspect of the thorax, and connected on each side +with the vertebral column by a series +of more or less ossified bars called +“ribs.” It is present in all mammals, +but varies much in character in the +different groups. It usually consists +of a series of distinct segments placed +one before the other, the anterior +being called the presternum or “manubrium +sterni” of human anatomy, and +the posterior the xiphisternum, or +xiphoid or ensiform process, while the +intermediate segments, whatever their +number, constitute the mesosternum +or “body.” In the Whalebone Whales +the presternum alone is developed, and +but a single pair of ribs is attached +to it.</p> + +<figure class="figleft illowp41" id="figure013" style="max-width: 15.625em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure013.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 13.</span>—Human sternum and +sternal ribs. <i>ps</i>, Presternum; <i>ms</i>, +mesosternum; <i>xs</i>, xiphisternum; <i>c</i>, +point of attachment of clavicle; 1 to +10, the cartilaginous sternal ribs.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Ribs.</i>—The <i>ribs</i> form a series of +long, narrow, and more or less flattened +bones, extending laterally from the +sides of the vertebral column, curving +downwards towards the median line +of the body below, and mostly joining +the sides of the sternum. The posterior +ribs, however, do not directly articulate +with that bone, but are either attached by their extremities to +the edges of each rib in front of them, and thus only indirectly +join the sternum, or else they are quite free below, meeting no part +of the skeleton. These differences have given rise to the division +into “true” and “false” ribs (by no means good expressions), signifying +those that join the sternum directly and those that do not; +and of the latter, those that are free below, are called “floating” +ribs. The portion of each rib nearest the vertebral column and +that nearest the sternum differ in their characters, the latter being +usually but imperfectly ossified, or remaining permanently cartilaginous. +These are called “costal cartilages,” or when ossified +“sternal ribs.”</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_45"></a>[45]</span></p> + +<figure class="figright illowp75" id="figure014" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure014.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 14.</span>—Sternum and strongly ossified sternal ribs +of Great Armadillo (<i>Priodon gigas</i>). <i>ps</i>, Presternum; +<i>xs</i>, xiphisternum.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>In the anterior part of the thorax the vertebral extremity of +each rib is divided into two parts, “head” or “capitulum,” and +“tubercle”; the former is attached to the side of the body of the +vertebra, the latter to its +transverse process; the +former attachment corresponds +to the interspace +between the vertebræ, the +head of the rib commonly +articulating partly with +the hinder edge of the +body of the vertebra antecedent +to that which bears +its tubercle. Hence the +body of the last cervical +vertebra usually supports +part of the head of the first +rib. In the posterior part +of the series the capitular +and tubercular attachments +commonly coalesce, +and the rib is attached +solely to its corresponding +vertebra. The number of pairs of ribs is of course the same as that +of the thoracic vertebræ.</p> + +<p>The circumstance that in some of the Anomodont reptiles and +Labyrinthodonts the capitula of the ribs articulate with the intercentral +elements of the vertebral column has suggested, as in the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_46"></a>[46]</span> +instance of the chevron bones, that the intercentral capitular articulation +of the ribs of mammals is a feature directly inherited +from those extinct types by the gradual disappearance of the +intercentra.</p> + +<p><i>Appendicular Skeleton.</i>—The appendicular portion of the framework +consists, when completely developed, of two pairs of limbs, +anterior and posterior (<a href="#figure015">Fig. 15</a>).</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure015" style="max-width: 43.75em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure015.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 15.</span>—Skeleton of Lion (<i>Felis leo</i>). +<i>cd</i>, Caudal vertebræ; <i>cp</i>, carpus; <i>cr</i>, coracoid +process of scapula, <i>cv</i>, cervical vertebræ; <i>d</i>, dorsal +vertebræ; <i>fb</i>, fibula; <i>fm</i>, femur; <i>h</i>, humerus; +<i>il</i>, ilium; <i>isch</i>, ischium; <i>l</i>, lumbar vertebræ; +<i>m</i>, metatarsus; <i>mc</i>, metacarpus; <i>p</i>, patella; +<i>pb</i>, pubis; <i>ph</i>, phalanges; <i>pv</i>, pelvis; <i>r</i>, +radius; <i>s</i>, sacral vertebræ; <i>sc</i>, scapula; <i>sk</i>, skull; +<i>tb</i>, tibia; <i>ts</i>, tarsus; <i>u</i>, ulna; <i>zy</i>, zygomatic +arch.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Anterior Limb.</i>—The anterior limb is present and fully developed +in all mammals, being composed of a shoulder girdle and three segments +belonging to the limb proper; viz. the upper arm or brachium, +the forearm or antebrachium, and the hand or manus.</p> + +<p><i>Shoulder-girdle.</i>—The <i>shoulder</i> or <i>pectoral girdle</i> in the large majority +of mammals is in a rudimentary or rather modified condition, compared +with that in which it exists in other vertebrates. In the Monotremata +(<i>Ornithorhynchus</i> and <i>Echidna</i>) alone is the ventral portion, or +coracoid, complete and articulated with the sternum below, as in the +Sauropsida; and in this group alone do we find an anterior ventral +element, apparently corresponding with the pre-coracoid of the Anomodont +reptiles, although generally known as the epi-coracoid. In all +other mammals the coracoid, though ossified from a distinct centre, +forms only a process, sometimes a scarcely distinct tubercle, projecting +from the anterior border of the glenoid cavity of the scapula. The +last-named cavity, which in the Monotremes is formed jointly by +the scapula and coracoid, receives the head of the humerus, or +arm-bone. The scapula is always well developed, and generally +broad and flat (whence its vernacular name “blade bone”), with a +ridge called the “spine” on its outer surface, which usually ends in +a free curved process, the “acromion.” As the scapula affords +attachment to many of the muscles which act upon the anterior +limb, its form and the development of its processes are greatly +modified according to the uses to which the member is put. Thus it +is most reduced and simple in character in those animals whose limbs +are mere organs of support, as the Ungulates; and most complex +when the limbs are also used for grasping, climbing, or digging. +The development or absence of the clavicle or “collar-bone,” an +accessory bar which connects the sternum with the scapula and +steadies the shoulder-joint, has a somewhat similar relation, though +its complete absence in the Bears shows that this is not an invariable +rule. A complete clavicle is found in Man and all the Primates, in +Chiroptera, all Insectivora (except <i>Potamogale</i>), in many Rodents, in +most Edentates, and in all Marsupials, except <i>Perameles</i>. More or +less rudimentary clavicles (generally suspended freely in the muscles) +are found in the Cat, Dog, and most Carnivora, <i>Myrmecophaga</i>, and +some Rodents. Clavicles are altogether absent in most of the <i>Ursidæ</i>, +all the Pinnipedia, <i>Manis</i> among Edentates, the Cetacea, Sirenia, +Ungulates, and some Rodents.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_47"></a>[47]</span></p> + +<p>The Monotremes are peculiar in possessing a T-shaped +interclavicle like that of many reptiles, lying upon the sternum, +and articulating superiorly with the clavicles.</p> + +<p><i>Brachium and Antebrachium.</i>—The proximal segment of the +anterior or pectoral limb proper contains a single bone, the humerus, +and the second segment two bones, the radius and the ulna, placed +side by side, and articulating with the humerus at their proximal, +and with the carpus at their distal extremity (<a href="#figure015">Fig. 15</a>). In their +primitive and unmodified condition these bones may be considered as +placed one on each border of the limb, the radius being preaxial or +anterior, and the ulna postaxial or posterior, when the distal or free +end of the limb is directed outwards, or away from the trunk. This +is their position in the earliest embryonic condition, and is best +illustrated among adult mammals in the Cetacea, where the two +bones are fixed side by side and parallel to each other. In the +greater number of mammals the bones assume a very modified and +adaptive position, usually crossing each other in the forearm, the +radius in front of the ulna, so that the preaxial bone (radius), +though external (in the ordinary position of the limb) at the upper +end, is internal at the lower end; and the hand, being mainly fixed +to the radius, also has its preaxial border internal. In the large +majority of mammals the bones are fixed in this position, but in +some few, as in Man, a free movement of crossing and uncrossing—or +pronation and supination, as it is termed—is allowed between +them, so that they can be placed in their primitive parallel condition, +when the hand (which moves with the radius) +is said to be supine, or they may be crossed, +when the hand is said to be prone.</p> + +<p>The humerus frequently has a foramen +piercing the inner border of the distal +extremity, known as the entepicondylar +foramen, which corresponds with a similar +one found in the Anomodont reptiles. The +hollow in the head of the ulna for the reception +of the head of the humerus is known +as the greater sigmoid cavity, and that for +the head of the radius as the lesser sigmoid +cavity (<a href="#figure016">Fig. 16</a>). The term olecranon is +applied to that process of the ulna which +forms the prominence of the elbow.</p> + +<figure class="figleft illowp50" id="figure016" style="max-width: 15.625em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure016.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 16.</span>—Outer aspect of +the proximal extremity of the +right ulna of a Bear (<i>Ursus</i>). +<i>a</i>, Anterior tubercle; <i>ol</i>, +olecranon; <i>b</i>, greater sigmoid +cavity; <i>c</i>, lesser do.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>In most mammals walking on four limbs, +in which the hand is permanently prone, the +ulna is much reduced in size, and the radius +increased, especially at the upper end; so +that the articular surface of the latter, instead of being confined to +the external side of the trochlea of the humerus, extends all across<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_48"></a>[48]</span> +its anterior surface, and the two bones, instead of being external +and internal, are anterior and posterior. In many hoofed or Ungulate +mammals, and in Bats, the ulna is reduced to little more than +its upper articular extremity, and firmly ankylosed to the radius—stability +of these parts being more essential than mobility.</p> + +<p><i>Manus.</i>—The terminal segment of the anterior limb is the hand +or manus. Its skeleton consists of three divisions: (1) the +“carpus,” a group of small, more or less rounded or angular bones +with flattened surfaces applied to one another, and, though articulating +by synovial joints, having scarcely any motion between +them; (2) the “metacarpus,” a series of elongated bones placed side +by side, with their proximal ends articulating by almost immovable +joints with the carpus; (3) the “phalanges” or bones of the digits, +usually three in number to each, articulating to one another by freely +movable hinge-joints, the first being connected in like manner to +the distal end of the metacarpal bone to which it corresponds.</p> + +<figure class="figright illowp46" id="figure017" style="max-width: 15.625em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure017.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 17.</span>—Dorsal surface of the +right manus of a Water Tortoise +(<i>Chelydra serpentina</i>). After Gegenbaur. +U, Ulna; R, radius; <i>u</i>, +ulnare; <i>i</i>, intermedium; <i>r</i>, radiale; +<i>c</i>, centrale; 1-5, the five bones of +the distal row of the carpus; <i>m¹</i>-<i>m⁵</i>, +the five metacarpals.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Carpus.</i>—To understand thoroughly the arrangement of the +bones of the carpus in mammals, it is necessary to study their +condition in some of the lower vertebrates. <a href="#figure017">Fig. 17</a> represents +the manus in one of its fullest and at the same time most +generalised forms, as seen in one of the +Water Tortoises (<i>Chelydra serpentina</i>). The +carpus consists of two principal rows of +bones. The upper or proximal row contains +three bones, to which Gegenbaur +has applied the terms <i>radiale</i> (<i>r</i>), <i>intermedium</i> +(<i>i</i>), and <i>ulnare</i> (<i>u</i>), the first being +on the radial or preaxial side of the limb.<a id="FNanchor_11" href="#Footnote_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> +The lower or distal row contains five +bones, called <i>carpale</i> 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 +respectively, commencing on the radial +side. Between these two rows, in the +middle of the carpus, is a single bone, +the <i>centrale</i> (<i>c</i>). In this very symmetrical +carpus it will be observed that the <i>radiale</i> +supports on its distal side two bones, +<i>carpale</i> 1 and 2; the <i>intermedium</i> is in a +line with the <i>centrale</i> and <i>carpale</i> 3, which +together form a median axis of the hand, +while the <i>ulnare</i> has also two bones articulating +with its distal end, viz. <i>carpale</i> 4 +and 5. Each of the carpals of the distal +row supports a metacarpal.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_49"></a>[49]</span></p> + +<p>In the carpus of the Mammalia there are usually two additional +bones developed in the tendons of the flexor muscles, one on each +side of the carpus, which may be called the radial and ulnar +sesamoid bones; the latter, which is the more constant and generally +larger, is commonly known as the pisiform bone. The fourth and +fifth carpals of the distal row are always united into a single bone, +and the centrale is very often absent. As a general rule all the +other bones are present and distinct, though it not unfrequently +happens that two may have coalesced to form a single bone, or +one or more may be altogether suppressed.</p> + +<p>The following table shows the principal names in use for the +various carpal bones,—those in the second column being the terms +generally employed by English anatomists:—</p> + +<table> + <tr> + <td colspan="2"><i>Radiale</i></td> + <td class="tdc">=</td> + <td>Scaphoid</td> + <td class="tdc">=</td> + <td><i>Naviculare</i>.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2"><i>Intermedium</i></td> + <td class="tdc">=</td> + <td>Lunar</td> + <td class="tdc">=</td> + <td><i>Semilunare</i>, <i>Lunatum</i>.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2"><i>Ulnare</i></td> + <td class="tdc">=</td> + <td>Cuneiform</td> + <td class="tdc">=</td> + <td><i>Triquetrum</i>, <i>Pyramidale</i>.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2"><i>Centrale</i></td> + <td class="tdc">=</td> + <td>Central</td> + <td class="tdc">=</td> + <td><i>Intermedium</i> (Cuvier).</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2"><i>Carpale</i> 1</td> + <td class="tdc">=</td> + <td>Trapezium</td> + <td class="tdc">=</td> + <td><i>Multangulum majus</i>.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2"><i>Carpale</i> 2</td> + <td class="tdc">=</td> + <td>Trapezoid</td> + <td class="tdc">=</td> + <td><i>Multangulum minus</i>.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2"><i>Carpale</i> 3</td> + <td class="tdc">=</td> + <td>Magnum</td> + <td class="tdc">=</td> + <td><i>Capitatum</i>.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><i>Carpale</i> 4</td> + <td>}</td> + <td rowspan="2" class="tdc valign">=</td> + <td rowspan="2" class="valign">Uneiform</td> + <td rowspan="2" class="tdc valign">=</td> + <td rowspan="2" class="valign"><i>Hamatum</i>, <i>Uncinatum</i>.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><i>Carpale</i> 5</td> + <td>}</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>The radial and ulnar sesamoids are regarded by Bardeleben<a id="FNanchor_12" href="#Footnote_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> as +the rudiments of a prepollex and a postminimus digit; the primitive +number of digits being thus supposed to have been seven. These +bones have been observed in all orders of mammals having five +complete digits. Occasionally, as in <i>Pedetes caffer</i>, the so-called +prepollex consists of two bones, of which the distal one bears a +distinct nail-like horny covering. In <i>Bathyergus maritimus</i> the +pisiform, or postminimus, is likewise double; the two elements +being regarded by their describer as representing the carpal and +metacarpal of the presumed seventh digit.</p> + +<p>Similarly in the posterior limb the tibial sesamoid, and a fibular +ossification corresponding to the pisiform, are regarded as representing +a prehallux and a postminimus.</p> + +<p><i>Metacarpus and Phalanges.</i>—The metacarpal bones, with the +digits which they support, are never more than five in number, and +are described numerically—first, second, etc., counting from the +radial towards the ulnar side. The digits are also sometimes named +(1) the pollex, (2) index, (3) medius, (4) annularis, (5) minimus.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_50"></a>[50]</span> +One or more may be in a rudimentary condition, or altogether +suppressed. If one is absent, it is most commonly the first. +Excepting the Cetacea, no mammals have more than three phalanges +to each digit, but they may occasionally have fewer by suppression +or ankylosis. The first or radial digit is an exception to the usual +rule, one of its parts being constantly absent, since, while each of the +other digits has commonly a metacarpal and three phalanges, it has +only three bones altogether; whether the missing one is a metacarpal +or one of the phalanges is a subject which has occasioned +much discussion, and has not yet been satisfactorily decided. The +terminal phalanges of the digits are usually specially modified to +support the nail, claw, or hoof, and are called “ungual phalanges.” +In walking, some mammals (as the Bears) apply the whole of the +lower surface of the carpus, metacarpus, and phalanges to the +ground; to these the term “plantigrade” is applied. Many others +(as nearly all the existing Ungulata) only rest on the last one or two +phalanges of the toes, the first phalanx and the metacarpals being +vertical and in a line with the forearm. These are called “digitigrade.” +Intermediate conditions exist between these two forms, to +which the terms “phalangigrade” (as the Camel) and “subplantigrade” +(as in most Carnivora), are applied. When the weight is +borne entirely on the distal surface of the ungual phalanx, and the +horny structures growing around it, as in the Horse, the mode of +progression is called “unguligrade.”</p> + +<p>In the Chiroptera the digits are enormously elongated, and +support a cutaneous expansion constituting the organ of flight. In +the Cetacea the manus is formed into a paddle, being covered by +continuous integument, which conceals all trace of division into +separate digits, and shows no sign of nails or claws. In the Sloths +the manus is long and very narrow, habitually curved, and terminating +in two or three pointed curved claws in close apposition with +each other, and incapable, in fact, of being divaricated; so that it is +reduced to the condition of a hook, by which the animal suspends +itself to the boughs of the trees among which it lives. These are +only examples of the endless modifications to which the distal +extremity of the limb is subjected in adaptation to the various +purposes to which it is applied.</p> + +<p><i>Posterior Limb.</i>—The posterior limb is constructed upon a plan +very similar to that of the anterior extremity. It consists of a +pelvic girdle and three segments belonging to the limb proper, viz. +the thigh, the leg, and the foot or pes (<a href="#figure015">Fig. 15</a>).</p> + +<p><i>Pelvic Girdle.</i>—The pelvic girdle is present in some form in all +mammals, though in the Cetacea and the Sirenia it is in an exceedingly +rudimentary condition. In all mammals except those belonging +to the two orders just named, each lateral half of the pelvic +girdle consists essentially, like the corresponding part of the anterior<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_51"></a>[51]</span> +limb, of a flattened rod of bone crossing the long axis of the trunk, +having an upper or dorsal and a lower or ventral end. The upper +end diverges from that of the opposite side, but the lower end +approaches, and, in most cases, meets it, forming a symphysis, +without the intervention of any bone corresponding to the sternum. +The pelvic girdle differs from the shoulder girdle in being firmly +articulated to the vertebral column, thus giving greater power to +the hinder limb in its function of supporting and propelling the +body. Like the shoulder girdle, it bears on its outer side, near +the middle, a cup-shaped articular cavity (“acetabulum”), into +which the proximal end of the first bone of the limb proper is +received. Each lateral half of the girdle is called the “os +innominatum,” or innominate bone, and consists originally of three +bones which unite at the acetabulum. The “ilium” or upper bone +is that which articulates with the sacral vertebræ. Of the two +lower bones the anterior or “pubis” unites with its fellow of +the other side at the symphysis; the posterior is the “ischium.” +These lower elements form two bars of bone, united above and +below, but leaving a space between them in the middle, filled only +by membrane, and called the “thyroid” or “obturator” foramen. +The whole circle of bone formed by the two innominate bones +and the sacrum is called the pelvis. In the Monotremata +and Marsupialia, a pair of thin, flat, elongated ossifications +called epipubic or marsupial bones are attached to the fore part +of the pubis, and project forward into the muscular wall of the +abdomen.</p> + +<p><i>Thigh and Leg.</i>—The first segment of the limb proper has one +bone, the femur, corresponding with the humerus of the anterior +limb. The second segment has two bones, the tibia and fibula, corresponding +with the radius and ulna. These bones always lie in their +primitive unmodified position, parallel to each other, the tibia on +the preaxial and the fibula on the postaxial side, and are never +either permanently crossed or capable of any considerable amount +of rotation, as in the corresponding bones of the fore limb. In the +ordinary walking position the tibia is internal, and the fibula external. +In many mammals the fibula is in a more or less rudimentary +condition, and it often ankyloses with the tibia at one or +both extremities. The patella or “knee-cap,” which is found in an +ossified condition in all mammals, with the exception of some of +the Marsupialia, is a large sesamoid bone developed in the tendon +of the extensor muscles of the thigh, where the tendon passes over +the front of the knee-joint, to which it serves as a protection. +There are frequently smaller ossicles, one or two in number, situated +behind the femoral condyles, called “fabellæ.” The processes for +the attachment of muscles near the upper end of the femur are +termed trochanters; and the third trochanter, found on the hinder<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_52"></a>[52]</span> +aspect of the shaft of this bone in many forms is of considerable +taxonomic importance.</p> + +<p><i>Pes.</i>—The terminal segment of the hind limb is the foot or pes. +Its skeleton presents in many particulars a close resemblance to that +of the manus, being divisible into three parts: (1) a group of +short, more or less rounded or square bones, constituting the +tarsus; (2) a series of long bones placed side by side, forming the +metatarsus; and (3) the phalanges of the digits or toes.</p> + +<p>The bones of the tarsus of many of the lower Vertebrata closely +resemble both in number and arrangement those of the carpus, as +shown in <a href="#figure017">Fig. 17</a>. They have been described in their most generalised +condition by Gegenbaur under the names expressed in the first +column of the following table. The names in the second column are +those by which they are generally known to English anatomists, +while in the third column some synonyms occasionally employed +are added.</p> + +<table> + <tr> + <td><i>Tibiale (?)</i></td> + <td>}</td> + <td rowspan="2" class="tdc valign">=</td> + <td rowspan="2" class="valign">Astragalus<a id="FNanchor_13" href="#Footnote_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a></td> + <td rowspan="2" class="tdc valign">=</td> + <td rowspan="2" class="valign"><i>Talus</i>.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><i>Intermedium</i></td> + <td>}</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2"><i>Fibulare</i></td> + <td class="tdc">=</td> + <td>Calcaneum</td> + <td class="tdc">=</td> + <td><i>Os calcis</i>.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2"><i>Centrale</i></td> + <td class="tdc">=</td> + <td>Navicular</td> + <td class="tdc">=</td> + <td><i>Scaphoideum</i>.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2"><i>Tarsale</i> 1</td> + <td class="tdc">=</td> + <td>Internal cuneiform</td> + <td class="tdc">=</td> + <td><i>Entocuneiforme</i>.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2"><i>Tarsale</i> 2</td> + <td class="tdc">=</td> + <td>Middle cuneiform</td> + <td class="tdc">=</td> + <td><i>Mesacuneiforme</i>.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2"><i>Tarsale</i> 3</td> + <td class="tdc">=</td> + <td>External cuneiform</td> + <td class="tdc">=</td> + <td><i>Ectocuneiforme</i>.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><i>Tarsale</i> 4</td> + <td>}</td> + <td rowspan="2" class="tdc valign">=</td> + <td rowspan="2" class="valign">Cuboid.</td> + <td rowspan="2" class="valign"></td> + <td rowspan="2" class="valign"></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><i>Tarsale</i> 5</td> + <td>}</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>The bones of the tarsus of mammals present fewer diversities of +number and arrangement than those of the carpus. The proximal +row (see <a href="#figure018">Fig. 18</a>) always consists of two bones, namely the astragalus +(<i>a</i>), which probably represents the coalesced scaphoid and lunar +of the hand, and the calcaneum (<i>c</i>). The former is placed more to +the dorsal side of the foot than the latter, and almost exclusively +furnishes the tarsal part of the tibio-tarsal or ankle-joint. The calcaneum, +placed more to the ventral or “plantar” side of the foot, is +elongated backwards to form a more or less prominent tuberosity, +the “tuber calcis,” to which the tendon of the great extensor muscles +of the foot is attached. The navicular bone (<i>n</i>) is interposed between +the proximal and distal row on the inner or tibial side of the foot, +but on the outer side the bones of the two rows come into contact. +The distal row, when complete, consists of four bones, which, beginning +on the inner side, are the three cuneiform bones, internal +(<i>c¹</i>), middle (<i>c²</i>), and external (<i>c³</i>), articulated to the distal surface +of the navicular, and the cuboid (<i>cb</i>), articulated with the calcaneum. +Of these the middle cuneiform is usually the smallest in animals<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_53"></a>[53]</span> +in which all five digits are developed; but when the hallux is +wanting the internal cuneiform may be rudimentary or altogether +absent. The three cuneiform bones support +respectively the first, second, and third +metatarsals, and the cuboid supports the +fourth and fifth; they thus exactly correspond +with the four bones of the distal row +of the carpus.</p> + +<figure class="figleft illowp35" id="figure018" style="max-width: 15.625em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure018.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 18.</span>—Bones of the right +Human foot. <i>T</i>, Tarsus; <i>M</i>, +metatarsus; <i>Ph</i>, phalanges, <i>c</i>, +calcaneum; <i>a</i>, astragalus; <i>cb</i>, +cuboid; <i>n</i>, navicular; <i>c¹</i>, internal +cuneiform; <i>c²</i>, middle cuneiform; +<i>c³</i>, external cuneiform. The +digits are indicated by Roman +numerals, counting from the +tibial to the fibular side.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>In addition to these constant tarsal +bones, there may be supplemental or +sesamoid bones: one situated near the +middle of the tibial side of the tarsus, +largely developed in many Carnivora and +Rodentia; another, less frequent, on the +fibular side; and a third, often developed +in the tendons of the plantar surface of +the tarsus, is especially large in Armadillos. +There is also usually a pair of sesamoid +bones on the plantar aspect of each metatarso-phalangeal +articulation. In the young +of the carnivorous genus <i>Crytoprocta</i> there +may be a second centrale, which usually +coalesces with the ectocuneiform.</p> + +<p>The metatarsal bones never exceed five +in number, and the phalanges follow the +same numerical rule as in the manus, never +exceeding three in each digit. Moreover, +the first digit, counting from the tibial side, +or hallux, resembles the pollex of the hand +in always having one segment less than +the other digits. As the function of the +hind foot is more restricted than that of the hand the modifications +of its structure are less striking. In the Cetacea and the +Sirenia it is entirely wanting, though in some existing members of +the first-named order rudiments of the bones of both the first and +second segments of the limb have been detected, and a femur is +present in the Miocene Sirenian <i>Halitherium</i>.</p> + +<h3>IV. THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM.</h3> + +<p><i>General Considerations.</i>—The search after the purpose which +every modification of structure subserves in the economy is always +full of interest, and, if conducted with due caution and sufficient +knowledge of all the attendant circumstances, may lead to important +generalisations. It must always be borne in mind, however, that<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_54"></a>[54]</span> +adaptation to its special function is not the only cause of the +particular form or structure of an organ, but that this form, having +in all probability been arrived at by the successive and gradual +modification of some other different form from which it is now to a +greater or less degree removed, has other factors besides use to be +taken into account. In no case is this principle so well seen as in +that of the organs of digestion. These may be considered as +machines which have to operate upon alimentary substances in very +different conditions of mechanical and chemical combination, and to +reduce them in every case to the same or precisely similar +materials; and we might well imagine that the apparatus required +to produce flesh and blood out of coarse fibrous vegetable substances +would be different from that which had to produce exactly the +same results out of ready-made flesh or blood; and in a very broad +sense we find that this is so. Thus, if we take a large number of +carnivorous animals, belonging to different fundamental types, and +a large number of herbivorous animals, and strike a kind of average +of each, we shall find that there is, pervading the first group, a +general style, if we may use the expression, of the alimentary organs, +different from that of the others. That is to say, there is a specially +carnivorous and a specially herbivorous modification of these parts. +But, if function were the only element which has guided such +modification, it might be inferred that, as one form must be supposed +to be best adapted in its relation to a particular kind of diet, that +form would be found in all the animals consuming such diet. But +this is far from being the case. Thus the Horse and the Ox, for +instance—two animals whose food in the natural state is precisely +similar—are most different as regards the structure of their alimentary +canal, and the processes involved in the preparation of that +food. Again, the Seal and the Porpoise, both purely fish-eaters, +which seize, swallow, and digest precisely the same kind of prey, in +precisely the same manner, have a totally different arrangement of the +alimentary canal. If the Seal’s stomach is adapted in the best conceivable +manner for the purpose it has to fulfil, why is not the Porpoise’s +stomach an exact facsimile of it, and <i>vice versâ</i>? We can only answer +that the Seal and Porpoise belong to different natural groups of +animals, formed either on different primitive types, or descended +from differently constructed ancestors. On this principle only can +we account for the fact that, whereas, owing to the comparatively +small variety of the different alimentary substances met with in +nature, few modifications would appear necessary in the organs of +digestion, there is really endless variety in the parts devoted to +this purpose.</p> + +<p><i>Mouth.</i>—The digestive apparatus of mammals, as in other vertebrates, +consists mainly of a tube with an aperture placed at or +near either extremity of the body,—the oral and the anal orifice,—and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_55"></a>[55]</span> +furnished with muscular walls, the fibres of which are so +arranged as by their regular alternate contraction and relaxation to +drive onwards the contents of the tube from the first to the second +of these apertures. The anterior or commencing portion of this +tube and the parts around it are greatly and variously modified in +relation to the functions assigned to them of selecting and seizing +the food, and preparing it by various mechanical and chemical +processes for the true digestion which it has afterwards to undergo +before it can be assimilated into the system. For this end the tube +is dilated into a chamber or cavity called the mouth, bordered +externally by the lips, which are usually muscular and prehensile, +and supported by a movable framework carrying the teeth; the +structure and modifications of which have been already described. +The roof of the mouth is formed by the palate, terminating behind +by a muscular, contractile arch, having in Man and some few other +species a median projection called the uvula, beneath which the +mouth communicates with the pharynx. The anterior part of the +palate is composed of mucous membrane tightly stretched over the +flat or slightly concave bony lamina separating the mouth from +the nasal passages, and is generally raised into a series of transverse +ridges, which sometimes, as in Ruminants, attain a considerable +development. In the floor of the mouth, between the +rami of the mandible, and supported behind by the hyoidean +apparatus, lies the tongue; an organ the free surface of which, +especially in its posterior part, is devoted to the sense of taste, but +which also, by its great mobility (being composed almost entirely +of muscular fibres), performs important mechanical functions +connected with masticating and procuring food. Its modifications +of form in different mammals are very numerous. Between the +long, extensile, vermiform tongue of the Anteaters, which is +essential to the peculiar mode of feeding of those animals, and the +short, sessile, and almost functionless tongue of the Porpoise, every +intermediate condition is found. Whatever the form, the upper +surface is always covered with numerous fine papillæ, in which +the terminal filaments of the gustatory nerve are distributed.</p> + +<p><i>Salivary Glands.</i>—The fluid known as the saliva is secreted by +an extensive and complex system of glands discharging into the +cavity of the mouth (buccal cavity), the position and relation of +some of which are exhibited in the woodcut on the next page +(<a href="#figure019">Fig. 19</a>).</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="figure019" style="max-width: 43.75em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure019.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 19.</span>—Salivary Glands of the Genet. <i>A</i>, Right side of the head dissected; <i>p</i>, parotid +gland; <i>d</i>, Steno’s duct; <i>sm</i>, submaxillary gland, traversed by the jugular veins (<i>jv</i>); <i>o</i>, aperture +of Steno’s duct. <i>B</i>, Part of the head with the lip drawn up to show (<i>st.d</i>) aperture of +Steno’s duct; <i>z.gl</i>, zygomatic gland; <i>o</i>, aperture of do.; <i>z</i>, zygomatic arch (Mivart, <i>Proc. +Zool. Soc.</i> 1882, p. 504.)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>This apparatus consists of small glands embedded in the mucous +membrane or submucous tissue lining the cavity of the mouth, +which are of two kinds (the follicular and the racemose), and of +others in which the secreting structure is aggregated in distinct +masses removed some distance from the cavity; other tissues besides +the lining membrane being usually interposed, and pouring their<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_56"></a>[56]</span> +secretion into the cavity by a distinct tube or duct, which traverses +the mucous membrane. To the latter alone the name of “salivary +glands” is ordinarily appropriated, although the distinction +between them and the smaller racemose glands is only one of +convenience for descriptive purposes, their structure being more or +less nearly identical; and, since the fluids secreted by all become +mixed in the month, their functions are, at all events in great part, +common. Under the name of salivary glands are commonly +included—(1) the “parotid” (<i>p</i>), situated very superficially on the +side of the head, below or around the cartilaginous external +auditory meatus, and the secretion of which enters the mouth by +a duct (often called Steno’s or Stenson’s) which crosses the masseter +muscle and opens into the upper and back part of the cheek +(<a href="#figure019">Fig. 19</a>); and (2) the “submaxillary” (<i>sm</i>), situated in the neck, +near or below the angle of the mandible, and sending a long duct<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_57"></a>[57]</span> +(Wharton’s) forwards to open on the forepart of the floor of the +cavity of the mouth, below the apex of the tongue. These are the +most largely developed and constant of the salivary glands, being +met with in various degrees of development in almost all animals +of the class. Next in constancy are (3) “the sublingual,” closely +associated with the last-named, at all events in the locality in which +the secretion is poured out; and (4) the “zygomatic” (<i>z.gl</i>), found +only in some animals in the cheek, just under cover of the anterior +part of the zygomatic arch, its duct entering the buccal cavity near +that of the parotid.</p> + +<p>The most obvious function common to the secretion of these +various glands, and to that of the smaller ones placed in the mucous +membrane of the lips, the cheeks, the tongue, the palate, and fauces, +is the mechanical one of moistening and softening the food, to +enable it the more readily to be tasted, masticated, and swallowed, +though each kind of gland may contribute in different manner +and different degree to perform this function. The saliva is, +moreover, of the greatest importance in the first stage or introduction +to the digestive process, as it dissolves or makes a watery +extract of all soluble substances in the food, and so prepares them +to be further acted on by the more potent digestive fluids met with +subsequently in their progress through the alimentary canal. In +addition to these functions it seems now well established by experiment +that saliva serves in Man and many animals to aid directly +in the digestive process, particularly by its power of inducing the +saccharine transformation of amylaceous substances. As a general +rule, in mammals the parotid saliva is more watery in its +composition, while that of the submaxillaries, and still more the +sublingual, contains more solid elements and is more viscid;—so +much so that some anatomists consider the latter, together with the +small racemose glands of the cheeks, lips, and tongue, as mucous +glands, retaining the name of salivary only for the parotid. These +peculiar properties are sometimes illustrated in a remarkable +degree, as, for example, the great secretion of excessively viscid +saliva which lubricates the tongue of the Anteaters and Armadillos, +associated with enormously developed submaxillary glands; while, +on the other hand, the parotids are of great size in those animals +which habitually masticate dry and fibrous food.</p> + +<p><i>Stomach.</i>—After the preparation which the aliment has undergone +in the mouth,—the extent of which varies immensely in +different forms, being reduced almost to nothing in such animals as +the Seals and Cetaceans, which, to use the familiar expression, +“bolt” their food entire, and most fully carried out in the Ruminants, +which “chew the cud,”—it is swallowed, and carried along +the œsophagus by the action of its muscular coats into the stomach. +In the greater number of mammals this organ is a simple saccular<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_58"></a>[58]</span> +dilatation of the alimentary canal, as in <a href="#figure020">Figs. 20, 21</a>, but in others +it undergoes remarkable modifications and complexities. The lining +of the stomach is thickly beset with tubular glands, which are +generally considered to belong to two different forms, recognisable +by their structure, and different in their function—the most +numerous and important secreting the gastric juice (the active +agent in stomachic digestion), and hence called “peptic” glands, +while the others are concerned only in the elaboration of mucus. +The relative distribution of these glands in different regions of the +walls of the stomach varies greatly in different animals, and in +many species there are large tracts of the mucous membrane which +do not secrete a fluid having the properties of gastric juice, but +often constitute more or less distinct cavities devoted to storing +and perhaps softening or otherwise preparing the food for digestion. +Sometimes there is a great aggregation of glands forming distinct +thickened patches of the stomach wall, as in the Beaver and Koala, +or even collected in pyriform pouches with a common narrow +opening into the cavity, as in the Manatee and the curious African +Rodent <i>Lophiomys</i>. The action of the gastric fluid is mainly +exerted upon the nitrogenous elements of the food, which it +dissolves and modifies so as to render them capable of undergoing +absorption, effected partly by the blood-vessels of the stomach, +although the greater part, passes through the pylorus, an aperture +surrounded by a circular muscular valve, into the intestinal canal. +Here it comes in contact with the secretion of a vast number of +small glands called the crypts of Lieberkuhn, somewhat similar +to those of the stomach; and also of several special glands of a +different character, namely, the small racemose, duodenal, or<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_59"></a>[59]</span> +Brunner’s glands, the pancreas, and the liver; the position of the +ducts of the two latter organs being indicated in <a href="#figure020">Fig. 20</a>.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure020" style="max-width: 25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure020.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 20.</span>—Stomach and pancreas of the Genet. Posterior or dorsal surface, <i>œ</i>, Œsophagus; +<i>s</i>, pancreas; <i>pd</i>, pancreatic duct; <i>bd</i>, biliary duct from the liver. (From Mivart, <i>Proc. Zool. +Soc.</i> 1882, p. 305.)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Intestinal Canal.</i>—The intestinal canal varies greatly in relative +length and capacity in different animals, and it also offers manifold +peculiarities of form, being sometimes a simple cylindrical tube of +nearly uniform calibre throughout, but more often subject to alterations +of form and capacity in different portions of its course,—the +most characteristic and constant being the division into an upper +and narrower, and lower and wider portion, called respectively the +small and the large intestine, the former being divided quite arbitrarily +and artificially into duodenum, jejunum, +and ileum, and the latter into colon and +rectum. One of the most striking peculiarities +of this part of the alimentary canal is +the frequent presence of a diverticulum or +blind pouch, the <i>caput cæcum coli</i>, as it was +first called, a name generally abbreviated into +“cæcum,” situated at the junction of the +large and the small intestine, a structure presenting +an immense variety of development, +from the smallest bulging of a portion of the +side wall of the tube to a huge and complex +sac, greatly exceeding in capacity the whole +of the remainder of the alimentary canal. It +is only in herbivorous animals that the cæcum +is developed to this great extent, and among +these there is a curious complementary relationship +between the size and complexity +of this organ and that of the stomach. +Where the latter is simple the cæcum is +generally the largest, and <i>vice versâ</i>. Both the +cæcum and colon are often sacculated, a disposition +caused by the arrangement of the +longitudinal bands of muscular tissue in their +walls; but the small intestine is always smooth and simple-walled +externally, though its lining membrane often exhibits various +contrivances for increasing the absorbing surface without adding to +the general bulk of the organ, such as the numerous small villi by +which it is everywhere beset, and the more obvious transverse, +longitudinal, or reticulating folds projecting into the interior, met +with in many animals, of which the “valvulæ conniventes” of Man +form well-known examples.</p> + +<figure class="figright illowp40" id="figure021" style="max-width: 12.5em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure021.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 21.</span>—Diagrammatic +plan of the general arrangement +of the alimentary canal +in a typical Mammal. <i>o</i>, +Œsophagus; <i>st</i>, stomach; <i>p</i>, +pylorus; <i>s</i>, <i>s</i>, small intestine; +(abbreviated); <i>c</i>, cæcum; <i>l</i>, <i>l</i>, +large intestine or colon, ending +in <i>r</i>, the rectum.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>Besides the crypts of Lieberkuhn found throughout the intestinal +canal, and the glands of Brunner confined to the duodenum, +there are other structures in the mucous membrane, about the +nature of which there is still much uncertainty, called “solitary” and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_60"></a>[60]</span> +“agminated” glands; the latter being more commonly known by the +name of “Peyer’s patches.” These were formerly supposed to be +secretory organs, which discharged some kind of fluid into the +intestine, but are now more generally considered to belong to that +group of structures of somewhat mysterious function of which the +lymphatic and lacteal glands are members. The solitary glands are +found scattered irregularly throughout the whole intestinal tract; +the agminated, on the other hand, are always confined to the small +intestine, and are most abundant in its lower part. They are +subject to great variation in number and in size, and even +in different individuals of the same species, and also differ in +character at different periods of life, becoming atrophied in old +age.</p> + +<p><i>Liver.</i>—The distinct glands situated outside the walls of the +intestinal canal, but which pour their secretion into it, are the +pancreas and the liver. The latter is the more important on +account of its size, if not on account of the direct action of its +secretion in the digestive process. This large gland, so complex in +structure and function, is well developed in all mammals, and its +secreting tube, the bile-duct, always opens into the duodenum, or +that portion of the canal which immediately succeeds the stomach. +It is situated on the right side of the abdomen in contact with the +diaphragm and the stomach, but varies greatly in relative size, and +also in form, in different groups of mammals. In most mammals a +gall-bladder, consisting of a pyriform diverticulum from the bile-duct, +is present, but in many this appendage is wanting, and it is +difficult to find the rationale of its presence or absence in relation +to use or any other circumstance in the animal economy.</p> + +<p>The descriptions of the livers of various animals to be met +with in treatises or memoirs on comparative anatomy are very +difficult to understand for want of a uniform system of nomenclature. +The difficulty usually met with arises from the circumstance +that this organ is divided sometimes, as in Man, Ruminants, and +the Cetacea, into two main lobes, which have been always called +respectively right and left, and in other cases, as in the lower +Monkeys, Carnivora, Insectivora, and several other orders, into a +larger number of lobes. Among the latter the primary division usually +appears at first sight tripartite, the whole organ consisting of a +middle, called “cystic” or “suspensory” lobe, and two lateral lobes, +called respectively right and left lobes. This introduces confusion +in describing livers by the same terms throughout the whole series +of mammals, since the right and left lobes of the Monkey or Dog, +for instance, do not correspond with parts designated by the same +names in Man and the Sheep. There are, moreover, conditions +where neither the bipartite nor the tripartite system of nomenclature +will answer, so that we should have considerable difficulty in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_61"></a>[61]</span> +describing them without some more general system. In order to +arrive at such a system it appears desirable to consider the liver in +all cases as primarily divided by the umbilical vein (see <a href="#figure022">Fig. 22</a>, <i>u</i>) +into two segments, right and left. This corresponds with its +development and with the condition characteristic of the organ in +the inferior classes of vertebrates. The situation of this division +can almost always be recognised in adult animals by the persistence +of some traces of the umbilical vein in the form of the round +ligament, and by the position of the suspensory ligament.</p> + +<figure class="figleft illowp92" id="figure022" style="max-width: 25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure022.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 22.</span>—Diagrammatic plan of the inferior surface of a multilobed liver of a Mammal. +The posterior or attached border is uppermost. <i>u</i>, Umbilical vein of the fœtus, represented by +the round ligament in the adult, lying in the umbilical fissure; <i>dv</i>, the ductus venosus; <i>vc</i>, +the inferior vena cava; <i>p</i>, the vena portæ entering the transverse fissure; <i>llf</i>, the left lateral +fissure; <i>rlf</i>, the right lateral fissure; <i>cf</i>, the cystic fissure; <i>ll</i>, the left lateral lobe; <i>lc</i>, the left +central lobe; <i>rc</i>, the right central lobe; <i>rl</i>, the right lateral lobe; <i>s</i>, the Spigelian lobe; <i>c</i>, the +caudate lobe; <i>g</i>, the gall-bladder.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>When the two main parts into which the liver is thus divided +are entire, as in Man, the Ruminants, and Cetacea, they may be +spoken of as the right and left lobes; when fissured, as the right +and left segments of the liver, reserving the term lobe for the subdivisions. +This will involve no ambiguity, for the terms right and +left lobe will no longer be used for divisions of the more complex +form of liver. In the large majority of mammals each segment is +further divided by a fissure, more or less deep, extending from +the free towards the attached border, which are called right and +left lateral fissures (<a href="#figure022">Fig. 22</a>, <i>rlf</i> and <i>llf</i>). When these are more +deeply cut than the umbilical fissure (<i>u</i>), the organ has that +tripartite or trefoil-like form just spoken of, but it is easily seen +that it is really divided into four regions or lobes, those included +between the lateral fissures being the right and left central (<i>rc</i> and +<i>lc</i>) separated by the umbilical fissure, and those beyond the lateral +fissures on each side being the right and left lateral lobes (<i>rl</i> and <i>ll</i>).<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_62"></a>[62]</span> +The essentially bipartite character of the organ and its uniformity +of construction throughout the class are thus not lost sight of, even +in the most complex forms. The left segment of the liver is rarely +complicated to any further extent, except in some cases by minor +or secondary fissures marking off small lobules, generally inconstant +and irregular, and never worthy of any special designation. On +the other hand, the right segment is usually more complex. The +gall-bladder, when present, is always attached to the under surface +of the right central lobe, sometimes merely applied to it, in other +cases deeply embedded in its substance. In many instances the +fossa in which it is sunk is continued to the free margin of the +liver as an indent, or even a tolerably deep fissure (<i>cf</i>). The +portal fissure (<i>p</i>), through which the portal vein and hepatic artery +enter and the bile-duct emerges from the liver, crosses the right +central lobe transversely, near the attached border of the liver. +The right lateral lobe always has the great vena cava (<i>vc</i>) either +grooving its surface or tunnelling through its substance near the +inner or left end of its attached border; and a prolongation of this +lobe to the left, between the vein and the portal fissure, sometimes +forming a mere flat track of hepatic substance, but more often +a prominent tongue-shaped process, is the so-called “Spigelian lobe” +(<i>s</i>). From the under surface, of the right lateral lobe a portion is +generally partially detached by a fissure, and called the “caudate +lobe” (<i>c</i>). In Man this lobe is almost obsolete, but in most +mammals it is of considerable magnitude, and has very constant +and characteristic relations. It is connected by an isthmus at the +left (narrowest or attached) end to the Spigelian lobe, behind which +isthmus the vena cava is always in relation to it, channelling +through or grooving its surface. It generally has a pointed apex, +and is deeply hollowed to receive the right kidney, to the upper +and inner side of which it is applied.</p> + +<p>Considerations derived from the comparatively small and simple +condition of the liver of the Ungulata, compared with its large +size and complex form in the Carnivora, have led to the perhaps +too hasty generalisation that the first type is related to a herbivorous +and the latter to a carnivorous diet. The exceptions to such a +proposition are very numerous. The fact of the great difference +between the liver of the Cetacea and that of the Seals cannot +be accounted for by difference of habits of life, though it perhaps +may be by difference of origin.<a id="FNanchor_14" href="#Footnote_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_63"></a>[63]</span></p> + +<h3>V. CIRCULATORY, ABSORBENT, RESPIRATORY, AND URINARY SYSTEMS.</h3> + +<p><i>Blood.</i>—The blood of mammals is always red, and during the +life of the animal hot, having a nearly uniform temperature, +varying within a few degrees on each side of 100° Fahr. The +corpuscles are, as usual in the vertebrates, of two kinds: (1) +colourless, spheroidal, nucleated, and exhibiting amœboid movements; +while (2) the more numerous, on which depends the +characteristic hue of the fluid in which they are suspended, are +coloured, non-nucleated, flattened, slightly biconcave discs, with +circular outline in all known species except the Camels and Llamas, +where they have the elliptical form characteristic of the red +corpuscles of nearly all the other vertebrates, though adhering to +the mammalian type in the absence of nucleus and relatively small +size. As a rule they are smaller as well as more numerous than in +other classes, but vary considerably in size in different species, and +not always in relation to the magnitude of the animal; a Mouse, +for instance, having as large corpuscles as a Horse. Within the +limits of any natural group there is, however, very often some such +relation, the largest corpuscles being found among the large species +and the smallest corpuscles among the small species of the group, +but even to this generalisation there are many exceptions. The +transverse diameter of the red corpuscles in Man averages ¹⁄₃₂₀₀ of +an inch, which is exceptionally large, and only exceeded by the +Elephant (¹⁄₂₇₄₅), and by some Cetacea and Edentata. They are +also generally large in Apes, Rodents, and the Monotremata, and +small in the Artiodactyles, least of all in the Chevrotains (<i>Tragulus</i>), +being in <i>T. javanicus</i> and <i>meminna</i> not more than ¹⁄₁₂₃₂₅.<a id="FNanchor_15" href="#Footnote_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a></p> + +<p><i>Heart.</i>—The heart of mammals consists of four distinct cavities, +two auricles and two ventricles. Usually the ventricular portion is +externally of conical form, with a simple apex, but in the Sirenia it +is broad and flattened, and a deep notch separates the apical portion +of each ventricle. A tendency to this form is seen in the Cetacea +and the Seals. It is characteristic of mammals alone among vertebrates +that the right auriculo-ventricular valve is tendinous like the +left, consisting of flaps held in their place by fibrous ends (<i>chordæ +tendiniæ</i>) and arising from projections of the muscular walls of +the ventricular cavity (<i>musculi papillares</i>). In the Monotremata a +transition between this condition and the simple muscular flap of +the Sauropsida is observed. In most of the larger Ungulates a distinct +but rather irregular ossification (<i>os cordis</i>) is developed in the +central tendinous portion of the base of the heart.</p> + +<p><i>Blood-vessels.</i>—The orifices of the aorta and pulmonary artery are<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_64"></a>[64]</span> +each guarded by three semilunar valves. The aorta is single, and +arches over the left bronchial tube. After supplying the tissues of +the heart itself with blood by means of the coronary arteries, it +gives off large vessels (“carotid”) to the head and (“brachial”) to the +anterior extremities. The mode in which these vessels arise from +the aorta varies much in different mammals, and the study of their +disposition affords some guide to classification. In nearly all cases +the right brachial and carotid have a common origin (called the +“innominate artery” in anthropotomy). The other two vessels +may come off from this, as is the rule in Ungulates, the common +trunk constituting the “anterior aorta” of veterinary anatomy; or +they may be detached in various degrees, both arising separately +from the aorta, as in Man, or the left carotid from the innominate +and the left brachial from the aorta, a very common arrangement; +or the last two from a common second or left innominate, as in +some Bats and Insectivores. The aorta, after giving off the intercostal +arteries, passes through the diaphragm into the abdomen, and, +after supplying the viscera of that cavity by means of the gastric, +hepatic, splenic, mesenteric, renal, and spermatic vessels, gives off +in the lumbar region a large branch (iliac) to each of the hinder +extremities, which also supplies the pelvic viscera, and is continued +onwards in the middle line, greatly diminished in size, along the +under surface of the tail as the caudal artery. In certain mammals, +arterial plexuses, called <i>retia mirabilia</i>, formed by the breaking up +of the vessel into an immense number of small trunks, which may +run in a straight course parallel to one another (as in the limbs of +Sloths and Slow Lemurs), or form a closely packed network, as in +the intracranial plexuses of Ruminants, or a sponge-like mass of +convoluted vessels, as in the intercostals of Cetaceans, are +peculiarities of the vascular system the meaning of which is +not in all cases clearly understood. In the Cetacea they are obviously +receptacles for containing a large quantity of oxygenated +blood available during the prolonged immersion, with consequent +absence of respiration, to which these animals are subject.</p> + +<p>The vessels returning the blood to the heart from the head and +upper extremities usually unite, as in Man, to form the single <i>vena +cava superior</i> or precaval vein, but in some Insectivores, Chiroptera, +and Rodents, in the Elephant, and all Marsupials and Monotremes, +the two superior caval veins enter the right auricle without uniting, +as in birds. In Seals and some other diving mammals there is a +large venous sinus or dilatation of the inferior vena cava immediately +below the diaphragm. In the Cetacea the purpose of this is supplied +by the immense abdominal venous plexuses. As a rule the veins +of mammals are furnished with valves, but these are said to be +altogether wanting in the Cetacea, and in the superior and inferior +cava, subclavian and iliac veins, the veins of the liver (both portal<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_65"></a>[65]</span> +and hepatic), heart, lungs, kidneys, brain, and spinal cord of other +mammals. Many of the veins within the cranium are included in +spaces formed by the separation of the laminæ of the dura mater, +and do not admit of being dilated beyond a certain size; these are +termed sinuses. The portal circulation in mammals is limited to +the liver, the portal vein being formed by the superior and inferior +mesenteric, the splenic, the gastro-epiploic, and the pancreatic veins. +The kidney is supplied solely by arterial blood, and its veins empty +their contents only into the inferior cava.</p> + +<p><i>Lymphatic Vessels.</i>—The <i>absorbent</i> or <i>lymphatic</i> system of vessels is +very fully developed in the Mammalia. Its ramifications extend +through all the soft tissues of the body, and convey a colourless +fluid called lymph, containing nucleated corpuscles, and also, +during the process of digestion, the chyle, a milky fluid taken up +by the lymphatics (here called lacteals) of the small intestine, and +pour them into the general vascular system, where they mix with +the venous blood. The lymphatic vessels of the hinder extremities, +as well as those from the intestinal canal, unite in the abdomen to +form the “thoracic duct,” the hinder end or commencement of +which has a dilatation called the <i>receptaculum chyli</i>. This duct, +which is of irregular size and sometimes double, often dividing and +uniting again in its course, or even becoming plexiform, passes forwards +close to the bodies of the thoracic vertebræ, and empties itself, +by an orifice guarded by a valve, into the great left brachio-cephalic +vein, having previously received the lymphatics from the thorax and +the left side of the head and left anterior extremity. The lymphatics +from the right side of the head and right anterior limb usually +enter by a small distinct trunk into the corresponding part of the +right brachio-cephalic vein. The duct, and also the principal lymphatic +vessels, are provided with valves.</p> + +<p>Lymphatic glands, rarely met with in the Sauropsida, are usually +present in mammals, both in the general and in the lacteal system; +the latter being called “mesenteric glands.” They are round or oval +masses, situated upon the course of the vessels, which break up in +them and assume a plexiform arrangement, and then reunite +as they emerge. No structures corresponding to the pulsating +“lymphatic hearts” of the lower vertebrates have been met with in +mammals.</p> + +<p><i>Ductless Glands.</i>—Associated with the vascular and lymphatic +systems are certain bodies (the functions of which are not properly +understood), usually, on account of their general appearance, +grouped together under the name of “ductless glands.” The +largest of these is the “spleen,” which is single, and always +placed in mammals in relation to the fundus or left end of the +stomach, to which it is attached by a fold of peritoneum. It is dark-coloured +and spongy in substance, and has a depression or “hilus”<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_66"></a>[66]</span> +on one side, into which the splenic artery, a branch of the cœliac +axis of the abdominal aorta, enters, and from which the vein joining +the portal system emerges. The spleen varies much in size and form +in different mammals, being relatively very small in the Cetacea. +It is sometimes almost spherical, but more often flattened, oval, +triangular, or elongated, and occasionally, as in Monotremes and +most Marsupials, triradiate. The “suprarenal bodies” or “adrenals” +are two in number, each situated either in contact with, or at a +short distance in front of the anterior extremity of the kidney. +They are abundantly supplied with nerves, and are much larger relatively +in early than in adult life. The “thyroid bodies,” of which +there are generally two, though in Man and some other species +they are connected by an isthmus passing across the middle line, +are constant in mammals, though only met with in a rudimentary +condition, if at all, in other vertebrates. They are situated in the +neck, in contact with the sides of the anterior extremity of the +trachea. The “thymus” lies in the anterior part of the thorax, +between the sternum and the great vessels at the base of the heart, +and differs from the thyroid in being median and single, and having +a central cavity. It attains its greatest development during the +period in which the animal is nourished by its mother’s milk, and +then it diminishes, and generally disappears before full growth is +attained.</p> + +<p><i>Nostrils.</i>—Mammals breathe occasionally through the mouth, +but usually, and in many cases exclusively, through the nostrils or +<i>nares</i>. Those are apertures, always paired (except in the toothed +Cetacea, where they unite to form a single external opening), and +situated at the fore part of the face, generally at or beneath the +end of the muzzle, a median prominence above the mouth. This is +sometimes elongated to form a proboscis, to the extremity of which +the nostrils are carried, and which attains its maximum of development +in the Elephant. In the Cetacea the nostrils are situated at +a considerable distance behind the anterior end of the face, upon +the highest part of the head, and are called “blowholes,” from the +peculiar mode of respiration of those animals. The nostrils are +kept open by means of cartilages surrounding their aperture, +which many animals have the power of moving so as to cause +partial dilatation or contraction. In diving animals, as Seals and +Cetacea, they can be completely closed at will so as to prevent the +entrance of water when beneath the surface. The passage to which +the nostrils lead is in most mammals filled by a more or less +complex sieve-like apparatus, formed of the convoluted turbinal +bones and cartilages, over which a moist, vascular, ciliated mucous +membrane is spread, which intercepts particles of dust, and also +aids in warming the inspired air before it reaches the lungs. In +the Proboscidea, in which these functions are performed by<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_67"></a>[67]</span> +the walls of the long tubular proboscis, this apparatus is entirely +wanting.</p> + +<p><i>Trachea.</i>—The narial passages have the organ of smell situated +in their upper part, and communicate posteriorly with the +pharynx, and through the glottis with the “trachea” or windpipe, +a tube by which the air is conveyed to and from the lungs. The +permanent patency of the trachea during the varied movements of +the neck is provided for by its walls being stiffened by a series of +cartilaginous rings or hoops, which in most mammals are incomplete +behind. Having entered the thorax, the trachea bifurcates into the +two bronchi, one of which enters, and, dividing dichotomously, +ramifies through each lung. In some of the Cetacea and +Artiodactyla a third bronchus is given off from the lower +part of the trachea, above its bifurcation and enters the right +lung.</p> + +<p><i>Larynx.</i>—The upper end of the trachea is modified into the +organ of voice or “larynx,” the air passing through which to and +from the lungs is made use of to set the edges of the “vocal cords,” +or fibrous bands stretched one on each side of the tube, into vibration. +The larynx is composed of several cartilages, such as the +“thyroid,” the “cricoid,” and the “arytenoid” which are moved +upon one another by muscles, and suspended from the hyoidean arch. +By alteration of the relative position of these cartilages the cords +can be tightened or relaxed, approximated or divaricated, as +required to modulate the tone and volume of the voice. A median +tongue-shaped fibro-cartilage at the top of the larynx, the “epiglottis,” +protects the “glottis,” or aperture by which the larynx communicates +with the pharynx, from the entry of particles of food during +deglutition. The form of the larynx and development of the vocal +cords present many variations in different members of the class, +the greatest modification from the ordinary type being met with in +the Cetacea, where the arytenoid cartilages and epiglottis are united +in a tubular manner, so as to project into the nasal passage, and, +being grasped by the muscular posterior margin of the palate, provide +a direct channel of communication from the lungs to the +external surface. An approach to this condition is met with in the +Hippopotamus and some other Ungulates; it is indeed so general +as an abnormality, that Howes suggests that an internarial epiglottis +may have been a primitive feature common throughout the +class. Nearly all mammals have a voice, although sometimes it is +only exercised at seasons of sexual excitement. Some Marsupials +and Edentates appear to be quite mute. In no mammal is there +an inferior larynx, or “syrinx,” as in birds.</p> + +<p><i>Diaphragm.</i>—The thoracic cavity of mammals differs from that +of the Sauropsida in being completely separated from the abdomen +by a muscular partition, the “diaphragm,” attached to the vertebral<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_68"></a>[68]</span> +column, the ribs, and the sternum. This is much arched, with the +convexity towards the thorax, so that when its fibres contract and +it is flattened the cavity of the thorax is increased, and when they +are relaxed the cavity is diminished.</p> + +<p><i>Lungs.</i>—The lungs are suspended freely in the thorax, one on +each side of the heart, being attached only by the root, which +consists of the bronchus or air-tube and pulmonary arteries and +veins by which the blood is passed backwards and forwards between +the heart and the lungs. The remaining part of the surface of +each lung is covered by serous membrane, the “pleura”; and whatever +the state of distension or contraction of the chest-wall, is +accurately in contact with it. Inspiration is effected by the contraction +of the diaphragm and by the intercostal and other muscles +elevating or bringing forward the ribs, and thus throwing the +sternum farther away from the vertebral column. As the surface +of the lung must follow the chest-wall, the organ itself is expanded, +and air rushes in through the trachea to fill all the minute cells in +which the ultimate ramifications of the bronchi terminate. In +ordinary expiration very little muscular power is expended, the +elasticity of the lungs and surrounding parts being sufficient to +cause a state of contraction and thus drive out at least a portion of +the air contained in the cells, when the muscular stimulus is withdrawn. +The lungs are sometimes simple externally, as in the +Sirenia (where they are greatly elongated) and the Cetacea, but are +more often divided by deep fissures into one or more lobes. The +right lung is usually larger and more subdivided than the left. It +often has a small distinct lobe behind, wanting on the left side, and +hence called <i>lobulus azygos</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Air-sacs.</i>—Most mammals have in connection with the air passages +certain diverticuli or pouches containing air, the use of which is +not always easy to divine. The numerous air sinuses situated +between the outer and inner tables of the bones of the head, +represented in Man by the antrum of Highmore and the frontal and +sphenoidal sinuses, and attaining their maximum of development +in the Indian Elephant, are obviously for the mechanical purpose +of allowing expansion of the osseous surface without increase of +weight. They are connected with the nasal passages. The Eustachian +tubes pass from the back of the pharynx to the cavity of the +tympanum, into which and the mastoid cells they allow air to pass. +In the <i>Equidæ</i> there are large post-pharyngeal air-sacs in connection +with them. The Dolphins have an exceedingly complicated system +of air-sacs in connection with the nasal passages just within the +nostrils, and the Tapirs, Rhinoceroses, and Horses have blind sacs +in the same situation. In the males of some Seals (<i>Cystophora</i> and +<i>Macrorhinus</i>) large pouches, which the animal can inflate with air, +and which are not developed in the young animal or the female,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_69"></a>[69]</span> +arise from the upper part of the nasal passages, and lie immediately +under the skin of the face. These appear analogous, although not +in the same situation, to the gular pouch of the male Bustard. +The larynx frequently has membranous pouches in connection +with it, into which air passes. These may be lateral and opening +just above the vocal cords, when they constitute the <i>sacculi laryngis</i>, +found in a rudimentary state in Man, and attaining an enormous +development, so as to reach to the shoulders and axillæ, in some +of the Anthropoid Apes; or they may be median, opening in +front either above or below the thyroid and cricoid cartilages, as in +the Howling and other Monkeys, and also in the Whalebone +Whales and Great Anteater.</p> + +<p><i>Urinary Organs.</i>—The kidneys of mammals are more compact +and definite in form than in other vertebrates, being usually more +or less oval, with an indent on the side turned towards the middle +line, from and into which the vessels and ducts pass. They are +distinctly divided into a cortical secretory portion, composed +mainly of convoluted tubes, and containing the so-called Malpighian +bodies; and a medullary excreting portion, formed of straight tubes +converging towards a papilla, embraced by the commencement of +the ureter or duct of the organ. The kidneys of some mammals, +as most Monkeys, Carnivores, Rodents, etc., are simple, with a +single papilla into which all the renal tubuli enter. In others, as +Man, there are many pyramids of the medullary portion, each with +its papilla, opening into a division (calyx) of the upper end of the +ureter. Such kidneys, either in the embryonic condition only, or +throughout life, are lobulated on the surface. In some cases, as in +Bears, Seals, and especially the Cetacea, the lobulation is carried +further, the whole organ being composed of a mass of renules, +loosely united by connective tissue, and with separate ducts, which +soon join to form the common ureter.</p> + +<p><i>Bladder.</i>—In all mammals except the Monotremes the ureters +terminate by slit-like valvular openings in the urinary bladder. +This receptacle when filled discharges its contents through the +single median urethra, which in the male is almost invariably +included in the penis, and in the females of some species of Rodents, +Insectivores, and Lemurs has a similar relation to the clitoris. In +the Monotremes, though the bladder is present, the ureters do not +enter into it, but join the urino-genital canal some distance below +it, with the orifice of the genital duct intervening.</p> + +<h3>VI. NERVOUS SYSTEM AND ORGANS OF SENSE.</h3> + +<p><i>Brain.</i>—The brain of mammals shows a higher condition of +organisation than that of other vertebrates. The cerebral hemispheres<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_70"></a>[70]</span> +have a greater preponderance compared with other parts, +especially to the so-called optic lobes, or corpora quadrigemina, +which are completely concealed by them. The commissural system +of the hemispheres is much more complex, both fornix and corpus +callosum being present in some form; and when the latter is +rudimentary, as in Marsupials and Monotremes, its deficiency is +made up for by the great size of the anterior commissure. The +lateral lobes of the cerebellum, wanting in lower vertebrates, are +well developed and connected by a transverse commissure, the pons +Varolii. The whole brain, owing especially to the size of the +cerebral hemispheres, is considerably larger relatively to the bulk +of the animal than in other classes, but it must be recollected that +the size of its brain depends upon many circumstances besides the +degree of intelligence which an animal possesses, although this is +certainly one. Man’s brain is many times larger than that of all +other known mammals of equal bulk, and even three times as large +as that of the most nearly allied Ape. Equal bulk of body is here +mentioned, because, in drawing any conclusions from the size of +the brain compared with that of the entire animal, it is always +necessary to take into consideration the fact that in every natural +group of closely allied animals the larger species have much smaller +brains relatively to their general size than the smaller species, so +that, in making any effective comparison among animals belonging +to different groups, species of the same size must be selected. It +may be true that the brain of a Mouse is, as compared with the +size of its body, larger than that of a Man, but, if it were possible +to reduce an animal having the general organisation of a Man to the +size of a Mouse, its brain would doubtless be very many times larger; +and conversely, as shown by the rapid diminution of the relative +size of the brain in all the large members of the Rodent order, a +Mouse magnified to the size of a Man would, if the general rule +were observed, have a brain exceedingly inferior in volume. Although +the brain of the large species of Whales is, as commonly +stated, the smallest in proportion to the bulk of the animal of any +mammal, this does not invalidate the general proposition that the +Cetacea have very large brains compared with terrestrial mammals, +like the Ungulata, or even the aquatic Sirenia, as may be proved +by placing the brain of a Dolphin by the side of that of a Sheep, a +Pig, or a Manatee of equal general weight. It is only because the +universally observed difference between the slower ratio of increase +of the brain compared with that of the body becomes so enormous +in these immense creatures that they are accredited with small +brains.</p> + +<p>The presence or absence of “sulci” or fissures on the surface +of the hemisphere, dividing it into “convolutions” or “gyri,” and +thus increasing the superficies of the cortical gray matter, as well<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_71"></a>[71]</span> +as allowing the pia mater with its nutrient blood-vessels to penetrate +into the cerebral substance, follow somewhat similar rules. +The sulci are related partly to the high or low condition of organisation +of the species, but also in a great degree to the size of the +cerebral hemispheres. In +very small species of all +groups, even the Primates, +they are absent, and in the +largest species of groups so +low in the scale as the Marsupials +and Edentates they +are found. They reach their +maximum of development in +the Cetacea.</p> + +<p>The accompanying woodcut +(<a href="#figure023">Fig. 23</a>) shows the principal +parts of a mammalian +brain, as seen from the +superior, lateral, and inner +surfaces. The sylvian fissure +(<i>sf</i>) is one of the most constant +of the sulci found in +the hemispheres.</p> + +<figure class="figright illowp50" id="figure023" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure023.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 23.</span>—Brain of the Genet (<i>Genetta tigrina</i>). A, +From above; B, from the right side; C, inner surface +of right hemisphere; <i>cc</i>, corpus callosum; +<i>c.m.s</i>, calloso-marginal sulcus; <i>c</i>, notch representing +central sulcus of other forms; <i>d</i>, depression on +superior lateral gyrus of hemisphere; <i>hg</i>, hippocampal +gyrus; <i>i</i>, inferior lateral gyrus of hemisphere; +<i>m</i>, middle lateral gyrus of do.; <i>s</i>, superior +lateral gyrus of do.; <i>os</i>, supraorbital sulcus of do.; +<i>sf</i>, sylvian fissure of do.; <i>ol</i>, olfactory lobes. The +deeply convoluted part behind the cerebral hemisphere +is the cerebellum, below which lies the +medulla oblongata, or commencement of the spinal +cord. (Mivart, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1882, p. 516.)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The researches of Palæontologists, +founded upon +studies of casts of the interior +of the cranial cavity +of extinct forms, have shown +that, in many natural groups +of mammals, if not in all, +the brain has increased in +size, and also in complexity +of surface foldings, with the +advance of time,—indicating +in this, as in so many other +respects, a gradual progress +from a lower to a higher type +of development.</p> + +<p><i>Nerves.</i>—The twelve pairs of cranial nerves generally recognised +in vertebrates are usually all found in mammals, though the +olfactory nerves are excessively rudimentary, if not altogether +absent, in the Toothed Whales. The spinal cord, or continuation +of the central nervous axis, lies in the canal formed by the neural +arches of the vertebræ, and gives off the compound double-rooted +nerves of the trunk and the extremities, corresponding in number +to the vertebræ, through the interspaces between which they pass<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_72"></a>[72]</span> +out to their destination. The cord is somewhat enlarged at the two +points where it gives off the great nerves to the anterior and the +posterior extremities, which, from their interlacements soon after +their origin, are called respectively the brachial and lumbar plexuses. +The ganglionic or sympathetic portion of the nervous system is well +developed, and presents few modifications.</p> + +<p><i>Sense of Touch.</i>—The sense of touch is situated in the skin +generally, but is most acute in certain regions more or less +specialised for the purpose by the presence of tactile papillæ, such +as portions of the face, especially the lips and end of the snout, and +the extremities of the limbs when these are used for other purposes +than mere progression, and the under surface of the end of the tail +in some Monkeys. The “vibrissæ” or long stiff bristles situated +on the face of many mammals are rendered extremely sensitive to +touch by the abundant supply of branches from the fifth nerve to +their basal papillæ. In Bats the extended wing membranes, and +probably also the large ears and the folds and prominences of skin +about the face of some species, are so sensitive as to receive +impressions even from the different degrees of resistance of the air, +and so enable the animals to avoid coming in contact with obstacles +to their nocturnal flight.</p> + +<p><i>Taste and Smell.</i>—The organs of the other special senses are +confined to the head. Taste is situated in the papillæ scattered on +the dorsal surface of the tongue. The organ of smell is present in +all mammals except the Toothed Whales. It consists of a ramification +of the olfactory nerves over a plicated, moist, mucous +membrane, supported by folded plates of bone, placed on each side +of the septum nasi in the roof, or often in a partially distinct upper +chamber, of the nasal passage, so arranged that, of the air passing +into the lungs in inspiration, some comes in contact with it, causing +the perception of any odorous particles with which it may be +charged. Many mammals possess intense powers of smelling +certain odours which others are quite unable to appreciate, and the +influence which this sense exercises over the well-being of many +species is very great, especially in indicating the proximity of others +of the same kind, and giving warning of the approach of enemies. +The development and modification of the sense of smell is probably +associated with that of the odorous secretion of the cutaneous +glands.</p> + +<p><i>Sight.</i>—The organ of sight is quite rudimentary, and even +concealed beneath the integument, in some burrowing Rodents and +Insectivores, and is most imperfectly developed in the <i>Platanista</i>, or +Freshwater Dolphin of the rivers of India. In all other mammals +the eyeball has the structure characteristic of the organ in the +higher Vertebrata, consisting of parts through which the rays of +light are admitted, regulated, and concentrated upon the sensitive<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_73"></a>[73]</span> +expansion of the optic nerve lining the posterior part of the ball. +A portion of the fibrovascular and highly pigmented layer, the +choroid, which is interposed between the retina and the outer +sclerotic coat, is in many mammals modified into a brilliantly-coloured +light-reflecting surface, the <i>tapetum lucidum</i>. There is +never a pecten or marsupium like that of the Sauropsida, nor is +the sclerotic ever supported by a ring of flattened ossicles, as is so +frequently the case in the lower vertebrated classes. The eyeball +is moved in various directions by a series of muscles—the four +straight, two oblique, and, except in the higher Primates, a posterior +retractor muscle called choanoid. The superior oblique muscle +passes through a tendinous pulley fastened to the roof of the orbit, +which is a feature not found beyond the limits of the mammalian +class. The eye is protected by the lids, generally distinctly separated +into an upper and a lower movable flap, which, when closed, meet +over the front of the eye in a more or less nearly horizontal line: +but sometimes, as in the Sirenia, the lids are not distinct, and the +aperture is circular, closing to a point. In almost all mammals +below the Primates, except the Cetacea, a “nictitating membrane” +or third eyelid is placed at the inner corner of the eyeball, and +works horizontally across the front of the ball within the true lids. +Its action is instantaneous, being apparently for the purpose of +cleaning the front of the transparent cornea;—a function unnecessary +in animals whose eyes are habitually bathed in water, and which +in Man and his nearest allies is performed by winking the true +eyelids. Except in Cetacea the surface of the eye is kept moist by +the secretion of the lachrymal gland, placed under the upper lid at +its outer side, and the lids are lubricated by the Harderian and +Meibornian glands, the former being situated at the inner side of +the orbit, and especially related to the nictitating membrane, the +latter in the lining membrane of the lids.</p> + +<p><i>Hearing.</i>—The organ of hearing is inclosed in a bony capsule +(periotic) situated in the side of the head, intercalated between the +posterior (occipital) and the penultimate (parietal) segment of the +skull. It has, in common with other vertebrates, three semicircular +canals and a vestibule, but the cochlea is more fully developed than +in the Sauropsida, and, except in the Monotremes, spirally convoluted. +The tympanic cavity is often dilated below, forming a +smooth rounded prominence on the base of the skull, the auditory +bulla (<a href="#figure008">Fig. 8</a>). The three principal ossicles, the “malleus,” “incus,” +and “stapes,” are always present, but variable in characters. In +the Sirenia, Cetacea, and Seals they are massive in form, being in +the first-named order of larger size than in any other mammals. In +the Cetacea the malleus is ankylosed to the tympanic; but in other +mammals it is connected only with the membrana tympani. The +stapes in the lower orders—Edentates, Marsupials, and Monotremes—has<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_74"></a>[74]</span> +a great tendency to assume the columnar form of the +corresponding bone in Sauropsida, its two rami entirely or partially +coalescing.<a id="FNanchor_16" href="#Footnote_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> The tympanic membrane (drum of the ear) forms the +outer wall of the cavity. In the fœtal state it is level with the +external surface of the skull, and remains so permanently in a few +mammals as the American Monkeys; but commonly, by the growth +of the squamosal bone, it becomes deeply buried at the bottom of a +bony tube (<i>meatus auditorus externus</i>), which is continued to the surface +of the skin in a fibrous or fibro-cartilaginous form. In Whales, +owing to the thickness of the subcutaneous adipose tissue, this +meatus is of great length, and is also extremely narrow. In most +aquatic and burrowing animals it opens upon the surface by a simple +aperture, but in the large majority of the class there is a projecting +fold of skin, strengthened by fibro-cartilages, called the pinna, +auricle, or “external ear,” of very variable size and shape, generally +movably articulated on the skull, and provided with muscles to +vary its position; this pinna helping to collect and direct the vibrations +of sound into the meatus.</p> + +<h3>VII. REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS.</h3> + +<p><i>Testes.</i>—In the male the testes retain nearly their primitive or +internal position throughout life in the Monotremata, Sirenia, +Cetacea, most Edentata, Hyracoidea, Proboscidea, and Seals, +but, in other groups they either periodically (as in Rodentia, +Insectivora, and Chiroptera) or permanently pass out of the +abdominal cavity through the inguinal canal, forming a projection +beneath the skin of the perineum, or becoming suspended in a +distinct pouch of integument called the scrotum. All the Marsupials +have a pedunculated scrotum, the position of which differs from +that of other mammals, being in front of, instead of behind, the +preputial orifice. As regards the presence, absence, or comparative +size and number of the accessory generative glands—prostate, vesicular, +and Cowper’s glands, as they are called—there is much +variation in different groups of mammals.</p> + +<p><i>Penis.</i>—The penis is almost always completely developed, +consisting of two corpora cavernosa attached to the ischial bones, +and of a median corpus spongiosum enclosing the urethra, and +forming the glans at the distal portion of the organ. In Marsupials, +Monotremes, and the Sloths and Anteaters, the corpora cavernosa +are not attached directly to the ischia, and in the last-named the +penis is otherwise of a very rudimentary character, the corpus<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_75"></a>[75]</span> +spongiosum not being present. In many Marsupials the glans penis +is bifurcated. In most Primates, Carnivora, Rodentia, Insectivora, +and Chiroptera, but in no other orders, an <i>os penis</i> is present.</p> + +<p><i>Ovaries and Oviduct.</i>—In the female, the ovaries permanently retain +their original abdominal position, or only descend a short distance +into the pelvis. They are of comparatively smaller size than in +other vertebrates, have a definite flattened oval form, and are +enclosed in a more or less firm “tunica albiginea.” The oviduct +has a trumpet-like, and usually fimbriated abdominal aperture, and +is more or less differentiated into three portions:—(1) a contracted +upper part, called in Man and the higher mammals the “Fallopian +tube”; (2) an expanded part with muscular walls, in which the +ovum undergoes the changes by which it is developed into the +fœtus, called the “uterus”; (3) a canal, the “vagina,” separated +from the last by a valvular aperture, and terminating in the urino-genital +canal, or common urinal and genital passage, which in +higher mammals is so short as scarcely to be distinct from the vagina. +The complete distinction of the oviducts of the two sides throughout +their whole length, found in all lower vertebrates, only occurs +in this class in Monotremes; a prevailing mammalian characteristic +being their more or less perfect coalescence in the middle line to form +a single median canal. In the Marsupials this union only includes +the lower part of the vagina; but in most Placentals it extends to the +whole vagina and a certain portion of the uterus, which cavity is +then described as “bicornuate.” In the higher mammals, as in +Man, and also in some of the Edentates, the whole of the uterus is +single, the contracted upper portion of the oviducts or Fallopian +tubes, as they are then called, entering its upper lateral angles by +small apertures. In certain lower forms the urino-genital canal +opens with the termination of the rectum into a common cloaca, +as in other vertebrates; but it is characteristic of the majority +of the class that the two orifices are more or less distinct externally.</p> + +<p><i>Mammary Glands.</i>—Mammary glands secreting the milk by +which the young are nourished during the first portion of their +existence after birth, are present in both sexes in all mammals, +though usually only functional in the female. In the Monotremes +alone their orifices are mere scattered pores in the skin, but in all +other forms they are situated upon the end of conical elevations, +called mammillæ, or teats, which, taken into the mouth of the +young animal, facilitate the process of sucking. These are always +placed in pairs upon some part of the ventral surface of the body, +but vary greatly in number and position in different groups. In +the Cetacea, where the prolonged action of sucking would be incompatible +with their subaqueous life, the ducts of the glands are +dilated into large reservoirs from which the contents are injected<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_76"></a>[76]</span> +into the mouth of the young animal by the action of a compressor +muscle.</p> + +<p><i>Secondary Sexual Characters.</i>—Secondary sexual characters, or +modifications of structure peculiar to one sex, but not directly +related to the reproductive function, are very general in mammals. +They almost always consist of the acquisition or perfection of some +character by the male as it attains maturity, which is not found in +the female or the young in either sex. In a large number of cases +these clearly relate to the combats in which the males of many +species engage for the possession of the females during the breeding +season; others are apparently ornamental, and of many it is still +difficult to apprehend the meaning. Many suggestions on this +subject will, however, be found in the chapters devoted to it in +Darwin’s work on <i>The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex</i>, +where most of the best-known instances are collected. Superiority +of size and strength in the male of many species is a well-marked +secondary sexual character related to the purpose indicated +above, being probably perpetuated by the survivors or victors in +combats transmitting to their descendants those qualities which +gave them advantages over others of their kind. To the same +category belong the great development of the canine teeth of the +males of many species which do not use these organs in procuring +their food, as the Apes, Swine, Musk and some other Deer, the tusk +of the male Narwhal, the antlers of Deer, which are present in most +cases only in the males, and the usual superiority in size and +strength of the horns of the <i>Bovidæ</i>. Other secondary sexual +characters, the use of which is not so obvious, or which may only +relate to ornament, are the presence of masses or tufts of long hair +on different parts of the body, as the mane of the male Lion and +Bison, the beards of some Ruminants and Bats (as <i>Taphozous melanopogon</i>), +Monkeys, and of Man, and all the variations of coloration +in the sexes, in which, as a general rule, the adult male is darker +and more vividly coloured than the female. Here may also be +mentioned the presence or the greater development of odoriferous +glands in the male, as in the Musk Deer, and the remarkable +perforated spur with its glands and duct, so like the poison-tooth +of the venomous serpents, found in the males of both <i>Ornithorhynchus</i> +and <i>Echidna</i>, the use of which is at present unknown.</p> + +<p><i>Placenta.</i>—The development of the mammalian ovum, and the +changes which the various tissues and organs of the body undergo +in the process of growth, are too intricate subjects to be explained +without entering into details incompatible with the limits of this +work, especially as they scarcely differ, excepting in their later +stages, from those of other vertebrates, upon which, owing to the +greater facilities these present for examination and study, the +subject has been more fully worked out. There are, however,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_77"></a>[77]</span> +some points which require notice, as peculiar to the mammalian +class, and as affording at least some hints upon the difficult subject +of the affinities and classification of the members of the group.</p> + +<p>The nourishment of the fœtus during intra-uterine life takes +place through the medium of certain structures, partly belonging +to the fœtus itself and partly belonging to the inner parietes of the +uterus of the parent. These in their complete form constitute the +complex organ called the “placenta,” serving as the medium of +communication between the mother and fœtus, and in which the +physiological processes that are concerned in the nutrition of the +latter take place; but as we shall see, though a placenta, in the +usual acceptation of the term, is peculiar to the mammalian class, it is +not in all of its members that one is developed. The structures to +which we shall have especially to refer are the outer tunic of the +ovum, to which, however formed, the term “chorion” is commonly +applied, and two sac-like organs connected with the body-cavity of +the embryo, both formed from the splanchnic mesoblast, lined by a +layer of the hypoblast. These are the “umbilical vesicle” or “yolk-sac” +and the “allantois.”</p> + +<p>The umbilical vesicle is a thin membrane enclosing the yolk, +which by the doubling in of the ventral walls of the embryo becomes +gradually formed into a distinct sac external to the body, with a +pedicle (the omphalo-enteric duct) by which for a time a communication +is maintained between its cavity and the intestinal canal. In +the walls of this sac blood-vessels (omphalo-meseraic or vitelline) +are developed in connection with the vascular system of the embryo, +through which, either by their contact with the outer surface of the +walls of the ovum, or by the absorption through them of the +contents of the yolk-sac, the nutrition of the embryo in the lower +vertebrates chiefly takes place. In mammals the umbilical vesicle +plays a comparatively subordinate part in the nourishment +of the fœtus, its function being generally superseded by the +allantois.</p> + +<p>The last-named sac commences at a very early period as a +diverticulum from the hinder end of the alimentary tract of the +embryo. Its proximal portion afterwards becomes the urinary +bladder, the contracted part between this and the cavity of the +allantois proper constituting the urachus, which passes out of the +body of the fœtus at the umbilicus together with the vitelline duct. +The mesoblastic tissue of the walls of the allantois soon becomes +vascular; its arteries are supplied with fœtal blood by the two +hypogastric branches of the iliacs, or main divisions of the abdominal +aorta, and the blood is returned by venous trunks uniting to +form the single umbilical vein which runs to the under surface of +the liver, where, part of it joining the portal vein and part entering +the vena cava directly, it is brought to the heart. These are<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_78"></a>[78]</span> +the vessels which, with their surrounding membranes, constitute +the umbilical cord—the medium of communication between +the fœtus and the placenta, when that organ is fully developed.</p> + +<p>The egg membranes of the Monotremes present many points of +agreement with those of the ovum of the Marsupials,<a id="FNanchor_17" href="#Footnote_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> and differ +from those of the Placental types. Thus Monotremes and Marsupials +agree in having a vitelline membrane, which appears between +the young ovum and the follicular epithelium, persisting in the +one case until the time of hatching, and in the other till a late +uterine stage. There are also several other common features fully +described in Mr. Caldwell’s memoir, but which cannot be detailed +in this work.</p> + +<p>In the Marsupialia the observations made many years ago by +Sir R. Owen upon the development of the Kangaroo have been +confirmed by those of Dr. H. C. Chapman,<a id="FNanchor_18" href="#Footnote_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> while Dr. Selenka,<a id="FNanchor_19" href="#Footnote_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> and +Professor H. F. Osborn<a id="FNanchor_20" href="#Footnote_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> have contributed important evidence as to the +structure and relations of the fœtal membranes of the Opossums +and others. It thus appears that up to the period of the very +premature birth of these animals the outer covering of the ovum, +or false chorion, is free from persistent villi, and not adherent +to the epithelium of the uterine walls; for, although fitting into +the folds of the latter, it is perfectly and readily separable in its +entire extent from them. The umbilical vesicle or yolk-sac is large, +vascular, and adherent to a considerable portion of the false chorion +or subzonal membrane, while the allantois is relatively small, and +although the usual blood-vessels can be traced into it, it does not +appear to contract any connection with the false chorion, and, therefore, +much less with the walls of the uterus, of such a nature as to +constitute a placenta. In some forms, however, such as the +Opossums, the umbilical vesicle or yolk-sac develops temporary +villi, which unite with the subzonal membrane, or false chorion, to +form a disc-like area closely attached to the cells covering the +utricular glands of the uterine epithelium, and thus forming a +so-called <i>yolk-sac placenta</i>. The function of this organ is considered +to be the transmission of the secretions of the utricular glands to +the embryo by means of the umbilical vesicle; the function of the +allantois being either respiratory or the absorption of the fluid +secreted in the uterine cavity by the utricular glands.</p> + +<p>While in the uterus the nourishment of the fœtus seems, therefore, +to be derived from the umbilical vesicle, as in reptiles and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_79"></a>[79]</span> +birds, rather than from the uterine walls by means of the allantoic +vessels, as in the higher mammals. The latter vessels, in fact, play +even a much less important part in the development of these +animals, not only than in the placental mammals, but even than in +the Sauropsida, for they can scarcely have the respiratory function +assigned to them in that group: pulmonary respiration and the +lacteal secretion of the mother very early superseding all other +methods of providing the due supply, both of oxygen and of food +required for the development and growth of the young animal. +In this sense the Marsupials may be looked upon as the most +typically “mammalian” of the whole class. In no other group do +the milk-secreting glands play such an important part in providing +for the continuity of the race.</p> + +<p>In the third primary division of the Mammalia, the so-called +Placentalia, the umbilical vesicle generally does not quite unite +with the chorion, and disappears as development proceeds, so that +no trace of it can be seen in the membranes of an advanced +embryo; but it may persist until the end of the intra-uterine life +as a distinct sac in the umbilical cord, or lying between the +allantois and amnion. The disappearance or persistence of the +umbilical vesicle does not, according to our present knowledge, +appear to be correlated with a higher or lower general grade of development, +as might be presupposed. It is stated to have been +found in Man even up to the end of intra-uterine life, and also in +the Carnivora, while in the Ungulata and Cetacea it disappears at +an earlier age. In many, if not all, of the Rodentia, Insectivora, +and Chiroptera, it plays a more important part, becoming adherent +to a considerable part of the inner surface of the chorion, to which +it conveys blood-vessels, although villi do not appear to be developed +from the surface of this part, as they are on the portion of the +chorion supplied by the allantoic vessels. These orders thus +present to a certain extent a transitional condition from the Marsupials, +although essentially different, in possessing the structures +next to be described.</p> + +<p>The special characteristic of the whole of the placental mammals +constituting the majority of the class, is that the allantois and its +vessels become intimately blended with a smaller or greater part of +the parietes of the ovum, forming a structure on the outer surface of +which villi are developed, and which, penetrating into corresponding +cavities of the “decidua,” or soft, vascular, hypertrophied lining +membrane of the uterus, constitutes the placenta. This organ may +be regarded, as Sir William Turner says, both in its function and in +the relative arrangement of its constituent textures, as a specially +modified secreting gland, the ducts of which are represented by the +extremities of the blood-vessels of the fœtal system. The passage +of material from the maternal to the fœtal-system of vessels is not<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_80"></a>[80]</span> +a simple percolation or diffusion through their walls, but is occasioned +by the action of a layer of cells derived from the maternal +or uterine structures, and interposed between the blood-vessels of +the maternal part of the placenta and those of the villi covering +the chorion, in which the embryonic vessels ramify.</p> + +<p>The numerous modifications in the details of the structure of +this organ relate to augmenting the absorbing capacity of the vessels +of the chorion, and are brought about either by increasing the complexity +of the fœtal villi and maternal crypts over a limited area, +or by increasing the area of the part of the chorion covered by the +placental villi, or by various combinations of the two methods.</p> + +<p>The first class of variations has given rise to a distinction into +two principal kinds of placenta: (1) simple or non-deciduate, and +(2) deciduate. In the former the fœtal villi are received into corresponding +depressions of the maternal surface, from which at the +period of parturition they are simply withdrawn. In the second, +or more complex form, the relation is more intimate, a layer of +greater or less thickness of the lining membrane of the uterus, +called “decidua,” becoming so intimately blended with the chorion +as to form part of the placenta proper, or that structure which is +cast off as a solid body at parturition. In other words, in the one +case the line of separation between the placenta and uterus at birth +takes place at the junction of the fœtal and maternal structures, in +the other through the latter, so that a portion of them, often of considerable +thickness, and containing highly organised structures, is +cast off with the former. It was once thought that the distinction +between these two forms of placentation is so important as to constitute +a sufficiently valid basis for a primary division of the placental +mammals into two groups. It has, however, been shown +that the distinction is one rather of degree than of kind, as intermediate +conditions may exist, and it is probable that in different +primary groups the simpler, non-deciduate form may have become +developed independently into one or other of the more complex +kinds.</p> + +<p>Apart from its intimate structure, the placenta may be met with +of very varied general form. It may consist of villi scattered more +or less regularly over the greater part of the surface of the chorion, +the two extremities or poles being usually more or less bare. This +form is called the “diffused placenta.” It is probably a primitive +condition, from which most of the others are derived, although its +existence must presuppose the absence of the umbilical vesicle as a +constituent of the chorionic wall. It is found at present in the +Manis among Edentates, the Cetacea, the Perissodactyle Ungulates, +and the Camels, Pigs, and Chevrotains among the Artiodactyles. +Such placentæ are always non-deciduate. Recent observations by +Sir W. Turner on the placentation of the Dugong show that the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_81"></a>[81]</span> +Sirenia present the peculiarity of having a zonary placenta, which is +either entirely or in great part non-deciduate, and is, therefore, +transitional between the diffused and the true zonary type.</p> + +<p>In the true Ruminants or Pecora, among the Artiodactyle +Ungulates, the villi are aggregated in masses called cotyledons, +with bare spaces between. Such a placentation is called “polycotyledonary.” +In another modification the villi are collected in a +more or less broad band encircling the chorion, leaving a very large +portion of the two poles bare, constituting the “zonary placenta,” +characteristic of the Carnivora, and also occurring in the Elephant, +Hyrax, and Orycteropus. The fact of the form of the placenta of +these three last-named animals agreeing together, and with that of +the Carnivora, does not, however, necessitate the ascription of +zoological affinities, as the same ultimate form may have been +attained by different processes of development.</p> + +<p>In another form one pole only of the chorion is non-vascular, +the placenta assuming a dome or bell shape, as in the Lemurs and +the Sloths. The transition from this, by the gradual restriction of +the vascular area, is easy to the oval or discoidal form of placenta +of the Anteaters, Armadillos, and higher Primates. The discoidal +placenta of the Rodents, Insectivores, and Chiroptera, though showing +so much superficial resemblance to that of the last-named order +as to have led to the inclusion of all these forms in one primary +group, is now known to be developed in another manner, not by the +concentration of villi from a diffused to a limited area, but by +retaining the area to which it was originally restricted in consequence +of the large surface of the chorion occupied, as before +mentioned, by the umbilical vesicle. To compensate for the smallness +of area, the complex or deciduate structure has been developed. +Among some Rodents there is evidence to show that the discoidal +placenta has been derived from a zonary one, of which distinct +vestiges have been detected in the Mouse. We may conclude +that, although the characters and arrangement of the fœtal structures +may not have that extreme importance which has been attributed +to them by some zoologists, they will form, especially when more +completely understood, valuable aids in the study of the natural +affinities and evolution of the Mammalia.<a id="FNanchor_21" href="#Footnote_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a></p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_82"></a>[82]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III<br> +<span class="smaller">ORIGIN AND CLASSIFICATION OF THE MAMMALIA</span></h2> + +</div> + +<p><i>Origin.</i>—Although, as stated in the first chapter, the mammalian +class, as at present known either by existing or extinct forms, is +completely isolated from all other groups of the animal kingdom, +yet it is impossible to refrain from speculating as to its origin and +nearest affinities. In arranging the classes of vertebrates in a linear +series it is customary to place them in the following order—Pisces, +Amphibia, Reptilia, Aves, Mammalia,—an order which probably +indicates the relative degree of elevation to which the most +highly developed members of each class has attained. Such +an arrangement appears to express the true relationship of the first +four classes to one another, but it is quite clear that the Mammalia +have no sort of affinity with the Aves. Writing in 1879, Professor +Huxley<a id="FNanchor_22" href="#Footnote_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> came to the conclusion that, in looking among vertebrates +for the progenitors of the Mammalia, we must pass over all known +forms of birds and reptiles, and go straight down to the Amphibia. +In addition to the characters derived from the conformation of the +pelvis upon which the argument was primarily based, the following +reasons were given for this conclusion: “The Amphibia are the +only air-breathing Vertebrata which, like mammals, have a dicondylian +skull. It is only in them that the articular element of the +mandibular arch remains cartilaginous, while the quadrate ossification +is small, and the squamosal extends down over it to the osseous +elements of the mandible, thus affording an easy transition to the +mammalian condition of those parts. The pectoral arch [girdle] of +the Monotremes is as much amphibian as it is sauropsidian; the +carpus and the tarsus of all Sauropsida, except the Chelonia, are +modified away from the Urodele type, while those of the mammal +are directly reducible to it. Finally, the fact that in all Sauropsida +it is a right aortic arch which is the main conduit of arterial blood +leaving the heart, while in mammals it is a left aortic arch which<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_83"></a>[83]</span> +performs this office, is a great stumbling-block in the way of the +derivation of the Mammalia from any of the Sauropsida. But, if +we suppose the earliest forms of both the Mammalia and the Sauropsida +to have had a common Amphibian origin, there is no difficulty +in the supposition that, from the first, it was a left aortic arch in +the one series, and the corresponding right aortic arch in the other, +which became the predominant feeder of the arterial system.” +Subsequently Professor E. D. Cope<a id="FNanchor_23" href="#Footnote_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a> in a suggestive paper called +attention to the remarkable resemblances to the Monotremes presented +by the skeleton of that group of early secondary reptiles +which he then designated the Theromorpha, but which may be +included in the Anomodontia of Sir R. Owen, and came to the +conclusion that in that group we have the true ancestors of the +Mammalia. This conclusion was, however, disputed by Dr. Baur,<a id="FNanchor_24" href="#Footnote_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a> +who considered that the Anomodontia were too specialised to have +been the actual progenitors of the Mammalia, and that they should +rather be regarded as a divergent branch of the stem which had given +origin to the Mammalia. Since that date observations made on +the structure of the South African Anomodonts have shown such +an intimate connection between that group and the Labyrinthodont +Amphibians, that there can be no hesitation in regarding the one +as the direct descendant of the other; and we may probably regard +the Mammalia as having originated from the same ancestral stock +at the time the Amphibian type was passing into the Reptilian. +From this point of view, some of the mammalian features found in +the more specialised Anomodonts may probably be regarded as +having been acquired during a parallel line of development.</p> + +<p>Both the Anomodontia and the Mammalia differ from the +Amphibians in the loss of the splint-like parasphenoid which +underlies the basisphenoid axis of the skull, and by the ossification +of that axis; but while the former have become monocondylic by +the participation of the basioccipital in the support of the cranium, +the latter retain the Amphibian dicondylic plan. The skull of the +Anomodonts presents mammalian resemblances not found in any +other Reptiles, this being especially noticeable in the region of the +squamosal; and it is only in this group and mammals that the +temporal or zygomatic arch is a squamoso-maxillary one (see <a href="#Page_37">p. +37</a>). The resemblance between the pectoral and pelvic girdles +of the Anomodonts and those of the Monotreme Mammals is +noticed under the head of the latter, where reference is also made +to the similarity in the structure of the humerus in the two groups.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_84"></a>[84]</span> +The pes of the Amphibia and Anomodontia agree in having a +distinct intermedium, tibiale, fibulare, and centrale, whereas in +other Reptiles these bones are not generally distinct; in Mammals +the intermedium, fibulare, and centrale are distinct, and according +to Cope’s interpretation there may be a distinct tibiale.</p> + +<p><i>Classification.</i>—In the present condition of the world, mammals +have become so broken up into distinct groups by the extinction of +intermediate forms, that a systematic classification is perfectly +practicable. Most of the associations of species, which we call +“orders,” and even the “suborders” and “families,” are natural +groups. In isolating, defining, and naming them, we are really +dealing with facts of nature of a totally different order from the +artificial and fanciful divisions formed in the infancy of zoological +science.</p> + +<p>When, however, we pass to the extinct world, all is changed. +In many cases the boundaries of our groups become enlarged until +they touch those of others. New forms are discovered which +cannot be placed within any of the existing divisions. As the +horizon of our vision is thus expanded, the principles upon which a +scheme of classification is constructed must be altogether changed. +Our present divisions and terminology are no longer sufficient for +the purpose; and some other method will have to be invented to +show the complex relationships existing between different animal +forms when viewed as a whole. The present time, pre-eminently +distinguished by the rapidly changing and advancing knowledge of +extinct forms, is scarcely one in which this can be done with any +satisfactory result; so that all attempts to form a classification +embracing even the already known extinct species must be only +of a provisional and temporary nature.</p> + +<p>In systematic descriptions in books, in lists, and catalogues, and +in arranging collections, the objects dealt with must be placed in a +single linear series. But by no means whatever can such a series +be made to coincide with natural affinities. The artificial character +of such an arrangement, the constant violation of all true relationships, +are the more painfully evident the greater the knowledge of +the real structure and affinities. But the necessity is obvious; and +all that can be done is to make such an arrangement as little as +possible discordant with facts.</p> + +<p>The following table contains a list of the orders, suborders, and +families of existing mammals as recognised by the authors, and placed +in the order in which they will be treated of in this work. The +more important of the groups containing only extinct forms are +added in a different type, being interpolated, as near as may be, +among those that appear to be their existing relatives.</p> + +<p>A few explanatory remarks upon the mutual relations of some +of the principal groups mentioned in the table may be useful here,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_85"></a>[85]</span> +but the subject will be more fully developed in treating separately +of each division.</p> + +<p>One of the most certain and fundamental points in the classification +of the Mammalia is, that all the animals now composing the +class can be grouped primarily into three natural divisions, which, +presenting very marked differential characters, and having no existing, +or yet certainly demonstrated extinct, intermediate, or transitional +forms, may be considered as subclasses of equal value, taxonomically +speaking, though very different in the numbers and +importance of the animals at present composing them. These three +groups are often called by the names originally proposed for them +by Blainville—(1) <i>Ornithodelphia</i>, (2) <i>Didelphia</i>, (3) <i>Monodelphia</i>—the +first being equivalent to the order <i>Monotremata</i>, the second +to the <i>Marsupialia</i>, and the third including all the remaining +members of the class. Although actual palæontological proof is +wanting, there is much reason to believe that each of these, as now +existing, are survivors of distinct branches to which the earliest +forms of mammals have successively given rise, and for which +hypothetical branches Professor Huxley has proposed the names of +<i>Prototheria</i>, <i>Metatheria</i>, and <i>Eutheria</i>, names which, being far less +open to objection than those of Blainville, are here used as equivalents +of the latter.</p> + +<p>The only known existing <span class="smcap">Prototheria</span>, although agreeing in +many important characters, evidently represent two very divergent +stocks, perhaps as far removed as are the members of some of the +accepted orders of the Eutheria. It would, however, be merely +encumbering zoological science with new names to give them any +other than the ordinarily known family designations of <i>Ornithorhynchidæ</i> +and <i>Echidnidæ</i>.</p> + +<p>Similarly with regard to the <span class="smcap">Metatheria</span>, although the great +diversity in external form, in anatomical characters, and in mode of +life of the various animals of this section might lead to their +division into groups equivalent to the orders of the Eutheria, we do +not think it advisable to depart from the usual custom of treating +them all as forming one order, called Marsupialia, the limits of +which are equivalent to those of the subclass. The characters of the +six families which compose the group are extremely well marked +and easily defined; and since they form a regular gradation between +two extreme types, they can be satisfactorily arranged in a serial +order. A marked distinction in the dentition enables us to divide +them into primary groups or suborders.</p> + +<p>The remaining mammals are included in the <span class="smcap">Eutheria</span>, <span class="smcap">Placentalia</span>, +or <span class="smcap">Monodelphia</span>. Their affinities with one another are so +complex that it is impossible to arrange them serially with any +regard to natural affinities. Indeed each order is now so isolated +that it is almost impossible to say what its affinities are; and none<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_86"></a>[86]</span> +of the hitherto proposed associations of the orders into larger groups +stand the test of critical investigation. All serial arrangements of +the orders are therefore perfectly arbitrary; and although it would +be of very great convenience for reference in books and museums +if some general sequence, such as that here proposed, were generally +adopted, such a result can scarcely be expected, since equally good +reasons might be given for almost any other combination of the +various elements of which the series is composed. In fact, we have +already seen reason to depart in some respects from that used in the +“Encyclopædia.”</p> + +<p>The Edentata, Sirenia, and Cetacea stand apart from all the +rest in the fact that their dentition does not conform to the general +heterodont, diphyodont type to which that of all other Eutheria +can be reduced, and which is such a close bond of union between +them. In all three orders, however, some indications may be traced +of relationship, however distant, with the general type.</p> + +<p>With regard to the Edentata, reasons will be given for believing +that both the Sloths and Anteaters are nearly related, and that the +Armadillos, though much modified, belong to the same stock, but +that the Pangolins and the Aard-varks represent very isolated +forms.</p> + +<p>There is no difficulty about the limits of the order Sirenia, comprising +aquatic, vegetable-eating animals, with complete absence of +hind limbs, and low cerebral organisation, represented in our present +state of knowledge only by two existing genera, <i>Halicore</i> and <i>Manatus</i>, +and a few extinct forms, which, though approaching a more +generalised mammalian type, show no special characters allying +them to any of the other orders. The few facts as yet collected +relating to the former history of the Sirenia leave us as much in +the dark as to the origin and affinities of this peculiar group of +animals as we were when we only knew the living members. +They lend no countenance to their association with the Cetacea; +and, on the other hand, their supposed affinity with the Ungulata +receives no very material support from them.</p> + +<p>Another equally well-marked and equally isolated, though far +more numerously represented and diversified order, is that of the +Cetacea, placed simply for convenience next to the Sirenia; with +which, except in their fish-like adaptation to aquatic life, they have +little in common. The old association of these orders in one group +can only be maintained either in ignorance of their structure or +in an avowedly artificial system. Among the existing members of +the order, there are two very distinct types, the toothed Whales or +Odontoceti, and the Baleen Whales or Mystacoceti, which present +as many marked distinguishing structural characters as are found +between many other divisions of the Mammalia usually reckoned +as orders. Since the extinct Zeuglodonts, so far as their characters<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_87"></a>[87]</span> +are known, do not fall into either of these groups, but are in some +respects annectant forms, we have placed them provisionally, at +least, in a third group by themselves, named Archæoceti. There +is nothing known at present to connect the Cetacea with any +other order of Mammals; but it is quite as likely that they are +offsets of a primitive Ungulate as of a Carnivorous type, or perhaps +of a still more generalised mammalian stock.</p> + +<p>The remaining Eutherian mammals are clearly united by the +characters of their teeth, being all heterodont and diphyodont, with +their dental system reducible to a common formula.</p> + +<p>Although older views of the relationship of Ungulate mammals +expressed by the terms <i>Pachydermata</i>, <i>Ruminantia</i>, and so forth, still +linger in some corners of zoological literature, no single point in +zoological classification can be considered so firmly established as the +distinction between the Perissodactyle and Artiodactyle Ungulates; +both being in the existing fauna of the world perfectly natural +and distinctly circumscribed groups. The breaking-up of the latter +into four equivalent sections, the Pecora, Tylopoda, Tragulina, and +Suina, is equally in accordance with all known facts. Less certain, +however, is the association of the Proboscidea and the Hyracoidea +with the true Ungulates. By many zoologists they are each, +although containing so very few existing species, made into distinct +orders; and much is to be said in favour of this view. The +discovery, however, of a vast number of extinct species of Ungulates +which cannot be brought under the definition of either Perissodactyla +or Artiodactyla, and yet are evidently allied to both, and +to a certain extent bridge over the interval between them and the +isolated groups just mentioned, make it necessary either to introduce +a number of new and ill-defined ordinal divisions, or so to +widen the scope of the original order as to embrace them all, +considering the Elephants and the Hyraces as representing suborders +equivalent to the great Perissodactyle and Artiodactyle groups. +It is the latter alternative that we have adopted.</p> + +<p>The Rodentia, although generally presenting a low grade of +development, are a very specialised and distinct group. The +position here assigned to them would accord with apparent relationships +with the Ungulates, through the Elephant on the one hand +and the extinct <i>Typotherium</i> on the other.</p> + +<p>In the present state of the fauna of the earth, the Carnivora +form a very distinct order, though naturally subdivided into two +groups, the members of the one being more typical, while those of +the other (the <i>Pinnipedia</i>) are aberrant, having the whole of their +organisation specially modified for living habitually in the water.</p> + +<p>The Insectivora comprise various lowly organised and generalised +forms, exhibiting considerable divergence of character, and apparently +connected through transitional extinct species with the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_88"></a>[88]</span> +Carnivora. As no other order can claim the family <i>Galeopithecidæ</i>, +it is placed here, but rather for convenience than for any other +consideration, since it has but little if any relationship with any of +the other members. Its isolated position is indicated by assigning +it a distinct subordinal rank.</p> + +<p>The Chiroptera have always been placed near the Insectivora; +but they are really a highly specialised group, as much isolated +from all other mammals by the modification of their anterior limbs +in adaptation to aerial locomotion, as the Cetacea and the Sirenia, +by the absence of hind limbs, are specially adapted for an aquatic +life.</p> + +<p>Lastly, the Primates, which in any natural system must be +placed at the head of the series, are divisible into two very distinct +groups—one containing the various forms of Lemurs (Lemuroidea), +and the other the Monkeys and Man (Anthropoidea). Whether +the Lemuroidea should form part of the Primates (according to the +traditional view), or a distinct order altogether removed from it, +is as yet an undetermined question, for both sides of which there +is much to be said. There can, however, be no doubt that the +Anthropoidea form a perfectly natural group, presenting a series +of tolerably regular gradations from the Marmosets (<i>Hapale</i>) to +Man. Certain breaks in the series, however, enable us to divide +it into five distinct families:—<i>Hapalidæ</i> or Marmosets: <i>Cebidæ</i> or +American Monkeys, with three premolar teeth on each side of each +jaw; <i>Cercopithecidæ</i>, containing the majority of Old-world Monkeys; +<i>Simiidæ</i>, consisting of the genera <i>Hylobates</i>, <i>Simia</i>, <i>Gorilla</i>, and +<i>Anthropopithecus</i>, the true Man-like Apes; and, lastly, <i>Hominidæ</i>, +containing the genus <i>Homo</i> alone.</p> + +<ul> + <li>Subclass I. <span class="smcap">Prototheria.</span> + <ul> + <li>Order i. <span class="smcap">Monotremata</span>—Monotremes. + <ul> + <li>Fam. 1. <i>Ornithorhynchidæ</i>—Duck-bill.</li> + <li class="pad2">2. <i>Echidnidæ</i>—Spiny Anteater.</li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + <li>Group. <b>MULTITUBERCULATA.</b><a id="FNanchor_25" href="#Footnote_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a> + <ul> + <li>Fam. 1. <b>Plagiaulacidæ</b>—Plagiaulax.</li> + <li class="pad2">2. <b>Polymastodontidæ</b>—Polymastodon.</li> + <li class="pad2">3. <b>Tritylodontidæ</b>—Tritylodon.</li> + </ul> + </li> + <li>Subclass II. <span class="smcap">Metatheria.</span> + <ul> + <li>Order ii. <span class="smcap">Marsupialia</span>—Marsupials. + <ul> + <li>Suborder 1. <span class="smcap">Polyprotodontia</span>—Polyprotodonts.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_89"></a>[89]</span> + <ul> + <li>Fam. 1. <b>Dromatheriidæ</b>—Dromatherium.</li> + <li class="pad2">2. <b>Amphitheriidæ</b>—Amphitherium, etc.</li> + <li class="pad2">3. <b>Spalacotheriidæ</b>—Spalacotherium.</li> + <li class="pad2">4. <b>Tritylodontidæ</b>—Tritylodon.</li> + <li class="pad2">5. <i>Didelphyidæ</i>—Opossums.</li> + <li class="pad2">6. <i>Dasyuridæ</i>—Thylacine and Dasyures.</li> + <li class="pad2">7. <i>Peramelidæ</i>—Bandicoots.</li> + </ul> + </li> + <li>Suborder 2. <span class="smcap">Diprotodontia</span>—Diprotodonts. + <ul> + <li>Fam. 8. <i>Phascolomyidæ</i>—Wombats.</li> + <li class="pad2">9. <i>Phalangeridæ</i>—Phalangers.</li> + <li class="pad1">10. <b>Diprotodontidæ</b>—Diprotodon.</li> + <li class="pad1">11. <b>Nototheriidæ</b>—Notothere.</li> + <li class="pad1">12. <i>Macropodidæ</i>—Kangaroos.</li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + <li>Subclass III. <span class="smcap">Eutheria.</span> + <ul> + <li>Order iii. <span class="smcap">Edentata</span>—Edentates. + <ul> + <li>Fam. 1. <i>Bradypodidæ</i>—Sloths.</li> + <li class="pad2">2. <b>Megatheriidæ</b>—Ground Sloths.</li> + <li class="pad2">3. <i>Myrmecophagidæ</i>—Anteaters.</li> + <li class="pad2">4. <i>Dasypodidæ</i>—Armadillos.</li> + <li class="pad2">5. <b>Glyptodontidæ</b>—Glyptodonts.</li> + <li class="pad2">6. <i>Manidæ</i>—Pangolins.</li> + <li class="pad2">7. <i>Orycteropodidæ</i>—Aard-varks.</li> + </ul> + </li> + <li>Order iv. <span class="smcap">Sirenia</span>—Sirenians. + <ul> + <li>Fam. 1. <i>Manatidæ</i>—Manatees.</li> + <li class="pad2">2. <b>Rhytinidæ</b>—Rhytina.</li> + <li class="pad2">3. <i>Halicoridæ</i>—Dugongs.</li> + <li class="pad2">4. <b>Halitheriidæ</b>—Halithere.</li> + </ul> + </li> + <li>Order v. <span class="smcap">Cetacea</span>—Cetaceans. + <ul> + <li>Suborder 1. <span class="smcap">Mystacoceti</span>—Baleen Whales. + <ul> + <li>Fam. 1. <i>Balænidæ</i>—Greenland Whale, etc.</li> + </ul> + </li> + <li>Suborder 2. <b>ARCHÆOCETI.</b> + <ul> + <li>Fam. 2. <b>Zeuglodontidæ</b>—Zeuglodonts.</li> + </ul> + </li> + <li>Suborder 3. <span class="smcap">Odontoceti</span>—Toothed Whales. + <ul> + <li>Fam. 3. <i>Physeteridæ</i>—Sperm Whale.</li> + <li class="pad2">4. <i>Platanistidæ</i>—Freshwater Dolphins.</li> + <li class="pad2">5. <i>Delphinidæ</i>—Dolphins, Porpoises, etc.</li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + <li>Order vi. <span class="smcap">Ungulata</span>—Hoofed Mammals. + <ul> + <li>Suborder 1. <span class="smcap">Artiodactyla</span>—Artiodactyles. + <ul> + <li>Section A. <span class="smcap">Suina</span>—Pig-like Artiodactyles. + <ul> + <li>Fam 1. <i>Hippopotamidæ</i>—Hippopotamus.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_90"></a>[90]</span></li> + <li class="pad2">2. <i>Suidæ</i>—Pigs and Peccaries.</li> + <li class="pad2">Annectant types.</li> + <li class="pad1">{ 3. <b>Chœropotamidæ</b>—Chœropotamus.</li> + <li class="pad1">{ 4. <b>Anthracotheriidæ</b>—Anthracothere.</li> + <li class="pad1">{ 5. <b>Merycopotamidæ</b>—Merycopotamus.</li> + <li class="pad1">{ 6. <b>Cotylopidæ</b>—Oreodonts.</li> + <li class="pad1">{ 7. <b>Anoplotheriidæ</b>—Anoplothere.</li> + <li class="pad1">{ 8. <b>Dichodontidæ</b>—Dichodon.</li> + </ul> + </li> + <li>Section B. <span class="smcap">Tragulina</span>—Chevrotains. + <ul> + <li class="pad2">9. <i>Tragulidæ</i>—Chevrotains.</li> + </ul> + </li> + <li>Section C. <span class="smcap">Tylopoda</span>—Camels. + <ul> + <li class="pad1">10. <i>Camelidæ</i>—Camels and Llamas.</li> + <li class="pad1">11. <b>Poebrotheriidæ</b>—Poëbrotherium.</li> + </ul> + </li> + <li>Section D. <span class="smcap">Pecora</span>—True Ruminants. + <ul> + <li class="pad1">12. <i>Cervidæ</i>—Deer.</li> + <li class="pad1">13. <i>Giraffidæ</i>—Giraffe.</li> + <li class="pad1">14. <i>Antilocapridæ</i>—Prong-buck.</li> + <li class="pad1">15. <i>Bovidæ</i>—Sheep, Cattle, etc.</li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + <li>Suborder 2. <span class="smcap">Perissodactyla</span>—Perissodactyles. + <ul> + <li>Fam. 16. <i>Tapiridæ</i>—Tapirs.</li> + <li class="pad2">17. <b>Lophiodontidæ</b>—Lophiodonts.</li> + <li class="pad2">18. <b>Palæotheriidæ</b>—Palæotheres.</li> + <li class="pad2">19. <i>Equidæ</i>—Horses.</li> + <li class="pad2">20. <i>Rhinocerotidæ</i>—Rhinoceroses.</li> + <li class="pad2">21. <b>Lambdotheriidæ</b>—Palæosyops.</li> + <li class="pad2">22. <b>Chalicotheriidæ</b>—Chalicothere.</li> + <li class="pad2">23. <b>Titanotheriidæ</b>—Titanothere.</li> + <li class="pad2">24. <b>Macraucheniidæ</b>—Macrauchenia.</li> + </ul> + </li> + <li>Suborder 3. <b>TOXODONTIA</b>—Toxodonts. + <ul> + <li>Fam. 25. <b>Toxodontidæ</b>—Toxodon.</li> + <li class="pad2">26. <b>Typotheriidæ</b>—Typothere.</li> + </ul> + </li> + <li>Suborder 4. <b>CONDYLARTHRA.</b> + <ul> + <li>Fam. 27. <b>Periptychidæ</b>—Periptychus.</li> + <li class="pad2">28. <b>Phenacodontidæ</b>—Phenacodus.</li> + <li class="pad2">29. <b>Meniscotheriidæ</b>—Meniscothere.</li> + </ul> + </li> + <li>Suborder 5. <span class="smcap">Hyracoidea</span>—Hyraces. + <ul> + <li>Fam. 30. <i>Hyracidæ</i>—Hyrax.</li> + </ul> + </li> + <li>Suborder 6. <b>AMBLYPODA.</b> + <ul> + <li>Fam. 31. <b>Pantolambdidæ</b>—Pantolambda.</li> + <li class="pad2">32. <b>Coryphodontidæ</b>—Coryphodon.</li> + <li class="pad2">33. <b>Uintatheriidæ</b>—Uintathere.</li> + </ul> + </li> + <li>Suborder 7. <span class="smcap">Proboscidea</span>—Proboscideans. + <ul> + <li>Fam. 34. <b>Dinotheriidæ</b>—Dinothere.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_91"></a>[91]</span></li> + <li class="pad2">35. <i>Elephantidæ</i>—Elephants.</li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + <li>Group. <b>TILLODONTIA</b>—Tillodonts. + <ul> + <li>Fam. <b>Anchippodontidæ</b>—Anchippodus.</li> + <li class="pad2"><b>Calamodontidæ</b>—Calamodon.</li> + </ul> + </li> + <li>Order vii. <span class="smcap">Rodentia</span>—Rodents. + <ul> + <li>Suborder 1. <span class="smcap">Simplicidentata.</span> + <ul> + <li>Fam. 1. <i>Anomaluridæ</i>—Anomalurus.</li> + <li class="pad2">2. <i>Sciuridæ</i>—Squirrels and Marmots.</li> + <li class="pad2">3. <i>Haplodontidæ</i>—Haplodon.</li> + <li class="pad2">4. <b>Ischyromyidæ</b>—Ischyromys.</li> + <li class="pad2">5. <i>Castoridæ</i>—Beavers.</li> + <li class="pad2">6. <i>Myoxidæ</i>—Dormice.</li> + <li class="pad2">7. <i>Lophiomyidæ</i>—Lophiomys.</li> + <li class="pad2">8. <i>Muridæ</i>—Rats, Mice, and Voles.</li> + <li class="pad2">9. <i>Spalacidæ</i>—Mole-rats.</li> + <li class="pad1">10. <i>Geomyidæ</i>—Pouched Rats.</li> + <li class="pad1">11. <i>Dipodidæ</i>—Jerboas.</li> + <li class="pad1">12. <b>Theridomyidæ</b>—Theridomys.</li> + <li class="pad1">13. <i>Octodontidæ</i>—Spiny Mice.</li> + <li class="pad1">14. <b>Castoroididæ</b>—Castoroides.</li> + <li class="pad1">15. <i>Hystricidæ</i>—Porcupines.</li> + <li class="pad1">16. <i>Chinchillidæ</i>—Chinchillas.</li> + <li class="pad1">17. <i>Dinomyidæ</i>—Dinomys.</li> + <li class="pad1">18. <i>Caviidæ</i>—Cavies.</li> + <li class="pad1">19. <i>Dasyproctidæ</i>—Agouties.</li> + </ul> + </li> + <li>Suborder 2. <span class="smcap">Duplicidentata.</span> + <ul> + <li>Fam. 20. <i>Lagomyidæ</i>—Picas.</li> + <li class="pad2">21. <i>Leporidæ</i>—Hares and Rabbits.</li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + <li>Order viii. <span class="smcap">Carnivora</span>—Carnivores. + <ul> + <li>Suborder 1. <span class="smcap">Carnivora Vera</span>—Fissipedes. + <ul> + <li>Fam. 1. <i>Felidæ</i>—Cats.</li> + <li class="pad2">2. <i>Hyænidæ</i>—Hyænas.</li> + <li class="pad2">3. <i>Proteleidæ</i>—Earth-wolf.</li> + <li class="pad2">4. <i>Viverridæ</i>—Civets and Ichneumons.</li> + <li class="pad2">5. <i>Canidæ</i>—Wolves and Foxes.</li> + <li class="pad2">6. <i>Ursidæ</i>—Bears.</li> + <li class="pad2">7. <i>Mustelidæ</i>—Weasels and Otters.</li> + <li class="pad2">8. <i>Procyonidæ</i>—Raccoons and Cat-bear.</li> + </ul> + </li> + <li>Suborder 2. <span class="smcap">Pinnipedia</span>—Pinnipedes. + <ul> + <li>Fam. 9. <i>Otariidæ</i>—Eared Seals.</li> + <li class="pad1">10. <i>Trichechidæ</i>—Walrus.</li> + <li class="pad1">11. <i>Phocidæ</i>—Seals.</li> + </ul> + </li> + <li>Suborder 3. <b>CREODONTA</b>—Creodonts. + <ul> + <li>Fam. 12. <b>Hyænodontidæ</b>—Hyænodon.</li> + <li class="pad2">13. <b>Proviverridæ</b>—Proviverra.</li> + <li class="pad2">14. <b>Arctocyonidæ</b>—Arctocyon.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_92"></a>[92]</span></li> + <li class="pad2">15. <b>Mesonychidæ</b>—Mesonyx.</li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + <li>Order ix. <span class="smcap">Insectivora</span>—Insectivores. + <ul> + <li>Suborder 1. <span class="smcap">Insectivora Vera.</span> + <ul> + <li>Fam. 1. <i>Tupaiidæ</i>—Tupaias.</li> + <li class="pad2">2. <i>Macroscelididæ</i>—Elephant-Shrews.</li> + <li class="pad2">3. <i>Erinaceidæ</i>—Hedgehogs.</li> + <li class="pad2">4. <i>Soricidæ</i>—Shrews.</li> + <li class="pad2">5. <i>Talpidæ</i>—Moles.</li> + <li class="pad2">6. <i>Potamogalidæ</i>—Potamogale.</li> + <li class="pad2">7. <i>Solenodontidæ</i>—Solenodon.</li> + <li class="pad2">8. <i>Centetidæ</i>—Centetes.</li> + <li class="pad2">9. <i>Chrysochloridæ</i>—Golden Moles.</li> + </ul> + </li> + <li>Suborder 2. <span class="smcap">Dermoptera.</span> + <ul> + <li>Fam. 10. <i>Galeopithecidæ</i>—Galeopithecus.</li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + <li>Order x. <span class="smcap">Chiroptera</span>—Bats. + <ul> + <li>Suborder 1. <span class="smcap">Megachiroptera</span>—Frugivorous Bats. + <ul> + <li>Fam. 1. <i>Pteropodidæ</i>—Flying Foxes.</li> + </ul> + </li> + <li>Suborder 2. <span class="smcap">Microchiroptera</span>—Insectivorous Bats. + <ul> + <li>Fam. 2. <i>Vespertilionidæ</i>—Common Bats.</li> + <li class="pad2">3. <i>Nycteridæ</i>—Nycteris.</li> + <li class="pad2">4. <i>Rhinolophidæ</i>—Leaf-nosed Bats.</li> + <li class="pad2">5. <i>Emballonuridæ</i>—Emballonura.</li> + <li class="pad2">6. <i>Phyllostomatidæ</i>—Vampyres.</li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + <li>Order xi. <span class="smcap">Primates.</span> + <ul> + <li>Suborder 1. <span class="smcap">Lemuroidea</span>—Lemuroids. + <ul> + <li>Fam. 1. <b>Hyopsodontidæ</b>—Hyopsodus.</li> + <li class="pad2">2. <i>Chiromyidæ</i>—Aye-Aye.</li> + <li class="pad2">3. <i>Tarsiidæ</i>—Tarsier.</li> + <li class="pad2">4. <i>Lemuridæ</i>—Lemurs.</li> + </ul> + </li> + <li>Suborder 2. <span class="smcap">Anthropoidea</span>—Anthropoids. + <ul> + <li>Fam. 5. <i>Hapalidæ</i>—Marmosets.</li> + <li class="pad2">6. <i>Cebidæ</i>—American Monkeys.</li> + <li class="pad2">7. <i>Cercopithecidæ</i>—Old World Monkeys.</li> + <li class="pad2">8. <i>Simiidæ</i>—Gibbons and Man-like Apes.</li> + <li class="pad2">9. <i>Hominidæ</i>—Man.</li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> +</ul> + +<p>The distinctive character of these subclasses and orders, with an +account of their subdivisions and the principal forms contained in +each, will be given in subsequent chapters.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_93"></a>[93]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV<br> +<span class="smaller">GEOGRAPHICAL AND GEOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION</span></h2> + +</div> + +<h3>I. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.<a id="FNanchor_26" href="#Footnote_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a></h3> + +<p>In considering the present distribution of mammals over the +globe, we may, in the first place, direct our attention to terrestrial +or land types, reserving the consideration of aerial types, like the +Bats, and aquatic forms, as exemplified by the Cetaceans, Sirenians, +and Seals, to separate sections.</p> + +<p>Among terrestrial forms each species has a certain definite area +of distribution in space, which may be of very wide extent, or may +be confined to a restricted region. This distributional area is, +however, always connected, or continuous; that is to say, that +although we may have a single species inhabiting two continents, +like the Lion in Asia and Africa, or dwelling both on a continent +and adjacent continental islands, like the Javan Rhinoceros of India, +Java, and Borneo, yet we shall always find that such areas, if not +still connected, show evident signs of having been so connected +in comparatively late geological epochs; and we never find +instances of the same species inhabiting totally disconnected areas, +such as India and South America. As examples of mammals +with a wide distribution we may mention the Lion and the +Leopard, which are now found throughout Africa, and also occur +in India, as well as in the intervening areas of Arabia and Persia. +In the case of the former species, palæontology further teaches us +that its distribution in the last geological epoch was even more +extensive, since we have good evidence to show that it formerly +ranged over the greater part of Europe, including the British Isles. +The Jackal affords another well-known instance of a species common<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_94"></a>[94]</span> +to India and Africa. The American Puma, again, may be cited as +an example of a mammal having a very wide range in latitude, +since it is found from Patagonia in the south to Canada in the +north. As instances of wide range in the opposite direction we +have only to mention the Reindeer and the Elk or Moose, found +in the northern regions of both the Old and New Worlds, which +are only separated from one another by the narrow channel of +Behring Strait.</p> + +<p>Of mammals with extremely restricted distributional areas, we +may mention many of the Insectivora, such as the Desman of the +Pyrenees, and some of the Madagascar types of this order, the +Lemurs from the same island, some of the species of Marmots, the +remarkable bear-like <i>Æluropus</i> of Eastern Tibet, one species of Zebra, +and other Ungulates from Africa.</p> + +<p>The distribution of a genus (except of course when the genus is +represented only by a single form) is very generally more extensive +than that of a species; and this may be markedly the case +when there are only some two or three species in a genus. In +genera, moreover, we meet with what is known as discontinuous +distribution, that is, where the distributional area of one or +more species is totally separated from that of others. The best +instance of this occurs in the case of the Tapirs, where we find +one species inhabiting the Malayan Peninsula, and no others +anywhere in the world, with the exception of South America. The +explanation of such an apparently anomalous feature in distribution +is to be found in the past history of the globe, which shows us that +Tapirs once existed in China, Europe, and North America, and, +therefore, indicates that the existing isolated species are the sole +survivors of a group once spread over a large portion of the earth’s +surface. In regard to generic distribution it must, however, be +mentioned that this depends to a great extent on the limits which +we are disposed to assign to genera themselves.</p> + +<p>As the distributional area of a genus generally exceeds that of +a species, so that of a family, or group of genera, is larger than that +of a single genus; and similarly the distribution of an order, or +assemblage of families, usually occupies a larger area than that of +a single family. Thus, for instance, the genus <i>Thylacinus</i>, represented +only by the so-called Tasmanian Wolf or Thylacine, is +now entirely restricted to Tasmania; but the family <i>Dasyuridæ</i>, to +which that genus belongs, ranges all over Australia, while the order +Marsupialia, which includes the <i>Dasyuridæ</i>, is found both in Australia +and America, and in past epochs was probably spread over +the entire globe.</p> + +<p>A remarkable feature in connection with the distribution of the +terrestrial Mammalia is the circumstance that, with the exception of +certain species introduced by human agency, and small forms which<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_95"></a>[95]</span> +can easily have been transported on floating timber or other similar +means, they are totally absent from what are known as oceanic +islands—that is islands arising from great depths in the ocean, +mainly composed of coral or volcanic rocks, and showing no signs +of having ever been connected with the existing continents, or the +larger and so-called continental islands. The obvious explanation +of this feature is, that from their total isolation these islands +have never been able to receive a mammalian fauna from the +great continental areas on which mammalian life was probably +first developed.</p> + +<p>As an intermediate step between these islands which are +practically void of mammalian life and the continents which teem +with such a variety of forms, are certain larger islands and portions +of continents containing a mammalian fauna more or less markedly +distinct from that of the whole of the other regions of the globe. +The best instance of this is Australia, which, with the exception of +one dog—the Dingo—and certain <i>Muridæ</i> and Bats, has no mammals +except Monotremes and Marsupials. The latter are, moreover, perfectly +distinct from those of America, which, if we exclude the islands +in the neighbourhood of Australia, is the only other region which now +possesses any Marsupials at all. Here also we have a ready and full +explanation which accords with all the facts; since it is evident +that Australia has been isolated from the Asiatic continent from +some very remote geological epoch, at which period it is probable +that Monotremes and Marsupials were the dominant if not the sole +representatives of the Mammalia then existing. Consequently +Australia has never been able to receive an influx of the Eutherian +orders, which have probably swept away all the Marsupials except +the small American Opossums from the rest of the globe. Again, +the large island of Madagascar, which has a fauna of an African type, +but still very markedly different from that of the mainland, may +be considered to have been connected with the latter at a time +when the Eutheria had become the dominant forms, but has been +separated for a sufficiently long period to have enabled a large +number of its species and genera to have become distinct from those +of the adjacent continent. Similarly, there is evidence to show +that South America was probably cut off for a considerable period +from the northern half of the American continent, in consequence +of which its lowly organised fauna of Edentates were enabled to +attain such a remarkable development in the later geological +periods.</p> + +<p>In contrast to the mammalian fauna of islands of the preceding +type is, or rather was, that of the British Islands, which in the +early historic and prehistoric periods was identical with that of +the Continent. This leads to the inference that at a comparatively +late epoch there was a direct land communication between Britain<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_96"></a>[96]</span> +and the Continent, which is shown by geological evidence to have +actually been the case.</p> + +<p>The above instances are sufficient to show what an important +influence the date of separation of islands from the adjacent +continents has had upon their existing mammalian fauna, and how +largely the present distribution of mammalian life is bound up with +the past history of our globe. We must, however, not omit to +mention another very important agency of past times which has +likewise had great influence on the present distribution of the +various faunas of the northern hemisphere. This is the so-called +glacial epoch, which took place immediately before the establishment +of the present condition of things, and appears to have been +the cause of the extinction of many of the larger mammalian types +which formerly inhabited Europe, and whose retreat to the warmer +regions of the south was apparently cut off by the Mediterranean.</p> + +<p><i>Zoological Regions.</i>—Zoologists are now generally agreed in dividing +the land surfaces of the globe into a number of zoological regions or +provinces, characterised by a more or less distinctly marked general +<i>facies</i> of their fauna as a whole. Some of these regions are much more +distinctly defined than the others; and in the majority of cases +there is a kind of neutral ground or No-man’s-land at the junction +between any two of these regions. It must also be remembered +that in the Old World proper as we go back in time we find a +gradual assimilation in the mammalian faunas of the different +regions, indicating that originally there was one large fauna of +a generally similar type occupying the greater portion of this +area. Thus we find that Hippopotami, Giraffes, Kudus, Elands, +and other types of Antelopes now restricted to Africa, formerly +extended to Europe and India, while there is also evidence to show +that the group of large anthropoid Apes, now found only in Africa +and the Bornean region, were likewise spread over a large part of +the south-western half of the Old World. Moreover, while at the +present day there is a marked connection between the mammals of +the northern regions of both the Old and New Worlds, in the +Tertiary period it appears that the fauna of the whole of North +America was much more nearly allied to that of the central regions +of the Old World than is now the case. Thus in the Tertiary +rocks of America we meet with remains of what we are accustomed +to regard as such essentially Old World genera as Horses and +Rhinoceroses. On the other hand there are no traces in America +of the existence at any period of Apes, Giraffes, Hippopotami, or +Hyænas, while that continent has yielded evidence of groups of +Ungulates totally unrepresented in the eastern hemisphere.</p> + +<p>The chief zoological regions of the globe, proposed by Mr. Sclater +in 1857, and now recognised by the majority of authorities, are +six in number, and are named as follows. Firstly, the Palæarctic<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_97"></a>[97]</span> +region, embracing the whole of Europe, Persia, Northern Arabia, +and all of Asia northward of the line of the Himalaya proper, +Japan, that part of Africa lying northward of the Sahara Desert, +and the oceanic islands of the North Atlantic. Secondly, the +Ethiopian region, which comprises all Africa lying to the south +of the Sahara, the southern part of Arabia, Madagascar, and the +Mascarene Islands. Thirdly, the Oriental or Indian region, which +is taken to include India south of the Himalaya, and to the +north-west as far as Beluchistan, the Malay peninsula, southern +China, Sumatra, Java, Borneo, and the Philippines. Fourthly, +the Australasian region, which is usually defined as being bounded +to the north-west by the deep sea channel lying between Borneo and +Celebes known as Wallace’s line, and is taken to include Celebes, +Lumbok, New Guinea, Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand, and the +host of oceanic islands in the South Pacific. Several writers, however, +prefer to regard Celebes and some of the adjacent islands as +representing a transitional Austro-Malayan region. Fifthly, the +Nearctic region, comprising Greenland and North America as far +south as the north of Mexico. And sixthly, the Neotropical +region, which embraces the remaining portion of the American +continent and the West Indies.</p> + +<p>Various minor modifications of this scheme have been proposed. +Thus some writers are disposed to raise India to the rank of a +distinct primary region, while others propose the same for New +Zealand. The Palæarctic and Nearctic regions have a large number +of common types, more especially among the mammals, and Dr. A. +Heilprin<a id="FNanchor_27" href="#Footnote_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> has expressed his opinion that they should be regarded +as a single primary region under the name of the Holarctic. The +same writer would also separate the South Pacific Islands as constituting +a Polynesian region.</p> + +<p>Minor divisions or sub-regions have also been marked out, but it +will be unnecessary to indicate their limits in the present work. +We may, however, mention the Mediterranean sub-region of the +Palæarctic, which includes the peninsular portion of southern +Europe, North Africa, Asia Minor, Persia, Afghanistan, Beluchistan, +and Northern Arabia, as a good instance of the transition from one +region to another, since its fauna has a mingling of Palæarctic, +Ethiopian, and Oriental types, the former being, however, the +predominant ones.</p> + +<p>Of the chief mammalian types characteristic of these various +regions only a brief sketch can be given in this work.</p> + +<p><i>Palæarctic Region.</i>—The Palæarctic region is of enormous extent, +and includes countries varying greatly in their flora, climate, and +elevation. Thus it embraces the Arctic plains of Siberia, the warm +regions of Italy, Southern France, and Northern Africa, the forest-clad<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_98"></a>[98]</span> +slopes of the outer Himalaya, and the lofty arid plains of Turkestan +and Tibet, scorched by a burning sun in summer and chilled by +a still more terrible cold in winter. Its extreme limits in the west +are marked by the Canaries and Azores, and in the east by distant +Japan; and yet throughout this vast expanse we find a great uniformity +of life, as exemplified by the large number of British genera +which occur also in Japan. The mammals which are on the whole +the most characteristic of this region are the Sheep and Goats, forming +a section of the great family of <i>Bovidæ</i>; nearly all the species of which +are Palæarctic, although we meet with one Goat (<i>Capra</i>) in the +Nilgherries of Southern India, and a Sheep (<i>Ovis</i>) in the Nearctic +region. The Musk Ox (<i>Ovibos</i>) is characteristic of the Palæarctic +and Nearctic regions. At least one species of Camel is characteristic +of this region, and it is not improbable that the second may also +have originated in it. There are a few characteristic types of +Antelopes, such as the Alpine Chamois (<i>Rupicapra</i>), the Saiga of +Tartary, and the Chiru (<i>Pantholops</i>) of Tibet, each of which is +represented by only a single species: and we miss the host of +Antelopes so characteristic of the Ethiopian region. Deer (<i>Cervus</i>) +are abundant, although by no means confined to this region; and +the Musk Deer (<i>Moschus</i>), the sole representative of the subfamily +<i>Moschinæ</i>, is exclusively Palæarctic. Monkeys, as a rule, are absent, +although we meet with one species of <i>Macacus</i> in Northern +Africa and at Gibraltar, and some other types on the southern +border of Tibet. The Moles (<i>Talpa</i>) are mainly Palæarctic, +although one species enters Northern India, while the Desmans +(<i>Myogale</i>) of the Pyrenees and Southern Russia are unknown +beyond the limits of this region. The Water-shrew (<i>Nectogale</i>) is +likewise a peculiar eastern Palæarctic type. Among the Rodents, +the Picas or Tailless Hares (<i>Lagomys</i>) and the Dormice (<i>Myoxus</i>) +are essentially Palæarctic forms, only one species of each being found +beyond the limits of the region, and the one extra-Palæarctic species +of <i>Lagomys</i> occurring in the cognate Nearctic region. The Mice and +Rats are represented by the typical genus <i>Mus</i> and other types, +and Hares (<i>Lepus</i>) and one species of Squirrel (<i>Sciurus</i>) are common. +The Carnivora include two species of Bears (<i>Ursus</i>), Wolves and +Foxes (<i>Canis</i>), a Lynx and a few species of Cats (<i>Felis</i>), as well as +numerous weasels (<i>Mustela</i>), and some other types.</p> + +<p><i>Ethiopian Region.</i>—The Ethiopian region is of great interest to +the student of mammals, since it is inhabited by a number of forms +remarkable for their large size. A considerable portion of the area +consists of desert, especially in the north; but there is also a wide +extent of grassy plains (veltd), as well as vast tracts of equatorial +forests of great density. Perhaps the most striking feature in the +Ethiopian fauna is the number of Ungulates, both of the Artiodactyle +and Perissodactyle sections. In the former section we have<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_99"></a>[99]</span> +the Giraffes (<i>Giraffa</i>) represented by one species, which is the type +of a family, and is unknown elsewhere. Equally characteristic are +the Hippopotami, which likewise form the type of a family, while +the Pigs are represented by the Wart-hogs (<i>Phacochœrus</i>) and the +River-hogs, forming an aberrant group of the genus <i>Sus</i>. The Oxen +(<i>Bos</i>) are represented by Buffaloes, but there are no species of true +Oxen or Bison. The Antelopes attain an extraordinary development, +the number of species being estimated at from eighty to ninety, +which are referred to a large number of genera, although several of +these are more or less ill-defined. Most of these genera are peculiar +to this region, but the Gazelles (<i>Gazella</i>) are also found in the desert +regions of other parts of the Old World, and <i>Oryx</i> ranges into Arabia +and Persia. In contrast to this abundance of Antelopes is the total +absence of the Deer family, or <i>Cervidæ</i>, which are so characteristic +of the Palæarctic and Oriental regions. The Chevrotains or +<i>Tragulidæ</i> are, however, represented by <i>Dorcatherium</i>.<a id="FNanchor_28" href="#Footnote_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a> In the +Perissodactyle section we may notice the presence of two species +of <i>Rhinoceros</i>, both furnished with two horns, and distinguished from +those of the Oriental region by the absence of incisor and canine +teeth. The Horse family (<i>Equidæ</i>) is also represented by several +species, and includes the peculiar group of Zebras, characterised +by their beautifully striped skins. Of other Ungulates the Elephants, +which, like the Rhinoceroses, are now peculiar to the +Ethiopian and Oriental regions, have one species, which is widely +different from its Indian congener. The Hyraces are mainly +characteristic of this region, although one species occurs in Syria +and Palestine. The Carnivora include some forms like the Lion, +Leopard, and Jackal, common to the Oriental region, but likewise +include certain peculiar types like the Earth-wolf (<i>Proteles</i>), which +may be regarded as the type of a distinct family, and two species +Hyænas, which are referred by some authorities to a distinct genus +(<i>Crocuta</i>). There is also the Hunting dog (<i>Lycaon</i>), and the peculiar +group of Foxes known as the Fennecs, together with <i>Otocyon</i>. Bears, +Wolves, and true Foxes are absent; but Civets, etc., are abundant, +although not characteristic of the region. The Primates yield several +very characteristic types, such as the Gorilla and the Chimpanzee +(<i>Anthropopithecus</i>) among the <i>Simiidæ</i>, which, with the exception of +the Orangs of Borneo, are the only existing large man-like Apes, +and the group of Dog-faced Baboons (<i>Cynocephalus</i>) in the <i>Cercopithecidæ</i>. +The genus <i>Colobus</i> is also a group of the latter family, +absolutely characteristic of the region. Lemurs, again, occur on +the continent of Africa, but the great development of this group +is in the adjacent island of Madagascar, where several peculiar +genera occur, and where the larger Carnivora and Ungulata are<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_100"></a>[100]</span> +absent. These peculiarities of the fauna of Madagascar apparently +point, as previously mentioned, to its separation from the mainland +before the latter was overrun by the larger types, and at a time +when its chief mammals were Lemurs and Insectivores. There +are two genera of Edentates, the Pangolins (<i>Manis</i>), and the Aard-vark +(<i>Orycteropus</i>), the latter being peculiar.</p> + +<p>Although the foregoing groups of mammals are now so +characteristic of the Ethiopian region, it cannot be too strongly +insisted that their restriction to this region is, so to speak, merely +a feature of the present day, and that at a late geological epoch +nearly all the peculiar genera were represented in India, and many +of them also in Europe.</p> + +<p><i>Oriental Region.</i>—The third or Oriental region is likewise of very +considerable extent, and is the only one, in addition to the Ethiopian, +which is the home of huge Ungulates, like Elephants and +Rhinoceroses, and the large man-like Apes. A large proportion of +this extensive area is occupied by tropical and subtropical forests +and swamps; these being especially abundant in Burma, Southern +China, Siam, and the southern ridges of the Himalaya, collectively +constituting the Indo-Chinese sub-region, and also in the Indo-Malayan +sub-region of the Malay peninsula and adjacent islands. +In the third or Indian sub-region, comprising peninsular India, with +the exception of the Carnatic, there are large tracts of open country, +including some of the hottest regions in the world, parts of which +form plains more or less covered with vegetation during the cooler +and rainy seasons, while others are barren rocky table-lands, as in +the Deccan, or arid deserts like those of parts of the Punjab and +Sind. Finally, in the fourth or Cingalese sub-region, represented +by the Carnatic and the island of Ceylon, we find vast areas of +luxuriant forest and jungle. In the north-western desert area of +the Indian sub-region the fauna includes a mixture of Palæarctic and +Ethiopian forms, with those characteristic of the Oriental region.</p> + +<p>Among the chief features of the mammalian fauna of this +region we may notice the absence of Hippopotami and Giraffes, the +greatly diminished number of Antelopes, as compared with those +of Africa, and the abundance of Deer and true Pigs. The Antelopes +comprise the two peculiar genera <i>Boselaphus</i> (Nilghai) and the +typical <i>Antilope</i> (Black-buck), each of which is represented by only +a single species, while the Deer belong to the so-called Rusine +group, which is markedly different from that to which the +Palæarctic Red Deer belongs. True Chevrotains (<i>Tragulus</i>) are +peculiar to this region. The Oxen include the true Buffalo, +differing in many respects from the African species of the same +group, and also certain species of true Oxen, such as the Gaour and +Banting, belonging to the Bibovine group, which is confined to this +region. In the Perissodactyla Horses (<i>Equus</i>) are represented<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_101"></a>[101]</span> +only by a single species in the desert area of the Indian sub-region, +while the two species of <i>Rhinoceros</i> differ from those of Africa +in being furnished with canines and incisors. The Malayan +Tapir is the only Old World species of its genus. The Indian +Elephant differs, moreover, so markedly from its African ally that +some writers regard the two as types of distinct genera. The +Carnivora include the Lion, Leopard, Jackal, and Hunting-Leopard, +which are common to Africa; but the Tiger is very characteristic +of this region, although extending northwards into the Palæarctic. +Civets are abundant, comprising some peculiar genera, of which it +will suffice to mention the well known <i>Paradoxurus</i>. Wolves closely +allied to the Palæarctic species occur in Northern India, and there +are also Foxes related to the typical species. The Dog-like animals +which hunt in packs, and are separated by some writers from <i>Canis</i> +under the name of <i>Cyon</i>, occur in the present and the Palæarctic +region. The striped Hyæna is the Indian representative of its genus. +Ratels are common to this and the Ethiopian region, and constitute +the genus <i>Mellivora</i>. The most striking feature in the Carnivorous +fauna of this region, as distinguished from the Ethiopian, is, however, +the presence of Bears, some of which belong to the typical genus +<i>Ursus</i>, while one species is usually generically separated under the +name of <i>Melursus</i>. Among the Rodents we may especially notice +the abundance of the <i>Muridæ</i> and <i>Sciuridæ</i>. In the former family +we have numbers of true Mice (<i>Mus</i>), and also the peculiar genus +<i>Nesocia</i> (Bandicoot-Rat), while in the latter both the true Squirrels +(<i>Sciurus</i>) and the Flying-Squirrels (<i>Pteromys</i>) attain great development. +The genus (<i>Pteromys</i>) is, indeed, mainly characteristic of this +region, although in Kashmir and Japan it enters the Palæarctic. +The Bats are very numerous, being represented by all the families, +with the exception of the <i>Phyllostomatidæ</i>, or Vampyres, of South +America. Among the Insectivora the genera <i>Tupaia</i> and <i>Galeopithecus</i> +(Flying Lemur) are peculiar to this region, although not +found in India. Finally, in the Primates we have the genera +<i>Macacus</i> and <i>Semnopithecus</i> very abundantly represented, although +both also enter the Palæarctic region; but the Anthropoid types +are confined to the south-eastern half of the region, and include the +Orangs (<i>Simia</i>) of Borneo, and the smaller long-armed Gibbons +(<i>Hylobates</i>), which are abundant in the Malay peninsula, both +genera not being found beyond this region. The Lemurs are much +less abundant than in the Ethiopian region, but they include the +peculiar Tarsier of Sumatra, Borneo, and Celebes (Austro-Malayan +region), which differs so markedly in dentition and structure of +the feet from all other forms that it has been made the type of +a separate family. The Edentates, so poorly represented in the +Old World, include only Pangolins (<i>Manis</i>), which, as we have +already seen, also occur in the Ethiopian region.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_102"></a>[102]</span></p> + +<p><i>Australasian Region.</i>—With the fourth or Australasian region we +come to a mammalian fauna so peculiar that we have no difficulty +whatever in defining it from all the other regions of the globe, +although it should be observed that in the Austro-Malayan islands +we have a partial mingling of the Australasian and Malayan faunas. +If we exclude Celebes from this region we find that, with the +exception of a Pig in New Guinea, of the Dingo in Australia, of +numerous Mice and Rats (<i>Muridæ</i>), and Bats, there are no Eutherian +mammals throughout the area. The mammals of this region are +restricted to the Australian mainland, the island of Tasmania, New +Guinea, and the Aru islands, the whole area of New Zealand +having been totally devoid of mammalian life until introduced by +man. The whole of the Monotremata, constituting the subclass +Prototheria, and all the Marsupials, exclusive of the few outlying +forms ranging into the transitional Austro-Malayan area, and with +the exception of the American family of the Opossums (<i>Didelphyidæ</i>), +are absolutely confined to this region.</p> + +<p><i>Celebes.</i>—The mammals of Celebes—the typical representative +of the Austro-Malayan transitional region or sub-region—include the +peculiar Ape known as <i>Cynopithecus</i>, <i>Tarsius</i> (also Oriental), the +Anoa, and the single species of <i>Babirusa</i>. Several other types of +placental mammals are found in this transitional area, while the +Marsupials are represented by <i>Phalanger</i> and <i>Petaurus</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Nearctic Region.</i>—The two remaining regions we have to consider +are comprised in the New World. The first of these is the +Nearctic, which, as already mentioned, has a fauna showing such a +strongly marked relationship to that of the Palæarctic region, that +it has been proposed to unite the two regions. Among types +common to these two regions we may mention closely allied species +of true Deer (<i>Cervus</i>) as exemplified by the Red Deer and the +Wapiti; the allied Bisons of the two regions; the Reindeer and Elk +common to both; as well as nearly related, and in some cases +identical, species of Cats, Lynxes, Bears, Wolves, Foxes, Beavers, +Squirrels, Marmots, and Hares. The Glutton or Wolverene, and the +Musk Ox is also common to the Arctic portions of the two regions. +The Ungulates are very poorly represented, but we have, in addition +to the forms already mentioned, one species of the Palæarctic genus +<i>Ovis</i>, namely the Bighorn, and the Prong-buck (<i>Antilocapra</i>), which +is quite peculiar. There are, however, no Perissodactyla. The +Raccoons and Coatis (<i>Procyonidæ</i>) constitute a family represented out +of the New World only by the aberrant Cat-Bear (<i>Ælurus</i>) of Nipal. +The characteristic American feline known as the Puma extends over +this region; but there are no Edentates, and the Marsupials are +represented only by a single species of Opossum. Rodents are extremely +numerous, and comprise several characteristic types, which +alone would tell us what part of the globe we were visiting. The<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_103"></a>[103]</span> +most distinctive are the Pouched Rats (<i>Geomyidæ</i>), and the Beaver-like +rodents known as the <i>Haplodontidæ</i>. True Rats and Mice (<i>Mus</i>), +which are represented throughout the Old World, are totally wanting +in the New, where they are replaced by the Vesper-mice, which may +be included in the European genus <i>Cricetus</i>, although often separated +as <i>Hesperomys</i>. This feature alone would seem to justify the distinction +of the Nearctic from the Palæarctic region. The Musquash +(<i>Fiber</i>) is a genus of Nearctic rodents unknown in the Old World. +Among other characteristic genera we may mention, in the Carnivora, +the Skunk (<i>Mephitis</i>) and the American Badger (<i>Taxidea</i>). Primates +are absent from the entire region.</p> + +<p><i>Neotropical Region.</i>—The last of the six main regions is the +Neotropical, including Mexico, South America, and the West Indies. +A very large extent of this area is occupied by forests, which are +described as being denser and more luxuriant than those of any +other part of the globe. Alternating with these forest areas are +the vast grassy plains known in different regions as llanos, savannas, +and pampas. The back-bone of the region is formed by the great +chain of the Andes. Next to the Australasian, this region is +perhaps better characterised by its mammalian fauna than any of +the others. Commencing with the Ungulates, we find a total +absence of Antelopes, Sheep, and Oxen, and also of all Perissodactyles +except Tapirs. Deer are, however, represented, although by +peculiar forms (<i>Cariacus</i>) unknown beyond the New World. The +Peccaries (<i>Dicotyles</i>), which are often made the type of a distinct +family, take the place of the Old World Pigs, while the Llamas and +Alpacas (<i>Auchenia</i>) are the substitutes for the Palæarctic Camels. +The Carnivora include several Cats (<i>Felis</i>), among which the Puma +and the Jaguar are the most noticeable; and there are also Raccoons, +Coatis, Foxes, and one species of Bear. Insectivora are totally +wanting; but the Bats are characterised by the presence of the +Vampyres (<i>Phyllostomatidæ</i>), which are almost restricted to this +region. The Rodents likewise include three families unknown +elsewhere, namely the Chinchillas and Viscacha (<i>Chinchillidæ</i>), the +Agouties (<i>Dasyproctidæ</i>), and the Cavies (<i>Caviidæ</i>); while a large +number of the <i>Octodontidæ</i> are Neotropical, all the other forms +being Ethiopian. In the Primates, again, we have all the forms +quite peculiar to this region, and constituting two families, viz. the +<i>Cebidæ</i> or Prehensile-tailed Monkeys, and the <i>Hapalidæ</i>, or Marmosets, +both of which differ decidedly in their dentition, as well +as in other features, from the Old World Monkeys. Lemuroids +are unknown. Perhaps, however, the mammals which may be +considered as most characteristic of the Nearctic region are the +numerous Edentates, which form three families, mostly confined to +it. These comprise the <i>Bradypodidæ</i> or Sloths, which solely +inhabit the forest region; the <i>Myrmecophagidæ</i> or Anteaters; and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_104"></a>[104]</span> +the <i>Dasypodidæ</i> or Armadillos, of which one species has crept +northward as far as Texas. Almost equally characteristic are the +numerous Opossums, the majority of which belong to the genus +<i>Didelphys</i>. Finally, it should be observed that the West Indies are +distinguished from the rest of the region by the absence of Primates, +Carnivora, and Edentates.</p> + +<p><i>Aquatic Mammals.</i>—Many mammals grouped for the present +purpose as terrestrial pass a great portion of their lives in brooks, +lakes, or rivers, and, being dependent upon such waters for obtaining +their subsistence, are necessarily confined to their vicinity; +but the truly aquatic mammals, or those living constantly in the +water, and unable to move their quarters from place to place by +land, are the orders Cetacea and Sirenia, with which may also be +grouped the Seals, forming the Pinniped division of the order +Carnivora.</p> + +<p>For the marine Cetacea, animals mostly of large size and +endowed with powers of rapid locomotion, there are obviously no +barriers to universal distribution over the surface of the earth +covered by sea, except such as are interposed by uncongenial +temperature or absence of suitable food. Nevertheless it was +thought some years ago that the fact of a Whale or a Dolphin +occurring in a sea distant from that in which it had usually been +found was sufficient justification for considering it as a distinct +species and imposing a new name upon it. There are now, +however, so many cases known in which Cetaceans from the +northern and southern seas, from the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, +present absolutely no distinguishing external or anatomical characters +upon which specific determination can be based that the +opposite view is gaining ground; and, since some species are undoubtedly +very widely distributed, being in fact almost cosmopolitan, +there seems little reason why many others should not be included in +the same category. The evidence is satisfactory enough in those +instances in which the intermediate regions are inhabited by the same +forms;—the cases of “continuous areas” of distribution. In those in +which the areas of distribution are apparently discontinuous, there +may be more room for doubt; but it must not be forgotten that the +negative evidence is here of much less value than in the case of +land animals, since the existence of Cetaceans in any particular part +of the ocean may be easily overlooked. The great Sperm Whale +(<i>Physeter macrocephalus</i>) is known to be almost cosmopolitan, inhabiting +or passing through all the tropical and temperate seas, +although not found near either pole. At least three of the well-known +species of Rorqual (<i>Balænoptera</i>) of the British coasts are +represented in the North Pacific, on the South American shores, +and near New Zealand, by species so closely allied that it is difficult +to point out any valid distinctive characters, though it may perhaps<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_105"></a>[105]</span> +be desirable to wait for a more exhaustive examination of a large +series of individuals before absolutely pronouncing them to be +specifically identical. There is nothing yet known by which we can +separate the “Humpback Whales” (<i>Megaptera</i>) of Greenland, the +Cape of Good Hope, and Japan. The same may be said of the +common Dolphin of the European seas (<i>Delphinus delphis</i>) and the +so-called <i>D. bairdi</i> of the North Pacific and <i>D. forsteri</i> of the +Australian seas. The Pilot Whale (<i>Globicephalus melas</i>) and the +<i>Pseudorca</i> of the North Atlantic and of New Zealand are also, +so far as present knowledge enables us to judge, respectively alike. +Many other similar cases might be given. Captain Maury collected +much valuable evidence about the distribution of the larger Cetacea, +and, finding Right Whales (<i>Balæna</i>) common in both northern and +southern temperate seas, and absent in the intermediate region, laid +down the axiom that “the torrid zone is to the Right Whale as a sea +of fire, through which he cannot pass.” Hence all cetologists have +assumed that the Right Whale of the North Atlantic (<i>B. biscayensis</i>), +that of the South Seas (<i>B. australis</i>), and that of the North Pacific (<i>B. +japonica</i>), are necessarily distinct species. The anatomical structure +and external appearance of all are, however, so far as yet known, +marvellously alike, and, unless some distinguishing characters can +be pointed out, it seems scarcely justifiable to separate them from +geographical position alone; as, though the tropical seas may be +usually avoided by them, it does not seem impossible, or even +improbable, that some individuals of animals of such size and rapid +powers of swimming may have at some time traversed so small a +space of ocean as that which divides the present habitual localities +of these supposed distinct species. If identity or diversity of +structural characters is not to be allowed as a test of species in +these cases, as it is usually admitted to be in others, the study of +their geographical distribution becomes an impossibility.</p> + +<p>Although many species are thus apparently of such wide distribution, +others are certainly restricted; thus the Arctic Right +Whale (<i>Balæna mysticetus</i>) has been conclusively shown to be limited +in its range to the region of the northern circumpolar ice, and no +corresponding species has been met with in the southern hemisphere. +In this case, not only temperature, but also the peculiarity of its +mode of feeding, may be the cause. The Narwhal and the Beluga +have a very similar distribution, though the latter occasionally +ranges farther south. The common Hyperoödon is restricted to +the North Atlantic, never entering, so far as is yet known, the +tropical seas. Other species are exclusively tropical or austral in +their range. One of the true Whalebone Whales (<i>Neobalæna +marginata</i>) has only been met with hitherto in the seas round +Australia and New Zealand; and a large Ziphioid (<i>Berardius +arnouxi</i>) only near the last-named islands.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_106"></a>[106]</span></p> + +<p>The Cetacea are not limited to the ocean, or even to salt water, +some entering large rivers for considerable distances, and others +being exclusively fluviatile. One species of <i>Platanista</i> is extensively +distributed throughout nearly the whole of the river systems of the +Ganges, Brahmaputra, and Indus, ascending as high as there is +water enough to swim in, but apparently never passing out to sea. +The individuals inhabiting the Indus and the Ganges must therefore +have been for long ages isolated without developing any definite +distinguishing anatomical characters; for those by which the supposed +<i>P. indi</i> was formerly separated from <i>P. gangetica</i> have been +shown by Anderson to be of no constant value. <i>Orcella fluminalis</i> +appears to be limited to the Irawaddy river, and at least two distinct +species of Dolphin belonging to different genera are found in the +waters of the upper Amazon. A <i>Neomeris</i> has been found in the +great Chinese river, the Yang-tsi-Kiang, nearly a thousand miles +from the sea. It is remarkable, however, that none of the great +lakes or inland seas of the world are, according to our present +knowledge, inhabited by Cetaceans. A regular seasonal migration +has been observed in many of the oceanic Cetacea, especially those +inhabiting the North Atlantic, but further observations upon this +subject are still much needed.</p> + +<p>The great difference in the manner of life of the Sirenia, as +compared with that of the Cetacea, causes a corresponding difference +in their geographical distribution. Slow in their movements, and +feeding exclusively upon vegetable substances, water-grasses, or fuci, +the Sirenia are confined to rivers, estuaries, or coasts where these +grow, and are not denizens of the open sea, although of course there +is a possibility of accidental transport by the assistance of oceanic +currents across considerable distances. Of the three genera existing +within historic times, one (<i>Manatus</i>) is exclusively confined to +the shores of the tropical Atlantic and the rivers entering into it, +individuals scarcely specifically distinguishable being found both on +the American and the African side of the ocean. The Dugong +(<i>Halicore</i>) is distributed in different colonies, at present isolated, +throughout the Indian Ocean from Arabia to North Australia. +The <i>Rhytina</i> or Northern Sea-Cow was, for some time before its +extinction, limited to a single island in the extreme north of the +Pacific Ocean.</p> + +<p>The Pinnipeds, although capable of traversing long reaches of +ocean, are less truly aquatic than the last two groups, always +resorting to the land or to extensive ice-floes for the purpose of +breeding. The geographical range of the various species is generally +more or less restricted, usually according to climate, as they are +mostly inhabitants either of the Arctic or Antarctic seas and adjacent +temperate regions, very few being found within the tropics. For this +reason the northern and the southern species are for the most part<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_107"></a>[107]</span> +quite distinct. In fact, the only known exception is the case of a +colony of the Sea-Elephant (<i>Macrorhinus leoninus</i>), the general range +of which is in the southern hemisphere, inhabiting the coast of +California. Even in this case a different specific name has been +given to the northern form; but the characters by which it is +distinguished are not of great importance, and probably, except for +the abnormal geographical distribution, would never have been +noticed. The most remarkable circumstance connected with the +distribution of the Pinnipeds is the presence of members of the +suborder in the three isolated great lakes or inland seas of Central +Asia—the Caspian, Aral, and Baikal; these forms, notwithstanding +their long isolation, having varied but slightly from species now +inhabiting the Polar Seas.</p> + +<h3>II. GEOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION.</h3> + +<p><i>Geological Sequence.</i>—In order to understand the geological +distribution, or in other words the distribution in time of mammals, +it is necessary to be acquainted with the chief divisions, or time-periods, +of the strata constituting the crust of the globe. These are +shown in the following table, which commences with the uppermost +or most recent beds and ends with the lowest and oldest.</p> + +<table> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">I.</td> + <td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Cainozoic or Tertiary</span>—</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td></td> + <td class="tdr">1.</td> + <td>Pleistocene—River alluvia, etc.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td></td> + <td class="tdr">2.</td> + <td>Pliocene—Suffolk Crag.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td></td> + <td class="tdr">3.</td> + <td>Miocene—Hempstead Beds of Hampshire.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td></td> + <td class="tdr">4.</td> + <td>Eocene—Paris Gypsum and London Clay.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">II.</td> + <td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Mesozoic or Secondary</span>—</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td></td> + <td class="tdr">1.</td> + <td>Cretaceous—Chalk, Greensands, etc.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td></td> + <td class="tdr">2.</td> + <td>Jurassic—Oolites and Lias.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td></td> + <td class="tdr">3.</td> + <td>Triassic—Red Marls, Dolomites, etc.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">III.</td> + <td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Palæozoic or Primary</span>—</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td></td> + <td class="tdr">1.</td> + <td>Permian—Beds overlying the Coal.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td></td> + <td class="tdr">2.</td> + <td>Carboniferous—Coal-measures, etc.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td></td> + <td class="tdr">3.</td> + <td>Devonian—Old Red Sandstone.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td></td> + <td class="tdr">4.</td> + <td>Silurian—Wenlock Limestone, etc.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td></td> + <td class="tdr">5.</td> + <td>Cambrian—Llanberis Slate, etc.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td></td> + <td class="tdr">6.</td> + <td>Archæan—Gneiss and other schists.</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>The names in the first column indicate the primary divisions or +life-periods, while those in the second column are the great systems, +each of which is again divided into minor groups, the popular +names of a few of these minor groups being given in the third +column. There are at present no means of arriving at any satisfactory +conclusion as to the absolute length of time indicated by<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_108"></a>[108]</span> +either the primary or secondary divisions; but there is little doubt +that the whole of the Tertiary period is only equal to a fraction of +the Mesozoic as regards its duration, while it is probable that +the duration of the Mesozoic epoch was largely exceeded by that +of the Palæozoic.</p> + +<p><i>Mesozoic Mammals.</i>—The earliest date at which mammals are at +present known is in the upper part of the Triassic period, which +forms the base of the great Mesozoic epoch; and from this date they +are represented more or less abundantly in various horizons of the +Jurassic and Cretaceous.</p> + +<p>The very rapid advances in our knowledge of these forms which +have been made in the last few years, especially in consequence of +the explorations of rich fossiliferous beds in North America, have +not only completely changed the present aspect of the science, but +give such promise for the future, that any sketch which we may +now attempt of this branch of the subject can only be regarded +as representing a transient phase of knowledge. It will be well, +however, to gather together in this place the leading facts now +ascertained with regard to the most ancient forms, as, owing to the +uncertainty of their relationship with any of the existing orders, +they will be most conveniently treated of separately, while the +ascertained facts relating to the geological history of the forms +more nearly allied to those now living will be more appropriately +described under the account of the different groups into which the +class may now be divided.</p> + +<p>The remains of mammals which existed anterior to the Tertiary +period hitherto discovered nearly all belong to creatures of very +small size, many of the largest scarcely exceeding the common Polecat +or Squirrel. Some are known only by a few isolated teeth, +others by nearly complete sets of these organs, and the majority by +more or less nearly perfect specimens of the rami of the lower jaw. +It is a very curious circumstance that this part of the skeleton +alone has been preserved in such a large number of instances. +Only very rarely has a nearly complete cranium been found; and +there is no satisfactory evidence of the structure of the vertebral +column of any single individual, and only one known case of a complete +limb.<a id="FNanchor_29" href="#Footnote_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a> The species already described from European strata +are numerous, although the number of genera and species has lately +been reduced. Of these by far the greater number have been found +at a single spot near Swanage in Dorsetshire, in a bed of calcareous +mud only forty feet long, ten feet wide, and averaging five inches in +depth. The marvellous results obtained by the exploration by Mr. +S. H. Beckles of this small fragment of the earth’s surface show by +what accidents, as it were, our knowledge of the past history of life<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_109"></a>[109]</span> +has been gained, and what may still remain in store where little +thought of at present. A bed, apparently equally rich, has been +discovered in the Jurassic of Wyoming, North America, the contents +of which have been made known by Professor Marsh, while another +fertile source of these remains occurs in the Laramie beds of the +Upper Cretaceous of the United States.<a id="FNanchor_30" href="#Footnote_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a></p> + +<p>The whole of the Mesozoic mammals at present known may be +divided into two great groups, the one characterised by a type of +dentition more or less clearly resembling that found among the +existing Polyprotodont Marsupials, while the other presents an +altogether peculiar modification, recalling in some respects that of +the Diprotodont Marsupials, although differing so decidedly as to +show that the owners of this form of dentition cannot be included +in that group.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure024" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure024.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 24.</span>—Frontal and oral aspects of the cranium of <i>Tritylodon longævus</i>; from the Karoo +system of Basuto-land, South Africa. ⅔ natural size. (After Owen.)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Multituberculata.</i>—The name Multituberculata has been proposed +for the group exhibiting the type of dentition last mentioned, and +is generally adopted, although the term Allotheria has been also +suggested. The essential characteristic of the dentition of this group +is the presence of a single scalpriform incisor on each side of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_110"></a>[110]</span> +lower jaw (<a href="#figure025">Fig. 25</a>) and of one larger incisor, and in some instances +of one or two smaller ones in each premaxilla (<a href="#figure024">Fig. 24</a>). These +incisors are separated by an interval or diastema from the first of +the premolars. The true molars, and in some instances the premolars +(<a href="#figure024">Fig. 24</a>), are +characterised by having +longitudinal rows of +tubercles separated by +one or more grooves; +there being either two +or three of these rows +in the upper molars of +those forms in which +these teeth are known, +while there are, at least +usually, only two in +those of the lower jaw. In other cases the premolars are of a +secant type, with a highly convex cutting-edge, and usually either +serrated or obliquely grooved (<a href="#figure025">Figs. 25, 26</a>). From a certain +resemblance between these secant premolars and those of some of +the smaller <i>Macropodidæ</i> it was at one time considered that we had +in these mammals representatives of Diprotodont Marsupials. The +great difference in the structure of the molar teeth of these forms, +coupled with the circumstance that when the number of upper +incisors is reduced below three it is the second in place of the first +which becomes enlarged and opposed to the incisor of the lower +jaw, seems to prevent the acceptation of this view. Moreover, in +their peculiar structure the molars seem, on the whole, to make a +nearer approximation to the teeth of <i>Ornithorhynchus</i> than to any +other known mammal; and it has accordingly been suggested that +the Multituberculata may really represent an order of Prototheria. +Some support is afforded to this suggestion by certain fragmentary +bones from the Cretaceous of the United States, which are regarded<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_111"></a>[111]</span> +by Marsh as parts of a coracoid and interclavicle. The peculiar +character of the whole dentition of these forms indicates that if +they are really Prototherians they cannot be regarded as primitive +and ancestral types.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure025" style="max-width: 25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure025.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 25.</span>—The right ramus of the mandible of <i>Plagiaulax +beklesi</i>; from the Purbeck of Swanage. Twice natural size. +<i>i</i>, Incisor; <i>m</i>, molar; <i>b</i>, coronoid process; <i>c</i>, condyle. (After +Owen.)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>It would be beyond the scope of the present work to describe +in detail, or even to mention the names of all the members of +this group, and it will therefore suffice to refer to a few of the +principal types. Of the forms with tubercular premolars the best +known is the genus <i>Tritylodon</i> (<a href="#figure024">Fig. 24</a>), which occurs typically +in beds of Lower Mesozoic in South Africa, but is also known from +the Trias of Stuttgart. In the Stonesfield Slate, near Oxford, +which belongs to the lower part of the Jurassic system, and is +separated from the Trias by the intervening Lias, a fragmentary jaw +with three teeth (<a href="#figure027">Fig. 27</a>) appears to indicate an allied type, the +teeth having three longitudinal ridges separated by grooves. In +the Purbeck beds of Dorsetshire, forming the top of the Jurassic +system, we find another member of this group, which has been +described as <i>Bolodon</i>, closely allied to which is <i>Allodon</i> of the +Upper Jurassic of the United States.</p> + +<figure class="figright illowp100" id="figure026" style="max-width: 21.875em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure026.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 26.</span>—The imperfect right ramus of the +mandible of <i>Plagiaulax minor</i>; from Swanage. +Four times natural size. <i>p</i>, Premolars; <i>m</i>, +molars. (After Lyall.)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The first discovery of the remains of Mesozoic mammals was +made in the Keuper or Upper Trias of the Rhætian Alps in +Bavaria. In 1847 Professor Pleininger of Stuttgart, while sifting +some sand from the Keuper of Diegerloch and Steinenbronn, +found, among an immense mass of teeth, scales, and unrecognisable +fragments of skeletons of fish and saurians, two minute +teeth, each with well-defined, enamelled, tuberculated crowns +and distinct roots, plainly showing their mammalian character. +These were considered by their discoverer to indicate a predaceous +and carnivorous animal of very small size, to which he gave the name +of <i>Microlestes antiquus</i>. Subsequently Mr. C. Moore discovered in a +bone bed of Rhætic (topmost Trias) age, filling a fissure in the +Mountain Limestone at Holwell, near Frome in Somersetshire, +various isolated teeth with their crowns much worn, but apparently +including both upper and lower molars and a canine, which are +assigned by Sir R. Owen to Pleininger’s genus <i>Microlestes</i>, and +described specifically as <i>M. moorei</i>. Under the name of <i>Hypsiprymnopsis +rhæticus</i>, Professor Boyd Dawkins described a single tooth +with two roots discovered in the Rhætic Marlstone at Watchet in +Somersetshire. Sir R. Owen referred the latter tooth to <i>Microlestes</i>, +and if its describer is right in regarding it as a much worn premolar +of the type of those of <i>Plagiaulax</i> (<a href="#figure025">Fig. 25</a>) there would be evidence +that <i>Microlestes</i> was closely allied to the latter, from the molars +of which those of <i>Microlestes</i> are scarcely distinguishable.</p> + +<figure class="figright illowp100" id="figure027" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure027.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 27.</span>—<i>Stereognathus oölithicus</i>. Fragment +of jaw with three teeth (<i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, <i>c</i>), in +matrix; from the Stonesfield Slate. Natural +size. (After Owen.)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Plagiaulax</i>, of the Dorsetshire Purbeck (<a href="#figure024">Figs. 24, 25</a>), is at once +distinguished from <i>Tritylodon</i> by its secant premolars, which, as already +mentioned, recall those of some of the <i>Macropodidæ</i>, although readily<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_112"></a>[112]</span> +distinguished by the convexity of the cutting edge and their oblique +grooving. This remarkable and highly specialised type has been the +occasion of one of the most interesting discussions on the inferences +which may be drawn as to the affinities and habits of an otherwise +unknown animal from the structure of a small portion of its organisation +which occurs in the annals of natural history—a discussion +carried on with great ability, ingenuity, and wealth of illustration +on both sides. Dr. Falconer maintained that it was more nearly +allied to the Rat-Kangaroo (<i>Potorous</i> or <i>Hypsiprymnus</i>) than to any +other existing form, and that, as it is known that these animals +feed upon grass and roots, “it may be inferred of <i>Plagiaulax</i> that +the species were herbivorous or frugivorous. I can see nothing in +the character of their teeth,” he adds, “to indicate that they were +either insectivorous or omnivorous.” Sir R. Owen, on the other +hand, from the same materials came to the conclusion that “the +physiological deductions from the above-described characteristics of +the lower jaw and teeth of <i>Plagiaulax</i> are that it was a carnivorous +Marsupial. It probably found its prey in the contemporary small +insectivorous mammals and Lizards, supposing no herbivorous form +like <i>Stereognathus</i> to have co-existed during the Upper Oolitic +period.”</p> + +<p>It is impossible here to give at any length the arguments by +which these opposing views are respectively supported, but it may +be indicated that the first-mentioned is strongly countenanced by +the consideration of the following facts: (1) all existing Marsupials +may be divided, so far as their dentition is concerned, into two +groups—(<i>a</i>) those which have a pair of large more or less procumbent +incisors close to the symphysis of the lower jaw, and rudimentary +or no canines (diprotodont dentition), and (<i>b</i>) those which have +numerous small incisors and large pointed canines (polyprotodont +dentition); (2) the vast majority of the former group are purely +vegetable feeders, and almost all of the latter are carnivorous or +insectivorous; and (3) <i>Plagiaulax</i>, so far as its structure is known, +shows an analogy with the former group; and, as we have no sure +basis for inferences as to the habits of an unknown animal, but the +knowledge of the habits of such as are known, we have no grounds +for supposing that its habits differed from those forms having an +analogous type of dental structure.<a id="FNanchor_31" href="#Footnote_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a></p> + +<p>Allied types, such as <i>Ctenacodon</i>, are also met with in the Upper<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_113"></a>[113]</span> +Jurassic of North America; and the <i>Plagiaulacidæ</i> also persisted +into the lower part of the Eocene division of the Tertiary period; +<i>Neoplagiaulax</i> being a Tertiary form common to Europe and the +United States, while <i>Liotomus</i> and <i>Ptilodus</i> are at present known +only from the latter country.</p> + +<p>The present group is also represented in the upper Cretaceous +of the United States by <i>Selenacodon</i> (<i>Meniscoëssus</i> in part), <i>Cimoliomys</i>, +etc. <i>Polymastodon</i>, of the Lowest or Puerco Eocene of New Mexico +is the largest known form, and is characterised by the presence +of only one premolar and the elongated molars. The angle of +the mandible is inflected after the Marsupial fashion.</p> + +<p><i>Polyprotodont Types.</i>—The second type of mammalian dentition +found in the Mesozoic period resembles that occurring among +recent Polyprotodont Marsupials—that is to say there are at +least three lower incisors, the canines are well developed, and the +premolars and molars are cuspidate, the number of the latter reaching +in some cases to seven or eight. There has been much discussion +as to the taxonomic position of these forms, and while the +majority of writers admit the Marsupial affinities of at least a +moiety, it has been contended that others indicate distinct ordinal +groups more or less closely allied to the Insectivora. At present, +however, there is no decisive evidence to support such a view. +Important proof of the Marsupial affinity of one of these forms is +afforded by the replacement of the teeth, which appears to be of the +same nature as in the existing Marsupials, that is to say, the last +premolar alone is preceded by a milk-tooth.</p> + +<p>The most generalised forms appear to be <i>Dromatherium</i> and +<i>Microconodon</i>, from Lower Mesozoic beds in the United States, of +which enlarged views of the teeth are given in <a href="#figure004">Fig. 4</a> (1, 2), <a href="#figure004">p. +31</a>. Professor Osborn points out the extremely simple character of +these teeth, and it is quite possible that these forms may prove +to be <i>Prototheria</i>. There are three premolars and seven molars in +the lower jaw of <i>Dromatherium</i>.</p> + +<figure class="figleft illowp100" id="figure028" style="max-width: 12.5em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure028.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 28.</span>—Reversed view of the +left ramus of the mandible of +<i>Triconodon mordax</i>; from the +Purbeck of Swanage. Natural +size. (After Owen.)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>A common form in the Purbeck of Dorsetshire is <i>Triconodon</i> +(<i>Triacanthodon</i>), in which the formula of the lower teeth is <i>i</i> 3, <i>c</i> 1, +<i>p</i> 4, <i>m</i> 3-4. A lower jaw is shown in +<a href="#figure028">Fig. 28</a>, and an enlarged view of a molar +tooth in <a href="#figure004">Fig. 4</a> (5). The molar teeth consist +of three flattened cones placed in the +same antero-posterior line, those of the +upper and lower jaw being alike. <i>Priacodon</i>, +of the Jurassic of the United States, +is probably inseparable from <i>Triconodon</i>. +In the genus <i>Phascolotherium</i> (<a href="#figure029">Fig. 29</a>) of +the Lower Jurassic Stonesfield Slate, the lower teeth may be +classified as <i>i</i> 4, <i>c</i> 1, <i>p</i> 3, <i>m</i> 4, the premolars and molars being<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_114"></a>[114]</span> +much alike. The molars approximate to the type of those of +<i>Triconodon</i>, but the anterior and posterior cones are relatively +smaller. Like that of the last-named genus, the mandible of +<i>Phascolotherium</i> is remarkable for the extremely low position of +its articular condyle. In <i>Amphilestes</i> (<a href="#figure030">Fig. 30</a>) of the Stonesfield +Slate the molars appear to be of the same general type as those +of <i>Phascolotherium</i>, but are more numerous, although their exact +number cannot be determined. A somewhat different type +of lower molar is displayed by the genus <i>Amblotherium</i>, of the +Dorsetshire Purbeck, to which <i>Amphitherium</i> of the Stonesfield Slate +was probably allied. This type of tooth is shown in <a href="#figure004">Fig. 4</a> (8, 9, +12) <a href="#figure004">p. 31</a>, and, as there stated, represents that modification of the +tritubercular type known as the tubercular sectorial. The three +primitive tritubercular cusps form what is known as the blade of +the tooth, behind which +there is the talon or +hypocone. A similar +form of molar occurs +in the existing Opossums +and Bandicoots. +The number of lower +teeth in <i>Amblotherium</i> +is <i>i</i> 4, <i>c</i> 1, <i>p</i> 4, <i>m</i> +7-8. Numerous allied +types, such as <i>Achyrodon</i> +and <i>Dryolestes</i> occur in the Upper Jurassic of Europe or the +United States, while from only one side of the jaw being exposed +in each case so-called genera like <i>Stylodon</i> and <i>Stylacodon</i> have been +formed upon specimens showing the opposite side to that which +is exposed in the types of <i>Amblotherium</i> and <i>Amphitherium</i>. The<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_115"></a>[115]</span> +only parallel among existing forms to the excessive number of +molar teeth found in these Mesozoic genera occurs in the Marsupial +genus <i>Myrmecobius</i>, of which a description is given in a +succeeding chapter. Jaws more or less closely resembling those +described under the names mentioned above are also found in +the uppermost Cretaceous of the United States. A feature common +to these Mesozoic mammals and <i>Myrmecobius</i> and some other +existing forms is the presence of a narrow channel on the inner +side of the mandibular ramus known as the mylohyoid groove +(<a href="#figure029">Fig. 29</a>).</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure029" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure029.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 29.</span>—Inner view of the right ramus of the +mandible of <i>Phascolotherium bucklandi</i>; from the Stonesfield Slate. +The outline shows the natural size. <i>i</i>, Incisors (one missing); +<i>c</i>, canine; <i>p</i>, premolars; <i>m</i>, molars. The mylohyoid +groove is seen near the lower border. (After Owen.)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<figure class="figleft illowp100" id="figure030" style="max-width: 25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure030.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 30.</span>—Reversed inner view of the left ramus of the +mandible of <i>Amphilestes broderipi</i>; from the Stonesfield +Slate. Twice natural size. The restoration of the anterior +teeth is conjectural, and the condyle is placed too high. +(After Owen.)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The last type of molar dentition occurring among the Mesozoic +Mammalia is that found in the +lower jaws (<a href="#figure031">Fig. 31</a>), upon which +the genus <i>Spalacotherium</i> was +established, the upper jaws, +described as <i>Peralestes</i>, being +apparently referable to the same +animal. Upper and lower teeth +of this form are represented in +<a href="#figure004">Fig. 4</a> (6, 7), <a href="#figure004">p. 31</a>, where they are described as typical examples +of the tritubercular type of molars, the upper teeth having one +inner and two outer cusps, and the reverse condition obtaining in +the lower ones. This type of molar presents a marked resemblance +to that found in the existing Insectivorous genus <i>Chrysochloris</i>; the +number of lower teeth in <i>Spalacotherium</i> is, however, <i>i</i> 3, <i>c</i> 1, +<i>p</i> + <i>m</i> 10, by which it is widely distinguished from all the Insectivora. +<i>Menacodon</i>, of the Upper Jurassic of the United States, +appears to be allied to <i>Spalacotherium</i>.</p> + +<figure class="figright illowp100" id="figure031" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure031.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 31.</span>—Part of the left ramus of the mandible, +viewed from the outer side, of <i>Spalacotherium +tricuspidens</i>; from the Purbeck of +Swanage. Twice natural size. (After Owen.)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Tertiary Mammals.</i>—The more important types of Tertiary +mammals will, as already mentioned, be noticed under the heads +of the groups to which they are severally allied; but a few general +remarks on this subject may be advantageously recorded in this chapter. +In the first place, it may be observed that the comparatively +scanty evidence of mammalian life hitherto yielded by the Cretaceous, +coupled with the number and variety of forms approximating to +the existing groups found even in the lowest Tertiary, indicates a +great imperfection of the geological record. At present, indeed, +we have no decisive evidence of the existence of any members of +the Eutherian subclass previously to the Tertiary; but it can hardly +be doubted that in some part of the world they had made their +appearance before that epoch. The Eutherian mammals of the +lowest Eocene, both in Europe and the United States, are of an +extremely generalised type; and although many of them approximate +to existing groups, they show such a combination of characters, now +restricted to individual groups, as to indicate that several of the +various orders into which the subclass is now divided were at that<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_116"></a>[116]</span> +period very intimately connected. A marked feature of these +early Eutherians is the prevalency of trituberculism in the dentition, +not less noteworthy being the frequent occurrence of pentadactylism +in the feet, while many of the individual bones were devoid of the +grooves and ridges found in those of later types. By the time +that we reach the upper division of the Eocene period, such as the +horizon of the well-known gypsum of the Paris basin, nearly all the +chief groups of mammals had become clearly differentiated from +one another, although their representatives were usually more +generalised than their existing allies. From this date to the later +geological periods there is a gradual approximation to the types of +mammalian life existing at the present day.</p> + +<p>In addition to the features of trituberculism and pentadactylism +so characteristic of the oldest known Eutherians, we may notice +some other points in connection with the earlier types. Thus the +older Tertiary mammals, as we have already stated, had relatively +smaller and simpler brains than the later types, so that a gradual +evolution in this respect may be traced from the Eocene to the +Pleistocene. Again, there is a great tendency among the Eocene +forms to a retention of the typical Eutherian dental formula noticed +on page 25, and also to the absence of an interval, or diastema, in +the dental series. Concomitantly with this feature we may notice +the short crowns and simpler structure of the molar teeth of the +earlier Ungulates as compared with those of to-day, of which details +will be given in a later chapter. Another instance of the more +generalised characters of the earlier mammals is afforded by the +absence or slight development of horns, antlers, and tusks among +the Ungulata. Thus the earlier Rhinoceroses were hornless, and +the Deer either without antlers or with antlers of a very simple +kind, while the male Swine were not furnished with the formidable +tusks of the existing Wild Boars. Finally, all, or nearly all of the +mammals, from the lowest Eocene of Rheims present the peculiarity +of having a vertical perforation in the astragalus.</p> + +<p>The intimate connection existing during the Middle Tertiary +between many families of mammals now widely distinguished from +one another may be more conveniently noted when we come to the +consideration of the families in question.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_117"></a>[117]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V<br> +<span class="smaller">THE SUBCLASS PROTOTHERIA OR ORNITHODELPHIA</span></h2> + +</div> + +<p><i>General Characters.</i>—The characters of the Prototheria can at +present only be deduced from the two existing families, since +hitherto no extinct animals which can be referred with certainty +to other divisions of this remarkable and well-characterised group +have been discovered. These two isolated forms, in many respects +widely dissimilar, yet having numerous common characters which +unite them together and distinguish them from the rest of the +Mammalia, are the <i>Ornithorhynchidæ</i> and the <i>Echidnidæ</i>, both restricted +in their geographical range to the Australian region of the +globe. Taken altogether they represent the lowest type of evolution +of the mammalian class, and most of the characters in which they +differ from the other two subclasses tend to connect them with the +inferior vertebrates, the Sauropsida and Amphibia; for, though +the name Ornithodelphia owes its origin to the resemblance of the +structure of the female reproductive organs to those of birds, there +is nothing especially bird-like about them.</p> + +<p>Their principal distinctive characters are these. The brain has +a very large anterior commissure, and a very small corpus callosum, +agreeing exactly in this respect with the Marsupials. The cerebral +hemispheres, in <i>Echidna</i> at least, are well developed and convoluted +on the surface. The auditory ossicles present a low grade of development, +the malleus being very large, the incus small, and the +stapes columelliform. The coracoid bone is complete, and articulates +with the sternum, and there is a pre-coracoid (epi-coracoid) in +advance of the coracoid, while there is also a large “interclavicle” +or episternum in front of the sternum, and connecting it with the +clavicles. There are also “epipubic” bones. The oviducts (not +differentiated into uterine and Fallopian portions) are completely +distinct, and open, as in oviparous vertebrates, separately into a +cloacal chamber, and there is no distinct vagina. The testes of +the male are abdominal in position throughout life, and the vasa<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_118"></a>[118]</span> +deferentia open into the cloaca, not into a distinct urethral passage. +The penis, attached to the ventral wall of the cloaca, is perforated +by a canal in the greater part of its length, and not merely grooved, +as in reptiles and those birds which have such an organ. The +canal is open at the base and brought only temporarily in contact +with the termination of the vasa deferentia, so as to form a seminal +urethra when required; but it never transmits the urinary secretion. +This condition is a distinct advance on that of the Sauropsida in +the direction of the more complex development of these parts in +most of the other Mammalia. The ureters do not open into the +bladder, but behind it into the dorsal wall of the genito-urinary +passage. The mammary glands have no distinct nipple, but pour +out their secretion through numerous apertures situated in a cup-shaped +depression of the abdominal skin, forming a mammary +marsupium, especially developed in the females during lactation. +It should be mentioned that, according to the observations of Professor +Gegenbaur, the mammary glands of the Monotremes are the +simplest found in the entire class. The region of the glands is, +indeed, distinguished from the rest of the abdomen merely by its +thicker layers of muscles. The glands themselves are closely connected +with the hair-follicles, and belong to the sudoriparous type, +whereas the glands of all other mammals are of sebaceous origin.</p> + +<p>The young are produced from eggs laid by the female parent, +which are meroblastic, like those of birds; that is to say only a +portion of the yolk segments and forms the embryo, the remainder +serving for the nourishment of the latter.</p> + +<p>The above are the principal distinguishing characters of the +group, and apply not only to the subclass, but of course equally to +the one order Monotremata, in which the two existing genera are +included. In addition to these more important characters, the +following minor features may also be mentioned.</p> + +<p>The scapula differs from that of all other mammals in that the +ridge corresponding to the spine of other forms is situated on the +anterior border instead of in the middle of the outer or dorsal surface. +The humerus is much expanded at its two extremities, and has a very +prominent deltoid crest, and a well-marked entepicondylar foramen.</p> + +<p>The dorso-thoracic vertebræ are nineteen in number, and have +no terminal epiphyses to their bodies. The transverse processes of +the cervical vertebræ are of autogenous formation, and remain +suturally connected with the remainder of the vertebra until the +animal is full-grown. Though in this respect they present an +approximation to the Sauropsida (Reptiles and Birds), they differ +from these classes, inasmuch as there is not a gradual transition from +these autogenous transverse processes of the neck (or cervical ribs, +as they may be considered) into the thoracic ribs, for in the seventh +vertebra the costal element is much smaller than in the others,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_119"></a>[119]</span> +indicative of a very marked separation of neck from thorax, not +seen in the existing Sauropsida. The upper ends of the ribs +are attached to the sides of the bodies of the dorsal vertebræ +only, and not to the transverse processes. The sternal ribs are +well ossified, and there are distinct partly ossified intermediate ribs. +The cerebral cavity, unlike that of the lower Marsupials or the +Reptiles, is large and hemispherical, flattened below and arched +above, and about as broad as long. The cribriform plate of the +ethmoid is nearly horizontal. The cranial walls are very thin, and +smoothly rounded externally, and the sutures become completely +obliterated in adult skulls, as in Birds. The broad occipital region +slopes upwards and forwards, and the face is produced into a long +and depressed rostrum. The bony palate is prolonged backwards, +so that the posterior nares are nearly on a level with the glenoid +fossæ. The mandible is without distinct ascending ramus; the +coronoid process and angle are rudimentary, and the two halves are +loosely connected at the symphysis. The fibula has a broad, +flattened process, projecting upwards from its upper extremity +above the articulation, like an olecranon. In the male there is an +additional, flat, curved ossicle on the hinder and tibial side of the +plantar aspect of the tarsus, articulating chiefly to the tibia, which +supports in the adult a sharp-pointed perforated horny spur, with which +is connected the duct of a gland situated beneath the skin of the back +of the thigh, the function of which is not yet clearly understood. (A +rudimentary spur is found in the young female <i>Ornithorhynchus</i>, but +this disappears when the animal becomes adult.) The stomach is +subglobular and simple; the alimentary canal has no ileo-cæcal valve, +or marked distinction between large and small intestine, but has a +small, slender vermiform cæcum with glandular walls. The liver +is divided into the usual number of lobes characteristic of the +Mammalia, and is provided with a gall-bladder.</p> + +<p>In the presence of three distinct bones developed from cartilage +in the shoulder-girdle (viz. scapula, coracoid, and pre- or epi-coracoid) +the Monotremes agree with the Anomodont reptiles (see <a href="#Page_83">p. 83</a>), +and with no other representatives of that class. The pre-coracoid +of the Anomodonts is, however, distinguished by extending upwards +to articulate with the acromial process of the scapula. The +Monotreme humerus is, moreover, strikingly like the corresponding +bone of many of the Anomodonts and of some of the allied +Labyrinthodont Amphibians.</p> + +<h3><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Ornithorhynchidæ</span>.</h3> + +<p><i>Ornithorhynchus.</i><a id="FNanchor_32" href="#Footnote_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a>—Cerebral hemispheres smooth. Premaxillæ +and mandible expanded anteriorly and supporting a horny beak<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_120"></a>[120]</span> +something like that of a duck, bordered by a naked and very sensitive +membranous expansion. The place of teeth in the adult is supplied +functionally by horny structures, elongated, narrow, and sharp-edged, +along the anterior part of the sides of the mouth, and broad, +flat-topped or molariform behind. Functional molar teeth present +in the young and adolescent condition. Legs short, fitted for +swimming; feet webbed, each with five well-developed toes armed +with large claws, beyond which in the fore feet the interdigital +membrane is extended. Vertebræ: C 7, D 17, L 2, S 2, Ca 21. +Acetabulum not perforated. Tongue not extensile. Mucous membrane +of small intestine covered with delicate, close-set transverse +folds or ridges. Tail rather short, broad, and depressed. Eyes +very small. Fur close and soft.</p> + +<p>The Duck-billed Platypus (<i>Platypus anatinus</i>) was the name +assigned to one of the most remarkable of known animals by +Shaw, who had the good fortune to introduce it to the notice +of the scientific world in the <i>Naturalist’s Miscellany</i> (vol. x., 1799). +In the following year it was independently described by Blumenbach +(<i>Voigts Magazin</i>, ii. p. 205) under the name of <i>Ornithorhynchus +paradoxus</i>. Shaw’s generic name, although having priority to that +of Blumenbach, could not be retained, as it had been used at +a still earlier time (1793) by Herbst for a genus of Coleoptera. +<i>Ornithorhynchus</i> is therefore now universally adopted as the scientific +designation, although Duck-billed Platypus or Duck-bill may +be conveniently retained as a vernacular appellation. By the +colonists it is called “Water-Mole,” but it need scarcely be said, +its affinities with the true moles are of the slightest and most +superficial description. Until the last few years the early stages +of the development of the young were not fully known. It had, +indeed, been repeatedly affirmed, in some cases by persons who +have had actual opportunities of observation, that the Platypus lays +eggs; but these statements were generally received with scepticism +and even denial. This much-vexed question was, however, settled +by the researches of Mr. W. H. Caldwell in 1884, who found that +these animals, although undoubtedly mammals throughout the +greater part of their structure, are oviparous, laying eggs, which in +the manner of their development bear a close resemblance to the +development of those of the Reptilia. Two eggs are produced at +a time, each measuring about three-fourths of an inch in its long, +and half an inch in its short, axis, and enclosed in a strong, flexible, +white shell.</p> + +<p>The Platypus is pretty generally distributed in situations +suitable to its aquatic habits throughout the island of Tasmania +and the southern and eastern portions of Australia. Slight variations +in the colouring and size of different individuals have given rise to +the idea that more than one species may exist; but all naturalists<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_121"></a>[121]</span> +who have had the opportunity of investigating this question by the +aid of a good series of specimens have come to the conclusion that +there is but one, and no traces of any extinct allied forms have yet +been discovered.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="figure032" style="max-width: 25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure032.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 32.</span>—Platypus or Duck-bill (<i>Ornithorhynchus anatinus</i>). From Gould’s <i>Mammals of +Australia</i>.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The length of the animal when full grown is from eighteen to +twenty inches from the extremity of the beak to the end of the tail, +the male being slightly larger than the female. The fur is short, +dense, and rather soft to the touch, and composed of an extremely +fine and close under-fur, and of longer hairs projecting beyond +this, each of which is very slender at the base, and expanded, +flattened, and glossy towards the free end. The general colour is +deep brown, but paler on the under parts. The tail is short, broad, +and depressed, and covered with coarse hairs, which in old animals +generally become worn off from the under surface. The eyes are +small and brown. There is no projecting pinna or ear-conch. The +mouth, as is well known, bears a striking resemblance to the bill of +a Duck. It is covered with a naked skin, a strong fold of which +projects outwards around its base. The nostrils are situated near +the extremity of the upper surface. There are no true teeth in the +adult, but their purposes are served by horny prominences, or +cornules, two on either side of each jaw—those in the front, narrow, +longitudinal, sharp-edged ridges, and those behind broad, flattened,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_122"></a>[122]</span> +and molariform. The upper surface of the lateral edges of the +mandible has also a number of parallel fine transverse ridges, like +those on the bill of a Duck. Until 1888 it was thought that true +teeth were totally wanting throughout the life of this animal; but in +the spring of that year Mr. E. B. Poulton<a id="FNanchor_33" href="#Footnote_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a> announced the discovery +in an embryo of teeth which were regarded as quite functionless. In +the following year, however, Mr. O. Thomas<a id="FNanchor_34" href="#Footnote_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a> was fortunate enough +to find some young skulls with functional teeth <i>in situ</i>, and was thus +enabled to give a detailed account of their structure and of their +relations to the cornules. From those specimens it appears that +the teeth are functional for a considerable part of the life of the +animal, cutting the gum in the usual manner, and, after being worn +down by friction with food and sand, are shed from the mouth +in the same manner as are the milk-teeth of other mammals. The +cornules are developed from the epithelium of the mouth under and +around the teeth, and the hollows found in the middle of them are +the vestiges of the alveoli from which the teeth have been shed. +One of the skulls showed on either side, both above and below, two +completely calcified teeth; but in another example there were three +teeth on either side of the lower jaw. According to Mr. Thomas’s +account, “the teeth themselves are broad, flat, and low-crowned. +The upper ones have each two high, conical, internal cusps, from +which minute ridges run downwards and outwards to the outer +borders of the crowns, where the edge is peculiarly crenulate rather +than cuspidate, in the ordinary sense of the word. On the whole, +the anterior and posterior upper teeth are essentially similar to one +another, except that the former are narrower, and their outer edges +are less markedly crenulated. In the lower jaw there is a greater +difference between the two. The anterior is triangular in outline, +its longest side is placed antero-externally, and its anterior and +postero-external angles have each a high pointed cusp, ridged on +its internal aspect, while the posterior and internal borders are +indistinctly crenulated. The posterior tooth is broadly quadrangular +in outline, with a projecting antero-internal angle. As in the corresponding +tooth above, there are two cusps on one side, and a series +of crenulations on the other, but they are of course reversed, the +cusps being external and the crenulations internal. The cusps are +high, and connected with transverse ridges running across towards +the internal border.”</p> + +<p>In trying to find any teeth like those of the Duck-bill among +other known mammals Mr. Thomas considers, as was first suggested +by Professor Cope, that those of the Mesozoic Multituberculata (<a href="#Page_109">p. 109</a>) +make the nearest approximation. He adds, however, that “it must +be insisted that the resemblance between the Multituberculate<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_123"></a>[123]</span> +and the Ornithorhynchus teeth is of the most general character, +and that the two are certainly widely separated generically, even if +we do admit that they appear to possess a relationship nearer to +each other than to any other known groups of mammals.”</p> + +<p>Reverting to the description of the Duck-bill, we find that in +the cheeks are tolerably capacious pouches, which appear to be used +as receptacles for food. The limbs are strong and very short, each +with five well-developed toes provided with strong claws. In the +fore feet the web not only fills the interspaces between the toes, but +extends considerably beyond the ends of the long, broad, and somewhat +flattened nails, giving great expanse to the foot when used for +swimming, though capable of being folded back on the palm when +the animal is burrowing or walking on the land. On the hind foot +the nails are long, curved, and pointed, and the web extends only +to their base. On the heel of the male is a strong, curved, sharply +pointed, movable horny spur, directed upwards and backwards, +attached by its expanded base to the accessory bone of the tarsus. +This spur, which attains the length of nearly an inch, is traversed +by a minute canal, terminating in a fine longitudinal slit near +the point, and connected at its base with the duct of a large gland +situated at the back part of the thigh. The whole apparatus is so +exactly similar in structure to the poison-gland and tooth of a +venomous snake as to suggest a similar function, but evidence that +the Platypus ever employs its spur as an offensive weapon has, at +all events until lately, been wanting. A case is, however, related +by Mr. Spicer in the <i>Proceedings of the Royal Society of Tasmania +for 1876</i> (p. 162), of a captured Platypus inflicting a severe wound by +a powerful lateral and inward movement of the hind legs, which wound +was followed by symptoms of active local poisoning. It is not improbable +that both the inclination to use the weapon and the activity of the +secretion of the gland may be limited to the breeding season, and +that their purpose may be, like that of the antlers of deer and +many similar organs, for combat among the males. In the young +female the spur is present in a rudimentary condition, but it disappears +in the adult of that sex.</p> + +<p>The Platypus is aquatic in its habits, passing most of its time in +the water or close to the margin of lakes and streams, swimming +and diving with the greatest ease, and forming for the purpose of +sleeping and breeding deep burrows in the banks, which generally +have two orifices—one just above the water level, concealed among +long grasses and leaves, and the other below the surface. The +passage at first runs obliquely upwards in the bank, sometimes to +a distance of as much as fifty feet, and expands at its termination +into a cavity, the floor of which is lined with dried grass and +leaves, and in which the eggs are laid and the young brought up. +The food consists of aquatic insects, small crustaceans, and worms,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_124"></a>[124]</span> +which are caught under water, the sand and small stones at the +bottom being turned over with the bill. The creatures appear +at first to deposit what they have thus collected in their cheek +pouches, and when these are filled they rise to the surface and +quietly triturate their meal with the horny plates before swallowing +it. Swimming is effected chiefly by the action of the +broad forepaws, the hind feet and tail taking little share in +locomotion in the water. When asleep they roll themselves into +a ball, as shown in the figure. In their native haunts they are +extremely timid and wary, and very difficult to approach, being +rarely seen out of their burrows in the daytime. Mr. A. B. +Crowther, who has supplemented the often quoted observations +of Dr. Bennett upon the habits of these animals in confinement, +says, “They soon become very tame in captivity; in a few days +the young ones appeared to recognise a call, swimming rapidly +to the hand paddling the water; and it is curious to see their +attempts to procure a worm enclosed in the hand, which they +greedily take when offered to them. I have noticed that they +appear to be able to smell whether or not a worm is contained in +the closed hand to which they swim; for they desisted from their +efforts if an empty fist was offered.” When irritated they utter a +soft low growl, resembling that of a puppy.</p> + +<h3><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Echidnidæ</span>.</h3> + +<p>Cerebral hemispheres larger and well convoluted. Facial portion +of skull produced into a long, tapering, tubular rostrum, at the +end of which the anterior nares are situated. Rami of mandible +slender, styliform. Opening of mouth small, and placed below the +extremity of the rostrum. No teeth or laterally placed horny plates, +though the palate and tongue are furnished with spines. Tongue +very long, vermiform, slender, and protractile. Lining membrane +of small intestine villous, but without transverse folds. Feet not +webbed, but with long strong claws fitted for scratching and +burrowing. The hinder feet with the ends of the toes turned +outwards and backwards in the ordinary position of the animal +when on the ground. Tail very short. Acetabulum with a large +perforation, as in Birds. Calcaneal spur and gland of the male +much smaller than in <i>Ornithorhynchus</i>. Fur intermixed with strong, +sharp-pointed spines. Terrestrial and fossorial in habits, feeding +exclusively on ants, and recalling in the structure of the mouth and +various other parts, relating to their peculiar mode of life the true +Anteaters of the order Edentata.</p> + +<p>The Echidnas or Spiny Anteaters constitute a family which +appears in some respects to be less specialised than the <i>Ornithorhynchidæ</i>. +According to Mr. O. Thomas, all the living forms may<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_125"></a>[125]</span> +be included in two species, which, with some hesitation, are referred +to two genera—<i>Echidna</i> and <i>Proechidna</i> (<i>Acanthoglossus</i>).</p> + +<p><i>Echidna.</i><a id="FNanchor_35" href="#Footnote_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a>—In <i>Echidna</i> there are five toes, all of which are +provided with claws, those of the fore foot being broad, slightly +curved, and directed forwards, while the posterior ones are slender, +more curved, and inclined outwardly. The beak is about as long +as the rest of the head, and either nearly straight, or slightly curved +upwards, while the palate is comparatively wide, and but slightly +vaulted. The number of the vertebræ is C 7, D 16, L 3, S 3, Ca 12. +The one existing representative of the genus (<i>E. aculeata</i>) occurs in +New Guinea, Tasmania, and Australia.</p> + +<p>So much variation is displayed by this animal, that it has been +divided into several species, but the latest researches tend to show +that these variations cannot be regarded as indicating more than +races, of which there are three well-marked types.</p> + +<p>The first race, or variety, has been termed the Port Moresby +Echidna, and is only known from that Papuan locality. It is +distinguished from the typical form by its smaller size, by the +shorter spines on the back, which admit of the fur being seen, and +by the more spinous covering of the head, belly, and limbs, as well +as by the lighter skull and relatively larger beak.</p> + +<p>The typical variety is confined to the Australian mainland, and +is of medium size. The spines of the back are very long and stout, +often reaching a length of two inches, and almost completely concealing +the hair. The colour of these spines varies from yellow at +the roots to black at the tips, but some may be altogether yellow. +The hair of the back is black or dark brown in colour, but it may +be occasionally absent, or in the region of the loins may exceed the +spines in length. The limbs and under surface of the body are +covered with dark brown hair, thinly interspersed with short spines; +and the hair of the face is of the same general hue as that of the +body. The skull has a slender rostrum and a flat and narrow +brain-case.</p> + +<p>In the third or Tasmanian race, which is confined to Tasmania, +the average size is somewhat larger than in the typical form. The +most characteristic feature is, however, the shortness of the spines +of the back, which in the greater part of that region are almost or +quite concealed by the hairs. The hairs of the back are dark +brown, those of the under surface and sides of the head being +generally rather paler. There is often a white spot on the chest. +Very frequently there is a difference in the proportionate lengths +of the hinder claws from those of the typical race. In the skull +the beak is comparatively short and stout, and the brain-case large +and wide.</p> + +<p>Echidnas are usually found in rocky districts, and more especially<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_126"></a>[126]</span> +in the mountains. In a wild state they live mainly on ants. Specimens +have been brought to this country and kept in the Zoological +Society’s Gardens; and in captivity they will readily eat eggs, and +bread-and-milk. They are able, however, to endure long fasts, an +individual having been known to go without food for upwards of a +month.</p> + +<p>These animals seem to be mainly of nocturnal habits, and if +brought out during the daytime appear to be sluggish and stupid, +crouching to the ground with the head between the legs, and thus +presenting a mass of spines to an enemy. They burrow rapidly in +soft ground, sinking directly downwards, and not going head forwards. +A specimen placed on a large chest of earth containing +plants reached the bottom in less than two minutes; and it is said +that the muzzle assists in the work of burrowing.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure033" style="max-width: 25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure033.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 33.</span>—The Three-toed Echidna (<i>Proechidna bruijnii</i>). From Gervais.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Proechidna.</i><a id="FNanchor_36" href="#Footnote_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a>—The one known representative of the genus +<i>Proechidna</i> (<a href="#figure033">Fig. 33</a>) attains dimensions about equal to those of +the largest race of <i>Echidna aculeata</i>. The skull is less depressed +than in the latter, with the anterior portion of the palate very +concave, and the deflected beak nearly twice the length of the +remainder of the skull. As a rule, there are only three claws to +each foot; but the first and fifth digits are represented by several +phalanges, and one instance is known where there are five complete +claws on the anterior and four on the posterior feet. There are +two more vertebræ in the dorsal and lumbar region than in +<i>Echidna</i>.</p> + +<p>The head and body are covered with a thick coat of hair, +among which there are a number of short spines in the region of +the back, which are much less numerous than in the typical race of +the last species. The colour of the fur is generally dark brown or +black, but the head may be almost white; and the spines are +usually entirely white, although in certain cases they may be brown +at the root.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_127"></a>[127]</span></p> + +<p>This species is known only from New Guinea, the recorded +specimens being from the north-western regions of that country. It +inhabits rocky ground, and dwells chiefly in the mountains, the +specimens which were first described having been obtained at an +elevation of about 3500 feet above the sea level. The Papuans capture +it by digging trenches in the ground to a depth of about a yard, by +which means they generally come upon its runs.</p> + +<p><i>Fossil Species.</i>—Remains of a species of Echidna of very much +larger size than the existing forms have been obtained from the +cave-deposits of New South Wales, which appear to be of Pleistocene +age. This species was named <i>Echidna oweni</i> by the late Mr. +Krefft, but was subsequently called <i>E. ramsayi</i> by Sir R. Owen. +In referring this species to the genus <i>Echidna</i>, that term must be +regarded as including <i>Proechidna</i>.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_128"></a>[128]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI<br> +<span class="smaller">THE SUBCLASS METATHERIA OR DIDELPHIA</span></h2> + +</div> + +<p><i>General Characters.</i>—The Metatheria or Didelphia are represented at +present by numerous species, presenting great diversities of general +appearance, structure, and habits, although all united by many +essential anatomical and physiological characters, which, taken +altogether, give them an intermediate position between the Prototheria +and the Eutheria.</p> + +<p>Although the striking differences in external form, in many +anatomical characters, and in mode of life of various animals of this +section might lead to their division into groups equivalent to the +orders of the Eutheria, it is more convenient on the whole to adhere +to the usual custom of treating them all as forming one order called +<span class="smcap">Marsupialia</span>,<a id="FNanchor_37" href="#Footnote_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a> the limits of which are therefore equivalent to that +of the subclass. The more essentially distinctive characters are as +follows.</p> + +<p>In the structure of the brain and the presence of epipubic bones +they agree with the Prototheria, while in the structure of the ear-bones +and the shoulder-girdle and the presence of teats on the +mammary glands they resemble the Eutheria, the reproductive +organs belonging to neither one nor the other type, but having a +special character representing an intermediate grade of development. +The ureters open into the base of the bladder. The +oviducts are differentiated into uterine and Fallopian portions, and +open into a long and distinct vagina, quite separate from the cystic +urethra. The penis is large, but its crura are not directly attached +to the ischia. The spongy body has a large bifurcated bulb. The +young are born in an exceedingly rudimentary condition, and are +never nourished by means of an allantoic placenta, but are transferred +to the nipple of the mother, to which they remain firmly<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_129"></a>[129]</span> +attached for a considerable time, nourished by the milk injected +into the mouth by compression of the muscle covering the +mammary gland. They are therefore the most typically mammalian +of the whole class. The nipples are nearly always concealed +in a fold of the abdominal integument or “pouch” (marsupium) +which serves to support and protect the young in their early +helpless condition.</p> + +<p>Entering more fully into the characters of the subclass, which +are also those of the order Marsupialia, it may be observed that the +brain is generally small in proportion to the size of the animal, and +the surface-folding of the cerebral hemispheres, though well marked +in the larger species, is never very complex in character, and is +absent in the medium-sized and smaller species. The arrangement +of the folding of the inner wall of the cerebrum differs essentially +from that of all known Eutheria, the hippocampal fissure being +continued forward above the corpus callosum, which is of very +small size. The anterior commissure is, on the other hand, greatly +developed.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure034" style="max-width: 25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure034.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 34.</span>—Teeth of upper jaw of Opossum (<i>Didelphys marsupialis</i>), +all of which are unchanged, except the last premolar, +the place of which is occupied in the young animal by a molariform +tooth, represented in the figure below the line of the other +teeth.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The teeth are always divisible, according to their position and +form, into incisors, canines, premolars, and molars; but they vary +much in number and character in the different families. Except in +the genus <i>Phascolomys</i>, the number of incisors in the upper and +lower jaws is never equal. The true molars are very generally four +in number on either side of each jaw. The chief peculiarity in the +dentition lies, however, in the mode of succession. Thus there is no +vertical displacement and succession of the teeth, except in the case +of a single tooth on either side of each jaw, which is always the +hindermost of the premolar series, and is preceded by a tooth +having more or less of the characters of a true molar (see <a href="#figure034">Fig. 34</a>); +this deciduous tooth +being the only one +comparable to the +“milk-teeth” of the +diphyodont Eutheria. +In some +cases (as in <i>Potorous</i>) +this tooth retains +its place and +function until the +animal has nearly, +if not quite, attained +its full stature, and +is not shed and replaced by its successor until after all the other +teeth of the permanent series, including the posterior molars, are +fully in place and use. In others, as the Thylacine, it is very +rudimentary in form and size, being shed or absorbed before any<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_130"></a>[130]</span> +of the other teeth have cut the gum, and therefore quite functionless. +It must further be noted that there are some Marsupials, +as the Wombat, <i>Myrmecobius</i>, and the Dasyures, in which no such +milk-tooth, even in a rudimentary state, has yet been discovered, +possibly in some cases from want of materials for observation at +the right stage of development.</p> + +<p>Epipubic or marsupial bones are present in both sexes of nearly +all species. In one genus alone, <i>Thylacinus</i>, they are not ossified. +The number of dorso-lumbar vertebræ is always nineteen, although +there are some apparent exceptions caused by the last lumbar being +modified into a sacral vertebra. The number of pairs of ribs is +nearly always thirteen. The tympanic bone remains permanently +distinct. The carotid canal perforates the basisphenoid. The +lachrymal foramen is situated upon or external to the anterior margin +of the orbit, and there are generally large vacuities in the bony +palate. The angle of the mandible is (except in <i>Tarsipes</i>) more or +less inflected. The hyoid bones have always a peculiar form, +consisting of a small, more or less lozenge-shaped basihyal, broad +ceratohyals, with the remainder of the anterior arch usually +unossified, and stout, somewhat compressed thyrohyals. There are +two anterior venæ cavæ,<a id="FNanchor_38" href="#Footnote_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a> into each of which a “vena azygos” +enters. In the male the testes are always contained in a scrotum, +which is suspended by a narrow pedicle to the abdomen in front of +the penis. The vasa deferentia open into a complete and continuous +urethra, which is also the passage by which the urine escapes from +the bladder, and is perfectly distinct from the passage for the fæces, +although the anus and the termination of the urethro-sexual canal +are embraced by the same sphincter muscle. The glans is often +bifurcated anteriorly. In the female the oviducts never unite to +form a common cavity or uterus, but open separately into the +vagina, which at least for part of its course is double. The +mammæ vary much in number, but are always abdominal in +position, having long teats, and in most of the species are more +or less enclosed in a fold of the integument forming a pouch +or marsupium, though in some this is entirely wanting, and the +newly-born, blind, naked, and helpless young, attached by their +mouths to the teat, are merely concealed and protected by the +hairy covering of the mother’s abdomen. In this stage of their +existence they are fed by milk injected into their stomach by the +contraction of the muscles covering the mammary gland, the +respiratory organs being modified temporarily, much as they are +permanently in the Cetacea—the elongated upper part of the +larynx projecting into the posterior nares, and so maintaining a free +communication between the lungs and the external surface<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_131"></a>[131]</span> +independently of the mouth and gullet, thus averting the danger of +suffocation while the milk is passing down the latter passage.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp93" id="figure035" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure035.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 35.</span>—Front view of skull of <i>Sarcophilus ursinus</i>, showing polyprotodont and carnivorous +dentition (<i>Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.</i> vol xxiv. p. 313).</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Distribution.</i>—The existing species of Marsupials are, with the +exception of one family (the <i>Didelphyidæ</i>), limited in geographical +distribution to the Australasian region,<a id="FNanchor_39" href="#Footnote_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a> forming the chief +mammalian fauna of Australia, +New Guinea, and some of the +adjacent islands. The <i>Didelphyidæ</i> +are almost purely Neotropical, +one or two species +ranging northwards into the +Nearctic region. Fossil remains +of members of this +family have also been found in +Europe and America in strata +of the Eocene and early Miocene +periods; and it is probable +that at least many of the polyprotodont +Mesozoic mammals +noticed in Chapter IV. are +referable to the Marsupialia.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp60" id="figure036" style="max-width: 25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure036.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 36.</span>—Front view of skull of Koala (<i>Phascolarctus +cinereus</i>), showing diprotodont and +herbivorous dentition (<i>Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.</i> +vol. xxiv. p. 313).</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Classification.</i>—In dividing +the Marsupials into minor +groups, it may be observed +that one of the most obvious +distinctive characters among +them is derived from the form and arrangement of the teeth.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_132"></a>[132]</span> +In certain species, as the Opossums, Dasyures, and Thylacine, +the incisors are numerous, small, and subequal in size, and the +canines large, as in the typical placental Carnivores (<a href="#figure035">Fig. 35</a>). +To these the term “polyprotodont” is applied, and they are all +more or less carnivorous in their habits. In others the central +incisors are very prominent, and the lateral incisors and canines +absent or subordinate in function (<a href="#figure036">Fig. 36</a>). These are called +“diprotodont,” and they are all wholly or in great part vegetable +feeders. In one group of these, the Wombats, there are but two +incisors above and the same number below; but all the others, including +the Kangaroos, Koalas, and Phalangers, have two functional +incisors below and as many as six above, three on each side, but +of these the first or central pair is the most fully developed.</p> + +<p>Some hesitation has frequently been expressed as to whether the +Polyprotodont and Diprotodont types are entitled to constitute +distinct primary groups, owing to the presence of syndactylism +among the <i>Peramelidæ</i> in the former, as well as in the latter; but if +Mr. O. Thomas is right in regarding this feature as acquired +independently in the two groups we may safely adopt such a +division. Taking various combinations into consideration, the +existing Marsupials readily group themselves into six very natural +families, the leading characters of which may be summarised as +follows:—</p> + +<p><i>Order</i> <span class="smcap">Marsupialia</span>.</p> + +<p><i>A.</i> <span class="smcap">Polyprotodontia.</span>—Incisors numerous, small, subequal. Canines +larger than the incisors. Molars with sharp cusps.</p> + +<p>α. Incisors ⁵⁄₄. Hind feet with the four outer toes subequal, +distinct, and a well-developed opposable hallux. <i>Didelphyidæ.</i></p> + +<p>β. Incisors ⁴⁄₃. Hind feet with four outer toes distinct. Hallux +small or rudimentary, rarely opposable. <i>Dasyuridæ.</i></p> + +<p>γ. Incisors ⁴⁻⁵⁄₃. Hind feet long and narrow. Fourth toe +larger than the others. Hallux rudimentary or absent. +Second and third toes very slender, and united in a +common integument (syndactylous). <i>Peramelidæ.</i></p> + +<p><i>B.</i> <span class="smcap">Diprotodontia.</span>—Incisors not exceeding ³⁄₃, usually ³⁄₁ but occasionally +¹⁄₁. Central (first) upper and lower incisors large and +cutting. Upper canines generally, and lower invariably, absent +or small. Molars with bluntly tuberculated or transversely +ridged crowns.</p> + +<p>α. Teeth with persistent pulps. Incisors ¹⁄₁, large, scalpriform, +with enamel on the outer surface only. No canines. +Hind feet with four subequal outer toes, partially +syndactylous, and with rudimentary hallux. <i>Phascolomyidæ.</i></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_133"></a>[133]</span></p> + +<p>β. Teeth rooted. Three upper incisors and a canine. Hind +limbs not disproportionately large. Feet syndactylous, +broad, with four subequal outer toes, and a large +opposable hallux. <i>Phalangeridæ.</i></p> + +<p>γ. Teeth rooted. Three upper incisors, and frequently a +canine. Hind limbs disproportionately large, with +syndactylous feet as in <i>Peramelidæ</i>. <i>Macropodidæ.</i></p> + +<h3><i>Suborder</i> <span class="smcap">Polyprotodontia</span>.</h3> + +<p>The leading characters of this group are given in the foregoing +schedule. This group is the only one represented at the present +day, and so far as we know also in past epochs, beyond the confines +of the Australasian region and adjacent islands.</p> + +<h4><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Didelphyidæ</span>.</h4> + +<p>Dentition: <i>i</i> ⁵⁄₄, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ⁴⁄₄; total 50. Incisors very small +and pointed. Canines large. Premolars with compressed pointed +crowns. Molars with numerous sharp cusps. The last premolar +preceded by a deciduous multicuspidate milk-molar, which remains in +place until the animal is nearly adult (<a href="#figure034">Fig. 34</a>). Limbs of moderate +development, each with five complete and distinct toes, all of which +are provided with short, compressed, +curved, sharp claws of nearly equal +size, except the first toe of the hind +foot or hallux (<a href="#figure037">Fig. 37</a>), which is large, +widely separable from the others, to +which it is opposed in climbing, and +terminates in a dilated rounded extremity, +without a nail. Tail generally +long, partially naked and prehensile. +Stomach simple. Cæcum of +small or moderate size. Pouch generally +absent, sometimes represented by +two lateral folds of the abdominal +integument, partially covering the +teats, rarely complete. Vertebræ: +C 7, D 13, L 6, S 2, C 19-35.</p> + +<figure class="figleft illowp53" id="figure037" style="max-width: 15.625em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure037.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 37.</span>—Skeleton of the right hind +foot of the Virginian Opossum (<i>Didelphys +marsupialis</i>).</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The <i>Didelphyidæ</i>, or true Opossums, +differ from all other existing +Marsupials in their habitat, being +peculiar to the American continent. +They are mostly carnivorous or insectivorous in their diet, and +arboreal in habits.</p> + +<p>Opossums occur throughout the greater part of the American<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_134"></a>[134]</span> +continent, ranging from the United States to Patagonia, the greater +number of species being found in the warmer regions. In South +America the opossums take the place of the Eutherian Insectivora, +and the sharp cusps on their teeth are admirably adapted for crushing +the insects on which they mainly subsist.</p> + +<p><i>Chironectes.</i><a id="FNanchor_40" href="#Footnote_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a>—The family comprises two genera only, namely +<i>Didelphys</i>, containing all the species, with the exception of the curious +Yapock, which forms by itself the genus <i>Chironectes</i> and is distinguished +from all other Opossums by its webbed feet, non-tuberculated +soles, and peculiar coloration. Its ground colour is light gray, with +four or five sharply-contrasted brown bands passing across its head +and back, and thus giving it a very peculiar mottled appearance. +It is almost wholly aquatic in its habits, living on small fish, +crustaceans, and water insects. Its range extends from Guatemala +to southern Brazil.</p> + +<p><i>Didelphys.</i><a id="FNanchor_41" href="#Footnote_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a>—The type genus <i>Didelphys</i> is a very large one, containing, +according to Mr. O. Thomas, twenty-three existing species. +It may be divided into five groups, or subgenera, all of which have +received distinct names. The typical group is represented only by +the common or Virginian Opossum (<i>D. marsupialis</i>), of which the +numerous varieties have received separate specific names. This +species is of large size, with a long, scaly, prehensile tail, and long +bristle-like hairs mingled with the fur. The pouch is complete. +It ranges over all temperate North America, and is also found in +central and tropical South America, where it is commonly known +as the Crab-eating Opossum. This animal is extremely common, +being even found living in the towns, where it acts as a scavenger +by night, retiring for shelter by day upon the roofs of the houses or +into the sewers. The female produces in the spring from six to +sixteen young ones, which are placed in her pouch immediately +after birth, and remain there until able to take care of themselves.</p> + +<p>The second or <i>Metachirine</i> group includes three species found +all over the tropical parts of the New World. They are of medium +size, with short close fur, very long, scaly, and naked tails, and +less developed ridges on their skulls than in the type species. As +a rule there is no pouch adapted to carry the young, which +commonly ride on their mother’s back, holding on by winding +their prehensile tails round hers. The <i>Philanderine</i> group is +closely allied to the preceding, but is readily distinguished by the +woolly hair, and the brown streak down the middle of the face. +The Woolly Opossum (<i>D. lanigera</i>), which is represented in the +accompanying woodcut (<a href="#figure038">Fig. 38</a>) carrying its young in the fashion +mentioned above, is one of the two species of this group. In the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_135"></a>[135]</span> +fourth or <i>Micoureine</i> group the numerous species are all smaller +than in the preceding groups, and have short and close hair, and +no dark streak down the face. The best known species is the +Murine Opossum (<i>D. murina</i>), little larger than a House-Mouse, +and of a bright red colour, which is found as far north as central +Mexico, and extends thence right down to the south of Brazil. The +last or <i>Peramyne</i> group contains several extremely shrew-like +species, of very small size, with short, hairy, and usually non-prehensile +tails, not half the length of the trunk, and with wholly +unridged skulls. The most striking member of the group is the +Three-striped Opossum (<i>D. americana</i>), from Brazil, which is of a +reddish-gray colour, with three clearly-defined deep-black bands +down its back, very much as in some of the striped mice of +Africa.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure038" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure038.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 38.</span>—The Woolly Opossum (<i>Didelphys lanigera</i>).</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The numerous fossil species of Opossum found in the Upper +Eocene and Lower Miocene of Europe are of especial interest from a +distributional point of view, since they indicate how the Opossums of +America may have been connected with the Australian Marsupials. +These forms were originally referred to <i>Didelphys</i>, but have been +subsequently described as <i>Peratherium</i> and <i>Amphiperatherium</i>. The +characters of the molar teeth on which these genera are based do +not appear to be sufficiently important to justify their separation +from <i>Didelphys</i>. Allied forms occur in the Tertiaries of North +America, which were originally described under the name of <i>Herpetotherium</i>, +but have been subsequently referred to <i>Peratherium</i>. +Remains of many of the existing species of Opossum are found in +a fossil condition in the Pleistocene cave-deposits of Brazil.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_136"></a>[136]</span></p> + +<h4><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Dasyuridæ</span></h4> + +<p>Dentition: <i>i</i> ⁴⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> and <i>m</i> numerous, variable. Incisors small; +canines well developed; molars with pointed cusps. Limbs equal. +Fore feet with five subequal toes terminating in claws. Hind feet +with the four outer toes well developed, and distinct from each +other and bearing claws; the first (or hallux) clawless, generally +rudimentary, sometimes entirely wanting. Stomach simple. No +cæcum. Predatory carnivorous or insectivorous animals, inhabitants +of Australia, Tasmania, and the southern parts of New Guinea +and some of the adjacent islands. The aberrant genus <i>Myrmecobius</i>, +though clearly a member of this family, is so sharply distinguished +from all the others as to render a division into two subfamilies +necessary.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp93" id="figure039" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure039.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 39.</span>—The Thylacine (<i>Thylacinus cynocephalus</i>).</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>Subfamily <b>Dasyurinæ</b>.—This comprises the more typical <i>Dasyuridæ</i>, +in which the premolars and molars never exceed the normal +number of seven on either side of each jaw, and in which the tongue +is not specially extensile.</p> + +<p><i>Thylacinus.</i><a id="FNanchor_42" href="#Footnote_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ⁴⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ⁴⁄₄ = 46. Incisors small, +vertical, the outer one in the upper jaw larger than the others. +Summits of the lower incisors, before they are worn, with a deep +transverse groove dividing them into an anterior and a posterior cusp. +Canines long, strong, and conical. Premolars separated from one +another by intervals, with compressed crowns, increasing in size +from before backwards. True molars in general characters resembling<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_137"></a>[137]</span> +those of <i>Dasyurus</i>, but of more simple form, the cusps +being not so distinct nor sharply pointed. Milk-molar very small, +and shed before the animal leaves the mother’s pouch. Humerus +with an entepicondylar foramen. General form very Dog-like. +Head elongated. Muzzle pointed. Ears moderate, erect, triangular. +Fur short and closely applied to the skin. Tail of moderate length, +thick at the base and tapering towards the apex, clothed with short +hair. Hallux (including the metacarpal bone) wanting. Vertebræ: +C 7, D 13, L 6, S 2, C 23. Marsupial bones represented only by +small unossified fibro-cartilages.</p> + +<p>The only known existing species of this genus, <i>T. cynocephalus</i> +(<a href="#figure039">Fig. 39</a>), though smaller than a common Wolf, is the largest predaceous +Marsupial at present living. It is now entirely confined to the +island of Tasmania, although fragments of bones and teeth found in +caves afford evidence that a closely allied species once inhabited the +Australian mainland. The general colour of the Thylacine is +grayish brown, but it has a series of transverse black bands on the +hinder part of the back and loins, whence the name of “Tiger” +frequently applied to it by the colonists. It is also called “Wolf,” +and sometimes, though less appropriately, “Hyæna.” Owing to +the havoc it commits among the sheepfolds, it has been nearly +exterminated in all the more settled parts of Tasmania, but still +finds shelter in the almost impenetrable rocky glens of the more +mountainous regions of the island. The female produces four +young at a time. The pouch opens backwardly, and there are four +mammæ. The figure of the skull exhibits the peculiar Dog-like +form so characteristic of the genus.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure040" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure040.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 40.</span>—Right lateral aspect of the skull of the Thylacine.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Sarcophilus.</i><a id="FNanchor_43" href="#Footnote_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ⁴⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ²⁄₂, <i>m</i> ⁴⁄₄. Upper incisors nearly +equal, and placed vertically, the first not differentiated from the +rest. Premolars rounded and closely crowded between the canine +and molars, with broad crowns; molars broad and heavy, the last +one without a distinct hind talon. Form thick and powerful;<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_138"></a>[138]</span> +head disproportionately large for the body; muzzle short and +broad; ears broad and rounded; tail of moderate length, and +evenly hairy. Hallux wanting; soles of feet naked, without defined +pads. Humerus with entepicondylar foramen.</p> + +<p>This genus is now represented only by a single species +(<i>S. ursinus</i>) found in Tasmania, where, from its ferocious and destructive +habits, it is commonly known under the name of the “Devil.” +A front view of the skull is shown in <a href="#figure035">Fig. 35</a>.</p> + +<p>The prevailing colour of this animal is black, and the size about +equal to that of an English Badger; its habits are fossorial, and it +is very destructive to sheep. On account of the similarity in the +number of its teeth this genus has been generally included in the +next one, but in the structure of the teeth it is much nearer to +<i>Thylacinus</i>. An extinct species is found in the Pleistocene deposits +of the mainland of Australia.</p> + +<p>It may be observed that the two premolars missing from the +typical series of four in this and the next genus are the second and +the fourth; the fourth milk-molar being likewise absent. In +<i>Thylacinus</i> and other Polyprotodonts with three premolars it is the +second that is missing.</p> + +<p><i>Dasyurus.</i><a id="FNanchor_44" href="#Footnote_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ⁴⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ²⁄₂, <i>m</i> ⁴⁄₄; total 42. Upper +incisors nearly equal, and placed vertically; first slightly longer, +narrower, and separated from the rest. Lower incisors sloping +forwards and upwards. Canines large and sharply pointed. Premolars +with compressed and sharp-pointed crowns, and slightly +developed anterior and posterior accessory basal cusps. True +molars with numerous sharp-pointed cusps. In the upper jaw the +first three with crowns having a triangular oral surface, the fourth +small, simple, narrow, and placed transversely. In the lower jaw +the molars more compressed, with longer cusps; the fourth not +notably smaller than the others. Form viverrine. Ears long and +narrow, prominent, and obtusely pointed. Hallux rudimentary, or +absent; its metatarsal bone always present. Tail long and well +clothed with hair. Humerus without an entepicondylar foramen. +Vertebræ: C 7, D 13, L 6, S 2, C 18-20.</p> + +<p>The Dasyures are small Civet-like animals with a gray or brown +pellage profusely spotted with white; they are mostly inhabitants +of the Australian continent and Tasmania, where in the economy of +nature they take the place of the smaller predaceous Carnivora, the +Cats, Civets, and Weasels of other parts of the world. They hide +themselves in the daytime in holes among rocks or in hollow trees, +but prowl about at night in search of the small living mammals +and birds which constitute their prey. The species are not numerous, +and include <i>D. maculatus</i>, about the size of a common Cat, +inhabiting Tasmania and the southern part of Australia; <i>D. viverrinus</i>,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_139"></a>[139]</span> +Tasmania and Victoria; <i>D. geoffroyi</i>, nearly all Australia; +<i>D. hallucatus</i>, North Australia; <i>D. albopunctatus</i>, New Guinea.</p> + +<p>Remains referred to <i>D. viverrinus</i> occur in the Australian Pleistocene +deposits.</p> + +<p><i>Phascologale.</i><a id="FNanchor_45" href="#Footnote_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a>—This genus comprises a considerable number of +small Marsupials, none of them exceeding a common Rat in size, +differing from the Dasyures in possessing an additional premolar—the +dentition being <i>i</i> ⁴⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ⁴⁄₄; total 46,—and having +the teeth generally developed upon an insectivorous rather than a +carnivorous pattern, the upper middle incisors being larger and +inclined forwards, the canines relatively smaller, and the molars +with broad crowns, armed with prickly tubercles. The muzzle is +pointed. Ears moderately rounded and nearly naked. Feet broad +and short. Fore feet with five subequal toes, having compressed, +slightly curved, pointed claws. Hind feet with the four outer toes +subequal, having claws similar to those in the fore feet; the hallux +always distinct and partially opposable, though small and nailless. +Tail long, very variable in its covering, being either bushy, crested, +or nearly naked. Pouch represented merely by a few folds of skin. +Mammæ varying from four to ten in number. The food of these +animals is almost entirely insects; some species pursuing their prey +among the branches of trees, while others are purely terrestrial. +They are found throughout Australia, and also in New Guinea and +the Aru and some of the adjacent islands.</p> + +<p><i>P. cristicaudata</i>, a species with a thick compressed tail ornamented +upon its apical half with a crest of black hair, differs from the +others by the very reduced size of the fourth premolar in the upper, +and its complete absence in the lower jaw, thus forming an interesting +transition in dentition towards <i>Dasyurus</i>. It constitutes the +genus <i>Chætocercus</i> of Krefft, but is included by Mr. O. Thomas in +<i>Phascologale</i>, the frequent absence of the fourth lower premolar in +<i>P. thorbeckiana</i> indicating that the total absence of this tooth in the +known specimens of this species cannot be regarded as of generic +importance. All the members of this and the two following genera +can be at once distinguished from <i>Dasyurus</i> by the absence of white +spots on the fur.</p> + +<p><i>Sminthopsis.</i><a id="FNanchor_46" href="#Footnote_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a>—The genus <i>Sminthopsis</i> includes several small +species allied to <i>Phascologale</i> but characterised by the narrowness +of the hind foot, and by the soles of the feet being either granulated +or hairy, instead of naked.</p> + +<p><i>Antechinomys.</i><a id="FNanchor_47" href="#Footnote_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a>—The last genus of the <i>Dasyurinæ</i> is <i>Antechinomys</i>, +represented only by <i>A. laniger</i> of Queensland and New South Wales. +This elegant little mouse-like creature, which has large oval ears and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_140"></a>[140]</span> +a long tail with the terminal part bushy, is distinguished from +<i>Sminthopsis</i> by the absence of the hallux and the great elongation +of the limbs. The tympanic bullæ of the skull are also unusually +large, with the mastoid portion much swollen. A full account of +the habits and anatomy of this animal, which appears to be of very +rare occurrence, is given in the <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1880, p. 454.</p> + +<p>Subfamily <b>Myrmecobiinæ</b>.—Molars and premolars exceeding +the normal number of seven on each side. Tongue, long cylindrical, +and extensile.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp67" id="figure041" style="max-width: 28.125em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure041.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 41.</span>—<i>Myrmecobius fasciatus.</i> From Gould.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Myrmecobius.</i><a id="FNanchor_48" href="#Footnote_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ⁴⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ⁵⁄₅ or ⁶⁄₆; total 52 or 56, +being the largest number of teeth in any existing Marsupial. The +distinction between the molars and premolars is founded not on +a knowledge of the succession of the teeth, but on their form. The +teeth are all small and (except the four posterior inferior molars) +separated from each other by an interval. Head elongated, but +broad behind. Muzzle long and pointed. Ears of moderate size, +ovate, and rather pointed. Fore feet with five toes, all having +strong, pointed, compressed claws, the second, third, and fourth +nearly equal, the fifth somewhat, and the first considerably, shorter. +Hind feet with no trace of hallux externally, but the metatarsal bone<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_141"></a>[141]</span> +present. Tail long, clothed with long hairs. Fur rather harsh and +bristly. Female without any pouch, the young when attached to +the nipples being concealed only by the long hair of the abdomen. +Vertebræ: C 7, D 13, L 6, S 3, C 23. A gland on the under +surface of the body just in advance of the sternum.</p> + +<p>Of this singular genus but one species is known, <i>M. fasciatus</i> +(<a href="#figure041">Fig. 41</a>), found in western and southern Australia. It is about the +size of an English squirrel, to which animal its long bushy tail +gives it some resemblance; but it lives entirely on the ground, +especially in sterile, sandy districts, feeding on ants. Its prevailing +colour is chestnut red, but the hinder part of the back +is elegantly marked with broad, white, transverse bands on a dark +ground.</p> + +<p>The special interest of this form lies in its apparent relationship +to those Mesozoic mammals which possess a large number of true +molars (see <a href="#Page_114">p. 114</a>); and it is suggested by Thomas that it may +eventually be found advisable to include some of the latter in the +present subfamily.</p> + +<h4><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Peramelidæ</span>.</h4> + +<p>Dentition: <i>i</i> ⁴⁻⁵⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ⁴⁄₄; total 46 or 48. Upper incisors +small, with short broad crowns. Lower incisors moderate, narrow, +proclivous. Canines well developed. Premolars compressed, +pointed. Molars with quadrate tuberculated crowns. Fourth premolar +preceded by a small molariform tooth, which remains in place +until the animal is nearly full grown. Fore feet with two or +three of the middle toes of nearly equal size, and provided +with strong, sharp, slightly curved claws; the other toes rudimentary. +Hind feet long and narrow; the hallux rudimentary +or absent; the second and third toes very slender, and united in a +common integument; the fourth very large, with a stout elongated +conical claw; the fifth smaller than the fourth (see <a href="#figure043">Fig. 43</a>). The +ungual phalanges of the large toes of both feet cleft at their extremities +(as in <i>Manis</i> among the Edentata, but in no other +Marsupials). Head elongated. Muzzle long, narrow, and pointed. +Stomach simple. Cæcum of moderate size. Pouch complete, +opening backwards. Alone among Marsupials they have no clavicles.</p> + +<p>The <i>Peramelidæ</i> form a very distinct family, in some respects +intermediate between the sarcophagous <i>Dasyuridæ</i> and the +phytophagous <i>Macropodidæ</i>. In dentition they resemble the former, +but they agree with the latter in the peculiar structure of the hind +feet. In the construction of the fore feet they differ from all other +Marsupials.</p> + +<p>The Bandicoots, as these Marsupials are popularly termed, are<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_142"></a>[142]</span> +of fossorial habits, and subsist either on an insectivorous or omnivorous +diet. It has been generally considered that their syndactylous +feet indicate direct affinity with the Diprotodonts, but owing +to the essentially Polyprotodont character of the organisation—which +extends even to their carpal and tarsal bones—Thomas +dissents from this view, and concludes that their syndactylism is an +independently acquired character, and that they are really a direct +offshoot from the <i>Dasyuridæ</i>. Some individuals are remarkable for +the presence of a longitudinal groove in the root of the canines, by +which feature they approximate to some of the Mesozoic Polyprotodont +forms. They may be divided into three genera.</p> + +<figure class="figright illowp92" id="figure042" style="max-width: 25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure042.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 42.</span>—<i>Perameles gunni.</i> From Gould.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Perameles.</i><a id="FNanchor_49" href="#Footnote_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a>—Anterior and posterior extremities not differing +greatly in development. Fore feet with the three middle toes well +developed, the third slightly larger than the second, the fourth +somewhat shorter, provided with long, strong, slightly curved, +pointed claws. First and fifth toes very short and without claws. +Hind feet with hallux of one or two phalanges, forming a distinct +tubercle visible externally; the second and third toes very slender, +of equal length, joined as far as the ungual phalanges, but with +distinct claws; the fifth intermediate in length between these and +the largely developed fourth toe. Ears of moderate or small size, +ovate, pointed. Tail rather short, clothed with short adpressed +hairs. Fur short and harsh. Vertebræ; C 7, D 13, L 6, S 1, C 17. +Skull long and narrow, with the bulla single, and its mastoid portion +not inflated.</p> + +<p>The animals of this genus are all small, and live entirely on the +ground, making nests composed of dried leaves, grass, and sticks in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_143"></a>[143]</span> +hollow places. They are rather mixed feeders; but insects, worms, +roots, and bulbs constitute their ordinary diet. The various species +are widely distributed over Australia, Tasmania, New Guinea, and +several of the adjacent islands, as Aru, Kei, and New Ireland. The +best known are—<i>P. gunni</i> (<a href="#figure042">Fig. 42</a>), <i>bougainvillei</i>, <i>nasuta</i>, <i>obesula</i>, and +<i>macrura</i> from Australia, and <i>P. doreyana</i>, <i>raffrayana</i>, and <i>longicaudata</i> +from New Guinea.</p> + +<p>Remains apparently referable to existing species are found in +the cave-deposits of New South Wales.</p> + +<p><i>Peragale.</i><a id="FNanchor_50" href="#Footnote_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a>—Molar teeth curved, typically with longer crowns +and shorter roots than in the last. Hinder extremities proportionally +longer, and hallux without claw. Muzzle much elongated and +narrow. Fur soft and silky. Ears very large, long, and pointed. +Tail long, its apical half clothed on the dorsal surface with long +hairs which form a crest. Vertebræ: C 7, D 13, L 6, S 2, C 23. +Skull distinguished from that of <i>Perameles</i> by the large size and +double structure of the auditory bulla, of which the mastoid portion +is inflated. There is also an abrupt contraction of the muzzle at +the third premolar.</p> + +<p>The type species of Rabbit-Bandicoot (<i>P. lagotis</i>), as these +animals are called, is found in Western Australia, and also occurs +fossil in the cave-deposits of New South Wales. It is the largest +member of the family, being about the size of the common Rabbit, +to which animal it bears sufficient superficial resemblance to have +acquired the name of “Native Rabbit” from the colonists. It +burrows in the ground, but in other respects resembles the true +Bandicoots in its habits.</p> + +<p>The smaller <i>P. leucura</i> has short-crowned molars, with distinct +cusps, which are almost obsolete in the type species.</p> + +<figure class="figleft illowp22" id="figure043" style="max-width: 9.375em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure043.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 43.</span>—Skeleton +of right hind +foot of <i>Chœropus +castanotis</i>. <i>c</i>, Calcaneum; +<i>a</i>, astragalus; +<i>cb</i>, cuboid; +<i>n</i>, navicular; <i>c³</i>, +ectocuneiform; II +and III, the conjoined +second and +third digits; IV, +the large and only +functional digit; +V, the rudimentary +fifth digit.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Chœropus.</i><a id="FNanchor_51" href="#Footnote_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a>—Dentition generally resembling that of <i>Perameles</i>, +but the canines are less developed, and in the upper jaw two-rooted. +Limbs very slender; posterior nearly twice the length of the anterior. +Fore feet with the functional toes reduced to two, the second and +third, of equal length, with closely united metacarpals and short, +sharp, slightly curved, compressed claws. First toe represented by +a minute rudiment of a metacarpal bone; the fourth by a metacarpal +and two small phalanges without a claw, and not reaching the +middle of the metacarpal of the third; fifth entirely absent. Hind +foot (<a href="#figure043">Fig. 43</a>) long and narrow, mainly composed of the strongly +developed fourth toe, terminating in a conical pointed nail, with a +strong pad behind it; the hallux absent or represented by a rudimentary +metatarsal; the remaining toes completely developed, and +with claws, but exceedingly slender; the united second and third +reaching a little way beyond the metatarso-phalangeal articulation of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_144"></a>[144]</span> +the fourth; the fifth somewhat shorter. Tail not quite so long as +the body, and covered with short hairs forming a slight crest. Ears +large and pointed, and folded down when the animal +is at rest. Fur soft and loose. Vertebræ: C 7, D +13, L 6, S 1, C 20. Skull short and wide, with a +small and single bulla, and a contraction of the +muzzle at the third premolar.</p> + +<p>The only known species of this genus (<a href="#figure044">Fig. 44</a>), +chiefly remarkable for the singular construction of +its limbs, is an animal about the size of a small +Rat, found in the interior of the Australian continent. +Its general habits and food appear to resemble those +of the other <i>Peramelidæ</i>. It was first described as +<i>C. ecaudatus</i> by Ogilby from a mutilated specimen, +but the specific name was afterwards changed, as being +inappropriate, by Gray to <i>castanotis</i>.</p> + +<h3><i>Suborder</i> <span class="smcap">Diprotodontia</span>.</h3> + +<p>For the leading characters of this group, see +<a href="#Page_132">page 132</a>.</p> + +<h4><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Phascolomyidæ</span>.</h4> + +<p>Dentition: <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>i</i> ⁰⁄₀, <i>p</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>m</i> ⁴⁄₄ = 24. All the teeth +with persistent pulps. The incisors large, scalpriform, +with enamel only on the front surface, as in the +Rodentia. The molars strongly curved, forming from +the base to the summit about a quarter of a circle, +the concavity being directed outwards in the upper +and inwards in the lower teeth. The first of the +series, or premolar, appears to have no milk-predecessor, +and is single-lobed; the other four composed +of two lobes, each subtriangular in section. Limbs +equal, stout, and short. Fore feet with five distinct toes, each +furnished with a long, strong, and slightly curved nail, the first and +fifth considerably shorter than the other three. Hind feet with a very +short nailless hallux, the second, third, and fourth toes partially +united by integument, of nearly equal length, the fifth distinct +and rather shorter; all four provided with long and curved nails. +In the skeleton of the foot, the second and third toes are distinctly +more slender than the fourth, showing a slight tendency towards +the peculiar character so marked in the next two families. Tail +rudimentary. Stomach simple, provided with a special gland +situated near the cardiac orifice. Cæcum very short, wide, and with +a peculiar vermiform appendage. Pouch present. The auditory +bullæ of the skull are imperfect, open behind, with their anterior<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_145"></a>[145]</span> +wall formed by a descending process of the squamosal, instead of the +alisphenoid. Masseteric fossa of mandible with a perforation and +a deep pit.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="figure044" style="max-width: 25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure044.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 44.</span>—<i>Chœropus castanotis.</i> From Gould.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Phascolomys.</i><a id="FNanchor_52" href="#Footnote_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a>—The existing Wombats (<a href="#figure045">Fig. 45</a>) comprise three<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_146"></a>[146]</span> +species, all of which are included in the one genus <i>Phascolomys</i>, +and all of which date from the Pleistocene.</p> + +<p>In the typical group we find the following characters. Fur +rough and coarse. Ears short and rounded. Muffle naked. Postorbital +process of the frontal bone obsolete. Ribs fifteen pairs. +Vertebræ: C 7, D 15, L 4, S 4, C 10-12. The Wombat of Tasmania +and the islands of Bass’s Straits (<i>P. ursinus</i>) and the closely +similar but larger animal of the southern portion of the mainland of +Australia (<i>P. mitchelli</i>) belong to this group.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp84" id="figure045" style="max-width: 28.125em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure045.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 45.</span>—Common Wombat (<i>Phascolomys ursinus</i>).</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>In the second group the characters are as follows. Fur smooth +and silky. Ears large and more pointed. Muffle hairy. Frontal +region of skull broader than in the other group, with well-marked +postorbital processes. Ribs thirteen. Vertebræ: C 7, D +13, L 6, S 4, C 15-16. One species, <i>P. latifrons</i>, the Hairy-nosed +Wombat of Southern Australia.</p> + +<p>In their general form and actions the Wombats resemble small +bears, having a somewhat similar shuffling manner of walking, but +they are still shorter in the legs, and have broader, flatter backs than +bears. They live entirely on the ground, or in burrows or holes +among rocks, never climbing trees, and feed entirely on grass, +roots, and other vegetable substances. They sleep during the day, +and wander forth at night in search of food, and are shy and +gentle in their habits generally, though they can bite strongly when +provoked. The only noise the common wombat makes is a low +kind of hissing, but the Hairy-nosed Wombat is said to emit a short +quick grunt when annoyed. The prevailing colour of the last-named +species, as well as of <i>P. ursinus</i> of Tasmania, is a brownish +gray. The large wombat of the mainland is very variable in colour, +some individuals being found of a pale yellowish brown, others +dark gray, and some quite black. The length of head and body is +about three feet.</p> + +<p>It is noteworthy that <i>P. mitchelli</i> was first described from the +evidence of fossil remains, the living form subsequently described as +<i>P. platyrhinus</i> being found to be indistinguishable. Other extinct +species occur in the Pleistocene of Australia.</p> + +<p><i>Phascolonus.</i><a id="FNanchor_53" href="#Footnote_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a>—Remains of a large extinct Wombat, which must +have nearly equalled the dimensions of a Tapir, occur in the +Pleistocene of Queensland, and have been described as <i>Phascolonus</i>. +It is probable that the expanded and flattened upper incisors from +the same deposits upon the evidence of which the presumed genus +<i>Sceparnodon</i> was founded, are likewise referable to the same form. +The characters of both the upper and lower incisors distinguish +<i>Phascolonus</i> from <i>Phascolomys</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_147"></a>[147]</span></p> + +<h4><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Phalangeridæ</span>.</h4> + +<p>Dentition extremely variable, owing to the presence of minute +rudimental teeth not constant in the same species, or even in the +two sides of the jaws of the same individual; exclusive, however, of +<i>Tarsipes</i>, the formula <i>i</i> ³⁄₁, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₀, <i>p</i> ²⁻³⁄₀₋₂, <i>m</i> ³⁻⁴⁄₃₋₄ represents fairly the +general condition of the functional teeth. First incisors long and +stout; the lower pair very large and pointed, but without the scissor-like +action found in the existing <i>Macropodidæ</i>; second and third +lower incisors minute and probably functionless. Fourth premolar +generally secant; milk-molar generally minute and deciduous at an +early period. Molars either with sharp cutting-crests or bluntly +tuberculate; fourth sometimes absent. Mandible without pit, and +at most a very minute perforation in the masseteric fossa. Limbs +subequal. Fore feet with five distinct, subequal toes, furnished with +claws. Hind feet short and broad, with five well developed toes; the +hallux large, nailless and opposable; the second and third slender, +and united by a common integument as far as the claws. Tail +generally long, and frequently more or less prehensile. Stomach +simple. Cæcum present (except in <i>Tarsipes</i>), and usually large. +Pouch complete. Animals of small or moderate size and arboreal +habits, usually feeding on a vegetable or mixed diet, inhabiting +Australia and the Papuan Islands.</p> + +<p>The homologies of the lower functionless teeth between the first +incisor and fourth premolar are very difficult to determine, but +it is probable that one represents a canine only when the largest +known number is present; this tooth, according to Mr. Thomas, +being the first to disappear.</p> + +<p>Phalangers are small woolly-coated animals, with long, powerful, +and often prehensile tails, large claws, and, as in the American +opossums, with opposable nailless great toes. Their expression +seems in the day to be dull and sleepy, but by night they +appear to decidedly greater advantage. They live mostly upon +fruit, leaves, and blossoms, although some few feed habitually upon +insects, and all relish, when in confinement, an occasional bird +or other small animal. Several of the Phalangers possess flying +membranes stretched between their fore and hind limbs (<a href="#figure048">Fig. 48</a>), +by the help of which they can make long and sustained leaps +through the air, like the Flying Squirrels, but it is interesting to +notice that the possession of these flying membranes does not seem +to be any indication of special affinity, the characters of the skull +and teeth sharply dividing the flying forms, and uniting them with +other species of the non-flying groups. Their skulls (<a href="#figure047">Fig. 47</a>) +are as a rule broad and flattened, with the posterior part swollen<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_148"></a>[148]</span> +out laterally, owing to the numerous air-cells situated in the +substance of the squamosal.</p> + +<p>The Phalangers are interesting from an historical point of +view, since the Gray Cuscus (<i>Phalanger orientalis</i>) was the first of +the Marsupials of the eastern hemisphere brought to the notice of +Europeans, having been described in a work published at Leyden +in 1611, from an account of a specimen seen at Amboyna during +the third expedition of Admiral Van der Hagen.</p> + +<p>The present family corresponds to the <i>Dasyuridæ</i> among the +Polyprotodonts as presenting, on the whole, the most generalised +types of the suborder. The existing forms may be divided into +three subfamilies.</p> + +<p>Subfamily <b>Tarsipedinæ</b>.—Cheek-teeth almost rudimentary and +variable in number. Tongue long, slender, pointed, and very extensile. +Tail long. Cæcum absent.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp67" id="figure046" style="max-width: 28.125em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure046.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 46.</span>—<i>Tarsipes rostratus.</i> From Gould.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Tarsipes.</i><a id="FNanchor_54" href="#Footnote_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a>—So named from some supposed resemblance of its +foot to that of the Lemurine genus <i>Tarsius</i>; but it must be remarked +that it has none of the peculiar elongation of the calcaneum and +navicular so characteristic of that genus. Head with elongated<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_149"></a>[149]</span> +and slender muzzle. Mouth-opening small. The two lower +incisors are long, very slender, sharp-pointed, and horizontally +placed. All the other teeth are simple, conical, minute, and placed +at considerable and irregular intervals apart in the jaws, the number +appearing to vary in different individuals and even on different +sides of the same individual. The formula, in a specimen in the +Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons, is <i>i</i> ²⁄₁, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₀, <i>p</i> and <i>m</i> ³⁄₂ on +one side, and ⁴⁄₃ on the other; total 20. Rami of the mandible +extremely slender, nearly straight, and without coronoid process or +inflected angle. Fore feet with five well-developed toes, furnished +with small, flat, scale-like nails, not reaching to the extremity of +the digits. Hind feet rather long and slender compared with those +of the <i>Phalangerinæ</i>, having a well-developed opposable and nailless +hallux; second and third digits syndactylous, with sharp compressed +curved claws; the fourth and fifth free, and with small flat nails. +Ears of moderate size and rounded. Tail longer than the body and +head, scantily clothed with short hairs, prehensile. Vertebræ: C 7, +D 13, L 5, S 3, C 24.</p> + +<p>Of this singular genus but one species, <i>T. rostratus</i> (<a href="#figure046">Fig. 46</a>), is +known, about the size of a common Mouse. It inhabits Western +Australia, lives in trees and bushes, uses its tail in climbing, and +feeds on honey, which it procures by inserting its long tongue into +the blossoms of <i>Melaleucæ</i>, etc. One kept in confinement by Mr. +Gould was also observed to eat flies.</p> + +<p>Subfamily <b>Phalangerinæ</b>.—Teeth normal. One or more +rudimentary teeth between the upper canine and fourth premolar, +and between the first lower incisor and fourth premolar. Tongue +of ordinary structure. No cheek-pouches. Stomach and ascending +colon simple. Cæcum long, simple. Tail well-developed, generally +prehensile.</p> + +<p>A numerous group of animals, varying from the size of a mouse +to that of a large cat, arboreal in their habits, and abundantly +distributed throughout the Australian region. The members of +this group are the typical representatives of the family, and are +commonly known to the colonists as Opossums.</p> + +<p><i>Phalanger.</i><a id="FNanchor_55" href="#Footnote_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a>—The typical genus <i>Phalanger</i> (<i>Cuscus</i>) presents the +following characters. No flying membrane; size large or medium, +and build stout and clumsy; fur thick and woolly. Ears short +or medium, hairy externally, and in some cases also internally. +Toes of fore feet subequal, their relative lengths in the order 4, 3, +5, 2, 1. Claws long, stout, and curved. Soles of feet naked and +striated, with large ill-defined pads. Tail stout and markedly +prehensile, with the proximal half furred like the body, and the +terminal portion entirely naked. Four mammæ. Skull (<a href="#figure047">Fig. 47</a>)<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_150"></a>[150]</span> +stout and strong, with large vacuities in the hinder half of the +palate, and the auditory bullæ thick and inflated. Dentition usually +<i>i</i> ³⁄₂, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₀, <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ⁴⁄₄. First upper incisor with nearly circular section, +or only slightly flattened +in front; canine +more or less +closely approximated +to third incisor +(which is very small), +and situated partly +in front of the suture +between the premaxilla +and maxilla. +Fourth premolar +large, secant, and +placed obliquely to +line of molars. +Molars four-cusped, +with the inner cusps +of the upper ones +crescentoid, and imperfect transverse ridges connecting each pair +of cusps.</p> + +<figure class="figright illowp95" id="figure047" style="max-width: 21.875em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure047.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 47.</span>—Left lateral view of skull of Gray Cuscus (<i>Phalanger +orientalis</i>). After Peters.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The Cuscuses are curious sleepy-looking animals, inhabiting the +various islands of the East Indian Archipelago as far west as Celebes, +and being the only Marsupials found west of New Guinea. As +already noted, it was a member of this genus, the Gray Cuscus +(<i>P. orientalis</i>), a native of Amboyna, Timor, and the neighbouring +islands, which was the first Australasian Marsupial known to European +naturalists. There are altogether five species known, all of about +the size of a large cat; their habits resemble those of other Phalangers, +except that they are said to be somewhat more carnivorous.</p> + +<p><i>Trichosurus.</i><a id="FNanchor_56" href="#Footnote_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a>—The members of the genus <i>Trichosurus</i> are of +relatively large size, and are distinguished from <i>Phalanger</i> by the +following characters. Ears more or less hairy behind. Relative +lengths of toes of fore feet in the order 4, 3, 2, 5, 1. Hair on the +soles of the hind feet beneath the heel, but not elsewhere. Tail +thick, not tapering, covered with bushy hair up to the extreme tip, +which is naked, but with a naked strip on the inferior surface in +the distal third or half. A gland on the chest. Dentition usually +<i>i</i> ³⁄₂, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₀, <i>p</i> ²⁄₂, <i>m</i> ⁴⁄₄. Upper incisors of nearly uniform length, the +first much flattened in front. Canine situated some distance behind +the third upper incisor, which it scarcely exceeds in size. Last +premolar and molars very similar to those of <i>Phalanger</i>.</p> + +<p>The true Phalangers comprise two species, of which the best +known is the Vulpine Phalanger (<i>T. vulpecula</i>), so common in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_151"></a>[151]</span> +zoological gardens, where, however, it is seldom seen, owing to +its nocturnal habits. It is of about the size and general build of +a small fox, whence its name. In the typical variety the colour +is gray, with a yellowish white belly, white ears, and a black tail. +This variety is a native of the greater part of the continent of +Australia, but is replaced in Tasmania by the closely allied Brown +Phalanger (<i>var. fuliginosa</i>). Its habits are very similar to those of +the Yellow-bellied Flying-Phalanger (<i>Petaurus australis</i>) described +below, except that it is unable to take the flying leaps of that animal. +Like all the other phalangers, its flesh is freely eaten both by the +natives and the lower class of settlers.</p> + +<p><i>Pseudochirus.</i><a id="FNanchor_57" href="#Footnote_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a>—The genus <i>Pseudochirus</i> agrees with the preceding +in the absence of a flying membrane, and presents the +following leading characters. Size large or medium. Fur comparatively +short and woolly. Ears medium or short, hairy +behind, although seldom closely furred over all this aspect. +Claws medium. Fore toes subequal, the first two distinctly +opposable to the other three. Soles of feet naked, with large, +striated, round pads, and hair beneath the heels. Tail tapering, +markedly prehensile, with its distal third and the whole of the +under surface short-haired; tip naked underneath for a short +distance. Four mammæ. No gland on chest. Skull with larger +nasals than in the preceding genera; the posterior part of the +palate in most cases fully ossified, and the auditory bullæ generally +somewhat inflated. Dentition (at most) <i>i</i> ²⁻³⁄₂, <i>c</i> ⁰⁻¹⁄₀, <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ⁴⁄₄. +Upper teeth nearly uniform in length, but the first incisor distinctly +longer than second. Upper premolars variable. Molars with both +inner and outer cusps distinctly crescentoid, and recalling those +of the Selenodont Artiodactyle Ungulates.</p> + +<p><i>Range.</i>—Tasmania, Australia, and New Guinea.</p> + +<p>There are about ten species of this genus known, of which the +commonest is Cook’s Ring-tailed Phalanger (<i>Pseudochirus peregrinus</i>), +an animal discovered by Captain Cook during his first voyage, at +Endeavour river, North Queensland.</p> + +<p>The complex and sub-selenodont character of the molars of this +and the following genus readily distinguish them from the more +typical Phalangers, and show an approximation to the type of +dentition prevailing in <i>Phascolarctus</i>; according, however, to Mr. +O. Thomas, a tendency towards the same structure is observable +in unworn molars of young Cuscuses. The genus may be divided +into three groups, of which the first, as typified by the common <i>P. +peregrinus</i>, is restricted to Australia and Tasmania, while the third, +as represented by <i>P. canescens</i>, is only found in New Guinea. <i>P. +albertisi</i> may be taken as the type of the second group, which is<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_152"></a>[152]</span> +represented by that species in New Guinea, and by <i>P. archeri</i> in +Queensland. With the exception of <i>P. peregrinus</i>, the species have +a more or less restricted range. Remains of <i>Pseudochirus</i>, probably +referable to existing species, are found in the cave-deposits of New +South Wales.</p> + +<p><i>Petauroides.</i><a id="FNanchor_58" href="#Footnote_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a>—With the genus <i>Petauroides</i>, containing only the +single species <i>P. volans</i>, we come to the first of the Flying-Phalangers, +characterised by the possession of a living membrane along the flanks. +The characters of this genus are as follows. Size large. Fur very +long and silky. Ears large and oval, thickly furred on the back, +but naked internally. Flying-membrane reaching from wrist to +ankle, but very narrow along the sides of the forearm and lower +leg. Fore toes subequal, their relative lengths in the order 4, 3, 5, +2, 1. Claws long, curved, and sharp. Tail long, cylindrical, and +bushy, except near its tip, where it is naked and prehensile. Skull +short and broad, with the nasals short, and not extending nearly as +far forwards as the premaxillæ. Large vacuities in hinder part of +palate. Auditory bullæ inflated and smooth. Dentition usually +<i>i</i> ³⁄₂, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₀, <i>p</i> ²⁄₂, <i>m</i> ⁴⁄₄. General characters of teeth very similar to those +of <i>Pseudochirus</i>, but the first upper incisor scarcely longer than the +second.</p> + +<p>The single species is found in Australia, from Queensland to +Victoria, and is commonly known as the Taguan Flying-Phalanger. +The structure of the skull and teeth indicates close affinity with +<i>Pseudochirus</i>, although the external form is widely different in the +two genera. This Phalanger seems, indeed, to be, so to speak, a +very specialised <i>Pseudochirus</i>, in which the teeth have become +somewhat further diminished and the flying membrane has been +developed.</p> + +<p><i>Dactylopsila.</i><a id="FNanchor_59" href="#Footnote_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a>—The genus <i>Dactylopsila</i> is one of the forms without +any trace of a flying membrane, its characters being as follows. +Size medium. Body striped black and white. Ears oval, nearly +naked at the ends. Fore toes of very unequal length, the fourth +being enormously elongated; fourth and fifth toes of pes also +markedly elongated. Claws long, moderately curved. Tail long, +cylindrical, and evenly bushy, with the extremity more or less +naked below. Skull narrow, but with the zygomatic arches greatly +expanded; palate fully ossified. Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₀, <i>p</i> ³⁄₂, <i>m</i> ⁴⁄₄. +Upper incisors very large, the third being directed horizontally +forwards; canine small and approximated to the third incisor, which +it resembles. The fourth premolar of moderate size, with its longer +axis placed obliquely. First lower incisor longer than in any other +genus. Molars oblong, with four cusps.</p> + +<p>The typical <i>D. trivirgata</i>, or Striped Phalanger, inhabits the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_153"></a>[153]</span> +Papuan and North Australian sub-region; a second species (<i>D. +palpator</i>), characterised by the still greater elongation of the fourth +finger, occurring in South New Guinea. These animals are said +to be of insectivorous habits, the elongated fourth finger, as in the +analogous instance of the Lemuroid genus <i>Chiromys</i>, being apparently +specially adapted for extracting insects and larvæ from their +hiding places.</p> + +<p><i>Petaurus.</i><a id="FNanchor_60" href="#Footnote_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a>—Size medium or small. Fur very soft and silky. +A broad flying membrane extending from the outer side of the fifth +digit of the manus to the ankle. Fore toes usually increasing +regularly in length from the first to the fifth, but in some of the +smaller species the fourth is the longest. Claws strong, sharp, and +much curved. Tail long, evenly bushy to the extremity. Glands +on the chest and between the ears. Skull short and wide, with +the nasals expanded posteriorly, and usually two small palatal +vacuities near the second molars. Auditory bullæ inflated, and +variable in size. Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₂, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₀, <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ⁴⁄₄. First upper incisors +very large, and taller than canine. Molars with square crowns +rounded at the angles, and four cusps, except in the last, which is +triangular.</p> + +<p>This genus, which ranges from New Ireland to South Australia, +but is not found in Tasmania, contains three species, the largest of +which is the Yellow-bellied Flying-Phalanger (<i>P. australis</i>), whose +habits are recorded by Mr. Gould as follows. “This animal is +common in all the brushes of New South Wales, particularly those +which stretch along the coast from Port Philip to Moreton Bay. +In these vast forests trees of one kind or another are perpetually +flowering, and thus offer a never-failing supply of the blossoms +upon which it feeds; the flowers of the various kinds of gums, +some of which are of great magnitude, are the principal favourites. +Like the rest of the genus, it is nocturnal in its habits, dwelling in +holes and in the spouts of the larger branches during the day, and +displaying the greatest activity at night while running over the +small leafy branches, frequently even to their very extremities, in +search of insects and the honey of the newly-opened blossoms. Its +structure being ill adapted for terrestrial habits, it seldom descends +to the ground except for the purpose of passing to a tree too distant +to be reached by flight. When chased, or forced to flight it +ascends to the highest branch and performs the most enormous +leaps, sweeping from tree to tree with wonderful address; a slight +elevation gives its body an impetus which, with the expansion of +its membrane, enables it to pass to a considerable distance, always +ascending a little at the extremity of the leap; by this ascent the +animal is prevented from receiving the shock which it would otherwise +sustain.”</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_154"></a>[154]</span></p> + +<p>A second species, <i>P. sciureus</i>, in some ways one of the most +beautiful of all mammals, has been chosen for the accompanying +woodcut.</p> + +<p><i>Gymnobelideus.</i><a id="FNanchor_61" href="#Footnote_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a>—Like <i>Petaurus</i> in every respect, but without +any trace of a flying membrane, and with the fifth digit of the +manus slightly shorter than the third. This genus is represented +only by <i>G. leadbeateri</i> of Victoria, and according to Mr. Thomas, +may be regarded as the primitive form from which the specialised +<i>Petaurus</i> has been developed.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp60" id="figure048" style="max-width: 25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure048.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 48.</span>—Squirrel Flying-Phalanger (<i>Petaurus sciureus</i>).</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Dromicia.</i><a id="FNanchor_62" href="#Footnote_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a>—Size small, and general appearance dormouse-like. +Ears large and thin, almost naked, and without internal +or basal tufts. No flying membrane. Digits of normal proportions, +the relative lengths of those of the manus in the order +3, 4, 2, 5, 1; fore claws rudimentary, hind ones long and sharp. +Tail mouse-like, cylindrical, furry at base, the remainder scaly, +with fine hairs, except at the tip, which is naked and prehensile.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_155"></a>[155]</span> +Skull short and broad, with the hinder part of the palate incomplete, +and the auditory bullæ large, much inflated, and transparent. +Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₂, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₀, <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ³⁻⁴⁄₃₋₄. First upper incisor spatulate, +and much longer than either of the others. Canine large, +placed at some distance behind the third incisor. Molars (except the +last) with evenly rounded crowns, carrying four small smooth cusps.</p> + +<p>This genus, which occurs in New Guinea, Western Australia, and +Tasmania, is represented by four species. It seems to be intermediate +between <i>Petaurus</i> and <i>Acrobates</i>, and it has apparently had +to yield place to those more highly organised types in regions where +they have come in contact with one another.</p> + +<p><i>Distœchurus.</i><a id="FNanchor_63" href="#Footnote_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a>—Size small. Ears rather short, thinly covered +with hair, but with small tufts at the base. No flying membrane. +Digits of normal proportions, without expanded terminal pads. +Claws curved and sharp. Tail, skull, and dentition as in <i>Acrobates</i>, +with the exception that the fourth premolar is small in the upper, +and absent in the lower jaw.</p> + +<p>The one species of Feather-tailed Phalanger (<i>D. pennatus</i>) is +found in New Guinea.</p> + +<p><i>Acrobates.</i><a id="FNanchor_64" href="#Footnote_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a>—Size very small. Ears moderate, thinly covered +with hair, but with small tufts round the base and on the internal +prominences. A narrow flying membrane, fringed with long hairs, +running from the elbow to the flank, and from the latter to the +knee. Four mammæ. Digits furnished with expanded and striated +terminal pads, the relative length of those of the manus being in the +order 4, 3, 5, 2, 1. Claws sharp, although somewhat concealed by +the terminal pads. Tail short-haired above and below, with a broad +fringe on either side. Skull short, wide, and depressed. Posterior +portion of palate very imperfectly ossified; anterior palatal vacuities +almost confined to the maxillæ. Auditory bullæ low, rounded, and +but slightly prominent. Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₂, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₀, <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃. Teeth sharp, +and of an insectivorous type. Upper canine long, and approximated +to third incisor. The three upper premolars large, functional, and +taller than the molars. Molars small and rounded, with smooth +unridged cusps.</p> + +<p>There is only one species in this genus, the beautiful little +Pigmy Flying-Phalanger (<i>A. pygmæus</i>), not so big as a Mouse, which +is found in Queensland, New South Wales, and Victoria, and feeds +on the honey it abstracts from flowers, and on insects. Its agility +and powers of leaping are exceedingly great, and it is said by +Mr. Gould to make a most charming little pet.</p> + +<p>Subfamily <b>Phascolarctinæ</b>.—Teeth large, normal; no rudimentary +premolars before the last upper premolar, or any teeth<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_156"></a>[156]</span> +between the first lower incisor and fourth premolar. Tongue +of ordinary structure. Distinct cheek-pouches. Stomach with a +special gland near the cardiac orifice. Cæcum very long, and (with +the upper portion of the colon) dilated and provided with numerous +longitudinal folds of mucous membrane. In many anatomical +characters, especially the possession of a special gastric gland, this +group resembles the <i>Phascolomyidæ</i>.<a id="FNanchor_65" href="#Footnote_65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a></p> + +<figure class="figright illowp53" id="figure049" style="max-width: 15.625em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure049.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 49.</span>—Skeleton of right hind foot of Koala +(<i>Phascolarctus cinereus</i>), showing the stout opposable +hallux, followed by two slender toes, +which in the living animal are enclosed as far +as the nails in a common integument.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Phascolarctus.</i><a id="FNanchor_66" href="#Footnote_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₁, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₀, <i>p</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>m</i> ⁴⁄₄; total 30. Upper +incisors crowded together, cylindroidal, the first much larger than +the others, with a bevelled cutting edge (<a href="#figure036">Fig. 36</a>). Canine very +small; a considerable interval between it and the premolar, which +is as long from before backwards but not so broad as the true +molars, and has a cutting edge, with a smaller parallel inner ridge. +The molars slightly diminishing in size from the first to the fourth, +with square crowns, each bearing four pyramidal cusps, with curved +ridges radiating from them, and having a structure very similar to +these of <i>Pseudochirus</i>. The lower incisors are semiproclivous, compressed +and tapering, bevelled at the ends. Premolars and molars +in continuous series, as in the upper jaw. Milk-tooth very minute, +and almost functionless. Fore feet with the two inner toes slightly +separated from and opposable to the remaining three, all with strong, +curved, and much compressed +claws. Hind foot (<a href="#figure049">Fig. 49</a>) with +the hallux placed very far back, +large and broad, the second and +third (united) toes considerably +smaller than the other two; the +fourth the largest. No external +tail. Fur dense and woolly. +Ears of moderate size, thickly +clothed with long hairs. Vertebræ: +C 7, D 11, L 8, S 2, C 8. +Ribs eleven pairs, a rare exception +to the usual number (13) +in the Marsupialia.</p> + +<p>There is but one species, +the Koala or Native Bear of +the Australian colonists (<i>P. cinereus</i>), +an animal of comparatively +large size and heavy +build (<a href="#figure050">Fig. 50</a>), found in the +south-eastern parts of the Australian +continent. It is about two feet in length, and of an ash-gray +colour, an excellent climber, and residing generally in lofty<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_157"></a>[157]</span> +<i>Eucalyptus</i> trees, on the buds and tender shoots of which it feeds, +though occasionally descending to the ground in the night.</p> + +<h4><span class="smcap">Extinct Phalangeroids.</span></h4> + +<p>Numerous imperfect remains recently described by De Vis are +regarded as indicating large extinct types of <i>Phalangeridæ</i>, but +further evidence is required before all these determinations can be +definitely accepted. Thus part of an upper jaw is provisionally +referred to a large species of <i>Pseudochirus</i>, while part of a scapula +is made the type of a genus <i>Archizonurus</i> which appears to be +allied to the former. Another fragmentary scapula is considered to +indicate a large <i>Phalanger</i>. Finally, part of a fibula, described under +the name of <i>Koalemus</i> is regarded as affording evidence of the +former existence of a large ancestral form allied to the Koala, and +it is suggested that an upper jaw with teeth may belong to the +same or an allied type.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure050" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure050.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 50.</span>—The Koala (<i>Phascolarctus cinereus</i>). From Sclater, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1880, p. 355.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Thylacoleo.</i><a id="FNanchor_67" href="#Footnote_67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a>—Dentition of adult: <i>i</i> ³⁄₁, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₀, <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ¹⁄₂; total 28. +First upper incisor much larger than the others; canine and first +two premolars rudimentary. In the lower jaw the two small +anterior premolars are functionless, and often deciduous; posterior +premolars of both jaws formed on the same type as those of <i>Potorous</i>, +but relatively much larger; true molars rudimentary, tubercular. +One species, <i>T. carnifex</i>. This animal presents a most anomalous<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_158"></a>[158]</span> +condition of dentition, the functional teeth being reduced to one +pair of large cutting incisors situated close to the median line, and +one great, trenchant, compressed premolar, on each side above and +below. It was first +described as a carnivorous +Marsupial, +and named, in accordance +with its +presumed habits, +“as one of the fellest +and most destructive +of predatory +beasts”; but, +as its affinities are +certainly with the +<i>Phalangeridæ</i> and +<i>Macropodidæ</i>, and +its dentition completely +unlike that +of any known predaceous +animal, this +view has been called +in question.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp70" id="figure051" style="max-width: 25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure051.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 51.</span>—Front view of skull of <i>Thylacoleo carnifex</i>, restored. +¹⁄₃ natural size. From <i>Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.</i> vol. xxiv. p. 312.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The dentition is +nearer to that of the +existing <i>Phalangeridæ</i> than to that of the <i>Macropodidæ</i>, and the +genus may be provisionally regarded as the type of a distinct +subfamily of the former.</p> + +<h4><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Macropodidæ</span>.</h4> + +<p>Dentition <i>i</i> ³⁄₁, <i>c</i> ⁰⁻¹⁄₀, <i>p</i> ²⁄₂, <i>m</i> ⁴⁄₄. Incisors sharp and cutting, +those of the lower jaw frequently having a scissor-like action +against one another; upper canine, if present, small. Penultimate +premolar shed with the fourth milk-molar, which is molariform and +long persistent. Molars wide, and either transversely ridged or +bluntly tuberculate. Premolars and molars moving forwards in the +skull as the age of the animal increases, this being most marked in +the larger species. Masseteric fossa of mandible hollowed out +below into a deep cavity walled in externally by a plate of bone, +and communicating with the inferior dental canal by a large +foramen. Hind limbs usually larger than the anterior ones, and +progression generally saltatorial. Fore feet with five digits; hind +feet syndactylous, the fourth digit being very large and strongly +clawed; hallux usually absent. Tail generally long and hairy,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_159"></a>[159]</span> +occasionally prehensile; stomach sacculated. Pouch large and +opening forwards.</p> + +<figure class="figleft illowp18" id="figure052" style="max-width: 6.25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure052.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 52.</span>—Skeleton +of right hind foot of +Kangaroo.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The <i>Macropodidæ</i> or Kangaroos, taken as a whole, form a very +well-marked family, easily distinguished from the other members of +the suborder by their general conformation, and +by peculiarities in the structure of their limbs, +teeth, and other organs. They vary in size from +that of a sheep down to a small rabbit. The +head, especially in the larger species, is small, +compared with the rest of the body, and tapers +forward to the muzzle. The shoulders and fore +limbs are feebly developed, and the hind limbs +usually of disproportionate strength and magnitude, +which gives them a peculiarly awkward appearance +when moving about on all fours, as they occasionally +do when feeding. Rapid progression is, however, +performed only by the powerful hind limbs, +the animal covering the ground by a series of +immense bounds, during which the fore part of the +body is inclined forwards, and balanced by the +long, strong, and tapering tail, which is carried +horizontally backwards. When not moving they +often assume a perfectly upright position, the tail +aiding the two hind legs to form a sort of supporting +tripod, and the front limbs dangling by the +side of the chest. This position gives full scope +for the senses of sight, hearing, and smell to warn +of the approach of enemies, from which these +animals save themselves by their bounding flight. +The fore paws have live distinct digits, each armed +with a strong curved claw.</p> + +<p>The hind foot (<a href="#figure052">Fig. 52</a>), as being a typical +example of the syndactylous modification, may be +noticed in some detail. It is extremely long and +narrow, and (with only one exception) without any +hallux or great toe. It consists mainly of one very large and strong +toe, corresponding to the fourth of the human or other typically +developed foot, ending in a strong, curved, and pointed claw. +Close to the outer side of this lies a smaller fifth digit, and to the +inner side two excessively slender toes (the second and third), +bound together almost to the extremity in a common integument. +The two little claws of these toes, projecting together from the +skin, may be of use in scratching and cleaning the fur of the +animal, but the toes themselves must have quite lost all connexion +with the functions of support or progression.</p> + +<p>The dentition of the Kangaroos, functionally considered,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_160"></a>[160]</span> +consists of sharp-edged incisors, most fully developed near the +median line of the mouth, for the purpose of cropping the various +kinds of herbage on which they feed, and ridged and tuberculated +molars for crushing it, there being no tusks or canines for offensive +or defensive purposes.</p> + +<p>The number of vertebræ is—in the cervical region 7, dorsal 13, +lumbar 6, sacral 2, caudal varying according to the length of the +tail, but generally from 21 to 25. In the fore limb the clavicle +and the radius and ulna are well developed, allowing of considerable +freedom of motion of the hand. The pelvis has large epipubic or +“marsupial” bones. The femur is short, and the tibia and fibula +are of great length, as is the foot, the whole of which is applied to +the ground when the animal is at rest in the upright position.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp88" id="figure053" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure053.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 53.</span>—The Great Gray Kangaroo (<i>Macropus giganteus</i>).</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The stomach is of large size, and very complex, its walls being +puckered up by longitudinal muscular bands into a great number of +sacculi, like those of the human colon. The alimentary canal is +long, and the cæcum well developed. All the species have a +marsupium or pouch formed by a fold of the skin of the abdomen, +covering the mammary glands with their four nipples. In this +pouch the young are placed as soon as they are born; there their +growth and development proceeds; and to it they resort temporarily +for the purpose of shelter, concealment, or transport, for some +time after they are able to run and jump about the ground and +feed upon the same herbage which forms the nourishment of the +parent. During the early period of their sojourn in the pouch,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_161"></a>[161]</span> +the blind, naked, helpless young creatures (which in the Great +Kangaroo [<a href="#figure053">Fig. 53</a>] scarcely exceed an inch in length) are attached +by their mouths to the nipples of the mother, and are fed by +milk injected into their stomach by the contraction of the muscle +covering the mammary gland.</p> + +<p>The Kangaroos are all vegetable feeders, browsing on grass and +various kinds of herbage, the smaller species also eating roots. +They are naturally timid, inoffensive creatures; but the larger ones +when hard pressed will turn and defend themselves, sometimes +killing a dog by grasping it in their fore paws, and inflicting +terrible wounds with the sharp claws of their powerful hind legs, +sustaining themselves meanwhile upon the tail. A few aberrant +forms are arboreal. The great majority are inhabitants of Australia +and Tasmania, forming one of the most prominent and characteristic +features of the fauna of these lands, and in the scenery of the +country, as well as the economy of nature, performing the part of +the deer and antelopes of other parts of the world, which are +entirely wanting in Australia. Kangaroos were very important +sources of food-supply to the natives, and are hunted by the colonists, +both for sport and with a view to their destruction, on account +of the damage they naturally do in consuming the grass, now +required for feeding cattle and sheep. Notwithstanding this, they +have in some districts increased in numbers, owing to the suppression +of their former enemies, the aborigines and the Dingo or +native dog. A few species are found in New Guinea and the +adjacent islands, which belong, in the zoological sense, to the +Australian region.</p> + +<p>Before noticing the various generic types of the <i>Macropodidæ</i>, a +few words are necessary in respect of the tooth-change, and we may +here quote the observations of Mr. O. Thomas on this subject. +“The full dentition of the members of this family consists, in the +upper jaw, first of three incisors, then of a small canine (often, +however, suppressed, as in <a href="#figure055">Fig. 55</a>), and then of six cheek-teeth, +of which the second in the series is the only one which has a milk +or deciduous predecessor, and is therefore the one to be regarded +as the last premolar of the typical mammalian dentition. The +special characteristics that render the development and succession of +the teeth in the <i>Macropodidæ</i>, and especially in the genus <i>Macropus</i>, +so puzzling to systematic zoologists, are: firstly, a general progression +forwards in the jaw of the whole tooth-row, comparable to +that found elsewhere only in the Elephants and some Sirenians; +and, secondly, the fact that before the tooth-change the first tooth +of the series (<i>p</i> 3) and the single milk-tooth (<i>dm</i> 4) placed next to +it, both of which fall out at the change, are respectively so very +similar in shape and size to the first and second teeth of the +permanent series, viz. the permanent premolar (<i>p</i> 4) and the first<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_162"></a>[162]</span> +molar (<i>m</i> 1), as to be most naturally mistaken for, or compared with, +them in specific descriptions.... The necessary knowledge as to +the stage of dentition in which any skull may be, can often be +gained only by cutting open the bone either above and behind the +first tooth of the series to see if the true permanent <i>p</i> 4 be still +buried there (in which case, of course, that first tooth is only <i>p</i> 3), +or behind the last visible molar to see if there be yet another tooth +behind it, showing it to be <i>m</i> 3 and not <i>m</i> 4. The first plan is, +as a rule, the better, since <i>p</i> 4 is generally by far the most +important tooth for diagnostic purposes, and its characters have, +therefore, in any case to be taken into account.”</p> + +<p>The <i>Macropodidæ</i> are divided into three well-marked sections: +(1) the true Kangaroos (<i>Macropodinæ</i>); (2) a group consisting of +smaller animals, commonly called Rat Kangaroos, or (improperly) +“Kangaroo Rats,” or sometimes Potoroos; and (3) the <i>Hypsiprymnodontinæ</i>, +now represented only by a single species.</p> + +<p>Subfamily <b>Hypsiprymnodontinæ</b>.—Size very small. Claws +small, feeble, and subequal. Hind feet with an opposable hallux. +Tail naked and scaly. The fourth premolar twisted obliquely outwards, +as in <i>Phalanger</i>. Other teeth as in the <i>Potoroinæ</i>.</p> + +<p>This subfamily is now represented only by the genus <i>Hypsiprymnodon</i>,<a id="FNanchor_68" href="#Footnote_68" class="fnanchor">[68]</a> +which is a form of great interest, as showing a structure +of foot connecting that of the Kangaroos with that of the Phalangers. +The single known species, <i>H. moschatus</i>, was described by +Ramsay from specimens discovered in north-east Australia. It +was described almost simultaneously by Owen under the name of +<i>Pleopus nudicaudatus</i>. From the resemblance in the structure of the +foot and the obliquity of the premolars to the Phalangers Mr. +Thomas has some hesitation as to which family should receive this +genus, but the macropine characters of the mandible preponderate +in favour of the <i>Macropodidæ</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Triclis.</i><a id="FNanchor_69" href="#Footnote_69" class="fnanchor">[69]</a>—A lower jaw of a much larger form from the Pleistocene +deposits of Australia apparently indicates another member of +this subfamily, having the outwardly directed and grooved premolar +characteristic of <i>Hypsiprymnodon</i>. It differs, however, from +that genus, and also from all other known <i>Macropodidæ</i>, in having +a small tooth between the incisor and fourth premolar, which +apparently represents a canine, or perhaps an anterior premolar. +This form indicates, therefore, a closer connexion between the +<i>Phalangeridæ</i> and <i>Macropodidæ</i> than any other.</p> + +<p>Subfamily <b>Potoroinæ</b>.—The second section or subfamily, the +<i>Potoroinæ</i>, have the first upper incisor narrow, curved, and much +exceeding the others in length (<a href="#figure054">Fig. 54</a>). Upper canines always +persistent, flattened, blunt, and slightly curved. Premolars of both<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_163"></a>[163]</span> +jaws always having large, simple, compressed crowns, with a nearly +straight or slightly concave free cutting edge, both outer and inner +surfaces usually marked by a series of parallel, vertical grooves and +ridges, these teeth being either set in the same line with the +molars, or slightly bent outwards. Molars with quadrate crowns, +having a blunt, conical cusp at each corner, the fourth notably +smaller than the third, sometimes rudimentary, and appearing early. +Fore feet narrow; three middle toes considerably exceeding the +first and fifth in length; their claws long, compressed, and but +slightly curved. Hind feet as in <i>Macropus</i>. Tail long and hairy, +sometimes partially prehensile, being used for carrying bundles of +grass with which these animals build their nests.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure054" style="max-width: 28.125em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure054.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 54.</span>—Skull and teeth of Rat Kangaroo (<i>Bettongia lesueuiri</i>). <i>c</i>, Upper canine. +The other letters as in <a href="#figure051">Fig. 51</a>.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The Potoroos or Rat Kangaroos are all small animals, none of +them exceeding a common rabbit in size. They inhabit Australia +and Tasmania, are nocturnal, and feed on the leaves of various +kinds of grasses and other plants, as well as roots and bulbs, which +they dig up with their fore paws. Nine species are known, presenting +a considerable range of diversity in minor characters, and +admitting of being grouped in four principal sections, which may +be allowed the rank of genera. These are:</p> + +<p><i>Potorous.</i><a id="FNanchor_70" href="#Footnote_70" class="fnanchor">[70]</a>—Head long and slender. Auditory bullæ somewhat +inflated. Ridges on premolars few and perpendicular. +Large palatine foramina. Tarsus short. Muffle naked. Three +species, viz. <i>P. tridactylus</i>, <i>P. gilberti</i>, and <i>P. platyops</i>; the last two +being confined to West Australia.</p> + +<p><i>Bettongia.</i><a id="FNanchor_71" href="#Footnote_71" class="fnanchor">[71]</a>—Head comparatively short and broad. Ears short +and rounded. Auditory bullæ generally much inflated. Large +palatine foramina. Tarsus long. Ridges on premolars numerous<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_164"></a>[164]</span> +and oblique. Tail more or less prehensile, thickly haired, and +the hairs on the upper surface longer than those on the lower, and +forming a crest. Muffle naked. Four species, viz. <i>B. penicillata</i>, +<i>B. cuniculus</i>, <i>B. gaimardi</i>, <i>B. lesueuiri</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Caloprymnus.</i><a id="FNanchor_72" href="#Footnote_72" class="fnanchor">[72]</a>—Muffle naked, as in <i>Bettongia</i>, but the edge of the +hairy part less emarginate backwards in the middle line. Ears +short, rounded, and hairy. Auditory bullæ much inflated, and of +large size. Nasals larger and wider behind than in the other +genera. Very long anterior palatine foramina. Limbs as in +<i>Bettongia</i>. Tail thin, cylindrical, evenly coated with short hair, +without trace of a crest. Skull broad and flat, with a remarkably +short and conical muzzle. The sole representative of this genus is +<i>C. campestris</i> of South Australia, originally referred to <i>Bettongia</i>.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure055" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure055.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 55.</span>—Skull and Teeth of the Red-necked Wallaby (<i>Macropus ruficollis</i>). <i>i¹</i>, <i>i²</i>, <i>i³</i>, First, +second, and third upper incisors; <i>pm</i>, fourth or posterior premolar (the penultimate or third +having been already shed); <i>m¹</i>, <i>m²</i>, <i>m³</i>, <i>m⁴</i>, the four true molars. The last, not fully developed, +is nearly concealed by the ascending ramus of the jaw.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Æpyprymnus.</i><a id="FNanchor_73" href="#Footnote_73" class="fnanchor">[73]</a>—Head short and broad. Auditory bullæ not +inflated. No palatine foramina. Tarsus long. Muffle partially +hairy. Tail evenly hairy, not crested above. Molars oblong, less +distinctly quadritubercular, and not decreasing so much in size posteriorly +as in the other genera. Represented only by <i>Æ. rufescens</i>.</p> + +<p>Remains of <i>Æ. rufescens</i> occur in the Pleistocene cave-deposits +of New South Wales.</p> + +<p>Subfamily <b>Macropodinæ</b>.—This subfamily includes the largest +forms. The cutting edges of the upper incisors are nearly level, or +the first pair but slightly longer than the others (<a href="#figure055">Fig. 55</a>). The +canines are rudimentary and often wanting. The premolars are +usually not longer (from before backwards) than the true molars<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_165"></a>[165]</span> +and less compressed than in the last subfamily; they are placed +in precisely the same line with the molars. The crowns of the +molars always have two prominent transverse ridges; and these +teeth increase in size from before backwards, the fourth molar +appearing very late. The fore limbs are small, with subequal toes +armed with strong, moderately long, curved claws. Hind limbs +very long and strongly made. Head small, with more or less +elongated muzzle. Ears generally rather long and ovate.</p> + +<p>Upwards of forty-four existing species of this group have been +described, and many attempts have been made to subdivide them into +smaller groups or genera for the convenience of arrangement and +description, but these have generally been based upon such trivial +characters that it is preferable to speak of many of them as sections +of the genus <i>Macropus</i>, reserving generic rank only to forms somewhat +aberrant in structure. According to this arrangement the +genera will be as follows:</p> + +<p><i>Lagostrophus.</i><a id="FNanchor_74" href="#Footnote_74" class="fnanchor">[74]</a>—Represented only by the Banded Wallaby +(<i>L. fasciatus</i>) of Western Australia, which presents the following +distinctive features. Size small. Muffle naked. Hind feet covered +with long bristly hairs, concealing the claws. Lower part of back +marked by dark cross-bands. Skull with a narrow pointed muzzle +and inflated auditory bullæ; symphysis of mandible firmly united. +No canine. Upper incisive series meeting at a sharp angle, and +diverging but slightly behind. First incisor smaller in section than +either of the others and scarcely longer, bluntly pointed; second +with a flattened oral surface; third smaller, similarly flattened, but +with a groove on oral surface forming a notch at its postero-external +angle. Fourth premolar short, with a distinct inner ledge. +Molars as in <i>Macropus</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Dendrolagus.</i><a id="FNanchor_75" href="#Footnote_75" class="fnanchor">[75]</a>—General proportions of limbs and body normal +and unlike those of other members of the family. Muffle broad and +only partly naked. Fur on nape, and sometimes on back, directed +forwards. Fore limbs nearly as large as the hind; hind feet with +the syndactylous second and third digits relatively large; claws of +fourth and fifth hind digits curved like those of the manus. Tail +very long, and thickly furred. Skull stout, with a short and wide +muzzle; the posterior part of the palate fully ossified, and the +auditory bullæ not inflated. A small canine. Fourth premolar +large, but much shorter antero-posteriorly than in the next genus; +molars as in the latter.</p> + +<p>This genus includes four species of Tree-Kangaroos, three of +which occur in New Guinea, while <i>D. lumholtzi</i> is found in North +Queensland. They differ greatly from all the other forms in being +chiefly arboreal in their habits, climbing with facility among the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_166"></a>[166]</span> +branches of large trees, and feeding on the bark, leaves, and fruit. +They are confined to the tropical forests of the regions mentioned; +and it would appear that we must regard their resemblance in the +proportions of the limbs and habits to the Phalangers as having +been independently acquired.</p> + +<p><i>Dorcopsis.</i><a id="FNanchor_76" href="#Footnote_76" class="fnanchor">[76]</a>—Hind limbs relatively less large than in <i>Macropus</i>. +Muffle large, broad, and naked. Ears small. Fur on nape directed +wholly or partially forwards. Hind claws not concealed by hair. +Tail with a nearly naked tip. Skull long and narrow, with the +auditory bullæ not inflated. A well-developed canine. First upper +incisor somewhat short; second and third nearly equal, notched +externally. Fourth premolar greatly elongated antero-posteriorly, +its length generally exceeding the united lengths of the first and +second molars; a distinct inner ledge, and vertical grooves on both +sides. Molars low and rounded, with the median longitudinal +bridge between the ridges almost or quite aborted, and the talon in +front of the first transverse ridge very narrow, and not extending +to the inner side. The two series of cheek-teeth parallel, or nearly +so, instead of converging at the extremities.</p> + +<p>Three species of this genus are known, all of which are from +New Guinea; the type being <i>D. muelleri</i>. In the characters of the +dentition, the forward inclination of the fur on the nape, and other +points, this genus is allied to <i>Dendrolagus</i>; but <i>Dorcopsis macleayi</i> +connects the other species with <i>Macropus</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Lagorchestes.</i><a id="FNanchor_77" href="#Footnote_77" class="fnanchor">[77]</a>—Muffle entirely or partially covered with hair. +Fourth hind digit with a long claw, not concealed by hair. Tail +rather short, evenly furred, without a spur. Skull with short +muzzle and diastema, and inflated auditory bulla. Canine present, +sometimes very small. Fourth premolar large, not constricted in +the middle, with a continuous inner ledge.</p> + +<p>This genus includes the Hare-Kangaroos, a group of small +hare-like animals, great leapers and swift runners, which mostly +affect the open grassy ridges, particularly those of a stony character, +sleeping in forms or seats like the common hare. Their limbs are +comparatively small, their claws sharp and slender, and their muffle +is clothed with velvet-like hairs. Three species—<i>M. leporoides</i>, <i>M. +hirsutus</i>, <i>M. conspicillatus</i>.</p> + +<p>The range extends over the whole of Australia, but does not +embrace Tasmania.</p> + +<p><i>Onychogale.</i><a id="FNanchor_78" href="#Footnote_78" class="fnanchor">[78]</a>—Muffle hairy. Fourth hind claw long, narrow, +compressed, and sharp. Tail long and tapering, covered with short +hair, and furnished at the tip with a horny spur. Skull nearly as in +<i>Macropus</i>, with the auditory bullæ more or less inflated. Canine<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_167"></a>[167]</span> +small or wanting. Upper incisors small, decreasing in size from first +to third. Fourth premolar small, hour-glass shaped, and without +inner ledge. Molars as in <i>Macropus</i>.</p> + +<p>This genus contains three species, having the same distribution +as <i>Lagorchestes</i>. Mr. O. Thomas observes: “The spur-tailed Wallabies +form a natural little group, distinguished both by the shape of the +incisors and the peculiar horny excrescence at the tip of the tail. +The latter character is altogether unique among Marsupials, and is +only found among other mammals in the Lion, which occasionally +has a somewhat similar horny spur at the end of its tail. In the +case of the Wallabies it is difficult to conceive what can be the +use of this spur; and observations on the living animal are much +needed with regard to this interesting point.”</p> + +<p><i>Petrogale.</i><a id="FNanchor_79" href="#Footnote_79" class="fnanchor">[79]</a>—Muffle naked. Fur of nape directed backwards. +Claw of fourth hind digit very short. Tail long, cylindrical, thinner +than in <i>Macropus</i>, and thickly haired and pencilled at the extremity. +Skull as in the smaller species of <i>Macropus</i>, with large posterior +palatal vacuities, and the bullæ sometimes inflated. No canine. +Upper incisors small, the third resembling that of <i>Macropus</i>. Fourth +premolar large and stout, as in some of the Wallabies, with a continuous +inner ledge, and two or three indistinct vertical ridges +externally. Molars as in the Wallabies.</p> + +<p>This genus is represented by six species, of which <i>P. penicillata</i> +is a well-known example, ranging over the whole of the mainland of +Australia. The Rock-Wallabies, as its members may be called, are +very closely allied to some of the true Wallabies; and some hesitation +may be expressed as to the advisability of accepting their generic +separation from <i>Macropus</i>. They inhabit rocky regions, making +their retreats in caverns and crevices, leaping with surprising agility +from one narrow ledge to another, and browsing upon the scanty +herbage that the neighbourhood of such situations affords. The +species are <i>P. xanthopus</i>, <i>P. penicillata</i>, <i>P. lateralis</i>, <i>P. concinna</i>, <i>P. +brachyotis</i>, <i>P. inornata</i>.</p> + +<p>Remains of <i>P. penicillata</i> are found in a fossil state in the +Pleistocene cave-deposits of New South Wales.</p> + +<p><i>Macropus.</i><a id="FNanchor_80" href="#Footnote_80" class="fnanchor">[80]</a>—Muffle generally completely naked. Ears large. +Fur on nape (with an occasional exception in two species) directed +backwards. Claw of fourth hind digit very long. Tail thick, +tapering, and evenly furred. Four mammæ. Skull (<a href="#figure055">Fig. 55</a>) long, +smooth, and rounded; the nasals expanded behind; generally large +palatal vacuities; and the auditory bullæ not inflated. Canine +minute, and shed at an early period. Incisor series forming an +open curve; the first the tallest, and the third nearly always the +longest antero-posteriorly, and generally with an infolding of enamel<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_168"></a>[168]</span> +near its postero-external angle. Fourth upper premolar with a +secant edge, and an inner basal ledge or tubercle; corresponding +lower tooth secant; both maybe longer or shorter than first molar. +Molars (except very occasionally) with a distinct longitudinal bridge +connecting transverse ridges. Lower incisors long and scalpriform, +with inner secant edges opposable, owing to the loose articulation of +the mandibular symphysis.</p> + +<p>This genus includes the true Kangaroos and Wallabies, the size +of the individual existing species varying from that of a Rabbit +to that of a Man. There are no less than twenty-three existing +species, which may be divided into three groups, as well as many +extinct ones. The genus is found in Australia and New Guinea, +as well as in the eastern half of the Austro-Malayan transitional +region.</p> + +<p>The first group, or true Kangaroos, comprises the largest +existing forms, which are generally of a uniform and sombre colour.</p> + +<p>The skull is of a large and massive type, with the palate more +or less well ossified posteriorly, while the molars frequently have +a median longitudinal bridge connecting the first transverse ridge +with the anterior talon, and no antero-external bridge between the +same ridge and talon. The history of the discovery of the typical +representative of this group, as being of considerable interest, may +be given at some length. When Captain Cook, during his first +memorable voyage of discovery, was detained for the purpose of +refitting his ship at Endeavour river on the north-east coast of +Australia, a strange-looking animal, entirely unknown to them, was +frequently seen by the ship’s company; and it is recorded in the +annals of the voyage that, on the 14th of July 1770, “Mr. Gore, +who went out this day with his gun, had the good fortune to kill +one of the animals which had been so much the subject of our +speculation, ... and which is called by the natives kanguroo,” a +name which, though it does not appear to be now known to any of +the aboriginal tribes of the country, has been adopted for this +animal in all European languages, with only slight modifications of +spelling. With the exception of a passing glimpse in the beginning +of the same century by the Dutch traveller Bruyn of some living +examples of an allied species, this was the first introduction to the +civilised world of any member of a group of animals now so +familiar. The affinities of the species, skins of which were brought +home by Captain Cook and subsequent voyagers, were recognised +by Schreber as nearer to the American opossums (then the only +known Marsupials) than to any other mammals with which zoologists +were acquainted, and consequently it was placed by him, in his +great work on the Mammalia, then in the course of publication, in the +genus <i>Didelphys</i>, with <i>gigantea</i> for a specific designation,—the latter +having been bestowed upon it by Zimmermann under the impression<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_169"></a>[169]</span> +that it was a huge species of jerboa. Soon afterwards (1791) Dr. +Shaw very properly formed a new genus for its reception, which +he named <i>Macropus</i>, in allusion to the peculiar length of its hind +foot. By the name thus formed, <i>Macropus giganteus</i>, this kind of +Kangaroo has ever since been known in zoological literature. It is +the common Gray Kangaroo, called “boomer,” “forrester,” or “old +man” by the colonists, and frequents the open grassy plains of the +greater part of eastern Australia and Tasmania; a figure being +given in the woodcut on <a href="#figure053">p. 160</a>. The muffle is partly covered +with hair, and the fourth premolar very short. Several varieties +are known.</p> + +<p>A sub-group, distinguished from the above by the naked +muffle, includes some very large and handsome species, which principally +dwell in rocky mountain ranges, as <i>M. rufus</i>, the great Red +Kangaroo, <i>M. antilopinus</i>, and <i>M. robustus</i>. The fourth premolar is +of large or medium size in these forms. Remains of <i>M. giganteus</i> +occur fossil in the Pleistocene of Australia, where we also find the +allied extinct <i>M. titan</i>, which attains somewhat larger dimensions. +<i>M. robustus</i> also dates from the same geological epoch, where it was +accompanied by two allied types known as <i>M. altus</i> and <i>M. cooperi</i>.</p> + +<p>The second group includes the larger Wallabies, which are +smaller than the true Kangaroos, with a brighter and more +variegated coloration. The palate is generally more incomplete +than in the typical group; and in the molars the anterior talon is +connected with the first transverse ridge by an external instead of +a median longitudinal bridge. The members of this group are +frequenters of forests and dense impenetrable brushes and scrubs, +and hence are often called Brush Kangaroos, though a native name, +“Wallaby,” is now generally applied to them. There are several +species, of which <i>M. ruficollis</i>, <i>M. ualabatus</i>, <i>M. parryi</i>, and <i>M. agilis</i> +are the best known.</p> + +<p><i>M. ualabatus</i> and <i>M. parryi</i> are found fossil in the Pleistocene +deposits of Australia. In those beds we also meet with remains of +several very large extinct species, which appear to be allied to those +Wallabies in which the fourth premolar is large and elongated, all +of them agreeing with the Wallabies in the absence of the median +bridge between the first ridge and talon of the molars. These fossil +forms comprise <i>M. brehus</i>, in which the skull was probably about +one foot in length, and <i>M. rœchus</i>, and <i>M. anak</i>, which were of somewhat +inferior dimensions. In the last-named species the length of +the fourth upper premolar is equal to that of the first and half of +the second molar.<a id="FNanchor_81" href="#Footnote_81" class="fnanchor">[81]</a></p> + +<p>The third and last group of the genus includes the small<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_170"></a>[170]</span> +Wallabies, which are small and lightly-built animals, in some +instances not larger than a Rabbit. Their muffles are always naked, +and in the skull the anterior palatine foramina are small and the +posterior vacuities very large, while the posterior expansion of the +nasals is very marked. The third upper incisor is smaller than in +the last group. This group extends farther into the tropics than +either of the others, being found in the New Britain and Aru +islands, as well as in New Guinea. <i>M. brachyurus</i> is remarkable for +its comparatively short and slender tail and small ears. The earliest +known species of Kangaroo, referred to before, <i>M. bruni</i>, belongs to +this section. Several examples were seen by Bruyn in 1711 living +in captivity in the garden of the Dutch governor of Batavia, and +described and figured in the account of his travels (<i>Reizen over +Moskovie</i>, etc.) under the name of “Filander.” It was quite lost +sight of, and its name even transferred by S. Müller to another +species (<i>Dorcopsis muelleri</i>), until rediscovered in 1865 by Rosenberg, +who sent a series of specimens to the Leyden Museum from the +islands of Aru and Great Key, thus determining its true habitat. +<i>M. thetidis</i> is a well-known Australian representative of this +group.</p> + +<p><i>Extinct genera.</i>—In addition to the fossil forms already mentioned +which can be referred to existing genera, there are others from the +Australian Pleistocene indicating extinct generic types of <i>Macropodidæ</i>, +to which brief reference may now be made. The first of these +is <i>Sthenurus</i>,<a id="FNanchor_82" href="#Footnote_82" class="fnanchor">[82]</a> represented by a single large species (<i>S. atlas</i>), and +characterised by the presence of a complete inner lobe to the fourth +upper premolar, and of an outer one in the opposing lower tooth, +so that these teeth present a flat and oval grinding surface when +worn. The median longitudinal bridge connecting the transverse +ridges of the molars is very imperfect; and in the upper molars +there is no bridge between the first ridge and talon. In <i>Procoptodon</i><a id="FNanchor_83" href="#Footnote_83" class="fnanchor">[83]</a> +the premolars resemble those of <i>Sthenurus</i>, but the molars are +elongated, and usually have their enamel thrown into numerous +vertical foldings. The most distinctive feature is, however, the +complete ankylosis of the mandibular symphysis; the mandibular +rami being deep, and the diastema in the dental series short. The +lower incisors are nearly cylindrical, and the palate has large +vacuities. Three species are known. The largest representation of +the whole family is the type of the genus <i>Palorchestes</i><a id="FNanchor_84" href="#Footnote_84" class="fnanchor">[84]</a> (<i>P. azael</i>), in +which the length of the skull is estimated at sixteen inches. It is +distinguished from <i>Procoptodon</i> by the longer mandibular symphysis +and diastema, and the spatulate lower incisors. The true molars +have no distinct anterior talon, and are not grooved, while the +palate was fully ossified.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_171"></a>[171]</span></p> + +<h4><span class="smcap">Extinct Families.</span></h4> + +<p>Here may be noticed two genera of extinct Marsupials, the remains +of which have been found in the Pleistocene deposits of Australia, +which agree with the <i>Macropodidæ</i> and the <i>Phalangeridæ</i> in having +³⁄₁ incisors, those of the lower jaw being very large and proclivous. +As the whole of their structure, especially that of the hind feet, is +not yet known, their precise affinities cannot be determined.</p> + +<p><i>Diprotodon.</i><a id="FNanchor_85" href="#Footnote_85" class="fnanchor">[85]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₁, <i>c</i> ⁰⁄₀, <i>p</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>m</i> ⁴⁄₄; total 28. The first +upper incisor very large and scalpriform (<a href="#figure056">Fig. 56</a>). True molars +with prominent transverse ridges, as in <i>Macropus</i>, but wanting +the longitudinal connecting bridge. Anterior and posterior limbs +less disproportionate than in the Kangaroos. Humerus elongated, +and differing from that of nearly all Marsupials in the absence of an +entepicondylar foramen. The palate is fully ossified, and there is +no pit or perforation in the masseteric fossa of the mandible. <i>D. +australis</i> is the largest known Marsupial, being fully equal in bulk +to a Rhinoceros. It may be regarded as the type of a family—<i>Diprotodontidæ</i>—having +affinity on the one hand with the Phalangers +and on the other with the Kangaroos.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure056" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure056.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 56.</span>—Left lateral aspect of the skull of <i>Diprotodon australis</i>; from the Pleistocene of +Australia. ⅒ natural size. <i>i</i>, Incisors; <i>p</i>, premolar; <i>m</i>, molars. (After Owen.)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Nototherium.</i><a id="FNanchor_86" href="#Footnote_86" class="fnanchor">[86]</a>—Represented by a species of somewhat smaller +size than the type of <i>Diprotodon</i>, with a shorter skull, in which the +zygomatic arches are very wide and the nasals curiously expanded +at their extremities. The mandibular symphysis is ankylosed;<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_172"></a>[172]</span> +and, as in <i>Diprotodon</i>, there appears to have been no tooth-change. +The humerus probably referable to <i>Nototherium</i> is of a short and +widely expanded type, with a large entepicondylar foramen, and +coming nearer to that of the Wombat than to that of any other +existing form. The <i>Nototheriidæ</i> may apparently be regarded as a +distinct family connecting the <i>Diprotodontidæ</i> with the <i>Phascolomyidæ</i> +and <i>Phalangeridæ</i>.</p> + +<div class="bibliography"> + +<p><i>Bibliography of Marsupialia.</i>—G. R. Waterhouse, <i>Nat. Hist. of the Mammalia</i>, +vol. i. “Marsupiata,” 1846; J. Gould, <i>Mammals of Australia</i>, 1863; R. Owen, +article “Marsupialia,” in <i>Cyclop. of Anatomy and Physiology</i>, and various +memoirs “On Extinct Mammals of Australia” in <i>Philosophical Transactions</i>; +W. H. Flower, “On the Development and Succession of the Teeth in the Marsupialia,” +<i>Phil. Trans.</i> 1867; O. Thomas, “On the Homologies and Succession +of the Teeth in the Dasyuridæ,” <i>Phil. Trans.</i> 1887; and “Catalogue of Marsupialia +and Monotremata in the British Museum,” 1888.</p> + +</div> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_173"></a>[173]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII<br> +<span class="smaller">THE SUBCLASS EUTHERIA AND THE ORDER EDENTATA</span></h2> + +</div> + +<p>The whole of the remaining groups of mammals are included in a +single subclass, known by the names Eutheria, Monodelphia, or +Placentalia.<a id="FNanchor_87" href="#Footnote_87" class="fnanchor">[87]</a> The one distinctive feature they have in common +(from which the last-mentioned name is derived) is the presence of +an allantoic placenta by means of which the fœtus is nourished within +the uterus of the mother. Throughout the entire subclass, as a general +rule, the urino-genital organs open quite independently of the rectum; +the corpus callosum of the brain is well developed; the mandible does +not show a marked inflection of its angle; and distinct epipubic +bones are not attached to the anterior margin of the pubic symphysis. +In those cases where there is a heterodont and diphyodont dentition +the dental formula can be reduced to some modification of the one +given on <a href="#Page_25">p. 25</a>, there being only one known genus where four +true molars occur, and even that not invariably. As in the +Metatheria, the coracoid is reduced to a mere appendage of the +scapula, and the acetabular cavity of the pelvis is imperforate. +While the survivors of the other subclasses have probably been +for a long time in a stationary condition, these have, as there is +already good evidence to show throughout all the Tertiary +geological age, and by inference for some time before, been multiplying +in numbers and variations of form, and attaining higher +stages of development and specialisation in various directions. +They consequently exhibit far greater diversity of external or +adaptive modification than is met with in either of the other subclasses,—some +being fitted to live as exclusively in the water as +fishes, and others to emulate the aerial flight of birds.</p> + +<p>To facilitate the study of the different component members +of this large group, it is usual to separate them into certain<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_174"></a>[174]</span> +divisions which are called “orders.” In the main zoologists +are now of accord as to the general number and limits of these +divisions among the existing forms, but the affinities and relationships +of the orders to one another are far from being understood, and +there are very many extinct forms already discovered which do not +fit at all satisfactorily into any of the orders as commonly defined.</p> + +<p>Commencing with the most easily distinguished, we may first +separate a group called Edentata, composed of several very distinct +forms, the Sloths, Anteaters, and Armadillos, which under great +modifications of characters of limbs and digestive organs, as well as +habits of life, have just enough in common to make it probable that +they are the very specialised survivors of an ancient group, most +of the members of which are extinct, although the researches of +palæontology have not yet revealed them to us. The characters of +their cerebral, dental, and in many cases of their reproductive organs +show an inferior grade of organisation to that of the generality of +the subclass. The next order, about the limits of which there is no +difficulty, is the Sirenia,—aquatic vegetable-eating animals, with +complete absence of hind limbs, and low cerebral organisation,—represented +in our present state of knowledge by but two existing +genera, the Dugongs and Manatees, and by a few extinct forms, +which, though approaching a more generalised mammalian type, +show no special characters allying them to any of the other orders. +Another equally well-marked and equally isolated, though far more +numerously represented and diversified order, is that of the Cetacea, +composed of the various forms of Whales, Dolphins, and Porpoises. +In aquatic habits, external fish-like form, and absence of hind limbs, +they resemble the last, though in all other characters they are +as widely removed as are any two orders among the Eutheria.</p> + +<p>All the remaining orders are more nearly allied together, the +steps by which they have become modified from one general +type being in most cases not difficult to realise. Their dentition +especially, however diversified in detail, always responds to the +formula already alluded to, and, although the existing forms are +broken up into groups in most cases easy of definition, the discoveries +already made in palæontology have in great measure filled up the +gaps between them.</p> + +<p>Very isolated among existing Eutheria are the two species of +Elephant constituting the group called Proboscidea. These, however, +are now known to be the survivors of a large series of similar animals, +Mammoths, Mastodons, and Dinotheres, which as we pass backwards +in time gradually assume a more ordinary or generalised type; and +the interval which was lately supposed to exist between even these +and the rest of the class is partially bridged over by the discovery +in American Eocene and early Miocene formations of the gigantic +Dinocerata, evidently offshoots of the great group of hoofed animals,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_175"></a>[175]</span> +or Ungulata, represented in the actual fauna by the Horses, +Rhinoceroses, Tapirs, Swine, and Ruminants. Almost as isolated +as the Proboscidea among existing mammals are the few small +species constituting the family <i>Hyracidæ</i>, and in their case palæontology +affords no help at present, and therefore, pending further discoveries, +it has been thought advisable in most recent systems to +give them the honour of an order to themselves, under the name of +Hyracoidea. But the number of extinct forms already known allied +to the Ungulata, though not coming under the definition of either +of the two groups (Artiodactyla and Perissodactyla) under which all +existing species range themselves, is so great that either many new +orders must be made for their reception or the definition of the old +order Ungulata so far extended as to receive them all, in which +case both Proboscidea and Hyracoidea may be included within it. +Again, the Rodentia or gnawing animals—Rabbits, Rats, Squirrels, +Porcupines, Beavers, etc.—are, if we look only at the present state +of the class, most isolated. No one can doubt what is meant by a +Rodent animal, or have any difficulty about defining it clearly, at +least by its dental characters; yet our definitions break down before +the extinct South American <i>Typotherium</i>, half Rodent and half +Ungulate, which leads by an easy transition to the still more truly +Ungulate <i>Toxodon</i>, for the reception of which a distinct order +(Toxodontia) has been proposed. It has also been suggested that +the Rodents are connected by some of the extinct Tillodontia (or +Tæniodontia) with the Edentates. The Insectivora and the +Carnivora again are at present quite distinct orders, but they merge +into one another through fossil forms, and are especially connected +by the large group of primitive Carnivora, so abundantly represented +in the Eocene deposits both of America and Europe, to which +Cope has given the name of Creodonta. The Carnivora also appear +to have been closely connected with the primitive Ungulates as represented +by the extinct group called Condylarthra. In another +direction the step from the Insectivores to the Lemurs is not great, +and in past times the transition was probably complete. The Bats +or Chiroptera are allied to the Insectivora in all characters except the +extraordinary modification of their anterior extremities into wings; +but this, like the want of the hind limbs in the Cetacea and Sirenia, +makes such a clear distinction between them and all other mammals +that, in the absence of any knowledge of any completely intermediate +or transitional forms, they can be perfectly separated, and +constitute as well-defined an order as any in the class. We have, +however, an inkling of the mode in which the Insectivora were +modified into Chiroptera shown us by the so-called Flying Lemur +(<i>Galeopithecus</i>). Finally, we have the important and well-characterised +group called Primates, including all the Monkeys and Man; +and the question is not yet solved as to how and through what<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_176"></a>[176]</span> +forms this is linked on to the other groups. It is commonly assumed +that the Lemurs are nothing more than inferior Primates, but the +interval between them in the actual fauna of the world is very great, +and our knowledge of numerous extinct types recently discovered +in America, said to be intermediate in characters, is not yet +sufficient to enable us to form a definite opinion upon the subject.</p> + +<p>The Edentata may be taken first as standing in some respects +apart from all the others; and the Primates must be placed at the +head of the series. The position of the others is quite arbitrary, as +none of the hitherto proposed associations of the orders into larger +groups stand the test of critical investigation, and palæontological +researches have already gone far to show that they are all modifications +of a common heterodont, diphyodont, pentadactylate form.</p> + +<h3><i>Order</i> <span class="smcap">Edentata</span>.</h3> + +<p>The name assigned to this group (which some zoologists think +ought rather to be ranked as a subclass<a id="FNanchor_88" href="#Footnote_88" class="fnanchor">[88]</a> than an order) by Cuvier +is often objected to as inappropriate—for although some of the +members are edentulous, others have very numerous teeth—and the +Linnæan name Bruta is occasionally substituted. But that term is +quite as objectionable, especially since the group to which Linnæus +applied it is by no means equivalent to the order as now understood, +as the names of the genera contained in it, viz. <i>Elephas</i>, <i>Trichechus</i>, +<i>Bradypus</i>, <i>Myrmecophaga</i>, <i>Manis</i> and <i>Dasypus</i>, indicate. It contained, +in fact, all the animals then known which are comprised in the +modern groups of Proboscidea, Sirenia and Edentata together with +the Walrus, one of the Carnivora. If retained at all, it should +rather belong to the Proboscidea, as <i>Elephas</i> stands first in the +list of genera in the <i>Systema Naturæ</i>. Cuvier’s order included the +<i>Ornithorhynchus</i> and <i>Echidna</i>, the structure of which was then imperfectly +known, and which are now by common consent removed +to an altogether different section of the class; but otherwise its +limits are those now adopted. The name Edentata is so generally +used, and its meaning so well understood, that it would be undesirable +to change it now; in fact similar reasons might be assigned +for ceasing to use nearly all the other current ordinal designations, +for it might be equally well objected that all Carnivora are not +flesheaters, many of the Marsupialia have not pouches, and so +forth.</p> + +<p>If the teeth are not always absent, they invariably exhibit +certain imperfections, which are indeed almost the only common +characters binding together the various extinct and existing members +of the order. These are—that they are homodont and, with the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_177"></a>[177]</span> +remarkable exceptions of <i>Tatusia</i> and <i>Orycteropus</i>, monophyodont; +they are never rooted, but have persistent pulps; except in some +fossil forms, they are always deficient in one of the constituents +which enter into the formation of the complete mammalian +tooth, the enamel; and, at least among living forms, are never +present either in the upper or lower jaw in the fore part of +the mouth, the situation occupied by the incisors of other +mammals.<a id="FNanchor_89" href="#Footnote_89" class="fnanchor">[89]</a></p> + +<p>The peculiar nature of the dentition in the aberrant <i>Orycteropus</i> +will be noticed under the heading of that genus. As a rule, the +coracoid process of the scapula of the Edentates is more developed +than in other Eutheria.</p> + +<p>The degree of development of the brain varies considerably in +the different families, the +hemispheres being in some +cases almost or quite smooth +(<a href="#figure057">Fig. 57</a>), with a small corpus +callosum, and large anterior +commissure; while in other +instances the hemispheres +are convoluted, and the +corpus callosum is larger.</p> + +<figure class="figright illowp100" id="figure057" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure057.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 57.</span>—Upper surface of the brain of the Broad-banded +Armadillo (<i>Xenurus unicinctus</i>). The large +olfactory lobes are seen at the anterior extremity +(left of figure); the hemispheres have only three +sulci. (From Garrod, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1878, p. 230).</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>There is so great a difference +in structure and habits +between some of the existing +animals assigned to this order +that, beyond the negative +characters just mentioned, +there seems little to connect +them. The Sloths and Anteaters, for instance, in mode of life, +general conformation of limbs, structure of digestive organs, etc., +appear at first sight almost as widely separated as any mammals. +Palæontology has, however, thrown great light upon their relations, +and proved their real affinities. Perfectly intermediate forms have +been discovered in the great Ground Sloths of America, which have +the dentition and general form of the head of the Sloths, combined with +the limbs and trunk of the Anteaters. It is, indeed, highly probable +that the existing members of this order are very much differentiated +representatives of a large group, the greater number of which are +now extinct, and have become so without ever attaining a high +grade of organisation. The great diversity of structure in the +existing families, the high degree of specialisation to which many +have attained, the paucity of species and even of individuals, their<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_178"></a>[178]</span> +limited area of distribution, and their small size compared with +known ancestral forms, all show that this is an ancient and a waning +group, the members of which seem still to hold their own either by +the remoteness and seclusion of their dwelling-places, by their +remarkable adaptation of structure to special conditions of life, or +by aid of the peculiar defensive armature with which they are +invested. Their former history can, however, only be thus surmised, +rather than read, at present; for, though we have ample evidence +of the abundance and superior magnitude of certain forms in the +most recent or Pleistocene geological age, yet we have at present +no definite evidence as to their origin, or relationship to other +orders of mammals.</p> + +<p>The existing members of the order readily group themselves +into five distinct families, the limits of which are perfectly clear. +These are (1) <i>Bradypodidæ</i>, or Sloths; (2) <i>Myrmecophagidæ</i>, or Anteaters; +(3) <i>Dasypodidæ</i>, or Armadillos; (4) <i>Manidæ</i>, Pangolins or +Scaly Anteaters; and (5) <i>Orycteropodidæ</i>, Aard-varks or African +Anteaters. The geographical distribution of these families coincides +with their structural distinction, the first three being inhabitants of +the New and the last two of the Old World. It has been usual to +arrange these families into two large groups or suborders: (1) the +Phyllophaga, leaf-eaters, also called Tardigrada, containing the +<i>Bradypodidæ</i> alone; and (2) the Entomophaga, insect-eaters, or +Vermilingua, containing all the other families, from which sometimes +the <i>Orycteropodidæ</i> are separated as a third suborder under +the name of Effodientia, or Tubulidentata. Such an arrangement +is, however, an artificial one, founded on superficial resemblance. +The bonds which unite the <i>Manidæ</i> to the <i>Myrmecophagidæ</i> are +mainly to be found in the structure of the mouth, especially the +extensile character of the tongue, the great development of the submaxillary +glands, and the absence of teeth. These characters are +exactly analogous to those found in the Echidna among Monotremes, +the Woodpeckers among Birds, and the Chameleon among Reptiles,—the +fact probably being that in countries where Termites and +similar insects flourish various distinct forms of vertebrates have +become modified in special relation to this abundance of nutritious +food, which could only be made available by a peculiar structure of +the alimentary organs. A close study of the more essential +portions of the anatomy of these animals<a id="FNanchor_90" href="#Footnote_90" class="fnanchor">[90]</a> leads to the belief +that all the American Edentates at present known, however diversified +in form and habits, belong to a common stock. Thus the +<i>Bradypodidæ</i>, <i>Megatheriidæ</i>, and <i>Myrmecophagidæ</i> are certainly allied, +the modifications seen in the existing families relating only to food +and manner of life. The ancestral forms may have been omnivorous,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_179"></a>[179]</span> +and gradually separated into the purely vegetable and +purely animal feeders; from the former are developed the modern +Sloths, from the latter the Anteaters. The Armadillos (<i>Dasypodidæ</i>) +are another modification of the same type, retaining some +generalised characters, as those of the alimentary organs, but in +other respects, as in their defensive armature, remarkably specialised. +The two Old World families <i>Manidæ</i> and <i>Orycteropodidæ</i> are +so essentially distinct, both from the American families and from +each other, that it may even be considered doubtful whether they +are derived from the same primary branch of mammals, or whether +they may not be offsets of some other branch, the remaining +members of which have been lost to knowledge. Further remarks on +this point are recorded under the description of the <i>Orycteropodidæ</i>.<a id="FNanchor_91" href="#Footnote_91" class="fnanchor">[91]</a></p> + +<h4><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Bradypodidæ</span>.</h4> + +<p>Externally clothed with long, coarse, crisp hair. Head short +and rounded. External ears inconspicuous. Teeth ⁵⁄₄ in each jaw, +subcylindrical, of persistent growth, consisting of a central axis of +vaso-dentine, with a thin investment of hard dentine, and a thick +outer coating of cement; without (so far as is yet known) any succession. +Clavicles present. Fore limbs greatly longer than the +hind limbs. All the extremities terminating in narrow, curved +feet; the digits never exceeding three in number, encased for +nearly their whole length in a common integument, and armed +with long strong claws. Tail rudimentary. Stomach complex. No +cæcum. Uterus simple and globular. Placenta deciduate, dome-like, +composed of an aggregation of numerous discoidal lobes. Strictly<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_180"></a>[180]</span> +arboreal in habits, vegetable feeders, and limited geographically to +the forest regions of South and Central America.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp79" id="figure058" style="max-width: 28.125em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure058.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 58.</span>—Two-toed Sloth (<i>Cholœpus hoffmanni</i>).</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The Sloths, as the animals of this family are called on account +of the habitual sluggishness of their movements, are the most strictly +arboreal of all mammals, living entirely among the branches of +trees, usually hanging under them, with their backs downwards +(<a href="#figure058">Fig. 58</a>), and clinging to them with the simple hook-like organs to +which the terminations of all their limbs are reduced. When they +are obliged from any cause to descend to the ground, which they +rarely, if ever, do voluntarily, their limbs, owing to their unequal +length and the peculiar conformation of the feet—which allows +the animals to rest only on the outer edge—are most inefficient +for terrestrial progression, and they crawl along a level surface +with considerable difficulty. Though generally slow and inactive, +even when in their natural haunts, Sloths can on occasions travel +with considerable rapidity along the branches; and, as they do not +leap, like most other arboreal creatures, they avail themselves of +the swaying of the boughs by the wind to pass from tree to tree. +They feed entirely on leaves and young shoots and fruits, which +they gather in their mouth, the fore limbs aiding in dragging +boughs within reach, but not being used like hands, as they are by +monkeys, squirrels, etc. When sleeping they roll themselves up in +a ball, and, owing to the dry shaggy character of their hair, are +very inconspicuous among the mosses and lichens with which the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_181"></a>[181]</span> +trees of their native forests abound; the concealment thus afforded +being heightened in some species by the peculiar greenish tint +of the outer covering—very uncommon in mammals. This is not +due to the colour of the hair itself, but to the presence upon its +surface of an alga, the lodgment of which is facilitated by the fluted +or rough surface of the exterior of the hair, and the growth of which +is promoted by the dampness of the atmosphere in the gloomy +tropical forests, as it soon disappears from the hair of animals kept +in captivity in England. Sloths are nocturnal, silent, inoffensive, and +solitary animals, and usually produce but one young at birth. They +appear to show an almost reptilian tenacity of life, surviving the +most severe injuries and large doses of poisons, and exhibiting +longer persistence of irritability of muscular tissue after death than +other mammals.</p> + +<p>In the <i>Bradypodidæ</i>, as well as in the <i>Myrmecophagidæ</i>, the +testes are placed close to each other, lying on the rectum between +it and the bladder; the penis is quite rudimentary, consisting +of a pair of small corpora cavernosa, not directly attached by their +crura to the rami of the ischia, and having a glans scarcely larger +than that of the clitoris of most mammals, and, as in birds and +reptiles, without any true corpus spongiosum. In the females of +both families the uterus is simple and globular; and the vagina, at +least in the virgin state, is divided into two channels by a strong +median partition. The deciduate placenta of <i>Cholœpus</i> is composed +of a number of lobes aggregated into a dome-like mass; and it +does not appear that the placenta of the Anteaters departs in any +important characters from this type. According to the late Professor +W. K. Parker, the embryos of the Sloths, Anteaters, and +Pangolins have the stapes of the middle ear in the form of a rod, +thus showing affinities with a very primitive type of mammalian +organisation.</p> + +<p>The Sloths were all included in the Linnæan genus <i>Bradypus</i>, +but Illiger very properly separated the species with but two claws +on the fore feet, under the name of <i>Cholœpus</i>, leaving <i>Bradypus</i> +for those with three.</p> + +<p><i>Bradypus.</i><a id="FNanchor_92" href="#Footnote_92" class="fnanchor">[92]</a>—Three-toed Sloths. Teeth usually ⁵⁄₄ on each side; +no tooth projecting greatly beyond the others; the first in the +upper jaw much smaller than any of the rest; the first in the +lower jaw broad and compressed; the grinding surfaces of all much +cupped. Vertebræ: C 9, D and L 20 (of which 15 to 17 bear ribs), +S 6, C 11. All the known species present the remarkable peculiarity +of possessing nine cervical vertebræ, <i>i.e.</i> nine vertebræ +in front of the one which bears the first thoracic rib (or first +rib connected with the sternum, and corresponding in its general +relations with the first rib of other mammals); but the ninth,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_182"></a>[182]</span> +and sometimes the eighth, bears a pair of short movable ribs. +The arms or fore limbs are considerably longer than the hind +legs. The bones of the fore arm are complete, free, and capable of +pronation and supination. The hand is long, very narrow, habitually +curved, and terminates in three pointed curved claws, in +close apposition with each other. The claws are, in fact, incapable of +being divaricated, so that the hand is reduced to the condition of a +triple hook, fit only for the function of suspension from the boughs +of trees. The foot closely resembles the hand in its general structure +and mode of use; the sole being habitually turned inwards, so +that it cannot be applied to the ground in walking. The tongue is +short and soft, and the stomach large and complex, bearing some +resemblance to that of the ruminating Ungulates. The windpipe +or trachea has the remarkable peculiarity among mammals—not +unfrequent among birds and reptiles—of being folded on itself +before it reaches the lungs. The mammæ are two, and pectoral in +position.</p> + +<p>“Ai” is the common name given in books to the Three-toed +Sloths. They were all comprised by Linnæus under the species +<i>Bradypus tridactylus</i>. More recently Dr. Gray described as many +as eleven species, ranged in two genera, <i>Bradypus</i> and <i>Arctopithecus</i>; +but the distinctions which he assigned both to species and genera do +not bear close examination. Some are covered uniformly with a +gray or grayish-brown coat; others have a dark collar of elongated +hairs around the shoulders (<i>B. torquatus</i>); some have the hair of +the face very much shorter than that of the rest of the head and +neck; and others have a remarkable-looking patch of soft short hair +on the back between the shoulders, consisting, when best marked, +of a median stripe of glossy black, bordered on each side by bright +orange, yellow, or white. There are also structural differences in +the skulls, as in the amount of inflation of the pterygoid bones, +which indicate real differences of species; but the materials in our +museums are not yet sufficient to correlate these with external +characters and geographical distribution. The habits of all are +apparently alike. They are natives of Guiana, Brazil, and Peru, +and one if not two species (<i>B. infuscatus</i> and <i>B. castaneiceps</i>) extend +north of the Isthmus of Panama as far as Nicaragua. Of the +former of these Dr. Seeman says that, though generally silent, +a specimen in captivity uttered a shrill sound like a monkey +when forcibly pulled away from the tree to which it was +holding.</p> + +<p><i>Cholœpus.</i><a id="FNanchor_93" href="#Footnote_93" class="fnanchor">[93]</a>—Teeth ⁵⁄₄; the most anterior in both jaws separated +by an interval from the others, very large, caniniform, wearing +to a sharp, bevelled edge against the opposing tooth, the upper +shutting in front of the lower when the mouth is closed (<a href="#figure059">Fig. 59</a>),<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_183"></a>[183]</span> +unlike the true canines of heterodont mammals. Vertebræ: C 6 +or 7, D 23-24, L 3, S 7-8, C 4-6. One species (<i>C. didactylus</i>) has +the ordinary number of vertebræ in the neck; but an otherwise +closely allied form (<i>C. hoffmanni</i>) has but six. The tail is very +rudimentary. The hand generally resembles that of <i>Bradypus</i>; but +there are only two functional digits with claws—those answering +to the second and third of the typical pentadactylate manus. The +structure of the hind limb generally resembles that of <i>Bradypus</i>, +the appellation “two-toed” referring only to the anterior limb, +for in the foot the +three middle toes +are functionally +developed and of +nearly equal size. +<i>C. didactylus</i>, which +has been longest +known, is commonly +called by +the native name +of <i>Unau</i>. It inhabits +the forests +of Brazil. <i>C. hoffmanni</i> +(<a href="#figure058">Fig. 58</a>) +has a more northern +geographical +range, extending +from Ecuador through Panama to Costa Rica. Its voice, which +is seldom heard, is like the bleat of a sheep, and if the animal is +seized it snorts violently. Both species are very variable in +external coloration.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure059" style="max-width: 21.875em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure059.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 59.</span>—Skull of Two-toed Sloth (<i>Cholœpus didactylus</i>). From +<i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1871, p. 432.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Nothropus.</i><a id="FNanchor_94" href="#Footnote_94" class="fnanchor">[94]</a>—The only fossil form which has been referred to +this family is indicated by a lower jaw, described by Dr. Burmeister, +from the Pleistocene of Argentina, which appears to have belonged +to an animal of about double the dimensions of <i>Cholœpus didactylus</i>. +Professor Cope states, however, that this jaw really belongs to a +Glyptodont; while it is referred by Dr. Ameghino to the next +family.</p> + +<h4><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Megatheriidæ</span>.</h4> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp83" id="figure060" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure060.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 60.</span>—Section of upper molar teeth of <i>Megatherium americanum</i>. × ⅓. +<i>p</i>, pulp-cavity; the other letters explained in the text. (After Owen.)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The members of this family are all extinct. Their characters, +so far as is known from the well-preserved remains of many species +found abundantly in deposits of Pleistocene age in both North and +South America, were intermediate between those of the existing +<i>Bradypodidæ</i> and the <i>Myrmecophagidæ</i>, combining the head and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_184"></a>[184]</span> +dentition of the former with the structure of the vertebral column, +limbs, and tail of the latter. Almost all the known species are of +comparatively gigantic size, the smallest, <i>Nothrotherium escrivanense</i>, +exceeding the largest existing Anteater, and the Megatherium +being larger than a Rhinoceros. The femur has no third trochanter, +and the odontoid process of the axis vertebra has a peculiar facet +on the ventral surface. The dentition is usually ⁵⁄₄ on each side, as +in the Sloths, but ⁴⁄₃ in <i>Nothrotherium</i>.<a id="FNanchor_95" href="#Footnote_95" class="fnanchor">[95]</a> This genus, and in a still +more marked degree <i>Megatherium</i>, differ from all the others in the +details of the structure of the teeth. They are very deeply +implanted, of prismatic form (quadrate in transverse section), and +the component tissues—hard dentine (<a href="#figure060">Fig. 60</a>, <i>d</i>), softer vaso-dentine +(<i>v</i>), and cement (<i>c</i>)—are so arranged that, as the tooth wears, the +surface always presents a pair of transverse ridges, thus producing +a triturating apparatus comparable to the “bilophodont” molar of +<i>Dinotherium</i>, <i>Tapirus</i>, <i>Manatus</i>, <i>Macropus</i>, and others, though produced +in a different manner. In all the other genera the teeth are +more or less cylindrical, though sometimes laterally compressed or +even longitudinally grooved on the sides, and on the grinding +surface the prominent ridge of hard dentine follows the external +contour, and is surrounded only by a thin layer of cement, as +in the existing Sloths. The Ground Sloths, as the members<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_185"></a>[185]</span> +of this family may be conveniently designated, agree with the +Sloths and Anteaters, and thereby differ from all other mammals, +in that the coracoid process of the scapula and the coracoidal +border of the same unite over the coraco-scapular notch, +which is thus converted into a foramen. Large clavicles are +present.</p> + +<p><i>Megatherium.</i><a id="FNanchor_96" href="#Footnote_96" class="fnanchor">[96]</a>—The typical genus <i>Megatherium</i>, as being the +longest known representative of the family, may be noticed in some +detail. A nearly complete skeleton, found on the banks of the +River Luxan, near Buenos Ayres, and sent in 1789 to the Royal +Museum at Madrid, long remained the principal if not the only +source of information with regard to the species to which it belonged, +and furnished the materials for many descriptions, notably that of +Cuvier, who determined its affinities with the Sloths.<a id="FNanchor_97" href="#Footnote_97" class="fnanchor">[97]</a> In 1832 an +important collection of bones of the Megatherium was discovered +near the Rio Salado, and secured for the Museum of the College +of Surgeons of England; and these, with another collection found +at Luxan in 1837, and now in the British Museum, supplied the +materials for the complete description of the skeleton published +by Sir R. Owen in 1861. Other skeletons have subsequently been +received by several of the Continental museums, as Milan and Paris, +and also by those in South America; and consequently our knowledge +of the organisation of the Megatherium, so far as it can be +deduced from the bones and teeth, is as complete as that of any +other animal, recent or extinct.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure061" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure061.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 61.</span>—Oral surface of mandible of <i>Megatherium americanum</i>. +<i>a</i>, Condyle; <i>b</i>, masseteric process; <i>c</i>, angle; <i>d</i>, symphysis. (After Owen.)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The remains hitherto spoken of are all referred to one species, +<i>Megatherium americanum</i> of Blumenbach (<i>M. cuvieri</i> of Desmarest), +and are all from the newest or Pleistocene geological formations of +the Argentine Republic and Paraguay, or the lands forming the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_186"></a>[186]</span> +basin of the Rio de la Plata. Dr. Leidy has described, from similar +formations in Georgia and South Carolina, bones of a closely allied +species, about one-fourth smaller, which he has named <i>M. mirabile</i>. +Three other South American species have been described; but <i>M. +laurillardi</i>, of Lund, founded upon remains found in Brazil, has +been made the type of the genus <i>Ocnopus</i>.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure062" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure062.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 62.</span>—Skeleton of <i>Megatherium</i>, from the specimen in the Museum of the Royal College +of Surgeons. × ¹⁄₂₅.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The following description will apply especially to the best-known +South American form, <i>Megatherium americanum</i>. In size it exceeded +any existing land animal except the elephant, to which it was +inferior only in consequence of the comparative shortness of its +limbs; for in length and bulk of body it was its equal, if not +superior. The full length of a mounted skeleton (<a href="#figure062">Fig. 62</a>), from +the fore part of the head to the end of the tail, is 18 feet, of which +the tail occupies 5 feet. The head, which is small for the size of +the animal, presents a general resemblance to that of the Sloth; +the anterior part of the mouth is, however, more elongated, and the +jugal bone, though branched posteriorly in the same way as that of +the Sloth, meets the zygomatic process of the squamosal, thus +completing the arch. The lower jaw has the middle part of its +horizontal ramus curiously deepened, so as to admit of implantation +of the very long-rooted teeth, the peculiar structure +of which has been already described. A skull recently discovered +shows that, instead of the wide gap between the extremity of +the nasals and the premaxillæ exhibited in <a href="#figure062">Fig. 62</a>, there was +a prenasal bone, towards which a process extended upwards and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_187"></a>[187]</span> +backwards from the extremity of the upper surface of the premaxillæ.</p> + +<p>The vertebral column consists of seven cervical, sixteen dorsal, +three lumbar, five sacral, and eighteen caudal vertebræ. The +spinous processes are much better developed than in the Sloths, +and are all directed backwards, there being no reversing of the +inclination near the posterior end of the dorsal series, as in most +active-bodied mammals. In the lumbar region, the accessory zygapophyses, +rudimentary in Sloths, are fully developed, as in the +Anteaters.</p> + +<p>The tail is large, and its basal vertebræ have strong lateral and +spinous processes and chevron bones, indicating great muscular +development. The scapula resembles that of the Sloths in the +union of the acromion with the coracoid, and in the bridging over +of the suprascapular notch. The clavicle is complete and very +large, much resembling that of man on a large scale. The fore +limbs are longer than the hind limbs. The humerus has no entepicondylar +foramen. The radius and ulna are both well developed, +and have a considerable amount of freedom of movement. The +hand is singularly modified. The pollex is represented only by a +rudimentary metacarpal, but the next three digits are large, and +terminate in phalanges adapted for the support of immense claws, +the middle one being especially large. The outer or fifth digit has +no claw, and it may be considered as certain that the weight of the +foot was, in standing and walking, chiefly thrown upon this one, +which was protected by a callous pad below, as in the existing +great Anteater, while the other toes were curved inwards towards +the palm, and only came in contact with the ground by their outer +surfaces. The mechanical arrangements by which the weight of the +body was thrown entirely upon the outer side of the foot are very +curious, and are fully described in Owen’s memoir. The pelvis is +remarkably wide, even more so than that of the Elephant, but it is +formed on the same principle as in the Sloths. The femur is +extremely broad and flattened; the tibia and fibula are short and +strong, and united together at each end. The hind foot, contrary +to the usual rule in the Edentata, is even more singularly modified +than the hand. Thus the ankle-joint is formed upon a peculiar +plan, quite unlike that of the Sloths, or of any other mammal, except +the Megatherium’s nearest allies; and the calcaneum projects nearly +as far backwards as the fore part of the foot does forwards. There +is no trace of great toe or hallux, or of its corresponding cuneiform +bone; the second toe is rudimentary; while the third has an enormous +ungual phalanx, which, as in those of the hand, is remarkable +for the immense development of the bony sheath reflected from +its proximal end around the base of the claw. The two outer toes +have large and very peculiarly-shaped metatarsals, but only small<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_188"></a>[188]</span> +phalanges, and no claws. The creature probably walked upon the +outer edge of the sole, so that the great falcate claw of the third +toe did not come into contact with the ground, and so was kept in +a state of sharpness ready for use. The foot was therefore formed +upon quite a different principle from that of the Anteaters or +Sloths, though somewhat like the latter in having two of the toes +aborted.</p> + +<p>Taking all the various points of its structure together, they +clearly indicate affinities both with the existing Sloths and with +the Anteaters, the skull and teeth more resembling those of the +former, and the vertebral column and limbs the latter. It is also +not difficult to infer the food and habits of this enormous creature. +That it was a leaf-eater there can be little doubt; but the greater +size and more complex structure of its teeth might have enabled it +to crush the smaller branches as well as the leaves and succulent +shoots which form the food of the existing Sloths. It is, however, +very improbable that it climbed into the branches of the trees like +its diminutive congeners, and it is far more likely that it obtained +its subsistence by tearing them down with the great hook-like claws +of its powerful prehensile fore limbs, being easily enabled to reach +them by raising itself up upon the massive tripod formed by the +two hind feet, firmly fixed to the ground by the one huge falcate +claw, and the stout, muscular tail. The whole conformation of +the hinder part of the animal is strongly suggestive of such an +action. There can also be little doubt but that all its movements +were as slow and deliberate as those of its modern representatives.</p> + +<p>An idea at one time prevailed that the Megatherium was +covered externally with a coat of bony armour like that of the +Armadillos; but this originated in dermal plates belonging to the +Glyptodon having been accidentally associated with bones of the +Megatherium. Similar plates, on a smaller scale, have indeed been +found in connection with the skeleton of the Mylodon, but never +yet with the Megatherium, which we may therefore imagine with +a covering of coarse hair like that of its nearest living allies, the +Sloths and Anteaters.</p> + +<p><i>Scelidotherium</i>, <i>Mylodon</i>, etc.—Of the more important remaining +genera of this family a briefer notice will suffice. <i>Scelidotherium</i> (in +which <i>Platyonyx</i> may be included) comprises several species of +considerably smaller dimensions than the Megatherium, and is in +some respects intermediate between that genus and <i>Mylodon</i>. The +teeth have an oval cross-section, like those of the Sloths, while the +skull, in which the length of the nasals is subject to great variation +in the different species, approximates more or less closely to that +of the <i>Myrmecophagidæ</i>. The humerus generally has an entepicondylar +foramen; and the form and relations of the bones of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_189"></a>[189]</span> +the feet differ considerably from those obtaining in the type genus. +<i>S. leptocephalum</i>, the type of the genus, occurs in Patagonia and +Argentina but +other species are +found in Brazil +and Chili. The +genus <i>Mylodon</i>, in +its widest sense, +may be taken to +include a number +of comparatively +large Edentates, +some of which have +been described +under the names of +<i>Grypotherium</i>, <i>Lestodon</i>, +and <i>Pseudolestodon</i>. +The teeth +of the upper jaw +are generally of an +oval or subtriangular +section; and in +the more typical forms the first and second teeth are separated +by a short interval, the former being horizontally worn. In +other species, however, like <i>M. (Lestodon) armatus</i>, there is a +considerable space between the first and second teeth, and the +first is worn obliquely. The skull is exceedingly like that of +the Sloths in general contour; and there is not the descending +process at the angle of the mandible found in <i>Megatherium</i>. +The humerus has no entepicondylar foramen. The species +represented in <a href="#figure063">Fig. 63</a> is from the Pleistocene of South America; +but the type of the genus is <i>M. harlani</i>, from beds of corresponding +age in Kentucky. The Patagonian <i>M. (Grypotherium) +darwini</i> is a remarkable form, characterised by the presence of a +bony arch connecting the premaxillæ with the nasals, of which, as +already mentioned, there is an incomplete development in +<i>Megatherium</i>. <i>Megalonyx</i>, from the Pleistocene of Kentucky, differs +from <i>Mylodon</i> by the long interval between the first and second +teeth, and also by the presence of an entepicondylar foramen in +the humerus. <i>Nothrotherium</i> is a smaller form, occurring in the +deposits of the Brazilian caves, of which the dental features have +been already mentioned. The osteological characters of these and +other allied genera have been fully described in the works of +Cuvier, Owen, Burmeister, Leidy, Ameghino, Gervais, Reinhardt, +and others.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="figure063" style="max-width: 25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure063.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 63.</span>—Skeleton of <i>Mylodon robustus</i> (Pleistocene, South +America). From Owen.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Promegatherium.</i>—Two genera from the infra-Pampean beds<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_190"></a>[190]</span> +of Argentina, described as <i>Promegatherium</i> and <i>Promylodon</i>, are +respectively distinguished from <i>Megatherium</i> and <i>Mylodon</i> by +the presence of bands of enamel on the teeth, which points +to the descent of the Edentates from mammals with enamelled +teeth.</p> + +<p>The Tertiary North American forms described as <i>Moropus</i> and +<i>Morotherium</i>,<a id="FNanchor_98" href="#Footnote_98" class="fnanchor">[98]</a> and originally regarded as Edentates, would appear to +be aberrant Ungulates.</p> + +<h4><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Myrmecophagidæ</span>.</h4> + +<p>Externally clothed with hair. No teeth. Head elongated. +Mouth tubular, with a small terminal aperture, through which the +long, vermiform tongue, covered with the viscid secretion of the +enormous submaxillary glands, is rapidly protruded in feeding, and +withdrawn again with the adhering particles of aliment, which are +then sucked into the pharynx. Clavicles rudimentary. In the +manus, the third toe is greatly developed, and has a long falcate +claw, the others are reduced or suppressed. The pes has four or +five subequal digits with claws. Posterior dorsal and lumbar +vertebræ, with additional interlocking zygapophyses. Tail long, +sometimes prehensile. Uterus simple. Placenta dome-like or +discoidal. Brain fairly convoluted, and with a large corpus callosum +and anterior commissure. The animals of this family are +the “Anteaters” <i>par excellence</i>. They feed exclusively on animal +substances, mostly insects. One species is terrestrial, the others +arboreal; none burrow in the ground. They are all inhabitants of +the Neotropical region.</p> + +<p>The reproductive organs, as noticed on <a href="#Page_181">p. 181</a>, are of the +same general type as in the <i>Bradypodidæ</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Myrmecophaga.</i><a id="FNanchor_99" href="#Footnote_99" class="fnanchor">[99]</a>—Skull greatly elongated and narrow, its upper +surface smooth and cylindriform. Anteriorly the face is produced +into a long, tubular rostrum, rounded above and flattened below, +with terminal nares, and composed of the mesethmoid ossified +for more than half its length, the vomer, the maxillæ, and the long +and narrow nasal bones, the premaxillæ being extremely short and +confined to the margin of the anterior nares. The zygomatic arch +is incomplete, the styliform jugal only articulating with the maxilla +in front, and not reaching to the very short zygomatic process of +the squamosal. The lachrymal foramen is in front of the margin of +the orbit. There are no postorbital processes to the frontals, or any +other demarcation between the orbits and the temporal fossæ. Palate +extremely elongated, and produced backwards as far as the level of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_191"></a>[191]</span> +the external auditory meatus by the meeting in the middle line of +the largely developed pterygoids. The glenoid fossa a shallow oval +facet, with its long diameter from before backwards. Mandible very +long and slender with an exceedingly short symphysis, no distinct +coronoid process, and a slightly elevated, elongated, flattened, condylar +articular surface. Vertebræ: C 7, D 15-16, L 3-2, S 6, C 31. +Clavicles rudimentary. In the manus the first digit is very +slender, the second also slender, with compressed phalanges of nearly +equal length. The third digit is immensely developed; though its +proximal phalanx is extremely short, its ungual phalanx is so long +that the entire length of the digit exceeds that of the second. The +fourth has a long and rather slender metacarpal, and three +phalanges diminishing in size, the ungual phalanx being very +small. The fifth has the metacarpal nearly as long, but not so +stout, as the fourth, and followed by two small phalanges, the last +rudimentary and conical. Claws are developed upon all but the fifth. +In walking the toes are kept strongly flexed, and have their points +turned upwards and inwards, the weight being supported upon a +callous pad over the end of the fifth digit, and by the dorsal surfaces +of the third and fourth digits. The hind feet are short and +rather broad, with five subequal claws, the fourth the longest, the +first shortest; the whole sole is placed on the ground in walking. +Body rather compressed, clothed with long, coarse hair. Tail +about as long as the body, and covered with very long hair; not +prehensile. Ears small, oval, erect. Eyes very small. Stomach +consisting of a subglobular, thin-walled, cardiac portion, and a +muscular pyloric gizzard with dense epithelial lining. No ileo-colic +valve, and a short wide ill-defined cæcum. Mammæ two, +pectoral.</p> + +<p>There is one species,<a id="FNanchor_100" href="#Footnote_100" class="fnanchor">[100]</a> <i>M. jubata</i>, the Great Anteater, or Ant +Bear (<a href="#figure064">Fig. 64</a>), measuring 4 feet in length without the tail, and +upwards of 2 feet in height at the shoulder. Its prevailing colour +is gray, with a broad black band, bordered with white, commencing +on the chest, and passing obliquely over the shoulder, diminishing +gradually in breadth as it approaches the loins, where it ends in a +point. It is extensively distributed in the tropical parts of South +and Central America, frequenting low swampy savannas along the +banks of rivers, and the depths of the humid forests, but is nowhere +abundant. Its food consists mainly of termites, to obtain which it +opens their nests with its powerful sharp anterior claws, and as the +insects swarm to the damaged part of their dwelling, it draws them +into its mouth by means of its long, flexible, rapidly-moving tongue +covered with glutinous saliva. The Great Anteater is quite terrestrial +in its habits, being never known to climb trees, nor does it<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_192"></a>[192]</span> +burrow underground like the Armadillos. Though generally an +inoffensive animal, when attacked it can defend itself vigorously and +effectively with its sabre-like anterior claws. The female bears but +a single young at a birth.</p> + +<p>The union of the pterygoids in the middle line to prolong the +narial passage is a character found elsewhere among existing mammals +only in the next genus, in one Armadillo (<i>Tatusia</i>), and in +certain Cetacea. The contrast in length between the skull of the +Great Anteater and that of the Sloth is, as Professor Parker observes, +very marked indeed; the one being relatively the longest and the +other almost the shortest in the whole class. The small size and +incomplete development of the jugal bone in the zygomatic arch +affords another striking contrast to the Sloths (<a href="#figure059">Fig. 59</a>).</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure064" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure064.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 64.</span>—The Great Anteater (<i>Myrmecophaga jubata</i>). (From Sclater, <i>List of Animals in +Zoological Society’s Gardens</i>, 1883, p. 190.)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Tamandua.</i><a id="FNanchor_101" href="#Footnote_101" class="fnanchor">[101]</a>—This genus closely resembles the last in anatomical +structure, but the head is much less elongated, the fur is short and +bristly, the tail tapering, prehensile, with the under side throughout +and the whole of the terminal portion naked and scaly. The +stomach is similar to that of <i>Myrmecophaga</i>, but with the muscular +pyloric gizzard not quite so strongly developed. There is a distinct +ileo-colic valve and a short globular cæcum. The fore foot has a very +large claw on the third toe, moderate-sized claws on the second and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_193"></a>[193]</span> +fourth, a very minute one on the first, and none on the fifth, which +is entirely concealed within the skin. The hind foot has five +subequal claws. Vertebræ: C 7, D 17, L 2, S 5, C 37. There are +very rudimentary clavicles.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure065" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure065.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 65.</span>—Tamandua Anteater (<i>Tamandua tetradactyla</i>). From <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1871, pl. xliii.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The Tamandua (<a href="#figure065">Fig. 65</a>) is much smaller than the Great +Anteater, and differs essentially from it in its habits, being mainly +arboreal. It is an inhabitant of the dense primeval forests of +South and Central America. As different individuals vary much +in their coloration, it is possible that there may be more than one +species. The usual colour is yellowish-white, with a broad black +lateral band, covering nearly the whole of the side of the body.</p> + +<figure class="figright illowp90" id="figure066" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure066.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 66.</span>—Cæca of the Two-toed Anteater +(<i>Cycloturus didactylus</i>). <i>i</i>, Ileum; <i>c</i>, colon.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Cycloturus.</i><a id="FNanchor_102" href="#Footnote_102" class="fnanchor">[102]</a>—The skull is much shorter even than in <i>Tamandua</i>, +and is arched considerably in the longitudinal direction. It differs +from that of the other members of the family mainly in the long +canal for the posterior nares not being closed by bone below, as +the greater part of the palatines and the pterygoids do not meet in +the middle line. The mandible has a prominent, narrow, recurved +coronoid, and a well-developed angular process; it is strongly decurved +in front. Vertebræ: C 7, D 16, L 2, S 4, C 40. Ribs +remarkably broad and flat. Clavicles well developed. Manus +remarkably modified, the third digit being greatly developed at the +expense of all the others, and having a stout short metacarpal and +but two phalanges, of which the most distal is large, compressed, +pointed, and much curved, and bears a very strong hook-like claw. +The second digit has the same number of phalanges, and bears a +claw, but is very much more slender than the third. The fourth +is represented only by the metacarpal and one nailless phalanx, +the first and fifth only by very rudimentary metacarpals. The pes<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_194"></a>[194]</span> +is also completely modified into a climbing organ. The hallux is +rudimentary, consisting of a metatarsal and one phalanx, concealed +beneath the skin; but the other four toes are subequal and much +curved, with long pointed compressed claws. The tuber calcanei is +directed towards the plantar surface, and parallel with it and +extending to about double its length is a greatly elongated sesamoid +ossicle. These together support a prominent calcarine cushion, to +which the nails are opposed in climbing. Stomach pyriform, with +muscular walls, but no distinct gizzard-like portion, as in the +foregoing genera. Commencement +of the colon provided with +two small cæca (<a href="#figure066">Fig. 66</a>), resembling +those of many birds, narrow +at the base, and rather dilated +at their terminal blind ends, and +communicating with the general +cavity by very minute apertures. +Tail longer than the body, tapering, +bare on the under surface, +and very prehensile. Fur soft +and silky.</p> + +<p>This genus has also but one +species certainly known, the Little or Two-toed Anteater (<i>C. didactylus</i>), +an animal not larger than a Rat, of a general yellowish-colour, +and exclusively arboreal in its habits. It is a native of +the hottest parts of South and Central America.</p> + +<h4><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Dasypodidæ</span>.</h4> + +<p>The greater part of the skin strongly ossified. On the back +and sides the union of numerous quadrate or polygonal scutes forms +a hard shield, usually consisting of an anterior (scapular) and +posterior (pelvic) solid portion (which overhang on each side the +parts of the body they respectively cover, forming chambers into +which the limbs are withdrawn), and a variable number of rings +between, connected by soft flexible skin so as to allow of curvature +of the body. The top of the head has also a similar shield +(cephalic), and the tail is usually encased in bony rings or plates. +The outer or exposed surfaces of the limbs are protected by irregular +bony scutes, not united at their margins; but the skin of the inner +surface of the limbs and under side of the body is soft, and more or +less clothed with hair. Hairs also in many species project through +apertures between the bony scutes of the back. The ossified +dermal scutes are everywhere covered by a layer of horny epidermis. +Teeth numerous, simple, of persistent growth, and usually<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_195"></a>[195]</span> +monophyodont, but in one genus (<i>Tatusia</i>) a succession of teeth has +been observed. Zygomatic arch of skull complete. Cervical vertebræ +with extremely short, broad, and depressed bodies. The atlas free, +but the second and third, and often several of the others, ankylosed +together both by their bodies and arches. Lumbar vertebræ +with accessory zygomatic processes, and very large metapophyses, +supporting the bony carapace. Clavicles well developed. A third +trochanter on the femur. Tibia and fibula ankylosed at their distal +extremities. Fore feet with strongly developed, curved claws, +adapted for digging and scratching—three, four, or five in number. +Hind feet plantigrade, with five toes, all provided with nails. +Tongue long, pointed, and extensile, though to a less degree than +in the Anteaters. Submaxillary glands largely developed. Stomach +simple. Uterus simple. Placenta discoidal, deciduate. The brain +is generally characterised by the large size of the olfactory lobes +(<a href="#figure057">Fig. 57</a>), and the slight development of sulci on the hemispheres; +the sylvian fissure being represented only by a very open +and shallow angle. From the earliest stage of development the +stapes is stirrup-shaped, thus showing a nearer affinity to the higher +mammals than is presented by the Sloths.</p> + +<p>The animals of this family are commonly called Armadillos, +a word of Spanish origin, having reference to their armour-like +covering. The existing species are all of small or moderate size. +They are mostly, though not universally, nocturnal in their +habits, and are all omnivorous, feeding on roots, insects, worms, +reptiles, and carrion. Armadillos are harmless and inoffensive +creatures, offering no resistance when caught, their principal means of +escape from their enemies being the extraordinary rapidity with which +they can burrow in the ground, and the tenacity with which they retain +their hold in their subterranean retreats. Notwithstanding the +shortness of their limbs they can run with great rapidity. Most of +the species are esteemed good eating by the natives of the countries +in which they live. They are all inhabitants of the open plains or +the forests of the tropical and temperate parts of South America, +with the exception of one species (<i>Tatusia novemcincta</i>), which +ranges as far north as Texas. Of the existing genera, <i>Chlamydophorus</i> +stands apart from the rest in the formation of its external +covering; but in all other respects <i>Tatusia</i> is the most aberrant +form, exhibiting a peculiar type of structure of the fore feet, which +in all the others show modifications, though in very varying degrees, +of a single and different type.</p> + +<p>The reproductive organs of the <i>Dasypodidæ</i> differ from those of +the Sloths and Armadillos in the presence of a largely developed +copulating organ in the male, and of a simple vagina of corresponding +length in the female. The testes are still abdominal, although +not in the same position; and the penis still wants both the glans<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_196"></a>[196]</span> +and bulb. The uterus is nearly or quite as simple as in the Sloths +and Anteaters; and there is no reason to believe that the placentation +is essentially different from that obtaining in the other groups.</p> + +<p>Subfamily <b>Chlamydophorinæ</b>.—In most anatomical characters, +especially the structure of the fore foot, this little group resembles +the <i>Dasypodinæ</i>; but it differs remarkably from all other known +Armadillos, living or extinct, in the peculiar modification of the +dermal armour.</p> + +<p><i>Chlamydophorus.</i><a id="FNanchor_103" href="#Footnote_103" class="fnanchor">[103]</a>—Teeth ⁸⁄₈₋₉, subcylindrical, somewhat compressed, +moderate in size, smaller at each end (especially in front) +than at the middle of the series. Skull broad and rounded behind, +pointed in front. Muzzle subcylindrical and depressed. A conspicuous +rounded, rough prominence on the frontal bone, just before +each orbit. Tympanic prolonged into a tubular auditory meatus, +curving upwards round the base of the zygoma. Vertebræ: C 7, +D 11, L 3, S 10, C 15. Upper part of head and trunk covered with +four-sided horny plates (with very small thin ossifications beneath), +forming a shield, free, and overhanging the sides of the trunk, and +attached only along the middle line of the back. The plates are +arranged in a series of distinct transverse bands, about twenty in +number between the occiput and the posterior truncated end, and +not divided into solid thoracic and pelvic shields with movable +bands between. The hinder end of the body is abruptly truncated +and covered by a vertically-placed, strong, solid, bony shield, of an +oval (transversely extended) form, covered by thin epidermic plates. +This shield is firmly ankylosed by five bony processes to the hinder +part of the pelvis. Through a notch in the middle of its lower +border the tail passes out. The latter is rather short, cylindrical +in its proximal half, and expanded and depressed or spatulate in +its terminal portion, and covered with horny plates. The dorsal +surfaces of the fore and hind feet are also covered with horny +plates. The remainder of the limbs and under surface and sides +of the body beneath the overlapping lateral parts of the dorsal +shield are clothed with rather long, very soft, silky hair. Eyes and +ears very small, and concealed by the hair. Extremities short. +Feet large, each with five well-developed claws, those on the fore +feet very long, stout, and subcompressed, the structure of the digits +being essentially the same as those of <i>Xenurus</i> and <i>Priodon</i>. Nipples +two, pectoral. Visceral anatomy closely resembling that of <i>Dasypus</i>, +the cæcum being broad, short, and bifid.</p> + +<p>The Pichiciago (<i>C. truncatus</i>), a small burrowing animal, about +5 inches long, inhabits the sandy plains of the western part of the +Argentine Republic, especially the vicinity of Mendoza. Its<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_197"></a>[197]</span> +horny covering is of a pinkish colour, and its silky hair snow +white. It is rare, and its habits are but little known. A second +species, <i>C. retusa</i>, from Bolivia, has been described by Burmeister. +It is of rather larger size, and has the dorsal shield attached to the +skin of the back as far as its edge, instead of only along the median +line.</p> + +<p>Subfamily <b>Dasypodinæ</b>.—Fore feet usually with all five digits +developed and with nails, though the first and fifth may be +suppressed. The first and second long and slender, with the +normal number and relative length of phalanges. The others stout, +with short broad metacarpals, and the phalanges greatly reduced +in length and generally in number by coalescence. The ungual +phalanx of the third very large, that of the others gradually +diminishing to the fifth. <i>Dasypus</i>, as now restricted, has the +most normal form of manus, but the modifications so markedly +developed in all the others (and culminating in <i>Tolypeutes</i>) are foreshadowed, +as it were, in it. Ears wide apart. Mammæ one pair, +pectoral.</p> + +<p><i>Dasypus.</i><a id="FNanchor_104" href="#Footnote_104" class="fnanchor">[104]</a>—Teeth ⁹⁄₁₀ or ⁸⁄₉, of which the anterior in the upper +jaw is usually implanted in the premaxillary bone. The series of +teeth extends posteriorly some distance behind the anterior root of +the zygoma, almost level with the hinder edge of the palate. They +are large, subcylindrical, slightly compressed, diminishing in size +towards each end of the series; the anterior two in the mandible +much smaller, and more compressed than the others. Cranial +portion of the skull broad and depressed. Facial portion triangular, +broad in front and much depressed. Auditory bulla completely +ossified, perforated on the inner side by the carotid canal, and +continued externally into an elongated bony meatus auditorius, with +its aperture directed upwards and backwards. (In all the remaining +genera of <i>Dasypodinæ</i> the tympanic bone is a mere half ring, +loosely attached to the cranium.) Mandible with a high ascending +ramus, broad transversely-placed condyle, and high slender coronoid +process. Vertebræ: C 7, D 11-12, L 3, S 8, C 17-19. Head broad +and flat above. Muzzle obtusely pointed. Ears of moderate size or +rather small, placed laterally, far apart. Body broad and depressed. +Carapace with six or seven movable bands between the scapular +and pelvic shields, each plate, or scute, being marked by a regular +ellipse formed of widely separated punctures. Tail shorter than +the body, tapering, covered with plates forming distinct rings near +the base. Fore feet with five toes; the first much more slender +than the others, and with a smaller ungual phalanx and nail; the +second, though the longest, also slender. The third, fourth, and +fifth gradually diminishing in length, all armed with very strong, +slightly curved, compressed claws, sloping away from an elevated<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_198"></a>[198]</span> +rounded inner border to a sharp, outer, and inferior edge. The +hind foot rather short, with all five toes armed with stout, +compressed, slightly curved, obtusely pointed claws—the third the +longest, the second nearly equal to it, the fourth the next, the first +and fifth shorter, and nearly equal.</p> + +<p>To this genus belongs one of the best known-species of the +group, the Six-banded Armadillo or Encoubert (<i>D. sexcinctus</i>) of +Brazil and Paraguay. A very similar species, <i>D. villosus</i>, the Hairy +Armadillo, replaces it south of the Rio Plata. There are also two +very small species—<i>D. vellerosus</i>, from the Argentine Republic and +North Patagonia, and <i>D. minutus</i> from La Plata. The latter differs +from the other three in having no tooth implanted in the premaxillary +bone. Remains apparently referable to <i>D. villosus</i> occur +in the Pleistocene cavern-deposits of Brazil.</p> + +<p><i>Xenurus.</i><a id="FNanchor_105" href="#Footnote_105" class="fnanchor">[105]</a>—Teeth ⁹⁄₉ or ⁸⁄₈, of moderate size and subcylindrical. +The most posterior placed a little way behind the anterior root of the +zygoma, but far from the hinder margin of the palate. Cranium +somewhat elongated, much constricted behind the orbits, and +immediately in front of the constriction considerably dilated. +Mandible slender; coronoid process very small and sharp-pointed, +sometimes obsolete. Vertebræ: C 7, D 12-13, L 3, S 10, C 18. +Head broad behind. Ears rather large and rounded, wide apart. +Movable bands of carapace 12-13; the scutes being marked by an +obscurely granular sculpture. Tail considerably shorter than the +body, slender, and covered with nearly naked skin, with but a few +small, scattered, dermal bony plates, chiefly on the under surface +and near the apex. On the fore feet the first and second toes are +long and slender, with small claws and the normal number of +phalanges; the other toes have but two phalanges; the third has +an immense falcate claw; the fourth and fifth similar but smaller +claws. The hind feet are comparatively small, with five toes, bearing +small, triangular, blunt nails; the third longest, the first shortest. +The best known species of this genus, the Tatouay or Cabasson, <i>X. +unicinctus</i>, is, after <i>Priodon gigas</i>, the largest of the group. It is +found, though not abundantly, in Surinam, Brazil, and Paraguay, +its remains occurring in the Pleistocene cavern-deposits of Brazil. +Others, <i>X. hispidus</i> and <i>lugubris</i>, have been described, but little is as +yet known of them.</p> + +<p><i>Priodon.</i><a id="FNanchor_106" href="#Footnote_106" class="fnanchor">[106]</a>—Teeth variable in number, and generally differing on +the two sides of each jaw, usually from 20 to 25 on each side +above and below, so that as many as 100 may be present altogether; +but as life advances the anterior teeth fall out, and all +traces of their alveoli disappear. The series extends as far back as +the hinder edge of the anterior root of the zygoma. The teeth are<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_199"></a>[199]</span> +all very small; those in the anterior half of each series being strongly +compressed, with flat sides and a straight free edge; the posterior +ones are more nearly cylindrical, with flat truncated, free surfaces. +Vertebræ: C 7, D 12, L 3, S 10, C 23. Head small, elongated, +conical. Ears moderate, ovate. Carapace with 12-13 movable +bands. Tail nearly equal to the body in length, gradually tapering, +closely covered with quadrangular scales, arranged in a quincunx +pattern. Fore feet with five toes, formed on the same plan as those +of <i>Xenurus</i>, but with the claw of the third of still greater size, and +that of each of the others, especially the fifth, proportionately reduced. +Hind foot short and rounded, with five very short toes, with short, +broad, flat, obtuse nails. The only known species, the Great +Armadillo (<i>P. gigas</i>), is by far the largest of existing members of the +family, measuring rather more than 3 feet from the tip of the nose +to the root of the tail, the tail being about 20 inches long. It +inhabits the forests of Surinam and Brazil. The powerful falcate +claws of its fore feet enable it to dig with great facility. Its food +consists chiefly of termites and other insects, but it is said to attack +and uproot newly-made graves for the purpose of devouring the +flesh of the bodies contained in them.</p> + +<p><i>Tolypeutes.</i><a id="FNanchor_107" href="#Footnote_107" class="fnanchor">[107]</a>—Teeth ⁹⁄₉ or ⁸⁄₉, rather large in proportion to the size +of the skull, the hinder end of the series reaching nearly to the +posterior margin of the palate. Vertebræ: C 7, D 11, L 3, S 12, +C 13. Ears placed low on the sides of the head, rather large, +broadly ovate. Carapace with its scapular and pelvic shields very +free at the sides of the body, forming large chambers into which the +limbs can be readily withdrawn. Only three movable bands; +sculpture of scutes in the form of subconcentrically arranged +granules. Tail short, conical, covered with large bony tubercles. +The fore feet formed on the same type as in the last genus, but the +peculiarities carried out to a still greater extent. The claw of the +third toe is very long and falcate, the first and fifth greatly reduced +and sometimes wanting. On the hind foot the three middle toes +have broad, flat, subequal nails, forming together a kind of tripartite +hoof; the first and fifth much shorter, with more compressed +nails.</p> + +<p>The Armadillos of this genus have the power of rolling themselves +up into a perfect ball, the shield on the top of the head and +the tuberculated dorsal surface of the tail exactly fitting into and +filling up the apertures left by the notches at either end of the +carapace. This appears to be their usual means of defence when +frightened or surprised, as they do not burrow like the other +species. They run very quickly, with a very peculiar gait, only +the tips of the claws of the fore feet touching the ground. Three +species are described:—<i>T. tricinctus</i>, the Apar; <i>T. conurus</i>, the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_200"></a>[200]</span> +Matico; and <i>T. muriei</i>. Remains apparently referable to <i>T. conurus</i> +are of not uncommon occurrence in the Brazilian cavern-deposits.</p> + +<p>Subfamily <b>Tatusiinæ</b>.—This group contains but one genus, +<i>Tatusia</i>.<a id="FNanchor_108" href="#Footnote_108" class="fnanchor">[108]</a> Teeth ⁸⁄₈ or ⁷⁄₇, very small subcylindrical. The first and +second subcompressed, the last considerably smaller than the others. +They present the remarkable peculiarity (elsewhere found among +Edentates, so far as is yet known, only in <i>Orycteropus</i>) of all being, +with the exception of the last, preceded by two-rooted milk teeth, +which are not changed until the animal has nearly attained its full +size. Vertebræ: C 7, D 9-11, L 5, S 8, C 20-27. Head narrow, +with a long, narrow, subcylindrical, obliquely-truncated snout; +pterygoids meeting in the middle line below the nasal passage. Ears +rather large, ovate, and erect, placed close together on the occiput. +Carapace with seven to nine distinct movable bands; sculpture on +scutes consisting of pits arranged in a V-shape. Body generally +elongated and narrow. Tail moderate or long, gradually tapering; +its dermal scutes forming very distinct rings for the greater part of +its length. Fore feet with four visible toes, and a concealed clawless +rudiment of the fifth. Claws all long, slightly curved, and very +slender, the third and fourth subequal and alike, the first and fourth +much shorter. Hind feet with five toes, all armed with strong, +slightly curved, conical, obtusely-pointed nails. The third longest, +then the second and fourth; the first and fifth much shorter than +the others.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure067" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure067.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 67.</span>—The Peba Armadillo (<i>Tatusia novemcincta</i>).</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>This genus differs from all the other Armadillos in having a pair +of inguinal mammæ, in addition to the usual pectoral pair, and in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_201"></a>[201]</span> +producing a large number (four to ten) of young at a birth, all the +others having usually but one or two.</p> + +<p>The Peba Armadillo, <i>T. novemcincta</i> (<a href="#figure067">Fig. 67</a>), is a well-known +species, having an extensive range from Texas to Paraguay. It is +replaced in the more southern regions of South America by a smaller +species, with shorter tail, the Mulita (<i>T. hybrida</i>), so called from the +resemblance of its head and ears to those of a mule. <i>T. kappleri</i> is +a large species from Surinam.</p> + +<p>A rare Armadillo from Peru described under the names of <i>Cryptophractus +pilosus</i> and <i>Praopus hirsutus</i>, but which evidently belongs to +<i>Tatusia</i>, is of some interest owing to the thick coat of hair with +which it is covered. This animal appears to be closely allied to +<i>T. novemcincta</i>, from which it mainly differs by having the whole of +the carapace covered with a thick coating of light brown, fine, but +rather stiff hair, about an inch and a half in length. Similar hair +is found on the cheeks, the proximal portions of the limbs, and +(although less abundantly and shorter) on the under surface of the +body. The cephalic shield, snout, feet, and the tail, with the +exception of the root, are bare. The coating of hair on the back +and sides completely conceals the carapace, except near the margin +of the scapular region; but by separating the hairs the bands and +scutes are rendered visible.<a id="FNanchor_109" href="#Footnote_109" class="fnanchor">[109]</a></p> + +<p>In the Pleistocene cavern-deposits of Brazil have been found +remains of <i>T. novemcincta</i>, and also of <i>T. punctata</i>, which appears to +be an extinct form nearly allied to <i>T. kappleri</i>, but of somewhat +larger size.</p> + +<p><i>Extinct genera.</i>—In addition to remains referable to existing +genera, the above-mentioned deposits have also yielded evidence +of the former existence of extinct generic types of Armadillos, +some of which attained very large dimensions. Of these <i>Eutatus</i> +was a large form distinguished from all existing genera by the +circumstance that the whole of the carapace was composed of movable +bands, which were thirty-three in number. <i>Dasypotherium</i> +was a still larger form, furnished with eight teeth, of which the +second seems to have been larger than the others; this genus is +regarded as connecting the modern Armadillos with the next one. +The gigantic <i>Chlamydotherium</i>, the scutes of which are common in +the Brazilian caves, is considered to have been as large as a +Rhinoceros; the carapace has several movable bands, but the teeth<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_202"></a>[202]</span> +approximate in structure to those of the next family, so that the +genus tends to connect the Armadillos with the Glyptodonts.</p> + +<h4><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Glyptodontidæ</span>.</h4> + +<figure class="figright illowp25" id="figure068" style="max-width: 12.5em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure068.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 68.</span>—Tooth of <i>Glyptodon</i> +from the side, and +from the grinding surface. +(After Owen.)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>In the Pleistocene cavern-deposits of Brazil, but still more +abundantly in the fluviatile deposits which cover the country in the +neighbourhood of Buenos Ayres, are found the remains of some of the +most remarkable forms of mammals yet discovered, the Glyptodonts, +which may be regarded as forming a separate +extinct family. They differ from the existing +<i>Dasypodidæ</i> in their large size, and in having the +carapace composed of a solid piece (formed by +the union of a multitude of bony dermal scutes) +without any movable rings, and in usually having +also a ventral piece or plastron. The facial +portion of the skull is very short. A long +process of the maxillary bone descends from +the anterior part of the zygomatic arch. The +ascending ramus of the mandible is remarkably +high. The teeth are ⁸⁄₈ in the known species, +all much alike, having two deep grooves or +flutings on each side, so as to divide them into +three nearly distinct lobes (<a href="#figure068">Fig. 68</a>). The vertebral +column is almost entirely ankylosed into +a solid tube, and there is a complex joint at the +base of the neck, to allow of the head being +retracted within the carapace. The limbs are +very strong, and the feet short and broad, +resembling externally those of an elephant or +tortoise. This family is mainly characteristic +of the southern half of the American continent, +but some species of the type genus ranged into +Texas and Mexico. Many species of the family +have been described and figured, especially by +Burmeister (in the <i>Annales del Museo publico de +Buenos Aires</i>), among which the following may +be noticed. <i>Hoplophorus</i> is characterised by the sculptured and +frequently thin scutes of the carapace, those of the periphery being +flat, and not raised into prominences. The caudal sheath has +several overlapping movable rings at the base, and ends in a long +subcylindrical terminal tube similar to the one represented with the +carapace of <i>Glyptodon</i> in <a href="#figure069">Fig. 69</a>, which in all probability really belongs +to the genus under consideration. Each foot has four complete +digits, and the humerus has an entepicondylar foramen. Most of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_203"></a>[203]</span> +species are of medium size. Part of a caudal tube from Uruguay +described as <i>Eleutherocercus</i> indicates, however, a much larger allied +form, in which the tail appears to have had a number of stout bristles +protruding from the joints between the scutes. <i>Panochthus</i> comprises +very large Glyptodonts, distinguished by the great thickness +of the scutes of the carapace, which are ornamented with tubercles. +The termination of the caudal sheath forms a tube bearing large +radiated tubercles. <i>Euryurus</i> is distinguished by the radiate +sculpture of the scutes of the carapace. <i>Dœdicurus</i>, of which one +species was about twelve feet in length, also has a rugose +sculpture on the carapace; but the termination of the caudal tube is +expanded into a club-like shape, flattened from above downwards, +and covered with tubercles mingled with a few large radiate discs, +which, as in <i>Panochthus</i>, probably carried horny spines in the living +condition. The typical genus <i>Glyptodon</i> has each scute of the +carapace ornamented with a rosette-like sculpture, the peripheral +scutes being raised into conical prominences (<a href="#figure069">Fig. 69</a>). The caudal +sheath, instead of being like the one represented in the figure, was +entirely composed of a series of movable rings, ornamented with +large tubercles. The manus had five digits, and the pes four; and +there was an entepicondylar foramen to the humerus. A species of +this genus, which attained very large dimensions, was made the +type of <i>Schistopleurum</i>, on the supposition that the tail of <i>Glyptodon</i> +was of the type represented in <a href="#figure069">Fig. 69</a>. The genus <i>Thoracophorus</i>,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_204"></a>[204]</span> +of the Pleistocene of South America, as well as <i>Carioderma</i>, of the +Pliocene of Texas, differ from all the preceding in having the scutes +of the carapace in the form of disconnected nodules. Glyptodonts +also occur in South American beds of earlier age than the Pleistocene, +some of these forms having enamel bands on the teeth. “Why such +a form as the Glyptodon should have failed to keep his ground is,” +as the late Professor W. K. Parker remarks, “a great mystery; +nature seems to have built him, as Rome was built, for eternity.”</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp90" id="figure069" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure069.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 69.</span>—<i>Glyptodon clavipes</i> (Pleistocene, South America). From Owen. The tail is incorrectly +restored, and it is probable that the figured portion belongs to <i>Hoplophorus</i>. The left lower +corner shows an upper and a lower view of the skull, and the right a section of the caudal +sheath.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<h4><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Manidæ</span>.</h4> + +<p>Covered externally (except the under surface of the body and +inside of the limbs) with large imbricated horny scales, and +scattered hairs growing in the intervals. No teeth. Tongue long, +vermiform, and protractile. No accessory articular processes to +the lumbar vertebræ, but the anterior zygapophyses largely developed +and deeply concave, completely embracing the semicylindrical +surfaces of the posterior zygapophyses. Limbs short, with five +complete digits on each foot. Scaphoid and lunar bones of carpus +united. Uterus bicornuate. Placenta diffused and non-deciduate. +All the existing forms belong to the Ethiopian and Oriental regions +of the Old World. The absence of additional articular processes to +the lumbar vertebræ is a character in which this and the following +family differ from all the preceding forms.</p> + +<p><i>Manis.</i><a id="FNanchor_110" href="#Footnote_110" class="fnanchor">[110]</a>—Skull somewhat of the form of an elongated cone, with +the small end turned forwards; very smooth and free from crests +and ridges. No distinction between the orbits and temporal fossæ. +The zygomatic arch usually incomplete, owing to the absence of +the jugal bone. No distinct lachrymal bone. Palate long and +narrow. The pterygoids extend backwards as far as the tympanics, +but do not meet in the middle line below. Tympanic ankylosed to +the surrounding bones, and more or less bullate, but not produced +into a tubular auditory meatus. Rami of mandible very slender +and straight, without any angle or coronoid process. From near +the anterior extremity of the upper edge a sharp, conical, tooth-like +process projects upwards and outwards. No clavicles. No third +trochanter to the femur. Ungual phalanges bifid at their terminations. +Caudal vertebræ with very long, strong transverse +processes and numerous chevron bones. Tongue long, vermiform, +flattened towards the tip; its retractor or sterno-glossal muscles +arising from the hinder extremity of the immensely prolonged +ensiform cartilage of the sternum. Stomach with thick lining +membrane and muscular walls, and a special gland near the +middle of the great curvature, consisting of a mass of complex<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_205"></a>[205]</span> +secreting follicles, the ducts of which terminate in a common +orifice. No cæcum. A gall-bladder. Head small, depressed, +narrow, pointed in front, with a very small mouth-opening. +Eyes and pinna of ear very small. Body elongated, narrow. +Tail more or less elongated, convex above, flat underneath. The +whole of the upper surface of the head, the upper surface and sides +of the body, the whole of the tail, and the outer sides of the extremities +covered with large, overlapping, horny scales, but usually +with a few stiff hairs growing between and projecting beyond +them. The sides and under surface of the head, the under surface +of the body, and the inner sides of the limbs without scales, but with +a rather scanty covering of hair. Limbs short. In walking the +dorsal surface and outer sides of the phalanges of the two outer +digits of the front feet alone rest on the ground, the points of the +nails turning upwards and inwards. The third toe the longest, +with a powerful compressed curved claw; the second and fourth +with similar but smaller claws, that of the pollex often almost +rudimentary. Hind feet plantigrade, with the hallux very short, +and the four other toes subequal, with moderate, curved, subcompressed +nails.</p> + +<p>The reproductive organs of <i>Manis</i> are of a totally different +type from those of the families already noticed. The testes lie +in the inguinal canal; and the penis is external and well developed. +The uterus is truly bicornuate, the vagina not divided, and the +placenta diffused and non-deciduate. All the organs and fœtal +membranes are, indeed, formed very much on the plan of those +of the Ungulates, without any trace of the special peculiarities +obtaining in the typical American Edentates.</p> + +<p>The animals of this genus, which includes all the existing forms, +are called Pangolins or Scaly Anteaters, and are all of small or +moderate size, terrestrial and burrowing, and feed mainly on termites. +Several of them can climb trees. Their length varies from 1 to 5 +feet. They can roll themselves up in a ball when in danger. Their +peculiar elongated form, short limbs, long, gradually-tapering tail, +and scaly covering give them on a superficial inspection more the +appearance of reptiles than of mammals. The species are not +numerous, and may be divided into two groups distinguished by a +few not very important external characters; these groups also coinciding +with the present geographical distribution of the genus. +These two groups, according to Mr. O. Thomas, may be distinguished +as follows.</p> + +<p>The Asiatic pangolins are characterised by having the central +series of body-scales continued quite to the extreme end of the tail, +by having many isolated hairs growing up between the scales of the +back, and by their small external ears. They all have a small +naked spot beneath the tip of the tail, which is said to be of service<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_206"></a>[206]</span> +as an organ of touch. There are three species, viz. <i>Manis javanica</i>, +ranging from Burma, through Malacca and Java, to Borneo; <i>M. +aurita</i>, found in China, Formosa, and Nipal; and the common Indian +Pangolin, <i>M. pentadactyla</i>, distributed over the whole of India and +Ceylon. The African species have the central series of scales +suddenly interrupted and breaking into two at a point about 2 or 3 +inches from the tip of the tail; they have no hair between the +scales, and no external ear-conch. The following are the four species +belonging to this +group:—the +Long-tailed Pangolin +(<i>M. macrura</i>), +which has +a tail nearly twice +as long as its +body, and containing +as many +as forty-nine +caudal vertebræ, +being the largest +number known +among mammals; +the White-bellied +Pangolin (<i>M. tricuspis</i>), +<a href="#figure070">Fig. 70</a>, +closely allied to +the last, but with +longer and tricuspid +scales, and +white belly hairs. +These two, like +the Indian species, have a naked spot beneath the tail tip, a character +probably correlated with the power of climbing, and they +are, moreover, peculiar in having the outer sides of their fore legs +clothed with hair, all the other species being scaly there as elsewhere. +Lastly, the Short-tailed and the Giant Pangolins (<i>M. +temmincki</i> and <i>gigantea</i>), both of which have their tails covered +entirely with scales, and evidently never take to arboreal habits. +All the four species of the second group are found in the West +African region, one only, <i>M. temmincki</i>, extending also into south +and eastern equatorial Africa.</p> + +<figure class="figleft illowp70" id="figure070" style="max-width: 21.875em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure070.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 70.</span>—The White-bellied Pangolin (<i>Manis tricuspis</i>).</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>According to Professor W. K. Parker,<a id="FNanchor_111" href="#Footnote_111" class="fnanchor">[111]</a> who remarks upon the +peculiarly aberrant nature of the group, the horny scales of the +Pangolins really consist of cemented hairs. This writer states that +“in the early embryo lozenge-shaped tracts of skin are seen all over<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_207"></a>[207]</span> +its body, with lines of thinner cuticle between. Under the microscope, +sections of these thicker tracts show that they are composed +of fine hairs, cemented together by a copious growth of epidermic +cells; here and there larger hairs are seen, but these fail to reach +the surface, turning again towards the inside, like nails driven into +wood that is too hard for their points.”</p> + +<p>The same author also observes<a id="FNanchor_112" href="#Footnote_112" class="fnanchor">[112]</a> that there are occasional instances +of the presence of eight cervical vertebræ in the Pangolins—a +feature which has been considered to indicate some former +genetic connection between this family and the Sloths.</p> + +<p>The following account of the habits of <i>Manis tricuspis</i> is given by +Mr. L. Fraser in his <i>Zoologia Typica</i>:—</p> + +<p>“During my short residence at Fernando Po I succeeded in +procuring two living specimens of this animal. The individuals, +judging from the bones, were evidently not adult; the largest +measured 30 inches in length, of which the head and body were +12 inches and the tail 18 inches. I kept them alive for about a +week at Fernando Po, and allowed them the range of a room, where +they fed upon a small black ant, which is very abundant and troublesome +in the houses and elsewhere. Even when first procured they +displayed little or no fear, but continued to climb about the room +without noticing my occasional entrance. They would climb up +the somewhat roughly hewn square posts which supported the +building with great facility, and upon reaching the ceiling would +return head foremost; sometimes they would roll themselves up +into a ball and throw themselves down, and apparently without +experiencing any inconvenience from the fall, which was in a +measure broken upon reaching the ground by the semi-yielding +scales, which were thrown into an erect position by the curve of +the body of the animal. In climbing, the tail, with its strongly +pointed scales beneath, was used to assist the feet; and the grasp +of the hind feet, assisted by the tail, was so powerful that the +animal would throw the body back (when on the post) into a +horizontal position, and sway itself to and fro, apparently taking +pleasure in this kind of exercise. It always slept with the body +rolled up; and when in this position in a corner of the building, +owing to the position and strength of the scales, and the power of +the limbs combined, I found it impossible to remove the animal +against its will, the points of the scales being inserted into every +little notch and hollow of the surrounding objects. The eyes are +very dark hazel, and very prominent. The colonial name for this +species of <i>Manis</i> is ‘Attadillo,’ and it is called by the Boobies, +the natives of the island, ‘Gahlah.’ The flesh is said to be +exceedingly good eating, and is in great request among the +natives.”</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_208"></a>[208]</span></p> + +<p>The Indian species is said to live in pairs, and to give birth to +one or two young at a time in the spring. Their burrow reaches a +depth of some twelve feet, and terminates in a large chamber, which +may be as much as six feet in diameter. A faint hiss appears to be +the only sound emitted by these animals.</p> + +<p>Remains of a large species of <i>Manis</i>, which are indistinguishable +from the corresponding bones of the existing West African <i>M. +gigantea</i>, are found fossil in cave-deposits in the Karnul district of +Madras. This is one among several instances of the close connection +between the Pleistocene and Pliocene mammalian fauna of India with +the existing African fauna.</p> + +<p><i>Palæomanis.</i><a id="FNanchor_113" href="#Footnote_113" class="fnanchor">[113]</a>—The lower Pliocene deposits of the Isle of +Samos, in the Turkish Archipelago, have yielded remains of a +Pangolin fully three times the dimensions of <i>M. gigantea</i>, upon the +evidence of which the genus <i>Palæomanis</i> has been established.</p> + +<h4><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Orycteropodidæ</span></h4> + +<p>External surface scantily covered with bristle-like hairs. Teeth +numerous, apparently heterodont, diphyodont, and of peculiar and +complex structure, being traversed by a number of parallel vertical +pulp-canals. Lumbar vertebræ with no accessory zygapophyses. +Femur with a third trochanter. Fore feet without pollex, but all +the other digits well developed, with strong moderate-sized nails, +suited to digging, the plantar surfaces of which rest on the ground +in walking. Hind feet with five subequal toes. Mouth elongated +and tubular. Tongue subvermiform. Uterus bicornuate. Placenta +broadly zonular. Feeding on animal substances. Terrestrial and +fossorial in habits. Now mainly limited to the Ethiopian region.</p> + +<p><i>Orycteropus.</i><a id="FNanchor_114" href="#Footnote_114" class="fnanchor">[114]</a>—The total number of permanent teeth appears to +be from eight to ten in each side of the upper, and eight in the +lower jaw; but they are never all in place at one time, as the +small interior teeth are shed before the series is completed behind. +In the adult they number usually five on each side above and below, +of which the first two are simple and compressed, the next two +larger and longitudinally grooved at the sides, the most posterior +simple and cylindrical. The last three in either jaw having no +milk-predecessors, may be regarded as true molars. The structure +of all these teeth is quite peculiar among mammals, though +resembling that of some fishes. Their summits are rounded before +they are worn; their bases do not taper to a root, but are evenly +truncated and continually growing. Each tooth is made up of an +aggregation of parallel dental systems, having a slender pulp-cavity<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_209"></a>[209]</span> +in the centre, from which the dentinal tubes radiate outwards, and +being closely packed together each system assumes a polygonal +outline as seen in transverse section. The small anterior teeth have +milk-predecessors which are fully noticed below. Skull moderately +elongated. The facial portion subcylindrical and slightly tapering. +The zygoma complete and slender. The palate ends posteriorly in +the thickened transverse border of the palatines, and is not +continued back by the pterygoids. The tympanic is annular, and +not ankylosed to the surrounding bones. The mandible is slender +anteriorly, but rises high posteriorly, with a slender recurved +coronoid, and an ascending pointed process on the hinder edge +below the condyle, which is small, oval, and looks as much forwards +as upwards. Vertebræ: C 7, D 13, L 8, S 6, C 27. The large +number of lumbar vertebræ is peculiar among Edentates. Tongue +less vermiform than in <i>Myrmecophaga</i>, being thick and fleshy at the +base, and gradually tapering to the apex. The salivary apparatus +is developed much in the same manner as in that genus, but the +duct of the submaxillary gland has no reservoir. The stomach +consists of a large subglobular cardiac portion, with a very thick, +soft, and corrugated lining membrane, and a smaller muscular, +pyloric part, with a comparatively thin and smooth lining. There +is a very distinct ileo-cæcal valve, and a considerable-sized cæcum; +also a gall-bladder. Head elongated, with a tubular snout, terminal +nostrils, and small mouth-opening. Ears large, pointed, erect. +Tail nearly as long as the body, cylindrical, very thick at the base, +tapering to the extremity.</p> + +<p>The reproductive organs and placentation of <i>Orycteropus</i> are +formed upon a principle unknown in the more typical Edentates, +or, in combination, in any other mammals. Thus the testes, in the +one described example, were inguinal, but appeared to descend, at +all events temporarily, into a scrotum; but the penis is scarcely +larger than that of the Great Anteater. The uterus is still more +fully bicornuate than in <i>Manis</i>, with its two lateral chambers +opening separately into the vagina, as in certain Rodents. The +placenta is broadly zonary, but it is not known whether it is +deciduate or not. It might readily be derived from the diffused +placenta of <i>Manis</i> by the abortion of the fœtal villi at the two poles +of the ovum.</p> + +<p>The <i>Orycteropodidæ</i> have long been regarded as widely different +from other Edentates, their presumed affinity with the <i>Manidæ</i> +being more or less problematical; but the discovery recently made +by Mr. O. Thomas<a id="FNanchor_115" href="#Footnote_115" class="fnanchor">[115]</a> that they have a milk-dentition still further +emphasises their aberrant nature. According to this observer, it +appears that there are normally no less than seven milk-teeth in the +upper jaw, the hindmost of which is far larger than the others,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_210"></a>[210]</span> +having a rudimentary crown, and a distinct anterior and posterior +root. The other milk-teeth are styliform, the four anterior ones +being very minute, and separated from one another by equal +intervals; the foremost of all is situated immediately behind the +premaxillo-maxillary suture. In the mandible only four milk-teeth +have hitherto been detected, of which the hindmost has the +comparatively complex form found in the corresponding upper tooth. +None of these milk-teeth appear, however, to cut the gum, so that +the whole set is entirely functionless. Under the microscope these +milk-teeth show signs of possessing a commencement of the +remarkable histological structure found in the permanent teeth.</p> + +<p>Mr. Thomas remarks that since “the three large posterior teeth +of <i>Orycteropus</i>, already distinguished by their more molariform shape, +do not have milk-predecessors, while all the small teeth anterior to +them do, and in addition the last milk-tooth is markedly different +from those in front of it, we ought apparently no longer to look +upon this animal as an homodont, but instead to consider it as an +originally heterodont form in which the incisors and canines have +been suppressed to allow free play to the mobile vermiform tongue.</p> + +<p>“But important as a knowledge of the presence of a milk-dentition +in <i>Orycteropus</i> is, it does not at present render any easier +the difficult questions as to the phylogeny and systematic position +of that animal. Although called an Edentate, it has always been +recognised as possessing many characters exceedingly different from +those of the typical American members of the order. It has in fact +been placed with them rather on account of the inconvenience of +forming a special order for its reception than because of its real +relationship to them. Now, as they are either altogether toothless, +or else homodont and monophyodont (apart from the remarkable +exception of <i>Tatusia</i>), it seems more than ever incorrect to unite +with them the solitary member of the Tubulidentata, toothed, +heterodont, and diphyodont, and differing from them in addition by +its placentation, the anatomy of its reproductive organs, the minute +structure of its teeth, and the general characters of its skeleton.</p> + +<p>“But if <i>Orycteropus</i> is not genetically a near relation of the +Edentates, we are wholly in the dark as to what other mammals it +is allied to, and I think it would be premature to hazard a guess on +the subject. Whether even it has any special connection with +<i>Manis</i> is a point about which there is the greatest doubt, and unfortunately +we are as yet absolutely without any palæontological +knowledge of the extinct allies of either. <i>Macrotherium</i> even, +usually supposed from the structure of its phalangeal bones, to be +related to <i>Manis</i>, has lately proved to have the teeth and vertebræ +of a perissodactyle Ungulate, and one could not dare to suggest +that ancestors of <i>Manis</i>, or <i>Orycteropus</i> were to be sought in that +direction. Lastly, as the numerous fossil American Edentates do<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_211"></a>[211]</span> +not show the slightest tendency to an approximation towards the +Old World forms, we are furnished with an additional reason for +insisting on the radical distinctness of the latter, whose phylogeny +must therefore for the present remain one of the many unsolved +zoological problems.”</p> + +<p>The Aard-Varks (Earth-Pigs) as these creatures are commonly +termed, from the name bestowed on them by the Dutch Boers of +the Cape, are of nocturnal habits, sleeping during the day in their +burrows, which are usually found in the neighbourhood of the tall +hills or mounds made by termites. Indeed, wherever these hills are +abundant it is stated there is a good chance of finding an Aard-Vark, +the food of these animals consisting almost exclusively of termites +and ants.</p> + +<p>Two existing species are recognised, namely the Cape Aard-Vark +(<i>O. afra</i>) from South Africa, and another (<i>O. æthiopicus</i>) from the +north-eastern parts of Africa, ranging into Egypt. An extinct +species has been described from the Lower Pliocene of the Isle +of Samos, in the Turkish Archipelago, differing from the existing +forms by the larger proportionate size of the lateral metatarsals.</p> + +<div class="bibliography"> + +<p><i>Bibliography of Edentata.</i>—No general work on the order has been published +since that of Rapp (<i>Anat. Untersuchungen über die Edentaten</i>, 2d ed. 1852). +Among numerous memoirs on special groups the following may be cited:—<i>Myrmecophagidæ</i>:—R. +Owen, “Anatomy of Great Anteater,” <i>Trans. Zool. Soc.</i> +vol. iv.; G. Pouchet, <i>Mém. sur le Grand Fourmilier</i>, 1874; W. A. Forbes, +“Anat. of Great Anteater,” <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1882, p. 287. <i>Megatheriidæ</i>:—R. +Owen, <i>Extinct Gigantic Sloth (Mylodon Robustus)</i>, 1842; Id., “On the Megatherium,” +<i>Phil. Trans.</i> 1851-56; J. Leidy, “Extinct Sloth-tribe of North +America,” <i>Smithsonian Contrib. to Knowledge</i>, vii. 1855; H. Burmeister, +<i>Description de la République Argentine</i>, t. iii. Mammifères, 1879,—which contains +full references to various memoirs by Owen, Gervais, Reinhardt, and others. +<i>Glyptodontidæ</i>:—Owen, <i>Catalogue of Fossil Mammals, Mus. Roy. Coll. Surgeons</i>, +1845; T. H. Huxley, “Osteol. of Glyptodon,” <i>Phil. Trans.</i> 1865; H. Burmeister, +<i>Annales del Museo Publico de Buenos Aires</i>, and <i>Descript. de la République +Argentine</i>, 1879; H. Gervais and F. Ameghino, <i>Les Mammifères Fossiles de +l’Amérique Méridionale</i>, Paris, 1880,—which also contains a list of all the +S. American Edentates described at that date. <i>Dasypodidæ</i>:—J. Murie, “Anatomy +of <i>Tolypeutes</i>,” <i>Trans. Linn. Soc.</i> vol. xxx. 1874; A. H. Garrod, <i>Proc. +Zool. Soc.</i> 1878. For Placentation of Edentates see W. Turner, <i>Trans. Roy. Soc. +Edin.</i> xxvii. (1873) p. 72, and <i>Journ. Anat. and Physiol.</i> vols. viii. and x.; A. +Milne-Edwards, <i>Ann. Sciences Nat.</i> [6] viii. p. 1; and for brain, P. Gervais, +“Formes cérébrales des Edentés,” <i>Nouv. Arch. du Muséum</i>, tom. v.; W. Turner, +<i>Jour. Anatomy</i>, i. 313 (1867). For the dentition of <i>Orycteropus</i> see O. Thomas, +“A Milk Dentition in <i>Orycteropus</i>,” <i>Proc. Roy. Soc.</i> vol. xlvii. p. 246 (1890). +Fuller observations on the mutual relations of the various families are given by +W. H. Flower, “On the Mutual Affinities of the Animals composing the Order +Edentata,” <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1882, p. 358.</p> + +</div> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_212"></a>[212]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII<br> +<span class="smaller">THE ORDERS SIRENIA AND CETACEA</span></h2> + +</div> + +<h3><i>Order</i> <span class="smcap">Sirenia</span>.</h3> + +<p>The purely aquatic habits and fish-like form of the animals of this +order caused them to be formerly confounded with the Cetacea, +but a more intimate knowledge of their structure has shown that +they really belong to a widely different type of the mammalian +class.</p> + +<p>The head is rounded and not disproportionate in size as compared +with the trunk, from which it is scarcely separated by any +externally visible constriction or neck. Nostrils valvular, separate, +and placed above the fore part of the obtuse truncated muzzle. +Eyes very small, with imperfectly formed eyelids, capable, however, +of contraction, and with a well-developed nictitating membrane. +Ear without any pinna. Mouth of small or moderate size, with +tumid lips beset with stiff bristles. General form of the body +depressed, fusiform. No dorsal fin. Tail flattened and horizontally +expanded. Fore limbs paddle-shaped, the digits being enveloped +in a common cutaneous covering, on which rudiments of nails are +sometimes present. No trace of hind limbs in existing forms. External +surface covered with a tough, finely wrinkled, or very +rugose skin, naked, or with fine hairs sparsely scattered over it.</p> + +<p>The skeleton is remarkable for the massiveness and density of +most of the bones of which it is composed, especially the skull and +ribs, which must add to the specific gravity of these slow-moving +animals, and aid in keeping them to the bottom of the shallow +waters in which they dwell, while feeding on aquatic vegetables. +The skull presents many peculiarities, among which may be indicated +the large size and backward position of the anterior narial aperture, +a further modification of that met with in the Tapirs among Ungulates, +and presenting some approach to that so characteristic of the +Cetacea. The nasal bones are generally absent in the recent forms,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_213"></a>[213]</span> +or are only found in a most rudimentary condition, attached to the +edge of the frontals, far away from the middle line; but in some at +least of the extinct species these bones, though small in size, are +normal in situation and relations. In very few other respects does the +skull present any resemblance to that of the Cetacea. In the spinal +column of existing forms none of the vertebræ are united together +to form a sacrum, and the flat ends of the bodies do not ossify +separately, so as to form disc-like epiphyses in the young state, as +in nearly all other mammals; traces of epiphyses have, however, +been recently detected in <i>Manatus</i>, and they were fully developed in +<i>Halitherium</i> and other fossil forms. The anterior caudal vertebræ +have well-developed chevron bones. In one genus (<i>Manatus</i>) there +are only six cervical vertebræ. There are no clavicles. The humerus +has a small but distinct trochlear articulation at the elbow-joint. +The two bones of the forearm are about equally developed, and +generally ankylosed together at both extremities. The carpus is +short and broad, and the digits five in number, with moderately +elongated and flattened phalanges, which are never increased in +number beyond the limit usual in the Mammalia. The pelvis is +extremely rudimentary, consisting of a pair of bones suspended at +some distance from the vertebral column. In no existing species +is there any trace of a hind limb, but in the extinct <i>Halitherium</i> +an acetabular depression and rudimentary femur have been discovered.</p> + +<p>Two kinds of teeth, incisors and molars, separated by a wide +interval, are generally present. The former may be developed into +tusks in the upper jaw, or may be quite rudimentary. The molars +vary much in character. In one genus (<i>Rhytina</i>) no teeth of any +kind are present, at least in the adult. Some fossil forms show a +more decidedly heterodont dentition, while <i>Halitherium</i> has milk-teeth, +of which no traces have been observed in the recent genera. +In all recent types the anterior part of the palate, and a corresponding +surface on the prolonged symphysis of the lower jaw, are +covered with rough horny plates of peculiar structure, which doubtless +assist in mastication. The tongue is small and fixed in position, +with a surface resembling that of the plates just spoken of. The +salivary glands are largely developed. The stomach is compound, +being divided by a valvular constriction into two principal cavities, +the first of which is provided with a singular glandular pouch near +the cardiac end, and the second usually with a pair of elongated, +conical, cæcal sacs or diverticula. The intestinal canal is long, and +has very muscular walls. There is a cæcum, either simple, conical, +and with extremely thick walls, as in <i>Halicore</i>, or bifid, as in <i>Manatus</i>. +The heart is broad and flat, with its apex deeply cleft between the +ventricles. The principal arteries form very extensive and complex +retia mirabilia. The lungs are remarkably long and narrow, as,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_214"></a>[214]</span> +owing to the very oblique position of the diaphragm, the thoracic +cavity extends far back over the abdomen. The epiglottis and +arytenoid cartilages of the larynx do not form a tubular prolongation +as in the Cetacea, so that the epiglottis is not intranarial. +The brain is of comparatively small size, and the convolutions on +the surface of the cerebrum are few and shallow. The kidneys are +simple. The testes abdominal. The uterus is bicornuate. The +placenta (in the Dugong) is non-deciduate and zonary. The umbilical +vesicle disappears early. The mammæ are two, and pectoral, +or rather postaxillary in position.</p> + +<p>The Sirenia pass their whole life in the water, being denizens of +shallow bays, estuaries, lagoons, and large rivers, but, unlike the +Cetacea, are not met with in the high seas, far away from the shore. +Their food consists entirely of aquatic plants, either marine algæ or +freshwater grasses, upon which they browse beneath the surface, as +the terrestrial herbivorous mammals do upon the green pastures on +shore. They are generally gregarious, slow and inactive in their +movements, mild, inoffensive, and apparently unintelligent in disposition. +Though occasionally found stranded by the tide or waves, +there is no satisfactory evidence that they voluntarily leave the water +to bask or feed on the shore. The habit of the Dugong of raising +its round head out of the water, and carrying its young under the +fore fin, seems to have given rise, among the imaginative early +voyagers in the Indian Ocean, to the legendary beings, half human +and half fish, in allusion to which the name Sirenia was bestowed by +Illiger on the order, though certainly the face of a Dugong, when +closely inspected, does not bear the slightest resemblance to that of +the mermaid of romance. The species now existing are very few, +and there is reason to believe that the time is not far distant when +they will all become extinct. One species, <i>Rhytina stelleri</i>, of the +North Pacific, was totally exterminated through the agency of man +during the last century; and the others, being valuable for their +flesh as food, for their hides, and especially for the oil obtained from +the thick layer of fat which lies immediately beneath their skin, +rapidly diminish in numbers as civilised populations occupy the +regions forming their natural habitat. The surviving species are +confined to the tropical regions of the shores of both sides of the +Atlantic and the great rivers which empty themselves into that +ocean, and to the coasts of the Indian Ocean from the Red Sea to +North Australia. In the Miocene and early Pliocene epoch +Sirenians abounded in the seas of Europe, and their remains +have been found in deposits of corresponding periods in North +America. Evidence has also been discovered of the existence +of an animal of this group in the seas at the bottom of which +the Eocene nummulitic limestone mountain ranges of Egypt were +deposited.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_215"></a>[215]</span></p> + +<p>The existing genera present such well-marked distinguishing +characters that it is on the whole convenient to place them in +separate families, although, as in so many similar cases, our knowledge +of the extinct forms, imperfect as it is, goes far to bridge over +the distinction between them.</p> + +<h4><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Manatidæ</span>.</h4> + +<p>The characters of this and the two following families may be +conveniently included under the heading of the single genus by which +they are respectively represented.</p> + +<p><i>Manatus.</i><a id="FNanchor_116" href="#Footnote_116" class="fnanchor">[116]</a>—Incisors ²⁄₂, rudimentary, concealed beneath the horny +oral plates, and disappearing before maturity. Molars ¹¹⁄₁₁, but +rarely more than ⁶⁄₆ present at one time, the anterior teeth falling +before the posterior come into use; similar in characters from +beginning to end of the series; with square, enamelled crowns, the +grinding surface raised into tuberculated transverse ridges. The +upper teeth with two ridges and three roots, the lower teeth with +an additional (posterior) ridge, or talon, and two roots. The cervical +vertebræ present the remarkable anomaly of being reduced to +six in number, the usual vertebral formula being C 6, D 17, L 2, +and C 23-25. Rostrum of the skull, formed by the union of the +premaxillæ in front of the anterior narial aperture, shorter than the +length of the aperture and scarcely deflected from the basicranial +axis; premaxillæ and mandibular symphysis not markedly deflected +(<a href="#figure072">Fig. 72</a>). Tail entire, rounded, or shovel-shaped. Rudimentary +nails on the fore limbs. Cæcum bifid. Habitat the shores of, +and the great rivers which empty themselves into, the Atlantic +within the tropics. These animals are rather fluviatile than marine, +ascending large rivers almost to their sources.</p> + +<p>The Manatee may be selected for a somewhat full description, +as being one of the best known representatives of this very remarkable +order.</p> + +<p>The name <i>Manati</i> was apparently first applied to this animal by +the early Spanish colonists of the West Indies, in allusion to the +hand-like use which it frequently makes of its fore limbs; by English +writers from the time of Dampier (who gives a good account of its +habits) downwards it has been generally spelt “Manatee.” It was +placed by Linnæus in his heterogeneous genus <i>Trichechus</i>, but Storr’s +name <i>Manatus</i> is now generally accepted for it by zoologists. The +question of the specific distinction of the African and American +Manatees will be treated of further on, but it will be chiefly to the +latter and better known form that the following description applies.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure071" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure071.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 71.</span>—American Manatee (<i>Manatus americanus</i>), from life. <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1881, p. 457.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The size of the Manatee has been much exaggerated, but<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_216"></a>[216]</span> +there is no trustworthy evidence of its attaining a greater length +than 8 feet. Its general external form may be seen in <a href="#figure071">Fig. 71</a>, +taken from a living example in the Brighton Aquarium. The +body is somewhat fish-like, but depressed and ending posteriorly in +a broad, flat, shovel-like, horizontal tail, with rounded edges. The +head is of moderate size, oblong, with a blunt, truncated muzzle, +and divided from the body by a very slight constriction or neck. +The fore limbs are flattened oval paddles, placed rather low on the +sides of the body, and showing externally no signs of division into +fingers, but with a tolerably free motion at the shoulder, elbow, +and wrist joints, and with three diminutive flat nails near their +extremities. No traces of hind limbs are discernible either externally +or internally; and there is no dorsal fin. The mouth is very +peculiar, the tumid upper lip being cleft in the middle line into two +lobes, each of which is separately movable, as will be described in +speaking of its manner of feeding. The nostrils are two semilunar +valve-like slits, at the apex of the muzzle. The eyes are very +minute, placed at the sides of the head, and with a nearly circular +aperture with wrinkled margins. The external ear is a minute +orifice situated behind the eye, without any trace of pinna. The +skin generally is of a dark grayish colour, not smooth and glistening, +like that of the Cetacea, but finely wrinkled. At a little distance +it appears naked, but a close inspection, at all events in young +animals, shows a scanty covering of very delicate hairs, and both +upper and under lips are well supplied with short stiff bristles.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure072" style="max-width: 28.125em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure072.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 72.</span>—Skull of African Manatee (<i>Manatus senegalensis</i>). ⅕ natural size. +From Mus. Roy. Coll. Surgeons.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The general form of the skull is seen in <a href="#figure072">Fig. 72</a>. The cerebral +cavity is rather small as compared with the size of the animal, +and of oblong form; its roof is formed of the parietal bones as +in ordinary mammals. The squamosal has an extremely large +and massive zygomatic process, which joins the largely developed +jugal bone in front. The orbit is small, but prominent and +nearly surrounded by bone. The anterior nares taken together +form a lozenge-shaped aperture, which looks upwards and extends<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_217"></a>[217]</span> +backwards considerably behind the orbits. Their sides are formed +by the ascending processes of the premaxillæ below, and by the +supraorbital processes of the frontals above, no traces of nasals +being found in most skulls, though these bones are occasionally +present in a most rudimentary condition, attached to the edges +of the frontals, far away from the middle line, in a position +quite unique among the Mammalia. In front of the narial aperture +the face is prolonged into a narrow rostrum, formed by +the premaxillæ, supported below and at the sides by the maxillæ. +The under surface of this is very rugose, and in life covered by a +horny plate. The rami of the mandible are firmly united together +at the symphysis, which is compressed laterally, slightly deflected, +and has a rugose upper surface; to this another horny plate is +attached, which, with that of the upper jaw, functionally supplies the +place of teeth in the anterior part of the mouth. In the young +state there are rudimentary teeth concealed beneath these horny +plates, which never penetrate through them, and must therefore be +quite functionless, and altogether disappear before the animal is full-grown. +There is besides on each side of the hinder part of both +upper and lower jaws, a parallel row of molar teeth, similar in +characters from the beginning to the end of the series, with square +enamelled crowns raised into tuberculated transverse ridges; something +like those of the Tapir and Kangaroo. The upper teeth have +two ridges and three roots; the lower teeth have an additional +posterior small ridge or talon, and but two roots. These teeth +succeed each other from before backwards, as in the Proboscidea, +those at the front of the mouth being worn out and shed before +those at the back are fully developed. There are altogether about +eleven on either side of each jaw, but rarely more than six are<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_218"></a>[218]</span> +present at one time. The brain is remarkably simple in structure, +its hemispheres exhibiting none of the richness of convolution so +characteristic of the Cetacea. The mammary glands of the female +are situated just behind and to the inner side of the origin of +the pectoral limb. The red corpuscles of the blood are among +the largest of those of any members of the class, averaging in +diameter, according to Gulliver, ¹⁄₂₄₀₀ of an inch.</p> + +<p>Manatees pass the whole of their life in the water, inhabiting +bays, lagoons, estuaries, and large rivers; but the open sea, so congenial +to the Cetacea, is quite unsuited to their peculiar mode of +life. As a general rule they prefer shallow water, in which, when +not feeding, they lie near the bottom, supporting themselves on the +extremity of the tail, or slowly moving about by the assistance of +the fore limbs, the tips of which are just allowed to touch the +ground, and only raising the top of the head above the surface for +the purpose of breathing at intervals of two or three minutes. In +deeper water they often float, with the body much arched, the +rounded back close to the surface, and the head, limbs, and tail +hanging downwards. The air in the lungs obviously assists them +to maintain this position, acting in the same manner as that in the +air-sac of fishes. Their food consists exclusively of aquatic plants, +on which they browse beneath the water. They are extremely +slow and inactive in their movements, and perfectly harmless and +inoffensive. Frequent attempts have been made to keep specimens +alive in captivity, and sometimes with considerable success, one +having lived in the Brighton Aquarium for upwards of sixteen +months. It was fed chiefly on lettuce and endive, but would also +eat leaves of the dandelion, sow-thistle, cabbage, turnip, and carrot. +From this and other captive specimens some interesting observations +upon the mode of life of the animal have been made. One of these +is the free use it makes of its fore limbs. From the shoulder-joint, +they can be moved in all directions, and the elbow and wrist permit +of free extension and flexion. In feeding these creatures push the +food towards their mouths by means of one of the hands, or both +used simultaneously, and any one who has seen these members thus +employed can readily believe the stories of their carrying their +young about under their arms. Still more interesting and quite +unique among mammals is the action of the peculiar lateral pads +formed by the divided upper lip, thus described by the late Professor +Garrod: “These pads have the power of transversely +approaching towards and receding from one another simultaneously +(see <a href="#figure073">Fig. 73</a>, A and B). When the animal is on the point of seizing +(say) a leaf of lettuce, the pads are diverged transversely in such a +way as to make a median gap of considerable breadth. Directly +the leaf is within grasp the lip-pads are approximated, the leaf is +firmly seized between their contiguous bristly surfaces, and then<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_219"></a>[219]</span> +drawn inwards by a backward movement of the lower margin of +the lip as a whole.” The animal is thus enabled by the unaided +means of the upper lip to introduce food placed before it without +the assistance of the comparatively insignificant lower lip, the action +greatly recalling to the observer that of the mouth of the silkworm +and other caterpillars, in which the mandibles diverge and converge +laterally during mastication. When out of water the Manatee is +an extremely helpless animal; and, although statements are frequently +met with in books of its voluntarily leaving the water for +the purpose of basking or feeding on shore, all trustworthy observations +of those acquainted with it, either in a state of nature +or in captivity, indicate that it has not the power of doing so. +None of the specimens in confinement have been observed to emit +any sound.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure073" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure073.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 73.</span>—Front view of head of American Manatee, showing the eyes, nostrils, and mouth. +A, With the lobes of the upper lip divaricated; B, with the lip contracted. From Murie, +<i>Trans. Zool. Soc.</i> vol. xi.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>Manatees, though much less numerous than formerly, are still +occasionally found in creeks, lagoons, and estuaries in some of the +West India Islands, and at various spots on the Atlantic coast of +America from Florida as far south as about 20° S. lat., and in the +great rivers of Brazil, almost as high as their sources. They are +also met with in similar situations on the opposite African coast, +from about 16° N. to 10° S. lat., and as far into the interior as +Lake Tchad. Their range may even extend, if native reports +obtained by Schweinfurth are correctly interpreted, to the river +Keebaly, 27° E. long.</p> + +<p>A considerable number of specific names have been applied to +the existing Manatees, but according to the researches of Dr. +Hartlaub<a id="FNanchor_117" href="#Footnote_117" class="fnanchor">[117]</a> they may be reduced to three species, distinguished from +one another, among other features, by the characters of the skull, +and more especially the relations of the nasals to the adjacent<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_220"></a>[220]</span> +bones. Of these the American Manatee may be known as <i>M. +americanus</i>, although it has been described under the names of +<i>M. latirostris</i>, and <i>M. australis</i>. The African Manatee (<i>M. senegalensis</i>) +differs from the American species in the following cranial characters: +the anterior part of the rostrum is shorter, shallower, and altogether +smaller; the orbit is smaller; the zygomatic process is more deep +and massive; the jugal bone is deeper from above downwards; the +upper margin of the anterior nares is narrower and with a smooth +and rounded, instead of a thin and serrated, edge; the upper surface +of the frontal is flat, instead of concave; the foramen magnum and +occipital condyles are narrower from side to side, and the symphysis +of the mandible is smaller and shallower.</p> + +<p>Finally, <i>M. inunguis</i> is a fluviatile species confined to the +Amazon and Orinoco, which has been but recently fully brought +under the notice of zoologists.</p> + +<h4><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Halicoridæ</span>.</h4> + +<p><i>Halicore.</i><a id="FNanchor_118" href="#Footnote_118" class="fnanchor">[118]</a>—In the upper jaw a pair of large, nearly straight, tusk-like +incisors, directed downwards and forwards, partially coated +with enamel. In the male they have persistent pulps, and bevelled +cutting edges, which project a short distance from the mouth, but +in the female, though they remain through life in the alveolar +cavity, they are not exserted, and, the pulp-cavity being filled with +osteodentine, they soon cease to grow (as in the female Narwhal). +In the young there is also a second small deciduous incisor on +each side above. At this age there are also beneath the horny plate +which covers the anterior portion of the mandible four pairs of +slender conical teeth lodged in wide alveolar depressions; these +become absorbed before the animal reaches maturity. The molars +are usually ⁵⁄₅, sometimes ⁶⁄₆, altogether, but not all in place at once, +as the first falls before the last rises above the gum; they are more +or less nearly cylindrical in section (except the last, which is compressed +and grooved laterally), without distinction into crown and +root, increasing in size from before backwards, with persistent pulps +and no enamel. The summits of the crowns are tuberculated before +wearing, afterwards flattened or slightly concave. Skull with rostrum +formed by the union of the premaxillæ in front of the narial +aperture, longer than the aperture itself, bending downwards at a +right angle with the basicranial axis, and enclosing the sockets +of the large incisor tusks. Anterior part of the lower jaw bent +down in a corresponding manner. Vertebræ: C 7, D 18-19, L and +C 30. Tail broadly notched in the middle line, and with two +pointed lateral lobes. No nails on the fore limbs. Cæcum single.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_221"></a>[221]</span></p> + +<p>The Dugongs are more distinctly marine in their habits than the +Manatees, feeding chiefly on sea-water algæ. They inhabit the +shallow bays and creeks of the Red Sea, east coast of Africa, +Ceylon, islands of the Bay of Bengal and the Indo-Malayan +Archipelago (including the Philippines), and the north coast of +Australia, ranging from Barrow Reefs on the west to Moreton Bay +on the east. Although the distinctive characters are not very +obvious, they have been divided into three species, according +to the localities which they respectively inhabit:—<i>H. tabernaculi</i> +from the Red Sea, <i>H. dugong</i> from the Indian seas, and <i>H. australis</i> +from Australia. The last-named has lately been the object of a +regular “fishery,” chiefly on account of its oil, which is peculiarly +clear, limpid, and free from disagreeable smell, and is said to have +the same medicinal properties as cod-liver oil. Although often stated +in books to attain the length of 20 feet when adult, there does +not appear to be any evidence from actual specimens in museums +that Dugongs ever reach half that size, 8 feet being the common +length of adult animals.</p> + +<p>The placentation of this genus has been recently described by +Sir W. Turner, who first indicated its zonary form.</p> + +<h4><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Rhytinidæ</span>.</h4> + +<p><i>Rhytina.</i><a id="FNanchor_119" href="#Footnote_119" class="fnanchor">[119]</a>—No teeth, their place being supplied functionally by +the dense, strongly-ridged, horny oral plates. Premaxillary rostrum +about as long as the anterior narial aperture, and moderately +deflected. Vertebræ: C 7, D 19, L and C 34-37. Head very small +in proportion to the body. Tail with two lateral pointed lobes. +Pectoral limbs small and truncated. Skin naked and covered with +a very thick, hard, rugged, bark-like epidermis. Stomach without +cæcal appendages to the pyloric cavity. Cæcum simple.</p> + +<p>Only one species of this genus is known, <i>R. stelleri</i>, the Northern +Sea-cow, by far the largest animal of the order, attaining the length +of 20 to 25 feet. It was formerly an inhabitant of the shores of +two small islands in the North Pacific, Behring and the adjacent +Copper Island, on the former of which it was discovered by the +ill-fated navigator whose name the island bears, when, with his +accomplished companion, the German naturalist Steller, he was +wrecked upon it in 1741. Twenty-seven years afterwards (1768), +as is commonly supposed, the last of the race was killed,<a id="FNanchor_120" href="#Footnote_120" class="fnanchor">[120]</a> and its<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_222"></a>[222]</span> +very existence would have been unknown to science but for the +interesting account of its anatomy and habits left by Steller, and +the few more or less imperfect skeletons which have recently rewarded +the researches carried on in the frozen soil of the islands +around which it dwelt. There is no evidence at present of its +having inhabited any other coasts than those of the islands just +named, although it can hardly be supposed that its range was +always so restricted. When first discovered it was extremely +numerous in the shallow bays round Behring Island, finding +abundant nutriment in the large laminariæ growing in the sea. +Its extirpation is entirely due to the Russian hunters and traders +who followed upon the track of the explorers, and, upon Steller’s +suggestion, lived upon the flesh of the great Sea-cows. Its +restricted distribution, large size, inactive habits, fearlessness of +man, and even its affectionate disposition towards its own kind +when wounded or in distress, all contributed to accelerate its final +extinction.</p> + +<p>According to Steller’s account, the Rhytina had a skin of a dark +brown colour, sometimes spotted or streaked with white. The fore +limb was covered with short brush-like hairs.</p> + +<h4><i>Extinct</i> <span class="smcap">Sirenians</span>.</h4> + +<p><i>Halitherium.</i><a id="FNanchor_121" href="#Footnote_121" class="fnanchor">[121]</a>—The Miocene and early Pliocene seas of Europe +abounded in Sirenians, to which the generic name of <i>Halitherium</i> +was given by Kaup, but which have also received other names. +They had large tusk-like incisors in the upper jaw, as in the +existing Dugongs, though not so greatly developed. Their molar +teeth were ⁵⁄₅ or ⁶⁄₆, anteriorly simple and single-rooted, posteriorly +those above with three and those below with two roots, and with +enamelled and tuberculated or ridged crowns, in all which respects +they more resemble those of the Manatee than of the Dugong. +The anterior molars were deciduous; and there is evidence of the +presence of milk-teeth. Germs of inferior incisors were also +present. Some species at least had nasal bones, short, broad, +but normal in position, whereas in all the existing genera these +bones are quite rudimentary. Another and still more important +evidence of conformity to the general mammalian type is the +better development of the pelvic bone, and the presence of a small +styliform femur articulated to the acetabulum, although no traces +of any other part of the limb have been discovered. These ancient +Sirenians, which may be regarded as representing a distinct family—<i>Halitheriidæ</i>—were +thus, in dental, cranial, and other osteological +characters, less specialised than are either of the existing species,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_223"></a>[223]</span> +and if the intermediate links could be discovered might well be +looked upon as the ancestral forms from which the latter have been +derived, but at present the transitional conditions have not been +detected. So far as is yet known, when changes in the physical +conditions of the European seas rendered them unfitted to be the +habitation of Sirenians, the <i>Halitherium</i> type still prevailed. If the +existing Dugongs and Manatees are descended from it, their evolution +must have taken place during the Pliocene and Pleistocene +epochs, the one in seas to the east, the other to the west of the +African continent, which has long formed a barrier to their intercommunication. +<i>Halitherium</i> remains have been found in many +parts of Germany, especially near Darmstadt, also in France, Italy, +Belgium, Malta, etc. +Until a few years ago +none were known from +England, probably owing +to the absence of beds +of an age corresponding +to those in which they +are found on the European +continent; but +a skull and several +teeth have been detected +among the rolled debris of which the Red Crag of Suffolk is partially +composed. The species are not yet satisfactorily characterised. +Some of them appear to have attained a larger size than the existing +Manatee or Dugong. One of these, from the Pliocene of Italy and +France, having but ⁵⁄₅ molar teeth, has been separated generically +under the name of <i>Felsinotherium</i> by Capellini, by whom it has been +fully described; but the difference in the number of the teeth +does not afford sufficient grounds for separation from <i>Halitherium</i>. +<i>Miosiren</i> of the Belgian Miocene, differs in that the last upper +molar is the smallest, in place of the largest of the whole series +of teeth.</p> + +<figure class="figright illowp100" id="figure074" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure074.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 74.</span>—The penultimate and last right lower molars +of <i>Halitherium fossile</i>; from the Miocene of the Continent. +(After De Blainville.)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Other forms.</i>—Remains from the Pliocene of France described as +<i>Prohalicore</i> are regarded as indicating a Sirenian closely allied to +<i>Halicore</i>; while a molar from the Tertiary of California has been +made the type of <i>Desmotylus</i>, which is likewise referred to the +<i>Halicoridæ</i>. <i>Dioplotherium</i>, from the Phosphorites of South Carolina, +has been considered to connect <i>Halicore</i> with <i>Halitherium</i>, but even +its ordinal position is uncertain.</p> + +<p>A portion of a skull found in the Pliocene of Belgium has been +described as <i>Crassitherium</i> by Van Beneden; and some compressed +teeth, somewhat similar to but larger than those of the Dugong, +discovered in the Miocene of the department of Lot-et-Garonne, +France, gave origin to the genus <i>Rytiodus</i> of E. Lartet. Of this<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_224"></a>[224]</span> +genus, which may be identical with <i>Trachytherium</i> of the French +Miocene, better preserved remains have subsequently been described +by Delfortrie. These show that the rostrum is more elongated +than in <i>Halitherium</i>, but the skull is otherwise very similar, as are +the molar teeth. The incisors are very large, exserted, strongly +compressed, almost sabre-like, rounded on the upper or anterior +surface, sharp below, concave on the external and convex on the +inner side, and transversely striated.</p> + +<p><i>Pachyacanthus</i> from the Miocene of the Vienna basin is also, according +to Van Beneden, another form of Sirenian, of which, however, +the skull is not known. In various Miocene marine formations of +the United States of America other remains of Sirenians have +been found, but mostly in such a fragmentary condition that they +afford at present little evidence of the early history of the group +in that country. A more satisfactory discovery is that of a +nearly complete skull and some bones from a Tertiary limestone +formation in Jamaica. It is of smaller size than the Manatee, +and, so far as the teeth are concerned, of a still more generalised +character than <i>Halitherium</i>, the dentition being apparently <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, +<i>p</i> + <i>m</i> (?⁸⁄?₈) = 48. The incisors are small, not developed into tusks; +the canines (wanting in all existing Sirenians) are rather larger +than the incisors, judging by the sockets; and the molars are +bilophodont, and covered with enamel. It has been described +by Sir R. Owen under the name of <i>Prorastomus sirenoides</i>. Some +writers regard this genus as the type of a distinct family—the +<i>Prorastomatidæ</i>. Unfortunately we have no knowledge of the geological +antiquity of the formation in which it was embedded. Lastly +must be mentioned the <i>Eotherium egyptiacum</i>, Owen, founded on the +cast of a brain, with a small quantity of surrounding bone, discovered +in the nummulitic limestone of Eocene age in the Mokattam Hills, +near Cairo. The brain is narrower than in <i>Manatus</i>, and resembles +that of <i>Halitherium</i>. This is of interest as the most ancient known +evidence of any Sirenian whose age has been geologically determined. +Teeth from the same deposits referred to <i>Manatus</i> not +improbably belong really to <i>Eotherium</i>.</p> + +<p>The few facts as yet collected relating to the former history of +the Sirenia leave us as much in the dark as to the origin and +affinities of this peculiar group of animals as we were when we only +knew the living members. They lend no countenance to their +association with the Cetacea, and on the other hand their supposed +affinity with the Ungulata, so much favoured by modern zoologists, +receives no very material support from them.</p> + +<div class="bibliography"> + +<p><i>Bibliography of Sirenia.</i>—J. F. Brandt, <i>Symbolæ Sirenologicæ</i>, St. Petersburg, +3 fasciculi, 1846-61-68—an exhaustive account of the anatomy, affinities, and +literature of the group, with copious illustrations of the osteology of <i>Rhytina</i>.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_225"></a>[225]</span> +<i>Anatomy of Dugong</i>:—Everard Home, <i>Phil. Trans.</i> 1820, p. 315; Owen, <i>Proc. +Zool. Soc.</i> 1838, p. 29. <i>Placenta of do.</i>:—W. Turner, <i>Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin.</i> +vol. xxxv. (1889). <i>Manatee</i>:—W. Vrolik, <i>Bijdragen tot de Dierkunde</i>, 1851; +J. Murie, “On the Form and Structure of the Manatee,” <i>Trans. Zool. Soc. Lond.</i> +vol. viii. p. 127, 1872, and “Further Observations on the Manatee,” <i>Ibid.</i> vol. +xi. p. 19, 1880; A. H. Garrod, “Notes on the Manatee recently living in the +Zoological Society’s Gardens,” <i>Ibid.</i> vol. x. p. 137, 1875; H. C. Chapman, +“Observations on the Structure of the Manatee,” <i>Proc. Acad. Nat. Sciences of +Philadelphia</i>, 1875, p. 452; A. Crane, “Notes on the Habits of the Manatees in +Captivity in the Brighton Aquarium,” <i>Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond.</i> 1881, p. 456. +<i>Extinct Sirenia</i>:—Gervais, <i>Journal de Zoologie</i>, tom. i. p. 332, 1872. R. Lydekker, +<i>Catalogue of Fossil Mammalia in the British Museum</i>, pt. v.</p> + +</div> + +<h3><i>Order</i> <span class="smcap">Cetacea</span>.</h3> + +<p>This is perhaps the most distinctly circumscribed and natural +of all the larger groups into which the class is divided.</p> + +<p>The external form is fish-like, the body being fusiform, passing +anteriorly into the head without any distinct constriction or neck, +and posteriorly tapering off gradually towards the extremity of the +tail, which is provided with a pair of lateral, pointed expansions of +skin supported by dense fibrous tissue, called “flukes,” forming +together a horizontally-placed triangular propelling organ, notched +in the middle line behind.</p> + +<p>The head is generally large, in some species attaining to even +more than one-third of the entire length of the animal, and the +aperture of the mouth is always wide, and bounded by stiff +immobile lips. The fore limbs are reduced to the condition of +flattened ovoid paddles, encased in a continuous integument, showing +no external sign of division into arm, fore arm, and manus, or of +separate digits, and without any trace of nails. There are no traces +of hind limbs visible externally. The general surface of the skin is +smooth and glistening, and devoid of hair, although in many species +there are a few fine bristles in the neighbourhood of the mouth, +which may either persist through life, or be present only in the +young state. Immediately beneath the skin, and intimately +connected with it, is a thick layer of fat, held together by a dense +mesh of areolar tissue, constituting the “blubber,” which serves the +purpose of the hairy covering of other mammals in retaining the +heat of the body. In nearly all species a compressed median dorsal +tegumentary fin is present. The eye is small, and is not provided +with a nictitating membrane or true lachrymal apparatus. The +external auditory meatus is a very minute aperture in the skin +situated at a short distance behind the eye, and there is no vestige +of a pinna. The nostrils open either separately or by a single +crescentic valvular aperture, not at the extremity of the snout, but +near the vertex of the head.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_226"></a>[226]</span></p> + +<p>The bones generally are spongy in texture, the cavities being +filled with oil. In the vertebral column the cervical region is +remarkably short and immobile, and the vertebræ, originally +always seven in number, are in many species more or less fused +together into a solid mass. The odontoid process of the axis, when +that bone is free, is usually very obtuse, or even obsolete. None +of the vertebræ are united together to form a sacrum. The lumbar +and caudal vertebræ are numerous and large, and, as their arches +are not connected by any articular processes (zygapophyses), they +are capable of a very free motion in all directions. The epiphyses +at the ends of the vertebral bodies are very distinct flattened disks, +not uniting until after the animal has attained its full dimensions.<a id="FNanchor_122" href="#Footnote_122" class="fnanchor">[122]</a> +There are largely developed chevron bones, the presence of which +indicates the distinction between the caudal and lumbar vertebræ.</p> + +<p>The skull (<a href="#figure075">Fig. 75</a>) is modified in a very peculiar manner. The +brain-case is short, broad, and high, in fact almost spherical. The +supraoccipital bone rises upwards and forwards from the foramen +magnum, to meet the frontals at the vertex, thus completely +excluding the parietals from the upper region of the cranium. The +frontals are expanded laterally to form the roof of the orbits. The +anterior narial aperture opens upwards, and has in front of it a +more or less horizontally prolonged rostrum, formed of the maxillæ, +premaxillæ, vomer, and mesethmoid cartilage, extending forwards +to form the upper jaw or roof of the mouth.</p> + +<p>There are no clavicles. The humerus is freely movable on the +scapula at the shoulder-joint, but beyond this the articulations of +the limb are imperfect, the flattened ends of the bones coming in +contact with each other, with fibrous tissue interposed, allowing of +scarcely any motion. The radius and ulna are distinct, about +equally developed, and much flattened, as are also all the bones +of the manus. There are four, or more commonly five digits, and +the number of the phalanges of the second and third digits always +exceeds the normal number in mammals, sometimes very considerably +(hyperphalangism); they present the exceptional character +of having epiphyses at both ends.<a id="FNanchor_123" href="#Footnote_123" class="fnanchor">[123]</a> The pelvis is represented by a +pair of small styliform bones placed longitudinally, suspended below +and at some distance from the vertebral column at the commencement +of the caudal region. These appear to represent the ischia, +as the crura of the corpora cavernosa are attached to them. In +some species, to the outer surface of these are fixed other small +bones or cartilages, the rudiments of the hind limb.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_227"></a>[227]</span></p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp94" id="figure075" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure075.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 75.</span>—A section of the skull of a young Dolphin (<i>Globicephalus melas</i>) × ⅕. <i>PMx</i>, Premaxilla; +<i>Mx</i>, maxilla; <i>ME</i>, ossified portion of the mesethmoid; <i>an</i>, anterior nares; <i>Na</i>, +nasal; <i>IP</i>, interparietal; <i>Fr</i>, frontal; <i>Pa</i>, parietal; <i>SO</i>, supraoccipital; <i>ExO</i>, exoccipital; +<i>BO</i>, basioccipital; <i>Sq</i>, squamosal; <i>Per</i>, periotic; <i>AS</i>, alisphenoid; <i>PS</i>, presphenoid; <i>Pt</i>, +pterygoid; <i>pn</i>, posterior nares; <i>Pl</i>, palatine; <i>Vo</i>, vomer; <i>s</i>, symphysis of mandible; <i>id</i>, +inferior dental canal; <i>cp</i>, coronoid process of mandible; <i>cd</i>, condyle; a, angle; sh, stylohyal; +<i>bh</i>, basihyal; <i>th</i>, thyrohyal. (From Flower’s <i>Osteology of Mammalia</i>.)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>Teeth are generally present, but exceedingly variable in number. +In the existing species they are of simple, uniform character, all +having conical or compressed crowns and single roots, and are never +preceded by milk-teeth. They are therefore homodont and +monophyodont. In one group, the Mystacocetes, the teeth are +absent (except, in the fœtal condition), and the palate is provided +with numerous transversely placed horny laminæ or “baleen.” +The salivary glands are rudimentary or absent. The stomach is +multilocular, its structure being fully noticed under the genus +<i>Phocæna</i>. The intestinal canal is simple, and only in some species +provided with a small cæcum. The liver is very little fissured, and +there is no gall-bladder. The vascular system is greatly complicated +by arterial and venous plexuses, or <i>retia mirabilia</i>. The larynx is of +peculiar shape, the arytenoid cartilages and the epiglottis being +much elongated, and together forming a tubular prolongation, which +projects into the posterior nares, and when embraced by the soft +palate produces a continuous passage between the nostrils and the +trachea, as in Ungulates, but in a more perfect manner. The<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_228"></a>[228]</span> +brain is large relatively to the size of the animal, very round in +form, and with its surface divided by sulci into very numerous and +complex convolutions. The kidneys are deeply lobulated. The +testes are abdominal. There are no vesiculæ seminales, nor os +penis. The uterus is bicornuate, and the placenta non-deciduate +and diffuse. The mammæ are two in number, and the nipples +placed in depressions on each side of the vulva. The principal +ducts of the gland are dilated during lactation into large reservoirs, +into which the milk collects, and from which it is injected by the +action of a compressor muscle into the mouth of the young animal, +by which means the process of sucking under water is greatly +facilitated and expedited.</p> + +<p>The animals of the order Cetacea abound in all known seas, +and some species are inhabitants of the larger rivers of South +America and Asia. Their organisation necessitates passing their life +entirely in the water, as on land they are absolutely helpless. +They have, however, to rise very frequently to the surface for the +purpose of respiration; and, in relation to the constant upward and +downward movement in the water thus necessitated, their principal +instrument of motion, the tail, is expanded horizontally, quite +unlike that of a fish, whose movements are mainly in straight-forward +or lateral directions. The position of the respiratory orifice +or nostril on the highest part of the head is very important for +this mode of life, since it is the only part of the body of which +the exposure above the surface is absolutely necessary. Of the +numerous erroneous ideas connected with natural history, few are +so wide spread and still so firmly believed, notwithstanding repeated +expositions of its falsity, as that the Cetacea spout out through +their blowholes water taken in at the mouth. The fact is, the +“spouting,” or more properly “blowing,” of the Whale is nothing +more than the ordinary act of expiration, which, taking place at +longer intervals than in land animals, is performed with a greater +amount of emphasis. The moment the animal rises to the surface +it forcibly expels from its lungs the air taken in at the last inspiration, +which of course is highly charged with watery vapour in +consequence of the natural respiratory changes. This, rapidly +condensing in the cold atmosphere in which the phenomenon is +generally observed, forms a column of steam or spray, which has +been erroneously taken for water. It also often happens, especially +when the surface of the ocean is agitated into waves, that the +animal commences its expiratory puff before the orifice has quite +cleared the top of the water, some of which may thus be driven +upwards with the blast, tending to complete the illusion. In +hunting Whales the harpoon often pierces the lungs or air passages +of the unfortunate victim, and then fountains of blood may be +forced high in the air through the blowholes, as commonly depicted<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_229"></a>[229]</span> +in scenes of Arctic adventure; but this is nothing more (allowance +being made for the Whale’s peculiar mode of breathing) than what +always follows severe wounds of the respiratory organs of other +mammals.</p> + +<p>All the Cetacea are predaceous, subsisting on living animal food +of some kind. One genus alone (<i>Orca</i>) eats other warm-blooded +animals, as Seals, and even members of its own order, both large +and small. Some feed on fish, others on small floating crustaceans, +pteropods, and medusæ, while the principal staple of the food of +many is constituted by the various species of cephalopods, <i>Loligo</i> +and other <i>Teuthidæ</i>, which must abound in certain seas in vast +numbers, as they form almost the entire support of some of the +largest members of the order. In size the Cetacea vary much, some +of the smaller Dolphins scarcely exceeding 4 feet in length, while +others are the most colossal of all animals. It is true that most +statements of their bulk found in general and even zoological +literature are greatly exaggerated, but even when reduced to +their actual dimensions (which will be stated under the respective +genera) some of the existing Whales exceed in size any animal +living either at present or in former times of which we have any +certain evidence. With some exceptions, the Cetacea generally are +timid inoffensive animals, active in their movements, and very +affectionate in their disposition towards one another, especially the +mother towards the young, of which there is usually but one, or +at most two at a time. They are generally gregarious, swimming +in herds or “schools” (so termed by the whalers) sometimes +amounting to many thousands in number; though some species +have hitherto only been met with either singly or in pairs.</p> + +<p>Although by their mode of life so far removed from close observation +that it is impossible to become as familiar with them in +their natural condition as with many other animals, Whales are in +many respects the most interesting and wonderful of all creatures; +and there is much in their structure and habits well worthy of +study, much that is difficult to understand, and much that leads to +great generalisations and throws light upon far-reaching philosophical +speculations. One of the first lessons which a study of these +animals affords is that, in the endeavour to discover what a creature +really is, from what others it is descended, and to what it is related, +the general outward appearance affords little clue, and we must go +deep below the surface to find out the essential characteristics of its +nature. There was once, and may be still in many places, a +common idea that a Whale is a fish. To realise the fallacy of this +notion we have only to consider what a fish really is, what under +all the diversities of form, size, and colour known among fishes +there is common to them all, and we see that in everything which +characterises a true fish and separates it from other classes, as<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_230"></a>[230]</span> +reptiles, birds, and mammals, the Whale resembles the last-named +and differs from the fish. It is as essentially a mammal as a Cow +or a Horse, and simply resembles a fish externally because it is +adapted to inhabit the same element; but it is no more on that +account a fish than is a bat, because adapted to pass a great part of +its existence on the wing in the air, nearly related to a bird. The +whole structure of a whale is a most instructive instance of a type +of organisation which is common to and characteristic of the class +Mammalia, but specially modified or adapted to a peculiar mode of +life. We see in every part the result of two great principles acting +and reacting upon each other—on the one hand, adherence to type, +or rather to fundamental inherited structural conditions, and, on +the other, adaptation to the peculiar circumstances under which it +lives, and to which in all probability it has become gradually more +and more fitted. The external fish-like form is perfectly suited for +swimming through the water; the tail, however, is not placed +vertically as in fishes, but horizontally, a position which accords +better with the constant necessity for rising to the surface for the +purpose of breathing. The hairy covering characteristic of all +mammals, which if present might interfere with rapidity of movement +through the water, is reduced to the merest rudiments—a +few short bristles about the chin or upper lip—which are often +only present in very young animals; and the function of keeping +the body warm is supplied by the “blubber.” The forelimbs, +though functionally reduced to mere paddles, with no power of +motion except at the shoulder-joint, have beneath their smooth and +continuous external covering all the bones, joints, and even most of +the muscles, nerves, and arteries of the human arm and hand; and +the rudiments of hind legs found buried deep in the interior of the +animal apparently subserve no useful purpose, but point an instructive +lesson to those who are able to read it.</p> + +<p>As before said, the Cetacea form a perfectly well-defined group, +sharply separated from all other mammals, and with no outlying or +doubtful forms at present known. Among the existing members +of the order, there are two very distinct types, the Toothed Whales +or Odontoceti and the Baleen Whales or Mystacoceti, which present +as many marked distinguishing structural characters as are found +between many other divisions of the Mammalia which are reckoned +as orders. The extinct <i>Zeuglodon</i>, so far as its characters are known, +does not fall into either of these groups, but is in some respects an +annectant form, and therefore must be placed, provisionally at least, +in a third group by itself.</p> + +<p>The Mystacocetes appear at first sight to be the most specialised +and aberrant of the existing Cetacea, as indicated by the absence of +teeth, the presence of baleen, and the form and size of the mouth; +but, as we see in other groups, dental characters, and all such as<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_231"></a>[231]</span> +relate to the prehension of food generally, are essentially adaptive +and consequently plastic or prone to variation, and hence cannot +well be relied upon as tests of affinity. In another character, +also adaptive, the laxity of the connection of the ribs with the +vertebral column and with the sternum, and the reduction of that +bone in size, allowing great freedom of expansion of the thoracic +cavity for prolonged immersion beneath the water, the Mystacocetes +have passed beyond the Odontocetes in specialisation. On the other +hand, the greater symmetry of the skull, the more anterior position +of the external nostrils and their double external orifice, the form +of the nasal bones, the presence of a distinctly developed olfactory +organ, the mode of attachment of the periotic bone to the cranium, +the presence of a cæcum and the regular arrangement of the +alimentary canal, the more normal characters of the manus and the +better development of the muscles attached to it, and the presence, +in many species at least, of parts representing not only the bones +but also the ligaments and muscles of a hind limb,<a id="FNanchor_124" href="#Footnote_124" class="fnanchor">[124]</a> all show less +deviation from the ordinary mammalian type than is presented by +the Odontocetes. Taking all these characters into consideration, it +does not appear reasonable to suppose that either type has been +derived from the other, at all events in the form in which we see +it now, but rather that they are parallel groups, both modified in +different fashions from common ancestors.</p> + +<p>Among the Mystacocetes, in the especially distinguishing +characters of the division, the Rorquals are less specialised than the +Right Whales, which in the greater size of the head, the length and +compression of the rostrum, the development of the baleen, and +shortness of the cervical region, are exaggerated forms of the type, +and yet they retain more fully some primitive characters, as the +better development of the hind limb, the pentadactylous manus, +and the absence of a dorsal fin. Both types are found distinct in +a fossil state at least as far back as the early Pliocene age, but +generally represented by smaller species than those now existing. +Some of the Pliocene Rorquals (<i>Cetotherium</i>) were, in the elongated +flattened form of the nasal bones, the greater distance between the +occipital and frontal bone at the top of the head, and the greater +length of the cervical vertebræ, more generalised than those now +existing. In the shape of the mandible also, Van Beneden, to +whose researches we are much indebted for a knowledge of these +forms, discerns some approximation to the Odontocetes.</p> + +<p>Among the last-named group there are several distinct types, of +which that represented by <i>Platanista</i>, although in some respects +singularly modified, has been considered to present on the whole +approximations towards the more normal and general type of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_232"></a>[232]</span> +mammalian structure. It is therefore interesting to find an +apparently allied form well represented among the earliest fossil +remains of Cetaceans in Europe. Almost all the other members of +the suborder range themselves under the two principal heads of +Ziphioids (or Physeteroids) and Delphinoids. The former is an +ancient and once abounding type, of which the Sperm Whale +(<i>Physeter</i>) is a highly specialised form. Among the latter, <i>Globicephalus</i> +is a modified form as regards the structure of its anterior +extremity, and <i>Monodon</i> as regards its dentition, while <i>Delphinus</i>, +with the various allied genera, may be regarded as the dominating +type of Cetaceans at the present day, abundant in slightly +differentiated species and also in individuals. They are in this +respect to the rest of the order much as the hollow-horned +Ruminants are to the other Ungulates.</p> + +<p>The earliest Cetaceans of whose organisation we have anything +like complete evidence are the Zeuglodonts of the Eocene period,<a id="FNanchor_125" href="#Footnote_125" class="fnanchor">[125]</a> +which approach in the structure of the skull and teeth to a much more +generalised mammalian type than either of the existing suborders. +The smallness of the cerebral cavity compared with the jaws and the +rest of the skull they share with the primitive forms of many other +types. The forward position of the narial aperture and the length +and flatness of the nasal bones, which distinguish them from all +existing forms, we must also suppose to be a character at one time +common to all Cetaceans, though now retained (but to a less degree) +only by the Mystacocetes. Even <i>Squalodon</i>, which in its heterodont +dentition so much resembles <i>Zeuglodon</i> as to have been placed by +some zoologists in the same genus, entirely differs from it, and +conforms with the ordinary Dolphins in its essential cranial +characters.</p> + +<p>The origin of the Cetacea is at present involved in much obscurity. +They present no signs of closer affinity to any of the +lower classes of vertebrates than do many other members of their +own class. Indeed in all that essentially distinguishes a mammal +from the oviparous vertebrates, whether in the osseous, nervous, +reproductive, or any other system, they are as truly mammalian as +any other group. Any supposed marks of inferiority, as absence +of limb structure, of hairy covering, of lachrymal apparatus, etc., are +obviously modifications (or degradations, as they may be termed) +in adaptation to their special mode of life. The characters of the +teeth of <i>Zeuglodon</i> and other extinct forms, and also of the fœtal +Mystacocetes, clearly indicate that they have been derived from +mammals in which the heterodont type of dentition was fully<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_233"></a>[233]</span> +established. The steps by which a land mammal may have been +modified into a purely aquatic one are indicated by the stages +which still survive among the Carnivora in the <i>Otariidæ</i> and in +the true Seals. A further change in the same direction would produce +an animal somewhat resembling a Dolphin; and it has been +thought that this may have been the route by which the Cetacean +form has been developed. There are, however, great difficulties in +the way of this view. Thus if the hind limbs had ever been +developed into the very efficient aquatic propelling organs they +present in the Seals, it is not easy to imagine how they could have +become completely atrophied and their function transferred to the +tail. So that from this point of view it is more likely that Whales +were derived from animals with long tails, which were used in +swimming, eventually with such effect that the hind limbs became +no longer necessary. The powerful tail, with its lateral cutaneous +flanges, of an American species of Otter (<i>Lutra brasiliensis</i>) may give +an idea of this member in the primitive Cetaceans. But the structure +of the Cetacea is, in so many essential characters, so unlike +that of the Carnivora that the probabilities are against these orders +being nearly related. Even in the skull of the Zeuglodon, which +has been cited as presenting a great resemblance to that of a Seal, +quite as many likenesses may be traced to one of the primitive Pig-like +Ungulates (except in the purely adaptive character of the form +of the teeth), while the elongated larynx,<a id="FNanchor_126" href="#Footnote_126" class="fnanchor">[126]</a> complex stomach, simple +liver, reproductive organs both male and female, and fœtal membranes +of the existing Cetacea are far more like those of that group +than of the Carnivora. Indeed it appears probable that the old +popular idea which affixed the name of “Sea-Hog”<a id="FNanchor_127" href="#Footnote_127" class="fnanchor">[127]</a> to the Porpoise +contains a larger element of truth than the speculations of many +accomplished zoologists of modern times. The fact that <i>Platanista</i>, +which, as mentioned above, appears to retain more of the primitive +characteristics of the group than any other existing form, and also +the somewhat related <i>Inia</i> from South America, are both at the +present day exclusively fluviatile, may point to the freshwater origin +of the whole group, in which case their otherwise rather inexplicable +absence from the seas of the Cretaceous period would be +accounted for.</p> + +<p>On the other hand, it should be observed that the teeth of the +Zeuglodonts approximate more to a carnivorous than to an ungulate +type. It is scarcely necessary to allude to the hypothesis started +by some Continental writers to the effect that the Whales are the +most primitive type of mammals with which we are acquainted,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_234"></a>[234]</span> +and that they are the descendants of the Mesozoic reptilian order +Ichthyopterygia, from which their hyperphalangism is a direct +inheritance. The Ichthyopterygia have been shown, on very strong +evidence, to have been derived from land reptiles, and to have +gradually acquired their hyperphalangism as an adaptive character +suitable to their peculiar mode of life, and there can be but little +doubt that a similar adaptation has taken place in the case of the +Whales.</p> + +<h4><i>Suborder</i> <span class="smcap">Mystacoceti</span>, +<i>the</i> <span class="smcap">Balænoidea</span>, <i>Whalebone, or True Whales</i>.<a id="FNanchor_128" href="#Footnote_128" class="fnanchor">[128]</a></h4> + +<h5><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Balænidæ</span>.</h5> + +<p>Teeth never functionally developed, but always disappearing +before the close of intra-uterine life. Palate provided with plates +of baleen or “whalebone.” Skull symmetrical. Nasal bones forming +a roof to the anterior nasal passages, which are directed upwards +and forwards. Maxilla produced in front of, but not over, the +orbital process of the frontal. Lachrymal bones small and distinct +from the jugal. Tympanic bone involuted (<a href="#figure076">Fig. 76</a>), and ankylosed +with the periotic, which is attached to the base of the cranium by +two strong diverging processes. Olfactory organ distinctly developed. +Rami of mandible arched outwards, their anterior ends +meeting at an angle, and connected by fibrous tissue without any +true symphysis. All the ribs at their upper extremities articulating +only with the transverse processes of the vertebræ; their capitular +processes, when present, not articulating directly with the bodies of +the vertebræ. Sternum composed of a single piece, and articulating +only with a single pair of ribs. No ossified sternal ribs. External +openings of nostrils distinct from each other, longitudinal. A short +conical cæcum.</p> + +<p>These animals have, when in the fœtal state, numerous minute +calcified teeth lying in the dental groove of both upper and lower +jaws. They are best developed about the middle of fœtal life, after +which period they are absorbed, and no trace of them remains at the +time of birth.<a id="FNanchor_129" href="#Footnote_129" class="fnanchor">[129]</a> The baleen or whalebone does not make its appearance +until after birth. It consists of a series of flattened horny<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_235"></a>[235]</span> +plates, between three and four hundred in number, on each side of +the palate, with a bare interval along the middle line. These plates +are placed transversely to the long axis of the palate, with very short +intervals between them. Each plate or blade is somewhat triangular +in form, with the base attached to the palate and the apex hanging +downwards. The outer edge of the blade is hard and smooth; but +the inner edge and apex fray out into long bristly fibres, so that the +roof of the Whale’s mouth looks as if covered with hair, as described +by Aristotle. At the inner edge of each principal blade are two +or three much smaller or subsidiary blades. The principal blades +are longest near the middle of the series, and gradually diminish +towards the front and back of the mouth. The horny plates grow +from a dense fibrous and highly vascular matrix, covering the +palatal surface of the maxillæ, and sending out lamellar processes, +one of which penetrates the base of each blade. Moreover, the +free edge of these processes is covered with very long vascular +thread-like papillæ, one of which forms the central axis of each of +the hair-like epidermic fibres of which the blade is mainly composed. +A transverse section of fresh whalebone shows that it is made up of +numbers of these soft vascular papillæ, circular in outline, each +surrounded by concentrically arranged epidermic cells, and the +whole bound together by other epidermic cells, that constitute the +smooth cortical (so-called “enamel”) surface of the blade, which, +disintegrating at the free edge, allows the individual fibres to +become loose and assume the hair-like appearance before spoken of. +These fibres differ from hairs in not being formed in depressed +follicles in the enderon, but rather resemble the fibres composing the +horn of the Rhinoceros. The whalebone in fact consists of nothing +more than modified papillæ of the buccal mucous membrane, with +an excessive and cornified epithelial development. The blades are +supported and bound together for a certain distance from their +base by a mass of less hardened epithelium, secreted by the surface +of the palatal membrane or matrix of the whalebone in the intervals +of the lamellar processes. This is the “intermediate substance” of +Hunter, the “gum” of the whalers. Baleen varies much in colour +in different species. In some it is almost jet black, in others slate-colour, +horn-colour, yellow, or even creamy-white. In some the +blades are variegated with longitudinal strips of different hues. +Baleen differs also greatly in other respects, being short, thick, +coarse, and stiff in some, and greatly elongated and highly elastic +in those species in which it has attained its fullest development. +Its function is to strain the water from the small marine molluscs, +crustaceans, or fish upon which the Whales subsist. In feeding the +immense mouth is filled with water containing shoals of these small +creatures, and then, on the Whale closing the jaws and raising the +tongue, so as to diminish the cavity of the mouth, the water streams<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_236"></a>[236]</span> +out through the narrow intervals between the hairy fringe of the +whalebone blades, and escapes through the lips, leaving the living +prey to be swallowed.<a id="FNanchor_130" href="#Footnote_130" class="fnanchor">[130]</a></p> + +<p>Our knowledge of the different structural modifications attained +by members of this important group of mammals, though largely +increased of late years, is still imperfect. Formerly they were all +divided into Right Whales (<i>Balæna</i>) and Rorquals or Fin-Whales +(<i>Balænoptera</i>), the latter distinguished by their smaller heads, +elongated and slender form, free cervical vertebræ, tetradactylous +manus, and the presence of very conspicuous longitudinal furrows or +folds in the skin of the throat and chest, and of a small adipose +dorsal fin. Recent discoveries have, however, brought to light +several forms holding a somewhat intermediate position, and presenting +combinations of characters not found in either of the longer +known sections. According to our present knowledge the group is +naturally divided into five very distinct genera, of which the leading +characters are given below.</p> + +<p><i>Balæna.</i><a id="FNanchor_131" href="#Footnote_131" class="fnanchor">[131]</a>—Skin of throat smooth, not furrowed. No dorsal fin. +Cervical vertebræ united into a single mass. Pectoral limb short, +broad, and pentadactylous. Head very large. Baleen very long +and narrow, highly elastic, and black. Scapula high, with a distinct +coracoid and acromion process. Tympanic (<a href="#figure078">Fig. 78</a>) deep and angular, +its inflation comparatively slight, and the involuted portion not fig-shaped, +and frequently without a well-marked depression at the +anterior extremity of the superior border of the inner surface for +the Eustachian canal.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure076" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure076.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 76.</span>—Greenland or Arctic Right Whale (<i>Balæna mysticetus</i>).</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The Greenland, or more properly Arctic, Right Whale (<i>Balæna +mysticetus</i>) attains, when full grown, a length of from 45 to 50 +feet. Its usual vertebral formula is C 7, D 12, L 14, C 22.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_237"></a>[237]</span> +The external form is shown in <a href="#figure076">Fig. 76</a> from a careful drawing by +Mr. Robert Gray. In this species all the peculiarities which +distinguish the head and mouth of the Whales from those of other +mammals have attained their greatest development. The head is +of enormous size, exceeding one-third of the whole length of the +creature. The cavity of the mouth is actually larger than that of +the body, thorax and abdomen together. The upper jaw is very +narrow, but greatly arched from before backwards, to increase the +height of the cavity and allow for the great length of the baleen +blades; the rami of the mandible are widely separated posteriorly, +and have a still further outward sweep before they meet at +the symphysis in front, giving the floor of the mouth the shape +of an immense spoon. The baleen blades attain the number +of 380 or more on each side, those in the middle of the series +having a length of 10 or sometimes 12 feet. They are black in +colour, fine and highly elastic in texture, and fray out at the inner +edge and ends into long, delicate, soft, almost silky, but very tough, +hairs. The remarkable development of the mouth and the structures +in connection with it, which distinguishes the Right Whale among +all its allies, is entirely in relation to the nature of its food. It +is by this apparatus that the animal is enabled to avail itself of +the minute but highly nutritious crustaceans and pteropods which +swarm in immense shoals in the seas it frequents. The large mouth +enables it to take in at one time a sufficient quantity of water filled +with these small organisms, and the length and delicate structure +of the baleen provide an efficient strainer or hair-sieve by which the +water can be drained off. If the baleen were rigid, and only as +long as is the aperture between the upper and lower jaws when the +month is shut, a space would be left beneath it when the jaws were +separated, through which the water and the minute particles of food +would escape together. But instead of this the long, slender, +brush-like, elastic ends of the whalebone blades fold back when +the mouth is closed, the front ones passing below the hinder +ones in a channel lying between the tongue and the lower jaw. +When the month is opened, their elasticity causes them to +straighten out like a bow unbent, so that at whatever distance +the jaws are separated the strainer remains in perfect action, +filling the whole of the interval. The mechanical perfection of +the arrangement is completed by the great development of the +lower lip, which rises stiffly above the jaw-bone and prevents the +long, slender, flexible ends of the baleen from being carried +outwards by the rush of water from the mouth, when its cavity +is being diminished by the closure of the jaws and raising of the +tongue.</p> + +<p>If, as appears highly probable, the “bowhead” of the Okhotsk +Sea and Behring Strait belongs to this species, its range<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_238"></a>[238]</span> is circumpolar. +Though found in the seas on both sides of Greenland, and +passing freely from one to the other, it is never seen so far south +as Cape Farewell; but on the Labrador coast, where a cold stream +sets down from the north, its range is somewhat farther. In the +Behring Sea, according to Scammon, “it is seldom seen south of +the fifty-fifth parallel, which is about the farthest southern extent +of the winter ice, while on the Sea of Okhotsk its southern limit is +about the latitude of 54°.” As has been abundantly shown by +Eschricht and Reinhardt in the case of the Greenland seas, “everything +tends to prove,” Scammon says, “that the <i>Balæna mysticetus</i> +is truly an ‘ice whale,’ for among the scattered floes, or about the +borders of the ice-fields or barriers, is its home and feeding-ground. +It is true that these animals are pursued in the open water during +the summer months; but in no instance have we learned of their +being captured south of where winter ice-fields are occasionally met +with.” The occurrence of this species, therefore, on the British or +any European coast is exceedingly unlikely, as when alive and in +health the southern limit of its range in the North Sea has been +ascertained to be from the east coast of Greenland at 64° N. lat. +along the north of Iceland towards Spitsbergen, and a glance at a +physical chart will show that there are no currents setting southwards +which could bear a disabled animal or a floating carcase to +British shores. To this <i>à priori</i> improbability may be added the +fact that no authentic instance has been recorded of the capture or +stranding of this species upon any European coast; for the cases +in which it has been reported as seen in British waters may be explained +by the supposition of one of the other species of the genus +being mistaken for it. Still, as two other essentially Arctic +Cetaceans, the Narwhal and the Beluga, have in a few undoubted +instances found their way to British shores, it would be rash +absolutely to deny the possibility of the Greenland Right Whale +doing the same.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure077" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure077.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 77.</span>—Southern Right Whale (<i>Balæna australis</i>).</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The southern Right Whale (<i>B. australis</i>, <a href="#figure077">Fig. 77</a>) resembles the +last in the absence of dorsal fin and of longitudinal furrows in the +skin of the throat and chest, but differs in that it possesses a smaller +head in proportion to its body, shorter baleen, a different shaped<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_239"></a>[239]</span> +contour of the upper margin of the lower lip, and a greater number +(fifteen) of ribs and dorsal vertebræ. This form inhabits the temperate +seas of both northern and southern hemispheres, and is +divided into several so-called species, according to their geographical +distribution:—<i>B. biscayensis</i> of the North Atlantic, <i>B. japonica</i> of +the North Pacific, <i>B. australis</i> of the South Atlantic, and <i>B. antipodarum</i> +and <i>B. novæ-zealandiæ</i> of the South Pacific. The differential +characters by which they have been separated, external as well as +anatomical, are, however, slight and subject to individual variation; +and the number of specimens available for comparison in museums +is not yet sufficient to afford the necessary data to determine +whether these characters can be regarded as specific or not. +The most interesting of these is the Atlantic Right Whale, +which was formerly abundant in the North Atlantic, but is +now so scarce as to appear verging on extinction. This was +the Whale the pursuit of which gave occupation to a numerous +population on the shores of the Basque provinces of France and +Spain in the Middle Ages. From the tenth to the sixteenth centuries +Bayonne, Biarritz, St. Jean de Luz, and San Sebastian, as well as +numerous other towns on the north coast of Spain, were the centres +of an active Whale “fishery,” which supplied Europe with oil and +whalebone. In later times these Whales were pursued as far as the +coast of Newfoundland. They were, however, already getting scarce +when the voyages undertaken towards the close of the sixteenth +century for the discovery of the north-eastern route to China and +the East Indies opened out the seas around Spitzbergen; then for +the first time the existence of the Greenland Whale became known, +and henceforth the energies of the European whale-fishers were +concentrated upon that animal. It is a singular fact that the +existence of the Atlantic Right Whale was quite overlooked by +naturalists till lately, all accounts referring to it being attributed to +the Greenland Whale, supposed once to have had a wider distribution +than now, and to have been driven by the persecution of man +to its present circumpolar haunts. To the two Danish cetologists +Eschricht and Reinhardt is due the credit of having proved its +existence as a distinct species, from a careful collation of numerous +historical notices of its structure, distribution, and habits; and their +restoration of the animal, founded upon these documents, has been +abundantly confirmed by the capture of various specimens in recent +times, showing that it still lingers in some of the localities where it +formerly was so abundant. The only known instances of its +occurrence on the coasts of Europe in modern times are in the +harbour of San Sebastian in January 1854, in the Gulf of Taranto, +in the Mediterranean, in February 1877, and on the Spanish coast +between Guetaria and Zarauz (Guipuzcoa) in February 1878. The +skeletons of these three whales are preserved in the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_240"></a>[240]</span> museums of Copenhagen, +Naples, and San Sebastian respectively. On the coast +of the United States several Whales of this species have been taken +within the last few years. In the North Pacific a very similar if +not identical species is regularly hunted by the Japanese, who tow +the carcases ashore for the purposes of flensing and extracting +the whalebone. In the tropical seas, however, according to Captain +Maury’s whale charts, Right Whales are never or rarely seen; but +the southern temperate ocean, especially the neighbourhood of the +Cape of Good Hope, Kerguelen’s Island, Australia, and New Zealand, +is inhabited by “Black Whales,” once abundant, but now +nearly exterminated through the wanton destruction of the females +as they visit the bays and inlets round the coast, their constant +habit in the breeding time. The range of these Whales southward +has not been accurately determined; but no species corresponding +with the Arctic Right Whale has as yet been met with in the +Antarctic icy seas.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure078" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure078.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 78.</span>—The right tympanic bone of an immature individual of the Greenland Whale +(<i>Balæna mysticetus</i>), from the inner (<i>A</i>) and outer (<i>B</i>) aspects. ¹⁄₃ natural size. (From the +<i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i>)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>Remains of Right Whales are of not uncommon occurrence in the +Pliocene Crag deposits of England and Belgium. The tympanics +of <i>B. affinis</i> from these deposits appear to indicate a species closely +allied to <i>B. mysticetus</i>, in which this bone is long and angulated +anteriorly (<a href="#figure078">Fig. 78</a>); while the tympanics from the same deposits +described as <i>B. primigenia</i> are shorter and more rounded at the +antero-inferior angle, thus resembling those of <i>B. australis</i>. A +smaller species, having an estimated length of about 20 feet, has +been described as <i>Balænula balænopsis</i>, the generic distinction being +made on account of the free condition of the atlas and seventh +cervical vertebræ; but it seems scarcely advisable to regard such a +feature as indicating more than a less specialised species. <i>Balæna +(Balænotus) insignis</i> is a whale of somewhat larger dimensions,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_241"></a>[241]</span> in +which the atlas is generally, and the seventh cervical vertebra +always, free, while in young individuals the axis vertebra may +likewise be separate.</p> + +<p><i>Neobalæna.</i><a id="FNanchor_132" href="#Footnote_132" class="fnanchor">[132]</a>—Head about one-fourth the total length. Skin of +the throat not plicated. A small falcate dorsal fin. Vertebræ, +C 7, D 17, L 3, C 16 = 43. The cervical vertebræ are united. The +manus small, narrow, and tetradactylous, wanting the pollex. The +ribs remarkably expanded and flattened. The scapula very low +and broad, with completely developed acromion and coracoid processes. +Tympanic approximating to that of <i>Balæna</i>, but with certain +very characteristic peculiarities of shape. Baleen very long, slender, +elastic, and white. A single species, at present very rare, <i>N. marginata</i>, +from the Australian and New Zealand seas is the smallest +of the Whalebone Whales, being not more than 20 feet in length.</p> + +<p><i>Rhachianectes.</i><a id="FNanchor_133" href="#Footnote_133" class="fnanchor">[133]</a>—This combines the small head, elongated form, +and narrow pectoral fin of <i>Balænoptera</i> with the smooth skin of the +throat and absence of the dorsal fin of <i>Balæna</i>. The baleen is the +shortest and coarsest of any of the group. Its osteology is imperfectly +known. One species, <i>R. glaucus</i>, the Gray Whale of the +North Pacific.</p> + +<p><i>Megaptera.</i><a id="FNanchor_134" href="#Footnote_134" class="fnanchor">[134]</a>—Head of moderate size. Baleen plates short and +broad. Vertebræ, C 7, D 14, L 11, C 21 = 53. Cervical vertebræ +free. Scapula with acromion and coracoid process absent or rudimentary. +Skin of throat plicated. Dorsal fin low. Pectoral limb +tetradactylous, very long and narrow, attaining about one-fourth of +the length of the entire animal, the metacarpus and phalanges +being greatly developed, and the latter very numerous. Tympanic +still more inflated than in <i>Balænoptera</i>, with the involuted portion +more distinctly pyriform, the Eustachian part of the aperture well +defined, and two well-marked longitudinal ridges on the lower +surface of adult specimens.</p> + +<p>The Whale commonly called “Humpback” (<i>Megaptera boops</i>) by +whalers, perhaps on account of the low hump-like form of the +dorsal fin, is very distinctly characterised from all others of the +group, especially by the immense length of the pectoral fins or +flippers, which are indented or scalloped along their margins, and +are, except at their base, of a white colour, nearly all the rest of +the body being black. The baleen plates are of a deep black +colour. Though common in the North Atlantic between Norway +and Greenland, this Whale does not frequently appear on the coasts +of the British Isles. One came ashore at Newcastle in 1839; +another, a young one, was taken in the estuary of the Dee in 1863, +and its skeleton is preserved in the Liverpool museum; and a<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_242"></a>[242]</span> +nearly full-grown animal was captured in the mouth of the Tay in +the winter of 1883-84.<a id="FNanchor_135" href="#Footnote_135" class="fnanchor">[135]</a> The usual length of the adult ranges from +45 to 50 feet, the female being larger than the male. Whales of +the genus <i>Megaptera</i> are found in the South Atlantic and in +both the North and the South Pacific. They +resemble those of British seas so closely that it +is doubtful whether the differences which have +been observed, and upon which several species +have been founded, may not be individual peculiarities; +but zoologists have not yet had the +opportunity of examining and comparing such +a series of specimens of different ages and sexes +from different localities as would be necessary +to determine these points satisfactorily.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure079" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure079.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 79.</span>—Humpbacked Whale (<i>Megaptera boops</i>).</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>Tympanic bones of <i>Megaptera</i> occur in the +English and Belgian Crags, although somewhat +less commonly than those of <i>Balæna</i> and <i>Balænoptera</i>; +they have been described under the +names of <i>Megapteropsis</i> and <i>Burtinopsis</i>.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure080" style="max-width: 43.75em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure080.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 80.</span>—The Common Rorqual (<i>Balænoptera musculus</i>).</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Balænoptera.</i><a id="FNanchor_136" href="#Footnote_136" class="fnanchor">[136]</a>—Head small and flat, and +pointed in front. Body long and slender. Skin +of throat plicated. A small falcate dorsal fin. +Baleen short and coarse. Cervical vertebræ free. +Scapula low and broad, with a large acromion +and coracoid process. Pectoral limb tetradactylous, +small, narrow, and pointed. Tympanic +(<a href="#figure081">Fig. 81</a>) long, much inflated, and rounded, with +the involuted portion thickened and pyriform, +and the notch for the Eustachian canal sharply +defined; inner surface flattened, without the +vertical groove found in <i>Megaptera</i>.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp56" id="figure081" style="max-width: 23.4375em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure081.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 81.</span>—The right tympanic of <i>Balænoptera musculus</i> from +the inner (A) and outer (B) aspects. ½ natural size. (From the +<i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i>)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The Rorquals, Fin-Whales, Fin-backs, Finners,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_243"></a>[243]</span> +or Razor-backs, as they are variously called, +have the plicated skin of the throat like that of <i>Megaptera</i>, the +furrows being more numerous and close set; but the pectoral +fin is comparatively +small, the dorsal fin +distinct and falcate, +and the tail very +much compressed +before it expands +into the “flukes.” +The Rorquals are +perhaps the most +abundant and widely +distributed of all the +whales, being found +in some of their +modifications in all +seas, except the extreme +Arctic, and +probably Antarctic +regions. Owing to +the small quantity +and inferior quality +of their whalebone, +the comparatively +limited amount of +blubber, and their +great activity and +the difficulty of capturing +them by the +old methods, these +Whales were not +until recently an object of pursuit by whale-fishers; but, since the introduction +of steam-vessels, and especially of explosive harpoons fired +from guns in the place of those hurled by the human hand, a regular +fishery has been established on the coast of Finmark. There are four +distinct species of this genus in British seas. (1) <i>Balænoptera sibbaldi</i>, +the “Blue Whale,” the largest of all known animals, attains a +length of 80 or even sometimes 85 feet. Its colour is dark bluish +gray, with small whitish spots on the breast; the baleen is black; +the flippers are larger proportionally than in other Rorquals, +measuring one-seventh of the total length of the body; and the dorsal +fin is small and placed very far back. This Whale has usually 64 +vertebræ, of which 16 bear ribs. Like the others of the genus, this +species seems to pass the winter in the open seas, and approaches the +coast of Norway at the end of April or beginning of May. At this<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_244"></a>[244]</span> +time its sole food is a small crustacean (<i>Euphausia inermis</i>) which +swarms in the fjords. Several specimens have been taken on the +British coasts, two fine skeletons from the Firth of Forth being preserved +in the Edinburgh museums. (2) <i>Balænoptera musculus</i>, the +Common Rorqual, has a length of 65 to 70 feet, is of a grayish slate +colour above and white underneath, and the baleen is slate colour +variegated with yellow or brown. It has usually 62 vertebræ, +of which 15 bear ribs. This is the commonest of all the large +Whales on the British coasts, scarcely a winter passing without +the body of one being somewhere washed ashore, usually +after stormy weather, and more frequently on the south coast, +as this species has a more southern range than the last, and +frequently enters the Mediterranean. It feeds largely on fish, +and is frequently seen feasting among shoals of herring. (3) +<i>Balænoptera borealis</i>, often called Rudolphi’s Whale from its first +describer, is a smaller species, scarcely attaining a length of 50 feet. +It is bluish-black above, with oblong, light-coloured spots, whilst +the under parts are more or less white; the whole of the tail and +both sides of the flippers are black; the baleen is black, and the +bristly ends fine, curling, and white; the flippers are very small, +measuring one-eleventh of the total length of the body. There are +56 vertebræ, with 14 pairs of ribs. This species, according to +Collett, feeds chiefly on minute crustaceans, mainly <i>Calanus finmarchicus</i> +and <i>Euphausia inermis</i>, and not on fish. Until lately it was +considered the rarest of the Whales of European seas, and was only +known to science from a few individuals stranded on the coasts of +northern Europe at long intervals, the skeletons of which have been +preserved in museums. The most southern point at which it has +been met with hitherto is Biarritz in France. Since the establishment +of the whaling station near the North Cape it has been shown +to be a regular summer visitor, and in 1885, 771 individuals were +captured on the coast of Finmark. (4) <i>Balænoptera rostrata</i>, the +lesser Fin-Whale or Rorqual, is the smallest species found in the +northern seas, rarely exceeding 30 feet in length. Its colour is +grayish-black above, whilst the under side is white, including the +whole of the lower side of the tail; the inner side of the flippers +is white; and there is a broad white band across the outer side, +which is a very characteristic mark of the species; the baleen is +yellowish-white. The dorsal fin in this and the last species is +comparatively high, and placed far forwards on the body. This +Whale has usually 48 vertebræ, 11 of which bear ribs. It is common +in summer in the fjords of Norway, and is often seen around the +British Isles. It has been taken, though rarely, in the Mediterranean; +and ranges as far north as Davis’s Straits.</p> + +<p>Rorquals are met with in almost all seas throughout the world, +but further and more accurate observations are required before<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_245"></a>[245]</span> +their specific characters and geographical distribution can be made +out. Nearly all the individuals hitherto examined with any care, +whether from the North Pacific, the Australian seas, or the Indian +Ocean, come very near in structure to one or the other of the +Atlantic forms described above, so much so that some zoologists +have been induced to believe that there are but four species, each +of which has a wide, almost cosmopolitan range, while others have +described and named almost every individual specimen captured as +belonging to a different species.<a id="FNanchor_137" href="#Footnote_137" class="fnanchor">[137]</a></p> + +<p>Tympanics, vertebræ, and other bones of Rorquals are among +the commonest cetacean remains found in the Pliocene Crags of +England and Belgium. Several species, varying in dimensions, are +known from these deposits, <i>B. definita (sibbaldina)</i> being apparently +nearly related to the existing <i>B. sibbaldi</i>. A caudal vertebra from +the Upper Eocene of Hampshire has been referred to <i>Balænoptera</i>, but +does not afford sufficient evidence to prove the existence of the +genus at that date.</p> + +<p><i>Extinct Genera.</i>—The extinct genus <i>Cetotherium</i> of the European +Pliocene may be taken to include a number of fossil Whalebone +Whales allied to the Balænopterine group, several of which have +been described under other names, such as <i>Plesiocetus</i>, <i>Heterocetus</i>, +and <i>Amphicetus</i>. They are readily characterised by the form of +the tympanic bone, which is much narrower in front than behind, +the roughened inferior surface being in the shape of an isosceles +triangle, and the notch for the Eustachian canal being smaller, and +descending nearer to the inferior border of the inner wall than in +<i>Balænoptera</i>. The skull is longer than the latter, with a greater +interval between the occiput and the frontal, and with longer and +more flattened nasals. The relative thickness of the cervical +vertebræ is also greater. In the typical forms (<i>e.g.</i> <i>C. brialmonti</i> +and <i>C. dubium</i>) the mandibular condyle is simple; but in <i>C. +(Heterocetus) brevifrons</i> it is furnished with a projecting posterior +talon, as in the Sperm Whale.</p> + +<p><i>Herpetocetus</i> is known by a comparatively small species from the +Belgian and English Crags, characterised by the extreme inflation +of the egg-shaped tympanic bone, which approximates to that of +<i>Megaptera</i>, but has the greater part of the cavity filled by bone. +There is a talon to the condyle of the mandible.</p> + +<p><i>Palæocetus</i>, as already mentioned (<a href="#Page_232">p. 232</a>), is founded upon the +ankylosed cervical vertebræ of a small Whale originally considered as +having been derived from the Kimeridge Clay, but which doubtless +came from the <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_246"></a>[246]</span>Suffolk Crag; if it belongs to the <i>Balænidæ</i> it indicates +a Right Whale.</p> + +<h4><i>Suborder</i> <span class="smcap">Archæoceti</span>.</h4> + +<h5><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Zeuglodontidæ</span>.</h5> + +<p>This group is formed to include certain extinct Cetacean-like +animals at present only known by more or less fragmentary portions +of their skeleton and teeth, and whose position and affinities +are, therefore, still subject to doubt.<a id="FNanchor_138" href="#Footnote_138" class="fnanchor">[138]</a></p> + +<p>In the anterior part of both jaws the teeth are simple, conical, +or slightly compressed, and sharp pointed. The first three in the +upper jaw are distinctly implanted in the premaxillary bone, and +so may be reckoned as incisors. The tooth which succeeds, or the +canine, is also simple and conical, but it does not exceed the others +in size. This is followed by five teeth having two distinct roots +and compressed pointed crowns, with denticulated cutting-edges. +The dentition is therefore <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> and <i>m</i> ⁵⁄₅ = 36, resembling that +of some Seals.<a id="FNanchor_139" href="#Footnote_139" class="fnanchor">[139]</a> General form of the skull elongated and much +depressed. Brain-cavity very small, and the skull between it and +the orbits elongated and narrow. Temporal fossæ very large. A +strong sagittal crest. Rostrum long and narrow, differing from +that of other Cetaceans in the large extent to which the premaxillæ +form the sides of the anterior extremity. Nasal bones elongated, +flat, and narrow, the opening of the anterior nares being over the +middle of the elongated compressed rostrum. All the cervical +vertebræ free. The characters of the dorsal vertebræ and mode of +articulation of the ribs appear to have resembled those of <i>Platanista</i> +rather than <i>Balæna</i>, <i>Physeter</i>, or <i>Delphinus</i>. Lumbar vertebræ +with elongated bodies, low neural spines, and the transverse processes +placed low down on the bodies. Characters of the limbs +not known with certainty.<a id="FNanchor_140" href="#Footnote_140" class="fnanchor">[140]</a></p> + +<p>All the known fossil remains belonging to the animals of this +group may be referred, provisionally at least, to the genus <i>Zeuglodon</i>, +so named because the first section of a molar tooth examined was +taken from the base of the crown, where it was beginning to divide<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_247"></a>[247]</span> +into the two roots, and looked like two single teeth “linked or +yoked together.” This name was substituted by Owen for the +earlier one <i>Basilosaurus</i> of Harlan, with the consent of that author, +on the mammalian nature of the animal being demonstrated.<a id="FNanchor_141" href="#Footnote_141" class="fnanchor">[141]</a> The +latter name is, however, still generally retained by American +zoologists. The remains have hitherto been found chiefly in the +Eocene formations of the States of Alabama, Louisiana, Mississippi, +and Arkansas, and have been assigned to several species. A portion +of a skull is recorded from the Barton Clay (Eocene) of Hampshire, +England.</p> + +<h4><i>Suborder</i> <span class="smcap">Odontoceti</span>, +<i>the</i> <span class="smcap">Delphinoidea</span>, <i>or Toothed Whales</i>.</h4> + +<p>Calcified teeth always present after birth; generally numerous, +but sometimes a very limited number (in a few cases none) are +functionally developed. No baleen. Upper surface of the skull +more or less asymmetrical. Nasal bones in the form of nodules or +flattened plates, applied closely to the frontals, and not forming +any part of the roof to the narial passage, which is directed upwards +and backwards. Olfactory organ rudimentary or absent. Hinder +end of the maxilla expanded and covering the greater part of the +orbital plate of the frontal bone. Lachrymal bone either inseparable +from the jugal, or, when distinct, very large, and forming part of +the roof of the orbit. Tympanic bone not ankylosed with the +periotic, which is usually only attached to the rest of the skull by +ligament. Rami of mandible nearly straight, much expanded in +height posteriorly, with a wide funnel-shaped aperture to the dental +canal, and coming in contact in front by a flat surface of variable +length, but always constituting a true symphysis. Several of the +anterior ribs with well-developed capitular processes, articulating +with the bodies of the vertebræ. Sternum almost always composed +of several pieces, placed one behind the other, with which several +pairs of ribs are always connected by the intervention of well-developed +cartilaginous or ossified sternal ribs. External respiratory +aperture single, the two nostrils uniting before they reach the +surface, usually in the form of a transverse subcrescentic valvular +aperture, situated on the top of the head. Manus always pentadactylous, +though the first and fifth digits are usually very little +developed. No cæcum, except in <i>Platanista</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_248"></a>[248]</span></p> + +<h5><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Physeteridæ</span>.</h5> + +<p>No functional teeth in the upper jaw. Mandibular teeth various, +often much reduced in number. Bones of the cranium raised so as +to form an elevated prominence or crest behind the nares. Pterygoid +bones thick, produced backwards, meeting in the middle line, and +not involuted to form the outer wall of the post-palatine air-sinuses, +but simply hollowed on their outer side. Anterior facet of periotic +bone (<a href="#figure087">Fig. 87</a>) for articulation with the tympanic quite smooth; +and the posterior tympanic surface of the former broad, with a +median longitudinal ridge. Transverse processes of the arches of +the dorsal vertebræ, to which the tubercles of the ribs are attached, +ceasing abruptly near the end of the series, and replaced by +processes on the body at a much lower level, and not on a line or +serially homologous with them, but serially homologous anteriorly +with the heads of the ribs, and posteriorly with the transverse +processes of the lumbar vertebræ. (In some genera, as <i>Physeter</i>, +the two processes, upper and lower on each side, are both present +and well developed in the same vertebra in the region of transition. +In others, as <i>Ziphius</i> and <i>Berardius</i>, they are not both developed on +any single vertebra.) Costal cartilages not ossified.</p> + +<p>Subfamily <b>Physeterinæ</b>.—Numerous teeth in the mandible, +which are not set in distinct bony alveoli, but in a long groove +imperfectly divided by partial septa, and held in place by the +strong, fibrous gum surrounding them. No distinct lachrymal bone. +Cranium strikingly asymmetrical in the region of the narial +apertures, in consequence of the left opening greatly exceeding the +right in size.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure082" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure082.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 82.</span>—Skull of Sperm Whale (<i>Physeter macrocephalus</i>).</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Physeter.</i><a id="FNanchor_142" href="#Footnote_142" class="fnanchor">[142]</a>—Upper teeth apparently of uncertain number, rudimentary, +and functionless, being embedded in the gum. Lower jaw +with from 20 to 25 teeth on each side, stout, conical, recurved, and +pointed at the apex until they are worn, without enamel. Upper +surface of the cranium concave; its posterior and lateral edges +raised into a very high and greatly compressed semicircular crest<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_249"></a>[249]</span> +or wall. Zygomatic processes of jugal bones thick and massive. +Rostrum greatly elongated, broad at the base, and gradually tapering +to the apex. Upper edge of the mesethmoid forming a roughened +irregular projection between the narial apertures, inclining to +the left side. Mandible exceedingly long and narrow, the +symphysis being more than half the length of the ramus. Vertebræ: +C 7, D 11, L 8, C 24; total 50. Atlas free; all the other cervical +vertebræ united by their bodies and spines into a single mass. +Eleventh pair of ribs rudimentary. Head about one-third the +length of the body; very massive, high and truncated, and rather +compressed in front; owing its huge size and remarkable form +mainly to the accumulation of an oily substance secreted by +the lining membranes of great cells surrounding the narial passage +and filling the large hollow on the upper surface of the cranium +and overlying the rostrum. The single blowhole is longitudinal, +slightly sigmoid, and placed at the upper and anterior extremity +of the head to the left side of the middle line. The opening +of the mouth is on the under side of the head, considerably behind +the end of the snout. Pectoral fin short, broad, and obliquely +truncated. Dorsal fin a mere low protuberance.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure083" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure083.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 83.</span>—The Sperm Whale (<i>Physeter macrocephalus</i>).</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The only representative of this genus is the Cachalot or Sperm +Whale (<i>P. macrocephalus</i>, <a href="#figure083">Fig. 83</a>), one of the most colossal of +animals, quite equalling, if not exceeding, the Greenland Whale +in bulk. The length of the full-grown male is from 55 to +60 feet, but the female is stated not to reach more than half +that size. The general colour of the surface is black above and +gray below, the colours gradually shading into each other. The +Sperm Whale is one of the most widely distributed of animals, +being met with usually in herds or “schools” in almost all +tropical and subtropical seas, but not occurring, except accidentally, +in the Polar regions. Not unfrequently specimens appear +on the coasts of the British Isles, but only as solitary stragglers, +or as dead carcases, floated northwards by the Gulf Stream. It +is remarkable that every one of these of which we have an accurate +record has been an old male. The food of this Whale consists +mainly of various species of cephalopods (squid and cuttle-fish), +but fish of considerable size are also eaten. The substance called<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_250"></a>[250]</span> +“ambergris,” formerly used in medicine and now in perfumery, +is a concretion formed in the intestine of this Whale, and is found +floating on the surface of the seas it inhabits. Its genuineness is +proved by the presence of the horny beaks of the cephalopods on +which the Whale feeds.</p> + +<p>The oil contained in the great cavity above the skull, when refined, +yields “spermaceti,” and the thick covering of blubber which +everywhere envelops the body produces the valuable “sperm-oil” +of commerce; hence this animal has long been the subject of a +regular chase, by which its numbers have been greatly diminished.</p> + +<p><i>Cogia.</i><a id="FNanchor_143" href="#Footnote_143" class="fnanchor">[143]</a>—Teeth of the upper jaw absent, or reduced to a rudimentary +pair in front; in the lower jaw 9 to 12 on each side, rather long, +slender, pointed, and curved, with a coating of enamel. Upper +surface of the cranium concave, with thick, raised posterior and +lateral margins, massive and rounded at their anterior terminations +above the orbits. Upper edge of the mesethmoid forming a prominent +sinuous ridge, constituting a kind of longitudinal septum +to the base of the great supra-cranial cavity. Rostrum not longer +than the cranial portion of the skull, broad at the base, and rapidly +tapering to the apex. Zygomatic process of the jugal styliform. +Mandible with the symphysis less than half the length of the entire +ramus. Vertebræ: C 7, D 13 or 14, L and C 30; total 50 or 51. +All the cervical vertebræ united by their bodies and arches. External +characters not well known, but, judging by the somewhat +conflicting accounts of those that have had an opportunity of observing +them, the head is about one-sixth of the length of the body, +and obtusely pointed in front; the mouth small, and placed far +below the apex of the snout; the spiracle crescentic, and placed +obliquely on the top of the head anteriorly to the eyes, and to the +left of the middle line; the pectoral fins are obtusely falcate; and +there is a triangular dorsal fin.</p> + +<p>The history of this genus is a good illustration of the difficulties +in which the study of the Cetacea has been involved by the superficial +manner in which it has been investigated. The first known +example, a skull from the Cape of Good Hope in the Paris Museum, +was described by De Blainville under the name of <i>Physeter breviceps</i>. +This was afterwards with good reason generically separated by Gray. +Until within a very few years ago only five other individuals had +been met with, each of which had been described under a different +specific name (viz. <i>grayi</i>, <i>macleayi</i>, <i>simus</i>, <i>floweri</i>, and <i>potsii</i>), and +which are arranged by Gray in two distinct genera. The most +careful examination of the description given of these specimens, or +of the now numerous osteological remains available, fails to detect +any differences beyond those which may be attributed to age or sex, +and hence, according to our present knowledge, these six supposed<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_251"></a>[251]</span> +species must all be included under one name, <i>C. breviceps</i>. This +animal appears to attain the length of 10 feet when adult, and has +been met with at various distant localities in the Southern Ocean, +and also off the coast of Madras and in the North Pacific.</p> + +<p><i>Extinct Physeteroids.</i>—Teeth of Physeteroids are of very common +occurrence in the Belgian and English Crags, and evidently indicate +the former existence of Whales more or less closely allied to the +Sperm Whale, but often distinguished by the presence of an enamel-cap +on the crowns of the teeth. The generic determination of these +teeth is, however, exceedingly difficult, owing to the water-worn +condition in which they are frequently found, and also on account +of the impossibility of knowing whether small and large teeth may +not be referable to different parts of the jaws of the same species +or to individuals of different ages. Moreover, in the cases of +isolated teeth it is impossible to know how many were contained +in the jaws, and therefore to distinguish Physeteroid from Ziphioid +teeth. <i>Physeterula</i> is a small form about one-third the dimensions +of the Sperm Whale, and distinguished by the length of the mandibular +symphysis being only about one-third that of the entire ramus; +it is identified by Professor Cope with <i>Cogia</i>. <i>Eucetus</i> (<i>Dinoziphius</i>) is +founded on teeth which are regarded as closely resembling those of +<i>Physeter</i>, but distinguished by their subcylindrical form and the +small size of the aperture of the pulp-cavity. It does not appear, +however, to be certain that these teeth are not worn specimens of +those described as <i>Scaldicetus</i>. <i>Physetodon</i>, from the Pliocene of +Australia, is founded upon the evidence of similar teeth. The teeth +from the Belgian Crag described as <i>Scaldicetus</i> are somewhat smaller +than those of the Sperm Whale, and are readily characterised by +their cap of grooved enamel. Other teeth with enamel-caps have +been described as <i>Physodon</i> and <i>Hoplocetus</i>. The genus <i>Balænodon</i> +is founded upon a very imperfect large tooth from the English Crag, +which is not sufficiently well preserved to admit of exact comparison +with the other types.</p> + +<p>Subfamily <b>Ziphiinæ</b>.—Teeth of the mandible (at least in existing +forms) quite rudimentary and concealed in the gum, except one, or +very rarely two, pairs which may be largely developed, especially +in the male sex. A distinct lachrymal bone. Externally the mouth +is produced into a slender rostrum or beak, from above which the +rounded eminence formed by a cushion of fat resting on the cranium +in front of the blowhole rises somewhat abruptly. Spiracle or +blowhole single, crescentic, median, as in the <i>Delphinidæ</i>. Pectoral +fin small, ovate, the five digits all moderately well developed. A +small obtusely falcate dorsal fin situated considerably behind the +middle of the back. Longitudinal grooves on each side of the skin +of the throat, diverging posteriorly, and nearly meeting in front. +In external characters and habits the animals of this group closely<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_252"></a>[252]</span> +resemble each other. They appear to be almost exclusively feeders +on various species of cephalopods, and occur either singly, in pairs, +or in small herds. By their dental and osteological characters they +are easily separated into four distinct genera.</p> + +<p><i>Hyperoödon.</i><a id="FNanchor_144" href="#Footnote_144" class="fnanchor">[144]</a>—A small conical pointed tooth at the apex of each +ramus of the mandible, concealed by the gum during life. Skull +with the upper ends of the premaxillæ rising suddenly behind the +nares to the vertex and expanded laterally, their outer edges +curving backwards and their anterior surfaces arching forwards and +overhanging the nares; the right larger than the left. Nasal bones +lying in the hollow between the upper extremities of the premaxillæ, +strongly concave in the middle line and in front; their outer edges, +especially on the right side, expanded over the front of the inner +border of the maxilla. Very high longitudinal crests on the +maxillæ at the base of the rostrum, extending backwards almost to +the nares, approaching each other in the middle line above; sometimes +so massive that their inner edges come almost in contact. +Anteorbital notch distinct. Mesethmoid but slightly ossified. +Vertebræ: C 7, D 9, L 10, C 19; total 45. All the cervical +vertebræ united. Upper surface of the head in front of the blowhole +hole very prominent and rounded, rising abruptly from above the +small, distinct snout.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure084" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure084.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 84.</span>—<i>Hyperoödon rostratus.</i> From a female specimen taken off the coast of Scotland, 1882.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The genus is known typically by <i>H. rostratus</i> (<a href="#figure084">Fig. 84</a>), but an +imperfect skull has been made the type of <i>H. planifrons</i>—a species +differing considerably in cranial characters from the typical one. +The females and young males of the first-named species have the +contour of the head of the same general form as in <a href="#figure084">Fig. 84</a>; the +premaxillary crests of the cranium being widely separated from +one another, and terminating in comparatively sharp edges. In the +males, however, as age advances the summits of these crests become +gradually expanded and flattened, till they are almost or quite in +contact in the middle line. This development of the maxillary +crests produces a corresponding elevation and flattening of the front +of the head, so that in very old males this aspect presents a flattened +disc-like surface rising abruptly from the beak (which thus +becomes almost buried) and situated in a plane nearly at right<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_253"></a>[253]</span> angles +to the line of the back.<a id="FNanchor_145" href="#Footnote_145" class="fnanchor">[145]</a> So different, indeed, is the appearance of +the skull of an old male from that of a female individual that +it was long considered that they belonged to different species—the +male form having been described as <i>H. latifrons</i>. The length +of an adult male reaches 30 feet, while that of the female does not +exceed 24 feet.</p> + +<p>The Hyperoödon, sometimes called “Bottlenose,” a name also +vaguely given to several species of Dolphin, is a regular inhabitant +of the North Atlantic, passing the summer in the Spitzbergen seas +and going farther south in winter. It resembles the Sperm Whale +in possessing a large store of oil in the upper part of the head, +which yields spermaceti when refined; on this account, and also +for the sake of the blubber, which supplies an oil almost indistinguishable +from sperm-oil, this Whale has been the object of a +regular chase in recent years.</p> + +<p>The following account of its habits is taken from a paper +by Captain D. Gray, published in the <i>Zoological Society’s Proceedings</i> +for 1882:—</p> + +<p>“These Whales are occasionally met with immediately after +leaving the Shetland Isles in March, and north across the ocean +until the ice is reached, near the margin of which they are found +in the greatest numbers; but they are seldom seen amongst it. +Although it is not in their nature to keep in amongst the ice, they +like to frequent the open bays for the shelter it gives them from +the sea. Sometimes a point of ice overlaps them; it is then only +that they are seen going out again towards the ocean. They are +also to be met with from the entrance of Hudson’s Straits and up +Davis’s Straits, as far as 70° N. lat., and down the east side +round Cape Farewell, all round Iceland, north along the Greenland +ice to 77° N. lat.; also along the west coast of Spitzbergen, +and east to Cherry Island in lat. 72° N. and long. 19° E. Beyond +these limits I have never seen them; but doubtless they are to be +found as far as the Straits of Belle Isle on the west, and east to +Nova Zembla. From the fact that they are not seen in summer +farther south than a day’s sail from the ice, it would appear that +they migrate south in the autumn, and north again in the spring. +They are gregarious in their habits, going in herds of from four +to ten. It is rare to see more than the latter number together, +although many different herds are frequently in sight at the same +time. The adult males very often go by themselves; but young +bulls, cows, and calves, with an old male as a leader, are sometimes +seen together. They are very unsuspicious, coming close alongside +the ship, round about underneath the boats, until their curiosity +is satisfied.... They vary in colour from black in the young to +light brown in the older animals. The very old turn almost yellow, +the beak and front of the head being quite white, with a white<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_254"></a>[254]</span> +band round their necks; all of them are grayish-white on the belly. +They can leap many feet out of the water, even having time while +in the air to turn round their heads and look about them, taking +the water head first, and not falling helplessly into it sideways like +the larger whales. The full-grown whale is 30 feet long by 20 +feet in circumference, and yields two tons of oil besides two hundredweight +of spermaceti.... Their ordinary food consists of a bluish-white +cuttle-fish, six inches long by three inches in circumference, +and pointed towards the tail.... They evidently have a great +depth to go to find them, judging from the length of time that +they remain away, and from the long heavy blasts they make on +coming to the surface again.”</p> + +<p>Periotic bones of <i>Hyperoödon</i> are found in the Red Crag of +Suffolk, presenting no character by which they can be specifically +distinguished from those of the common existing species.</p> + +<p><i>Ziphius.</i><a id="FNanchor_146" href="#Footnote_146" class="fnanchor">[146]</a>—A single conical tooth of moderate size on each side +of the mandible close to the anterior extremity, and directed +forwards and upwards. Skull with the premaxillæ immediately in +front of, and at the sides of the nares expanded, hollowed, and with +elevated lateral margins, the posterior ends rising to the vertex and +curving forwards, the right being considerably more developed than +the left; the conjoint nasals forming a strongly pronounced symmetrical +eminence at the top of the cranium, projecting forwards +over the nares, flat above, most prominent and rounded in the +middle line in front, and separated by a notch on each side from +the premaxillæ. Anteorbital notch not distinct. Rostrum (seen +from above) triangular, gradually tapering from the base to the +apex; upper and outer edges of maxillæ at base of rostrum raised +into low roughened tuberosities. Mesethmoid cartilage densely +ossified in adult age, and coalescing with the surrounding bones of +the rostrum. Vertebræ: C 7, D 10, L 10, C 22; total 49. The +three anterior cervical vertebræ united, the rest free.</p> + +<p>The type of this genus is <i>Z. cavirostris</i> of Cuvier, founded upon +an imperfect skull picked up in 1804 on the Mediterranean coast +of France, and described and figured in the <i>Ossemens Fossiles</i> under +the impression that it was that of an extinct species. Many other +individuals have, however, been subsequently met with in various +parts of the world, from the Shetland Islands to New Zealand, all +referable to the same genus, if not to the same species; although, +as is usual in such cases, they have mostly been described under +different names, the so-called genera <i>Petrorhynchus</i> and <i>Epiodon</i> +being probably referable to the type species.</p> + +<p>It is quite probable that some of the Physeteroid teeth from the +Crag deposits mentioned on <a href="#Page_251">p. 251</a> may be referable to <i>Ziphius</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_255"></a>[255]</span></p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure085" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure085.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 85.</span>—<i>Mesoplodon bidens.</i> From Reinhardt.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Mesoplodon.</i><a id="FNanchor_147" href="#Footnote_147" class="fnanchor">[147]</a>—A much compressed and pointed tooth in each +ramus of the mandible, variously situated, but generally at some +distance behind the apex (<a href="#figure086">Fig. 86</a>); its point directed upwards, and +often somewhat backwards, occasionally developed to a great size. +Skull with the region around the nares as in <i>Hyperoödon</i>, except +that the nasals are narrow and more sunk between the upper ends +of the premaxillæ; like those of <i>Hyperoödon</i>, they are concave in +the middle line in front and above. No maxillary tuberosities. +Anteorbital notch not very distinct. Rostrum long, narrow, and +solid throughout. Mesethmoid in adult age ossified in its entire +length, coalescing with the surrounding bones, and showing as a +narrow band on the upper surface of the rostrum. Vertebræ: +C 7, D 10, L 10 or 11, C 19 or 20; total 46 to 48. Two or three +anterior cervicals united, the rest usually free.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure086" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure086.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 86.</span>—Left lateral view of skull of <i>Mesoplodon densirostris</i>.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>Though varying in form, the mandibular teeth of the different +members of this genus agree in their essential structure, having a +small and pointed enamel-covered crown, composed of true dentine, +which, instead of surmounting a root of the ordinary character, is +raised upon a solid mass of osteodentine. The continuous growth of +this greatly alters the form and general appearance of the organ +as age advances, as seen most strikingly in the case of <i>M. layardi</i>, +where the long, narrow, flat, strap-like teeth, curving inwards at +their extremities, actually meet over the rostrum, and must greatly +interfere with the movements of the jaw. In one species (<i>M. grayi<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_256"></a>[256]</span></i>) +a row of minute, conical, pointed teeth, like those of ordinary +Dolphins, 17 to 19 in number, are present even in the adults, on +each side of the middle part of the upper jaw, but embedded by +their roots only in the gum, and not in bony alveoli. This fact, +with the frequent presence of rudimentary teeth in other species +of this and the last genus in both upper and lower jaws, +suggests the idea that the Ziphioids are derived from ancestral forms +which had teeth of normal character in both jaws; the dentition +of the living forms having become greatly specialised. The existing +species of this genus are widely distributed in both northern and +southern hemispheres, but most frequent in the latter. The best +established are <i>M. bidens</i>, <i>M. europæus</i>, <i>M. densirostris</i>, <i>M. layardi</i>, +<i>M. grayi</i>, and <i>M. hectori</i>; but there is still much to be learned with +regard to their distinctive characters and geographical distribution. +They were abundant in the Pliocene age, as attested by the frequency +with which the most imperishable +and easily recognised +portion of their structure, the +long, cylindrical rostrum of the +skull, of more than ivory denseness, +is found among the rolled +and water-worn fragments of +animal remains which compose +the well-known “bone-bed” at +the base of the Red Crag of Suffolk +Several species have been +founded upon the evidence of +these rostra. Periotic bones of +this genus (<a href="#figure087">Fig. 87</a>) are of less common occurrence in the Crag; +the figure is given to illustrate the characteristic features of this +bone in the present family.</p> + +<figure class="figleft illowp100" id="figure087" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure087.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 87.</span>—The left periotic bone of <i>Mesoplodon</i>; +from the Red Crag of Suffolk. The +smooth concave surface in the right upper +corner of the figure forms the anterior articulation +with the tympanic. (From the +<i>Cat. Foss. Mamm. Brit. Mus.</i> pt. v. p. 70.)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Berardius.</i><a id="FNanchor_148" href="#Footnote_148" class="fnanchor">[148]</a>—Two moderate-sized, compressed, pointed teeth on +each side of the symphysis of the mandible, with their apices directed +forwards, the anterior being the larger of the two and close to the +apex. Upper ends of the premaxillæ nearly symmetrical, moderately +elevated, very slightly expanded, and not curved forward over +the nares. Nasals broad, massive, and rounded, of nearly equal +size, forming the vertex of the skull, flattened in front, most +prominent in the middle line. Anteorbital notch distinct. Rostrum +long and narrow. Mesethmoid only partially ossified. Small +rugous eminences on the outer edge of the upper surface of the +maxillæ at base of rostrum. Vertebræ: C 7, D 10, L 12, C 19; +total 48. The three anterior cervicals ankylosed, the rest free and +well developed.</p> + +<p>The only<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_257"></a>[257]</span> known species, <i>B. arnuxi</i>, attains the length of 30 +feet, and has hitherto only been met with in the seas around New +Zealand.</p> + +<p><i>Choneziphius.</i><a id="FNanchor_149" href="#Footnote_149" class="fnanchor">[149]</a>—The rostral portions of crania from the Antwerp +and Suffolk Crags, on the evidence of which this genus has been +established, agree with those of <i>Mesoplodon</i> in having the premaxillæ +in contact with the intervening bones throughout the length of +their inner surfaces, and also in showing only a very small portion +of the vomer on the inferior surface; they differ, however, in that +the mesethmoid cartilage remains unossified, whereby a fistular +vacuity remains. In some species the soldering of the inner +surfaces of the premaxillæ is incomplete. The interorbital region +of the skull is flat; and there are two pits in the nasal region, of +which the right is the larger.</p> + +<h5><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Squalodontidæ</span>.</h5> + +<p>Numerous extinct forms, chiefly known by teeth and fragments +of crania, may be provisionally placed here, until more of their +osteological characters shall be brought to light. They differ from +all existing Cetaceans in having the teeth distinctly differentiated +into groups, as in the Archæoceti, the posterior molars being two-rooted. +The cranium has, however, none of the distinguishing +characteristics of the Zeuglodonts, but essentially resembles that of +the Odontoceti, especially in the position of the anterior nares and +form of the nasal bones.</p> + +<p><i>Squalodon.</i><a id="FNanchor_150" href="#Footnote_150" class="fnanchor">[150]</a>—All the forms may be included in this genus, the +so-called <i>Rhizoprion</i> not being distinct. Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, simple +teeth of the molar series (premolars?) ⁴⁄₄, two-rooted molars ⁷⁄₇ = ¹⁵⁄₁₅; +total 60. The double-rooted molars differ from those of <i>Zeuglodon</i> +in having the denticulations of the crown confined to the posterior +border, or at all events much less developed on the front edge. +Very little is known of the structure of these animals beyond the +skull and teeth, fragments of which have been found widely +distributed throughout the marine Miocene and early Pliocene +formations of Europe, especially in the Vienna basin, many parts +of France, and the Antwerp and Suffolk Crags. They have also +been found in formations of corresponding age in North America +and South Australia. A few isolated teeth have been met with in +the cave-deposits of Italy, which, if contemporaneous with the beds +in which they occur, indicate the survival of the genus into the +Pleistocene period.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_258"></a>[258]</span></p> + +<h5><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Platanistidæ</span>.</h5> + +<p>Under this heading may be placed three very singular genera, +which, though differing considerably from each other, have several +points in common, and do not altogether come under the definition +either of the <i>Physeteridæ</i> or the <i>Delphinidæ</i>, especially in the +important character of the mode of articulation of the ribs with +the dorsal vertebræ, the tubercular and capitular articulations, +distinct at the commencement of the series, gradually blending +together, as they do in most ordinary mammals. The cervical +vertebræ are all free. The lachrymal bone is not distinct from the +jugal. The jaws are long and narrow, with numerous teeth in +both. The symphysis of the mandible exceeds half the length of +the whole ramus. Externally the head is divided from the body +by a slightly constricted neck. Pectoral limbs broad and truncated. +Dorsal fin small or obsolete. Fluviatile or estuarine in habits. +There are three distinct genera, which might almost be made the +types of families, but it is probably more convenient to keep them +together, only regarding them as representing three subfamilies.</p> + +<p><i>Platanista.</i><a id="FNanchor_151" href="#Footnote_151" class="fnanchor">[151]</a>—Teeth about ³⁰⁄₃₀ on each side, set near together, +rather large, cylindrical, and sharp-pointed in the young; in old +animals acquiring a large laterally compressed base, which in the +posterior part of the series becomes irregularly divided into roots. +As the conical enamel-covered crown wears away, the teeth of the +young and old animals have a totally different appearance. The +rostrum and dentigerous portion of the mandible are so narrow +that the teeth of the two sides are almost in contact. Maxillæ supporting +very large, incurved, compressed bony crests, which overarch +the nares and base of the rostrum, and almost meet in the +middle line above. Orbits very small and eyes rudimentary, without +crystalline lens. External respiratory aperture longitudinal, linear. +Vertebræ: C 7, D 10, L 9, C 26; total: 52. A small cæcum. No +pelvic bones. Dorsal fin represented by a low ridge.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure088" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure088.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 88.</span>—<i>Platanista gangetica.</i> (From Anderson.)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>One species, <i>P. gangetica</i>, entirely fluviatile, being extensively +distributed throughout nearly the whole of the river systems, not +only of the Ganges, but of the Brahmaputra and Indus, ascending +as high as there is water enough to swim in, but never passing out +to sea. It is quite blind, and feeds on small fish and crustaceans,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_259"></a>[259]</span> +groping for them with its long snout in the muddy water at the +bottom of the rivers. It attains the length of 8 feet.<a id="FNanchor_152" href="#Footnote_152" class="fnanchor">[152]</a></p> + +<p><i>Inia.</i><a id="FNanchor_153" href="#Footnote_153" class="fnanchor">[153]</a>—Teeth variable, from 26 to 33 on either side of each jaw; +those at the posterior part with a distinct tubercle at the inner side +of the base of the crown. Vertebræ: C 7, D 13, L 3, C 18; total +41. Transverse processes of lumbar vertebræ very broad. Sternum +short and broad, and consisting of a single segment only. Dorsal +fin a mere ridge. The long cylindrical rostrum externally furnished +with scattered, stout, and crisp hairs. One species only is known, +<i>I. geoffroyensis</i>, about 7 feet in length, inhabiting the upper Amazon +and its tributary streams.</p> + +<p><i>Pontoporia.</i><a id="FNanchor_154" href="#Footnote_154" class="fnanchor">[154]</a>—Teeth 50 to 60 on either side of each jaw, with a +cingulum at the base of the crown. Jaws very long and slender. +Vertebræ: C 7, D 10, L 5, C 19; total 41. Transverse processes +of the lumbar vertebræ extremely broad. Sternum elongated, +composed of two segments, with four sternal ribs attached. Dorsal +fin rather small, triangular, pointed. External respiratory aperture +transverse, crescentic. This genus connects the last two forms with +the true <i>Delphinidæ</i>. The only species, <i>P. blainvillei</i>, is one of the +smallest members of the whole order, not exceeding 5 feet in length. +It has only been met with at the mouth of the Rio de la Plata, near +Buenos Ayres, and there is at present no evidence that it ascends +into the fresh waters of the river.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure089" style="max-width: 25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure089.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 89.</span>—<i>Pontoporia blainvillei.</i> (From Burmeister.)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Fossil forms.</i>—Remains of a Cetacean from the Pleistocene of +South America were referred by Bravard to <i>Pontoporia</i>, but they +have been regarded by other writers as indicating a distinct genus, +for which the names <i>Palæopontoporia</i> and <i>Pontistes</i> have been proposed. +The Upper Tertiary European genera <i>Champsodelphis</i> and +<i>Schizodelphis</i> are generally referred to the present family. The +former has wide transverse processes to the lumbar vertebræ, as in +<i>Inia</i>, while the teeth also resemble those of that genus. In <i>Schizodelphis</i> +the form of the rostrum presents a great resemblance to that +of the Delphinoid genus <i>Steno</i>, but the symphysis of the mandible +is relatively longer. A number of fossil Cetaceans from the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_260"></a>[260]</span> +Miocene of the United States, such as <i>Priscodelphinus</i>, <i>Lophocetus</i>, +<i>Ixacanthus</i>, <i>Rhabdosteus</i>, etc., are referred by Professor E. D. Cope to +this family. <i>Agabelus</i>, from the same deposits, is an apparently +allied, but toothless type.</p> + +<h5><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Delphinidæ</span>.</h5> + +<p>Teeth usually numerous in both jaws. Pterygoid bones short, +thin, each involuted to form with a process of the palate bone the +outer wall of the post-palatine air-sinus. Symphysis of mandible +short, or moderate, never exceeding one-third of the length of the +ramus. Lachrymal bone not distinct from the jugal. The anterior +facet on the periotic (<a href="#figure096">Fig. 96</a>) for articulation with the tympanic +deeply grooved; and the posterior tympanic surface of the same +bone comparatively narrow, with its ridge for articulation with the +free border of the tympanic ill-defined, and situated close to one +edge. Transverse processes of the dorsal vertebræ gradually transferred +from the arches to the bodies of the vertebræ without any +sudden break, and becoming posteriorly continuous serially with the +transverse processes of the lumbar vertebræ. Anterior ribs attached +to the transverse process by the tubercle, and to the body of the +vertebra by the head; the latter attachment lost in the posterior +ribs. Sternal ribs firmly ossified. External respiratory aperture +transverse, crescentic, with the horns of the crescent pointing +forwards.</p> + +<p>A very large group, closely united in essential characters but +presenting great modifications in details. The different types are +mostly so connected by intermediate or osculant forms that there +are great difficulties in grouping them into natural subfamilies. +Even the formation of well-defined genera is by no means satisfactory +in all cases. They may, however, be divided, perhaps +artificially, into two groups.</p> + +<p><i>Group A.</i>—Head rounded, without distinct rostrum or beak. +Rostrum of skull about as long as cranial portion.</p> + +<p><i>Monodon.</i><a id="FNanchor_155" href="#Footnote_155" class="fnanchor">[155]</a>—Besides some irregular rudimentary teeth, the entire +dentition is reduced to a single pair of teeth which lie horizontally +in the maxilla, and in the female remain permanently concealed +within the alveolus so that this sex is practically toothless, while +in the male (see <a href="#figure090">Fig. 90</a>) the right tooth usually remains similarly +concealed and abortive, and the left is immensely developed, attaining +a length equal to more than half that of the entire animal, projecting +horizontally from the head in the form of a cylindrical, or slightly +tapering, pointed tusk, without enamel, and with the surface +marked by spiral grooves and ridges, running in a sinistral direction.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_261"></a>[261]</span> +(When, as occasionally happens, both tusks are developed, the +spiral grooves have the same direction in each.) Pterygoids very +small, not meeting in the middle line, but approximating +posteriorly. Vertebræ: C 7, D 11, L 6, +C 26; total 50. Cervical region comparatively +long, and all the vertebræ distinct, or with irregular +unions towards the middle of the series, +the atlas and axis being usually free. Manus +small, short, and broad; second and third digits +nearly equal, fourth slightly shorter. No dorsal +fin.</p> + +<p>This genus is now represented only by the +well-known Narwhal (<i>M. monoceros</i>), in which the +horn-like tusk of the male often grows to a +length of 7 or 8 feet. In very young animals +several small additional teeth, irregular in number +and position, are present, but these usually disappear +soon after birth.</p> + +<p>The head is rather short and rounded; the +fore limbs or paddles are small and broad compared +with those of most Dolphins; and (as in the +Beluga) the median dorsal fin, found in nearly +all other members of the group, is wanting or +replaced by a low ridge. The general colour of +the surface is dark gray above and white below, +but variously marbled and spotted with different +shades of gray. In the general contour of the +body the Narwhal resembles the White Whale +or Beluga.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure090" style="max-width: 43.75em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure090.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 90.</span>—Upper surface of the skull of male Narwhal (<i>Monodon monoceros</i>), with the whole of both teeth exposed +by removal of the upper wall of their alveolar cavities.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The Narwhal is essentially an Arctic animal, +frequenting the icy circumpolar seas, and but +rarely seen south of 65° N. lat. Three instances +have, however, been recorded of its occurrence +on the British coasts, one in the Firth of Forth +in 1648, one near Boston in Lincolnshire in 1800, +while a third, which entangled itself among +the rocks in the Sound of Weesdale, Shetland, +in September 1808, is described by Fleming +in the <i>Memoirs of the Wernerian Society</i>, vol. i. +Like most other Cetaceans, it is gregarious in +its habits, being usually met with in “schools” +or herds of fifteen or twenty individuals. Its +food appears to be various species of cephalopods, +small fishes, and crustaceans. The purpose +served in the animal’s economy by the +wonderfully developed asymmetrical tusk—or<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_262"></a>[262]</span> +“horn,” as it is commonly but erroneously +called—is not known. As it is present only +in the male sex, no function essential to the well-being of the +individual, such as the procuring of sustenance, can be assigned +to it, but it must be looked upon as belonging to the same category +of organs as the antlers of deer, and perhaps may be +applied to similar purposes. Very little is, however, known of the +habits of Narwhals. Scoresby describes them as “extremely +playful, frequently elevating their horns and crossing them with +each other as in fencing.” They have never been known to charge +and pierce the bottom of ships with their weapons, as the sword-fish +often does. The name “Sea Unicorn,” sometimes applied to the +Narwhal, refers to the resemblance of its tusk to the horn +represented as projecting from the forehead of the fabled unicorn. +The ivory of which the tusk is composed is of very good quality, +but, owing to the central cavity, which extends the greater part of +its length, is only fitted for the manufacture of objects of small +size. The entire tusks are sometimes used for decorative purposes, +and are of considerable, though very fluctuating, commercial value.</p> + +<p><i>Delphinapterus.</i><a id="FNanchor_156" href="#Footnote_156" class="fnanchor">[156]</a>—This genus is closely allied to the last in external +form, as well as anatomical structure, differing mainly in the +very distinct character of the dentition. Teeth from ⁸⁄₈ to ¹⁰⁄₁₀, +occupying the anterior three-fourths of the rostrum and corresponding +portion of the mandible, rather small, conical, and pointed +when unworn, but usually becoming obliquely truncated, separated +by intervals considerably wider than the diameter of the tooth, and +implanted obliquely, the crowns inclining forwards, especially in +the upper jaw. Skull rather narrow and elongated, depressed. +Premaxillæ convex in front of the nares. Rostrum about equal in +length to the cranial portion of the skull, triangular, broad at the +base, and gradually contracting towards the apex, where it is somewhat +curved downwards. Vertebræ: C 7, D 11, L 9, C 23; total 50. +Cervical vertebræ free. Manus broad, short, and rounded, all the +digits being tolerably well developed, except the first. No dorsal +fin, but a low ridge in its place.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure091" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure091.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 91.</span>—Beluga or White Whale (<i>Delphinapterus leucas</i>). From a specimen taken in the river +St. Lawrence, and exhibited in London, 1877.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>One existing species, <i>D. leucas</i> (<a href="#figure091">Fig. 91</a>), the Beluga or<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_263"></a>[263]</span> White +Whale, so called from its pure white colour, about 12 feet long, +abundant in the Arctic seas, and extending as far south on the +American coast as the river St. Lawrence, which it ascends for a +considerable distance. On rare occasions it has been seen on the +coast of Scotland.</p> + +<p>Remains of a Cetacean from the Lower Pliocene of Tuscany have +been referred by Brandt to this genus under the name <i>D. brocchii</i>.</p> + +<p>In all the remaining genera of <i>Delphinidæ</i> the cervical region of +the vertebral column is very short, and the first two, and usually +more, of the vertebræ are firmly united.</p> + +<p><i>Phocæna.</i><a id="FNanchor_157" href="#Footnote_157" class="fnanchor">[157]</a>—Teeth ²⁵⁄₂₅, small, occupying nearly the whole length +of the rostrum, with compressed, spade-shaped crowns, separated +from the root by a constricted +neck (<a href="#figure092">Fig. 92</a>). Rostrum rather +shorter than the cranium +proper, broad at the base and +tapering towards the apex. +Premaxillæ raised into tuberosities +in front of the nares. +The frontal bones forming a +somewhat square, elevated protuberance +in the middle line of the skull behind the nares, rising +altogether above the flattened nasals. Pterygoids very small, +and widely separated in the middle line. Symphysis of mandible +very short. Vertebræ: C 7, D 13, L 14, C 31; total 65 (subject +to slight individual variations). First to sixth cervical vertebræ, +and sometimes the seventh also, coalesced. Manus of moderate +size, oval, slightly falcate; second and third digits nearly equal in +length; fourth and fifth well developed, but shorter. Dorsal fin +near the middle of the back, triangular; its height considerably less +than the length of the base; its anterior edge frequently furnished +with one or more rows of conical horny tubercles.</p> + +<figure class="figright illowp100" id="figure092" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure092.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 92.</span>—Teeth of Porpoise. Twice natural size.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The common Porpoise (<a href="#figure093">Fig. 93</a>), <i>P. communis</i>, is the best known +of British Cetaceans. The word Porpoise (sometimes spelled Porpus +and Porpesse) is apparently derived from the French <i>porc</i> and +<i>poisson</i>, or the Italian <i>porco</i> and <i>pesce</i>, and thus corresponds with +some of the English vernacular appellations, “hog-fish,” “sea-hog,” +“herring-hog,” and the German <i>Meerschwein</i>, whence the usual modern +French name of the animal, <i>marsouin</i>. “Porpoise” is commonly used +by sailors to designate all the smaller Cetaceans, especially those +numerous species which naturalists call “Dolphins”; but in scientific +language it is restricted to the genus <i>Phocæna</i> of Cuvier, of which the +Porpoise of the British seas, <i>Phocæna communis</i>, Cuvier (<i>Delphinus +phocæna</i>, Linnæus), is the type.</p> + +<p>The Common Porpoise, when full grown, attains a length of 5<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_264"></a>[264]</span> +feet or a little more. The dimensions of an adult female specimen +from the English Channel were as follows:—length in straight line +from nose to median notch between the flukes of the tail, 62½ +inches; from the nose to the anterior edge of the dorsal fin, 29 +inches; height of dorsal fin, 4½ inches; length of base of dorsal fin, +8 inches; length of pectoral fin, 9¼ inches; breadth of pectoral fin, +3½ inches; breadth of tail flukes, 13 inches. The under jaw +projects about half an inch beyond the upper one. The aperture +of the mouth is tolerably wide, and is bounded by stiff immobile +lips, and curves slightly upwards at the hinder end. The eye is +small, and the external ear represented by a minute aperture in the +skin, scarcely larger than would be made by the puncture of a pin, +situated about 2 inches behind the eye. The pectoral fins are of +moderate size, and slightly falcate. The upper parts are dark gray, +or nearly black, according to the light in which they are viewed, +and the state of moisture or otherwise of the skin; the under parts +are pure white. The line of demarcation between these colours is +not distinct (washes or splashes of gray encroaching upon the +white on the sides), and varies somewhat in different individuals. +Usually it passes from the throat (the anterior part of which, with +the whole of the under jaw, is dark) above the origin of the +pectoral fin, along the middle of the flank, and descends again to +the middle line before reaching the tail. Both sides of the pectoral +and caudal fins are black.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp93" id="figure093" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure093.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 93.</span>—The Common Porpoise (<i>Phocæna communis</i>).</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The Porpoise is sociable and gregarious in its habits, being usually +seen in small herds, and frequenting coasts, bays, and estuaries<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_265"></a>[265]</span> +rather than the open ocean. It is the commonest Cetacean in the +seas around the British Isles, and not unfrequently ascends the +river Thames, having been seen as high up as Richmond; it has +also been observed in the Seine at Neuilly, near Paris. It frequents +the Scandinavian coasts, entering the Baltic in the summer; and +is found as far north as Baffin’s Bay, and as far west as the coasts +of the United States. Southward its range is more limited than +that of the Common Dolphin, as, though very common on the +Atlantic coasts of France, it rarely enters the Mediterranean.</p> + +<p>It feeds on fish, such as mackerel, pilchards, and herrings, of +which it devours large quantities, and, following the shoals, is often +caught by fishermen in the nets along with its prey. In former +times it was a common and esteemed article of food in England and +in France, but is now rarely if ever eaten, being commercially +valuable when caught only for the oil obtained from its blubber. +Its skin is sometimes used for leather and boot-thongs, but +the so-called “porpoise hides” are generally obtained from the +Beluga.</p> + +<p>A closely similar if not identical species from the American +coast of the North Pacific has been described under the name of +<i>Phocæna vomerina</i>, and another from the mouth of the Rio de la +Plata as <i>P. spinipennis</i>.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp78" id="figure094" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure094.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 94.</span>—Diagrammatic section of the stomach of the Porpoise. +<i>a</i>, Œsophagus; <i>b</i>, left, or cardiac, compartment; <i>c</i>, middle compartment; +<i>d</i> and <i>e</i>, the two divisions of the right, or pyloric, compartment; +<i>f</i>, pylorus; <i>g</i>, duodenum, dilated at its commencement; <i>h</i>, +biliary duct.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The stomach of the Porpoise (<a href="#figure094">Fig. 94</a>) may be taken as a typical +example of this +organ in the Cetacea. +The first and +by far the largest +compartment (<i>b</i>) +may be regarded +as a kind of crop, +or dilatation of +the large œsophagus +(<i>a</i>). It is +lined by a thick +white epithelium, +which ceases +abruptly at the +entrance into the +next cavity. It +corresponds to +the cardiac compartment +of the +stomach in the +Ungulates and +certain Rodents; +but, although its<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_266"></a>[266]</span> +walls do not appear to contain peptic glands, its contents undergo +partial digestion—probably caused by the regurgitation into it +of the secretions of the second, or true digestive compartment +(<i>c</i>). This, which is much smaller than the first, has very thick +walls, the mucous membrane being filled with numerous tubular +glands. The surface of this membrane is smooth and soft, +being thrown into numerous folds, which in this genus are arranged +in a very peculiar and characteristic manner, so as to form a +series of prominent longitudinal ridges, each of which sends off +short lateral ridges at right angles to itself, which interdigitate +with those proceeding from the next longitudinal ridge. The +remainder of the stomach (<i>d</i> to <i>f</i>) may be compared to the pyloric +antrum of the stomach of ordinary mammals. It is elongated, +cylindrical, and intestiniform, with a smooth lining membrane, +sharply bent upon itself, and terminating in a very small circular +pyloric aperture (<i>f</i>). In the Porpoise the commencement +of this cavity is constricted off from the remainder, so as to +form a small globular sac. In most Dolphins (as <i>Tursiops</i>, <i>Globicephalus</i>, +and <i>Grampus</i>) there are two such small sacs of very similar +size and form, communicating by circular pylorus-like apertures; +and in <i>Hyperoödon</i> the whole compartment is divided by a series of +constrictions into as many as seven separate cavities, which have +been regarded as distinct stomachs. Immediately beyond the +pylorus the duodenum has a globular dilatation, as in the camels +and some other Ungulates, into the lower end of which the biliary +duct (<i>h</i>) enters.</p> + +<p>An allied species, differing mainly in the absence of dorsal fin, +and in the teeth (with the same form of crown) being fewer in +number and of larger size, called <i>Delphinus phacænoides</i> by Cuvier, +<i>D. melas</i> by Schlegel, forms the type of Gray’s genus <i>Neomeris</i>.<a id="FNanchor_158" href="#Footnote_158" class="fnanchor">[158]</a> +It is rather smaller than the Common Porpoise, and almost entirely +black in colour. Common off the coast of Bombay, it has been +met with in other parts of the Indian Ocean, and near Japan. +The British Museum recently received a specimen taken in the +Chinese river Yang-tse-kiang nearly a thousand miles from the +sea, which only differs from others from India in wanting a patch +of small horny tubercles on the back. As such tubercles are +present or absent in otherwise similar individuals of <i>P. communis</i>, it +is doubtful whether they can be regarded as constituting a specific +character.</p> + +<p><i>Cephalorhynchus.</i><a id="FNanchor_159" href="#Footnote_159" class="fnanchor">[159]</a>—Rostrum as long and sometimes slightly +longer than the cranial portion of the skull. Pterygoids widely +separated from one another. Teeth small (less than 3 mm. in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_267"></a>[267]</span> +diameter), ²⁵⁄₂₅ to ³⁰⁄₃₀. Vertebræ: C 7, D 13, L 15, C 30; total 65. +Dorsal fin low, obtusely triangular or rounded. Pectoral fins rather +small, narrow, and ovate. Typified by <i>C. heavisidei</i>, from the +southern seas. <i>C. eutropia</i> is a very distinct form from the same +seas, known only by the skull, and referred provisionally to this +genus.</p> + +<p><i>Orcella.</i><a id="FNanchor_160" href="#Footnote_160" class="fnanchor">[160]</a>—Teeth ¹²⁄₁₂ to ¹⁴⁄₁₄, small, conical, pointed, rather closely +set, and occupying nearly the whole length of the rostrum. Skull +subglobular, high. Rostrum nearly equal in length to the cranial +portion of the skull, tapering. Pterygoids widely separated from +one another. Manus of moderate size, not elongated, but somewhat +pointed. All the bones of the digits broader than long, +except the proximal phalanges of the index and third fingers. +Dorsal fin rather small, placed behind the middle of the body. +Two species, both of small size—<i>O. brevirostris</i>, from the Bay of +Bengal, and <i>O. fluminalis</i>, from the Irawadi river, from 300 to +900 miles from the sea. Our present knowledge of the anatomy, +geographical distribution, and habits of these interesting Cetaceans +is almost entirely due to the researches of Dr. J. Anderson.<a id="FNanchor_161" href="#Footnote_161" class="fnanchor">[161]</a></p> + +<p><i>Orca.</i><a id="FNanchor_162" href="#Footnote_162" class="fnanchor">[162]</a>—Teeth about ¹²⁄₁₂, occupying nearly the whole length of +the rostrum, very large and stout, with conical recurved crowns, +and large roots, expanded laterally and flattened, or rather hollowed, +on the anterior and posterior surfaces. Rostrum about equal in +length to the cranial part of the skull, broad and flattened above, +rounded in front; premaxillæ broad and rather concave in front of +the nares, contracted at the middle of the rostrum, and expanding +again towards the apex. Pterygoids of normal form, but not quite +meeting in the middle line. Vertebræ: C 7, D 11-12, L 10, +C 23; total 51 or 52. Bodies of the first and second and sometimes +the third cervical vertebræ united; the rest free. Pectoral +fin very large, ovate, nearly as broad as long. All the phalanges +and metacarpals broader than long. General form of body robust. +Dorsal fin near the middle of the back, very high and pointed. +Anterior part of the head broad and depressed.</p> + +<p>The animals composing this genus are met with in almost all +seas from Greenland to Tasmania, but the number of species is still +uncertain, and possibly they may be all reduced to one. They are +readily known, when swimming in the water, by the high, erect, +falcate dorsal fin, whence their common German name of <i>Schwertfisch</i> +(Sword-fish). By English sailors they are generally known as +“Grampuses” or “Killers.” They are distinguished from all their +allies by their great strength and ferocity, being the only Cetaceans<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_268"></a>[268]</span> +which habitually prey on warm-blooded animals, for, though fish +form part of their food, they also attack and devour Seals, and +various species of their own order, not only the smaller Porpoises +and Dolphins, but even full-sized Whales, which last they combine +in packs to hunt down and destroy, as Wolves do the larger +Ruminants.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure095" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure095.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 95.</span>—The Killer Whale, or Grampus (<i>Orca gladiator</i>). From Hunter.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Orca citoniensis</i>, of the Italian Pliocene, was of smaller size than +the existing Killer. Teeth and periotic bones from the Suffolk Crag +not improbably belong to the same species.</p> + +<p><i>Pseudorca.</i><a id="FNanchor_163" href="#Footnote_163" class="fnanchor">[163]</a>—Teeth about ¹⁰⁄₁₀. Cranial and dental characters +generally like those of <i>Orca</i>, except that the roots of the teeth are +cylindrical. Vertebræ: C 7, D 10, L 9, C 24; total 50. First +to sixth or seventh cervical vertebræ united. Bodies of the lumbar +vertebræ distinguished from those of the preceding genera by being +more elongated, the length being to the width as 3 to 2. Pectoral +fin of moderate size, narrow, and pointed. Dorsal fin situated near +the middle of the back, of moderate size, falcate. Head in front of +the blowhole high, and compressed anteriorly, the snout truncated.</p> + +<p>This genus was first known by the discovery of a skull in a +subfossil state in a fen in Lincolnshire, named by Sir R. Owen +<i>Phocæna crassidens</i>. Animals of apparently the same species were +afterwards met with in small herds on the Danish coast, and fully +described by Reinhardt. Others subsequently received from Tasmania +were supposed at first to indicate a different species, but +comparison of a larger series of specimens from these extremely +distant localities fails to establish any characteristic difference, and +indicates an immense range of distribution for a species apparently +so rare. The length of this Cetacean is about 14 feet, and +its colour entirely black.</p> + +<p><i>Globicephalus.</i><a id="FNanchor_164" href="#Footnote_164" class="fnanchor">[164]</a>—Teeth ⁸⁻¹²⁄₈₋₁₂, confined to the anterior half of the +rostrum and corresponding part of the mandible, small, conical, +curved, sharp-pointed when unworn, sometimes deciduous in old<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_269"></a>[269]</span> +age. Skull broad and depressed. Rostrum and cranial portion +about equal in length. Upper surface of rostrum broad and flat. +Premaxillæ strongly concave in front of the nares, as wide at the +middle of the rostrum as at the base, or wider, and very nearly or +completely concealing the maxillæ in the anterior half of this +region. Pterygoids of normal form, meeting, or very nearly so, +in the middle line. Vertebræ: C 7, D 11, L 12-14, C 28-29; +total 58 or 59. Bodies of the anterior five or six cervical vertebræ +united. Length of the bodies of the lumbar and anterior caudal +vertebræ about equal to their width. Pectoral limb very long and +narrow, the second digit the longest, and having as many as 12 +or 13 phalanges, the third shorter (with 9 phalanges), the first, +fourth, and fifth very short. Fore part of the head very round, in +consequence of the great development of a cushion of fat, placed +on the rostrum of the skull in front of the blowhole. Dorsal fin +low and triangular, the length of its base considerably exceeding its +vertical height.</p> + +<p>The type of this well-marked genus is <i>G. melas</i>, the Pilot +Whale, Ca’ing Whale, or Grindhval of the Faroe islanders, which +attains the length of 20 feet, and is of nearly uniform black colour, +except the middle of the under surface, which is lighter. These +animals are extremely gregarious, and, unlike the Killers, are mild +and inoffensive in disposition, feeding principally on cephalopods. +Their eminently sociable character constantly leads to their destruction, +since when attacked they instinctively rush together and +blindly follow the leaders of the herd. When they are seen in +the neighbourhood of land, the fishermen endeavour to get to seaward +of them in their boats, and with shouting and firing of guns +to drive them into a bay or fjord, pursuing them until they run +themselves on shore in their alarm. In this way many hundreds +at a time are frequently driven ashore +and killed, when a herd enters one of +the bays or fjords of the Faroe Islands +or north of Scotland. Animals of this +well-marked genus are found in nearly +all seas, and their specific distinctions +are not yet made out. Specimens from +the Australian coasts, where they are +generally called “Black-fish,” are quite +indistinguishable, either by external or +osteological characters, from those of the +North Atlantic.</p> + +<figure class="figleft illowp100" id="figure096" style="max-width: 15.625em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure096.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 96.</span>—The left periotic bone +of <i>Globicephalus uncidens</i>; from the +Suffolk Crag. Natural size. The +grooved surface on the right is the +anterior facet for articulation with +the tympanic; the posterior tympanic +articulation being on the opposite +side of the figure. (From the +<i>Cat. Foss. Mamm. Brit. Mus.</i> pt. v.)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>Teeth, periotic (<a href="#figure096">Fig. 96</a>) and tympanic +bones from the Suffolk Crag, +described as <i>G. uncidens</i>, indicate a form +apparently closely allied to the existing<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_270"></a>[270]</span> +species. The periotic is figured in order to illustrate the distinctive +characters of that bone in the <i>Delphinidæ</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Grampus.</i><a id="FNanchor_165" href="#Footnote_165" class="fnanchor">[165]</a>—Teeth none in the upper jaw; in the mandible few +(3 to 7 on each side), and confined to the region of the symphysis. +Vertebræ: C 7, D 12, L 19, C 30; total 68. General external +characters much as in <i>Globicephalus</i>, but the fore part of the head +less rounded, and the pectoral fin less elongated.</p> + +<p>But one species, <i>G. griseus</i>, is certainly known, about 13 feet +long, and remarkable for its great variability of colour. It has +been found, though rarely, in the North Atlantic and Mediterranean. +A skull from the Cape of Good Hope, which differs slightly from +that of the above, has been described under the name of <i>G. richardsoni</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Feresia.</i><a id="FNanchor_166" href="#Footnote_166" class="fnanchor">[166]</a>—This genus, known at present only by two skulls, +may be provisionally placed here. These appear to indicate a form +connecting <i>Globicephalus</i>, <i>Grampus</i>, and <i>Lagenorhynchus</i>. From the +latter they differ chiefly in the smaller number (about ¹²⁄₁₂) and much +larger size (6-7 mm. in diameter at base of crown) of the teeth.</p> + +<p><i>Lagenorhynchus.</i><a id="FNanchor_167" href="#Footnote_167" class="fnanchor">[167]</a>—Rostrum scarcely exceeding the length of the +cranium, broad at the base and gradually tapering towards the +apex, depressed. Pterygoids normal, meeting in the middle line. +Teeth small (not exceeding 4 mm. in diameter), ²³⁄₂₃ to ³³⁄₃₃. Vertebræ +very numerous, 80 to 90. Spines and transverse processes of the +lumbar vertebræ very long and slender; centra short. Externally, +head with a short but not very distinct beak. Two species, +<i>L. albirostris</i> and <i>L. acutus</i>, are occasionally captured on the British +coasts. Other species occur elsewhere.</p> + +<p><i>Group B.</i>—Head with distinctly elongated rostrum, or beak, +generally marked off from the prenarial adipose elevation by a V-shaped +groove. Rostrum of skull considerably longer than the +cranial portion. Atlas and axis firmly united; all the other cervical +vertebræ free.</p> + +<p>If we add to it the above-mentioned genus, <i>Lagenorhynchus</i>, this +group will include all the true Dolphins, Bottle-noses, or, as they +are more commonly called by seafaring people, “Porpoises,” which +are found in considerable abundance in all seas, some species being +habitually inhabitants of large rivers, as the Amazon. They are all +among the smaller members of the order, none exceeding 10 feet in +length. Their food is chiefly fish, for the capture of which their +long narrow beaks, armed with numerous sharp-pointed teeth, are +well adapted, but some appear also to devour crustaceans and +molluscs. They are mostly gregarious, and the agility and grace +of their movements in the water are constant themes<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_271"></a>[271]</span> of admiration +to the spectators of the scene when a “school of Porpoises” is +observed playing round the bows of a vessel at sea.</p> + +<p><i>Delphinus.</i><a id="FNanchor_168" href="#Footnote_168" class="fnanchor">[168]</a>—Teeth very numerous in both jaws, ⁴⁰⁄₄₀ to ⁶⁰⁄₆₀, +occupying nearly the whole length of the rostrum, small, close-set, +conical, pointed, slightly curved. Rostrum elongated, usually about +double the length of the cranial portion of the skull. Pterygoids of +normal form, meeting in the middle line throughout their length. +Palate with deep lateral grooves. Vertebræ 73 to 75. Pectoral fin +of moderate size, narrow, pointed, somewhat falcate. Second and +third digits well developed; the rest rudimental.</p> + +<p>The type of the genus is the Common Dolphin of the Mediterranean +(<i>D. delphis</i>, <a href="#figure097">Fig. 97</a>), also found in the Atlantic, and of +which a closely allied if not identical form is met with in the +Australian seas (<i>D. forsteri</i>) and in the North Pacific (<i>D. bairdi</i>). +Other species are <i>D. janira</i>, <i>D. major</i>, etc.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure097" style="max-width: 34.375em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure097.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 97.</span>—The Common Dolphin (<i>Delphinus delphis</i>). From Reinhardt.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Tursiops.</i><a id="FNanchor_169" href="#Footnote_169" class="fnanchor">[169]</a>—Rostrum tapering moderately from base to apex; +palate not grooved; symphysis of mandible short; other cranial +characters as in <i>Delphinus</i>. Teeth ²¹⁄₂₁ to ²⁵⁄₂₅, stout (6 to 7 mm. in +antero-posterior diameter). Vertebræ: C 7, D 13, L 17, C 27; total +64. Limbs as in <i>Delphinus</i>. Represented by the widely distributed +<i>T. tursio</i>; <i>T. catalania</i> being a second form. Fossil remains of this +genus from the Italian Pliocene have been recently described.</p> + +<p><i>Prodelphinus.</i><a id="FNanchor_170" href="#Footnote_170" class="fnanchor">[170]</a>—Rostrum somewhat variable; mandibular symphysis +short (less than one-fifth the length of the ramus); other +cranial characters as in the preceding genus. Teeth ³⁰⁄₃₀ to ⁵⁰⁄₅₀, +small, not exceeding 3 mm. in diameter. Vertebræ 73 to 78. +Limbs as in <i>Delphinus</i>. Four leading types of this genus are +recognised (all of which have numerous synonyms) viz. <i>P. obscurus</i>, +<i>P. euphrosyne</i>, <i>P. doris</i>, and <i>P. longirostris</i>.</p> + +<p>Péron’s Dolphin (<i>Delphinus leucorhamphus</i>, Péron, or <i>Leucorhamphus +peroni</i>, Lilljeborg) resembles some forms of <i>Prodelphinus</i> in +its cranial characters; but having no dorsal fin, it has been separated +generically by some writers. It is not improbable that <i>Delphinus +borealis</i>, Peale, from the North Pacific, in which there is likewise no +dorsal fin, may be an allied form.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_272"></a>[272]</span></p> + +<p><i>Steno.</i><a id="FNanchor_171" href="#Footnote_171" class="fnanchor">[171]</a>—Rostrum long, narrow, and compressed, very distinct +from the cranium; mandibular symphysis as long as, or longer than +one-fourth the length of the ramus; other cranial characters as in +the preceding genus. Teeth ²¹⁄₂₁ to ²⁵⁄₂₅, of comparatively large size +(5-6 mm. in diameter); surface of their crowns finely grooved. +Vertebræ: C 7, D 12, L 15, C 32; total 66. Represented by +<i>S. rostratus</i>, from which the forms which have received other names +are probably not specifically separable.</p> + +<p><i>Sotalia.</i><a id="FNanchor_172" href="#Footnote_172" class="fnanchor">[172]</a>—Pterygoids narrow, not meeting in the middle line, +and in their inner borders diverging posteriorly, instead of being +parallel as in the preceding genera; other cranial characters much +as in <i>Steno</i>. Teeth tolerably large (4-5 mm. in diameter), ³⁰⁄₃₀ to ³⁵⁄₃₅, +with smooth enamelled surface. Vertebræ: C 7, D 12, L 10-14, +C 22; total 51-55. Pectoral fin broad at base, the breadth being +caused by the considerable development and position of the two +outer digits. Six species are provisionally recognised as distinct, +including the Chinese White Dolphin (<i>S. sinensis</i>) and <i>S. pallidus</i> +from the river Amazon.</p> + +<div class="bibliography"> + +<p><i>Bibliography of Cetacea.</i>—D. F. Eschricht, <i>Untersuchungen über die Nordischen +Wallthiere</i>, 1849, contains a copious bibliography of the group up to the date of +publication. Since that time numerous monographs on special families and +genera have been published, and a large illustrated general work, <i>Ostéographie des +Cétacés</i>, by P. J. Van Beneden and P. Gervais, 1869-80. Besides those already +referred to in the footnotes, the following may be mentioned; viz. J. F. Brandt, +“Untersuchungen über die Fossilen und Subfossilen Cetaceen Europa’s,” in +<i>Mém. de l’Acad. Imp. de St. Pétersbourg</i>, 7ⁱᵉᵐᵉ sér. vol. xx. 1873; C. M. Scammon, +<i>Marine Mammals of the N. W. Coast of North America</i>, 1874; W. H. Flower, +“On the characters and Divisions of the Families of the <i>Delphinidæ</i>,” <i>Proc. Zool. +Soc.</i> 1883, p. 466, and <i>List of the Specimens of Cetacea in the British Museum</i>, +1885; F. W. True, “Review of the Family Delphinidæ,” <i>Bull. U.S. Nat. Museum</i>, +No. 36, 1889; P. J. Van Beneden, <i>Histoire Naturelle des Cétacés des Mers +d’Europe</i>, 1889.</p> + +<p>For fossil forms, in addition to the works of Van Beneden, Gervais, and Brandt, +already cited, the reader may refer to various memoirs published by the former +writer in the <i>Bull. Ac. R. Belgique</i> and <i>Ann. Mus. R. Hist. Nat. Belg.</i> +See also R. Lydekker, “The Cetacea of the Suffolk Crag,” <i>Quart. Journ. Geol. +Soc.</i> vol. xlii. p. 7 (1887), and <i>Catalogue of the Fossil Mammalia in the British +Museum</i>, pt. v. (1887).</p> + +</div> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_273"></a>[273]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX<br> +<span class="smaller">THE ORDER UNGULATA</span></h2> + +</div> + +<p>Under this term may be included provisionally a large and rather +heterogeneous group of mammals, the existing members of which +form the Pecora and Belluæ of Linnæus, the Ruminantia and +Pachydermata of Cuvier. A few years ago it was found convenient +to restrict the order to a well-marked and distinctly circumscribed +group, comprising the two sections known as Perissodactyla and +Artiodactyla, and to leave out such isolated forms as the Elephant +and Hyrax; but the discovery of a vast number of extinct species, +which could not be brought under the definition of either perissodactyle +or artiodactyle Ungulates, and yet are evidently allied to +both, and to a certain extent bridge over the interval between +these and the isolated groups just mentioned, makes it necessary +either to introduce a number of new and ill-defined ordinal +divisions, or to widen the scope of the original order so as to +embrace them all.</p> + +<p>The existing forms are all animals eminently adapted for a +terrestrial life, and in the main for a vegetable diet. Though a +few are more or less omnivorous, and may under some circumstances +kill living creatures smaller and weaker than themselves for food, +none are distinctly and habitually predaceous. Their teeth are +markedly heterodont and diphyodont,—the milk set being well +developed and not completely changed until the animal attains its +full stature. The molars have broad crowns with tuberculated or +ridged surfaces. There are no clavicles.<a id="FNanchor_173" href="#Footnote_173" class="fnanchor">[173]</a> Their toes are provided +with blunt, broad nails, or in the majority of cases with hoofs, more +or less enclosing the ungual phalanges. The scaphoid and lunar +bones of the carpus are always distinct. The humerus<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_274"></a>[274]</span> has no +entepicondylar foramen. The number of digits varies from five to +one; and the radius and ulna may be united together.</p> + +<p>The more generalised of the fossil forms do not conform in all +respects to the above-mentioned characters; clavicles being present +in <i>Typotherium</i>, and perhaps in some of the Condylarthra, while in +the latter group the humerus may have an entepicondylar foramen, +and thus approximate to the corresponding bone of the Carnivora. +Wide as is the gap between existing Carnivores and Ungulates, there +are indeed more or less strongly marked evidences of affinity +between the earlier members of the two orders, as will be again +noticed under the head of the suborder Condylarthra. A departure +from the normal type of foot-structure is exhibited by the extinct +<i>Macrotherium</i>, provisionally included in the Perissodactyla, where +the digits terminated in long and curved claws.</p> + +<p>As a general rule, the cheek-teeth have distinct roots, and in +those of the existing suborders a gradual increase in the height of +the crowns of these teeth may be noticed in passing from the more +generalised to the more specialised types. Those teeth in which +the crowns are low, and their whole structure visible from the +grinding surface, are termed <i>brachydont</i> (<a href="#figure122">Fig. 122</a>); while those with +higher crowns, in which the bases of the infoldings of enamel are +invisible from the grinding surface, are known as <i>hypsodont</i> (<a href="#figure123">Fig. 123</a>). +Again, when the tubercles on the crowns of the molars are more or +less cone-like in form the tooth +is said to be <i>bunodont</i>; but when +they are expanded in an antero-posterior +direction and curved into +a crescent shape the tooth is +described as <i>selenodont</i>.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp52" id="figure098" style="max-width: 21.875em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure098.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 98.</span>—Right fore foot of Indian Elephant. +× ⅛. U, ulna; R, radius; <i>c</i>, cuneiform; +<i>l</i>, lunar; <i>sc</i>, scaphoid; <i>u</i>, unciform; +<i>m</i>, magnum; <i>td</i>, trapezoid; <i>tm</i>, trapezium; +I to V, first to fifth digit.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The whole order may be +divided into the Ungulata Vera, +containing the suborders Perissodactyla +and Artiodactyla, and a +somewhat heterogeneous assemblage +of animals which may be +called Subungulata or Ungulata +Polydactyla. Cope has pointed +out a character in the structure +of the carpus by which the latter +are differentiated from the former. +Thus in all the Subungulata the +bones of the proximal and distal +row retain the primitive or more +typical relation to each other (see +<a href="#figure098">Fig. 98</a>); the os magnum of the +second row articulating mainly<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_275"></a>[275]</span> +with the lunar of the first, or +with the cuneiform, but not with the scaphoid. But in the group to +which the vast majority of modern Ungulates belong the second or +distal row has been shifted altogether towards the inner side of the +limb (see <a href="#figure099">Fig. 99</a>), so that the magnum is brought considerably +into relation with the scaphoid, and is entirely removed from the +cuneiform, as in the great majority of existing mammals.</p> + +<p>It will be on the whole more convenient to commence our +survey of the members of this suborder with the more specialised +group of the Ungulata Vera, in which the Artiodactyla will be +taken first.</p> + +<h3><span class="smcap">Ungulata Vera.</span><a id="FNanchor_174" href="#Footnote_174" class="fnanchor">[174]</a></h3> + +<p>In the typical Ungulata the feet are never plantigrade, and the +functional toes do not exceed four—the inner digit being suppressed, +at all events in all forms which have existed since the Upper +Eocene period.<a id="FNanchor_175" href="#Footnote_175" class="fnanchor">[175]</a> The os magnum of the carpus articulates freely +with the scaphoid. The allantois is largely developed, and the +placenta, so far as is known, is non-deciduate; the chorionic villi +being either evenly diffused or collected in groups or cotyledons (in +Pecora). The testes descend into a scrotum. There is never an os +penis. The uterus is bicornuate. The mammæ are usually few +and inguinal, or may be numerous and abdominal (as in Suina), but +are never solely pectoral. The cerebral hemispheres in existing +Ungulates are well convoluted.</p> + +<p>The group is now, and has been throughout almost the whole +of the Tertiary period, composed of two perfectly distinct sections, +differing from each other, not only in the obvious characters of the +structure of the limbs, but in so many other parts of their organisation +that they must be considered as of the rank at least of +suborders. The characters of these divisions, first indicated by +Cuvier, were thoroughly established by Owen, by whom the names +whereby they are now generally known were proposed.</p> + +<h4><i>Suborder</i> <span class="smcap">Artiodactyla</span>.</h4> + +<p>This is a well-defined group, traceable from the Eocene period, +though then apparently by no means so numerous as the Perissodactyles. +Some of its types, as that represented in the existing +Swine, have retained to the present time much of the primitive +character of the group; but others have been gradually becoming +more specialised and perfected in structure, and its latest modification, +the Cavicorn Ruminants or <i>Bovidæ</i> (Antelopes, Sheep, and +Oxen), are now the dominating members of the great Ungulate<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_276"></a>[276]</span> +order, widespread in geographical range, rich in generic and specific +variation, and numerous in individuals—forming in all these +respects a great contrast to such decadent types as those represented +by the Tapirs and Rhinoceroses.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp68" id="figure099" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure099.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 99.</span>—Bones of right fore foot of existing Artiodactyles. A, Pig (<i>Sus scrofa</i>), × ⅓; B, +Red Deer (<i>Cervus elaphus</i>), × ⅐; C, Camel (<i>Camelus bactrianus</i>), × ⅛. <i>U</i>, Ulna; <i>R</i>, radius; <i>c</i>, +cuneiform; <i>l</i>, lunar; <i>s</i>, scaphoid; <i>u</i>, unciform; <i>m</i>, magnum; <i>td</i>, trapezoid; <i>tm</i>, trapezium. +From Flower’s <i>Osteology of Mammalia</i>.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The principal anatomical characters by which the Artiodactyles +are distinguished from the Perissodactyles are as follows. The +premolar and molar teeth usually not alike, the former being +single and the latter two-lobed. The last lower molar of both first +and second dentition almost invariably three-lobed; and the first +tooth of the upper cheek series always without a milk-predecessor. +Nasal bones not expanded posteriorly. No alisphenoid canal. +Dorsal and lumbar vertebræ together always nineteen, though the +former may vary from twelve to fifteen. Femur without third +trochanter. Third and fourth digits of both feet almost equally +developed, and their ungual phalanges flattened on their inner or +contiguous surfaces, so that each is not symmetrical in itself, but +when the two are placed together they form a figure symmetrically +disposed to a line drawn between them. Or, in other words, the +axis or median line of the whole foot is a line drawn between the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_277"></a>[277]</span> +third and fourth digits, while in the Perissodactyles it is a line +drawn down the centre of the third digit. Distal articular surface +of the astragalus divided into two nearly equal facets, one for the +navicular and the other for the cuboid bone. The calcaneum with +an articular facet for the lower end of the fibula. Stomach almost +always more or less complex. Colon convoluted. Cæcum small. +Placenta diffused or cotyledonary. Mammæ few and inguinal, or +numerous and abdominal.</p> + +<p>In treating of many sections of mammals, it is only from the +existing species that our characters and classification can be derived, +and to these chiefly our observations upon the group must be +directed, many of the extinct forms being so little known that they +can only be referred to incidentally. With the Ungulata, however, +it is quite otherwise. The history of the Artiodactyla throughout +the Tertiary period is now well known, and throws great light upon +the position and relations of the existing groups.</p> + +<p>The principal modifications which have taken place in the type +from its earliest known and most generalised manifestation have +been the following:—</p> + +<p>1. As regards the teeth. Assumption by the grinding surfaces +of the molar teeth either of a bunodont or of a selenodont form. +Modification of the latter from a brachydont to a hypsodont type. +Loss of upper incisors. Development of canines into projecting +tusks. Loss of anterior premolars.</p> + +<p>2. As regards the limbs. Reduction of the ulna from a complete +and distinct bone to a comparatively rudimentary state, in which it +coalesces more or less firmly with the radius. Reduction of the +fibula till nothing but its lower extremity remains. Reduction +and final loss of external pair of digits (second and fifth), with coalescence +of the metapodial bones of the two middle digits. Union +of the navicular and cuboid, and sometimes the ectocuneiform, +bones of the tarsus.</p> + +<p>3. Change of form of the odontoid process of the axis vertebra +from a cone to a hollow half-cylinder.</p> + +<p>4. Development of horns or antlers on the frontal bones, and +gradual complication of form of antlers.</p> + +<p>5. By inference only, increasing complication of stomach with +ruminating function superadded. Modification of placenta from +simple diffused to cotyledonary form.</p> + +<p>The primitive Artiodactyles, with the typical number (44) of +incisor, canine, and molar teeth, brachydont molars, conical odontoid +process, four distinct toes on each foot, with metapodium and +all carpal bones distinct, no frontal appendages, and (in all probability) +simple stomach and diffused placenta, were separated at a +very early period into Bunodonts and Selenodonts, although there +is evidence of intermediate forms showing a complete transition<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_278"></a>[278]</span> +from the one modification to the other. These and other fossil +forms so completely connect the four groups—Suina, Tylopoda, +Tragulina, and Pecora—into which the existing members of the +suborder have become divided, that in a general classification +embracing both living and extinct forms these divisions cannot be +maintained. In the present work, however, it will be convenient +to retain them, mention being made of some of the chief annectant +forms in separate sections.</p> + +<h5><span class="smcap">Suina.</span></h5> + +<p>The existing members of this group are characterised by their +bunodont molars, and the absence of a complete fusion of the third +and fourth metapodials to form a “cannon-bone.” The full +Eutherian dentition is very frequently present.</p> + +<p>Remains of very generalised swine-like animals have been +abundantly found in Tertiary formations both in America and +Europe. In the former continent they never (so far as present +evidence indicates) underwent any great diversity of modification, +but gradually dwindled away and almost died out, being only represented +in the actual fauna by the two closely allied species of +Peccary, among the smallest and most insignificant members of the +group, which have existed almost unchanged since the Miocene age +at least, if the evidence of teeth alone can be trusted. In the Old +World, on the other hand, the swine have played a more important +part in recent times, having become widely distributed, and throwing +off some curiously specialised forms. At the present time, though +not very numerous in species, they range through the greater part +of the Old World, except within or near the Arctic Circle, although, +in common with all the other members of the great Ungulate order, +they were completely absent from the whole of the Australian region, +until introduced by man in very recent times.</p> + +<p>The existing swine-like animals may be divided naturally into +three families:—I. <i>Hippopotamidæ</i>; II. <i>Suidæ</i>, or true Pigs; III. +<i>Dicotylidæ</i>, or Peccaries.<a id="FNanchor_176" href="#Footnote_176" class="fnanchor">[176]</a></p> + +<h5><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Hippopotamidæ</span>.</h5> + +<figure class="figleft illowp90" id="figure100" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure100.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 100.</span>—Grinding surface of a worn molar +of <i>Hippopotamus amphibius</i>. (From Owen.)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>Muzzle very broad and rounded. Feet short and broad, having +four subequal toes, with short rounded hoofs, all reaching +the ground in walking. Incisors not rooted, but continuously +growing; those of the upper jaw curved and directed downwards; +those of the lower straight and procumbent. Canines very large, +curved, continuously growing; those of the upper jaw directed +downwards. Stomach complex. No cæcum.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_279"></a>[279]</span></p> + +<p><i>Hippopotamus.</i><a id="FNanchor_177" href="#Footnote_177" class="fnanchor">[177]</a>—This genus may be taken to include all the +known members of the family; it appears to have been always +confined to the Old World. The dentition may be expressed by the +formula <i>i</i> ²⁻³⁄₁₋₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₄, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃. The crowns of the molars (<a href="#figure100">Fig. 100</a>) +when worn present trefoil-shaped surfaces of dentine; and those of +the premolars are sharp. The +facial portion of the skull is much +elongated, the orbits are tubular +and very prominent, and the mandible +has a large rounded descending +flange at its angle. The ears +are small, the tail is short, and the +legs are likewise so short that the +belly is raised but a little distance +above the ground. The brain is +not richly convoluted, and differs +very considerably from that of +the Pigs, approximating in some +respects to that of the Camel and +Giraffe, but on the whole standing very much by itself. The +stomach of the common species is of enormous dimensions, having +an axial length of 11 feet, and measuring upwards of 15 feet along +the greater curvature. Its axis is longitudinal, the pylorus being +situated almost in the pelvis, and it is divided into three distinct +compartments, of which the third is cylindrical. The liver<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_280"></a>[280]</span> of the +adult is of extremely simple form, elongated transversely, and narrow +from above downwards. With the exception of a few tufts of +hair on the lips, on the sides of the head and neck, and at the +extremity of the short compressed tail, the skin of the hippopotamus, +some portions of which are two inches in thickness, is entirely destitute +of covering.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure101" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure101.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 101.</span>—The Hippopotamus (<i>Hippopotamus amphibius</i>).</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The common Hippopotamus (<i>H. amphibius</i>), widely distributed +in the rivers and lakes of the African continent, is a huge bulky +animal, characterised by having only two incisors on either side +of each jaw; the central lower pair being very much larger than the +outer ones. A male from the Upper Nile which lived for nearly +thirty years in the gardens of the Zoological Society of London +measured 12 feet along the back from the nose to the root of the tail.</p> + +<p>The Hippopotamus lives in herds of from twenty to forty +individuals on the banks and in the beds of rivers, in the neighbourhood +of which it finds its food. This consists chiefly of grass and +aquatic plants, of which it consumes enormous quantities, the +stomach being capable of containing from 5 to 6 bushels. These +animals feed principally by night, remaining in the water during the +day, although in districts where they are undisturbed by man they +are less exclusively aquatic. In such regions they put their heads +boldly out of the water to blow, but when rendered suspicious by +persecution, they become exceedingly cautious, only exposing their +eyes and nostrils above the water, and even this they prefer +doing amid the shelter of water plants. In spite of their enormous +size and uncouth form, they are expert swimmers and divers, and +can remain under the water from five to eight minutes. They +are said to walk with considerable rapidity on the bottoms of +rivers, beneath at least a foot of water. At nightfall they come +on land to feed; and when, as often happens on the banks of +the Nile, they reach cultivated ground, they do immense damage +to growing crops, destroying by their ponderous tread even more +than they devour.</p> + +<p>A much smaller species, known as the Pigmy Hippopotamus +(<i>H. liberiensis</i>), inhabits some of the rivers of Western Africa, and +is characterised by having only a single pair of lower incisors. +Mainly on this account, it has been proposed to regard this species +as representing a distinct genus, under the name of <i>Chœropsis</i>; but +since it agrees so essentially in other characters with the common +form, and sometimes has two incisors on one side of the lower +jaw, it appears preferable to include it in the type genus. The +greater relative size of the brain-cavity as compared with the facial +portion of the skull renders, indeed, the contour of the skull +decidedly different from that of <i>H. amphibius</i>, but this is a feature +generally found in young individuals of larger species, and also in +the adults of allied smaller forms.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_281"></a>[281]</span></p> + +<p>Both the existing species are now exclusively confined to Africa, +but in the Pleistocene and Pliocene periods the genus was widely +spread over the Old World. Thus in the Upper Pliocene of the +Continent and the Pleistocene of England we meet with remains of +a very large fossil Hippopotamus which cannot be specifically +distinguished from <i>H. amphibius</i>. In the Pleistocene and Pliocene of +India there are two species having three pairs of incisors in both +jaws. Of these <i>H. palæindicus</i> has the second pair in the lower jaw +very minute, and evidently just about to disappear; from which we +learn that it is this pair which is missing in <i>H. amphibius</i>. In the +still more generalised <i>H. sivalensis</i> the three incisors in the +lower jaw are of equal size. Hexaprotodont species also occur +in the Upper Tertiaries of Burma and Algeria. Small tetraprotodont +species (<i>H. pentlandi</i> and <i>H. minutus</i>) have left their +remains in enormous quantities in the caves and fissures of Sicily +and Malta.</p> + +<h5><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Suidæ</span>.</h5> + +<p>An elongated mobile snout, with an expanded, truncated, nearly +naked, flat, oval terminal surface in which the nostrils are placed. +Feet narrow; four completely developed toes on each. Hoofs of +the two middle toes with their contiguous surfaces flattened. The +outer (second and fifth) digits of existing forms not reaching to +the ground in the ordinary walking position. Teeth variable in +number, owing to the suppression in some forms of an upper incisor +and one or more premolars. Incisors rooted. Upper canines +curving more or less outwards or upwards. Stomach simple, +except for a more or less developed pouch near the cardiac orifice. +A cæcum. Colon spirally coiled. Confined to the Old World.</p> + +<p>The mandible has no descending flange at the angle. The +crowns of the molars do not wear into such distinct trefoils as in +the Hippopotamus, and are oblong +in shape. The last molar of both +the upper and lower jaw (<a href="#figure102">Fig. 102</a>) +has an additional hinder lobe or +talon, varying in size in the different +species. The upper premolars are +simpler than the true molars.</p> + +<figure class="figright illowp100" id="figure102" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure102.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 102.</span>—Grinding surface of a worn +third right lower molar of the Wild Boar +(<i>Sus scrofa</i>). After Owen.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Sus.</i><a id="FNanchor_178" href="#Footnote_178" class="fnanchor">[178]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₄, <i>m</i> +³⁄₃; total 44. Upper incisors diminishing +rapidly in size from the first to the third. Lower incisors +long, narrow, closely approximated, and almost horizontal in position, +their apices inclining towards the middle line; the second slightly +larger than the first, the third much smaller. Canines strongly<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_282"></a>[282]</span> +developed and with persistent roots and partial enamel-covering, +those of the upper jaw not having the usual downward direction, +but curving strongly outwards, upwards, and finally inwards, while +those of the lower jaw are directed upwards and outwards with +a gentle backward curve, their hinder edges working and wearing +against the front edges of the upper canines<a id="FNanchor_179" href="#Footnote_179" class="fnanchor">[179]</a>. They appear +externally to the mouth as tusks, the form of the upper lip being +modified to allow of their protrusion, but are much less developed +in the females than in the males. The teeth of the molar series +gradually increase in size and complexity from first to last, and +are arranged in contiguous series, except that the first lower +premolar is separated by an interval from the second. First and +second upper premolars with compressed crowns and two roots. +The third and fourth have an inner lobe developed on the crown, +and an additional pair of roots. The first and second true molars +have quadrate crowns, with four principal obtuse conical cusps, +around which numerous accessory cusps are clustered. The length +of the third molar is nearly equal (antero-posteriorly) to that of +the first and second together, its crown having, in addition to the +four principal cusps, a large posterior talon or heel, composed of +numerous clustered conical cusps, and supported by several additional +roots. The lower molar teeth resemble generally those of the upper +jaw, but are narrower. Milk dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 28,—the +first permanent premolar having no predecessor in this series. +The third incisor, in both upper and lower jaws, is large, developed +before the others, and has much the size, form, and direction of +the canine. Vertebræ: C 7, D 13-14, L 6, S 4, C 20-24. The hairy +covering of the body varies much under different conditions of +climate, but when best developed, as in the European Wild Boar, +consists of long stiff bristles, mostly abundant on the back and +sides, and of a close softer curling undercoat.</p> + +<p>The skull of the Pigs (<a href="#figure103">Figs. 103-105</a>) has the axis of the face +bent down upon the basicranial axis, as is also the case with the +Sheep. Its most striking feature is the elevation and backward +slope of the occipital crest formed by the union of the supraoccipital +and parietals. The broad and flat frontals have small postorbital +processes, which do not join the zygomata, so that the orbits are +open behind. The nasals are very long and narrow; and the premaxillæ +send up long nasal processes, stopping short of the frontals. +A peculiar prenasal bone is developed at the anterior extremity <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_283"></a>[283]</span>of +the mesethmoid, which serves to strengthen the cartilaginous snout. +The palate is long and narrow, and extends behind the last molar +tooth. In most species the occipital crest is more nearly vertical +than in the skull represented in <a href="#figure104">Fig. 104</a>.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp88" id="figure103" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure103.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 103.</span>—Left lateral view of the dentition of the Boar (<i>Sus scrofa</i>), +the roots of the teeth being exposed by removing the external lamina +of bone.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure104" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure104.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 104.</span>—Left lateral view of the skull of <i>Sus longirostris</i>. ⅕ natural size. (From Nehring.)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<figure class="figright illowp25" id="figure105" style="max-width: 12.5em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure105.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 105.</span>—Frontal aspect of +the cranium of <i>Sus longirostris</i>, +⅕ natural size. (From Nehring.)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>This genus occurs at present under three principal modifications +or subgenera.</p> + +<p><i>A.</i>—<i>Sus</i> proper comprises a number of animals +found in a wild state throughout the greater part +of Europe (except where exterminated +by human agency), the north +of Africa, southern continental +Asia, and the +great islands of +the Malayan +archipelago, +Formosa, and +Japan. The following +among +others have +been admitted +by many zoologists +as distinct +species:—<i>Sus +scrofa</i>, +the Wild Boar +of Europe, Asia +Minor, and North Africa, once common throughout the British +Isles; <i>S. sennaarensis</i>, North-East Africa; <i>S. cristatus</i>, India; <i>S. +vittatus</i>, Java, Borneo, Amboyna, Batchian; <i>S. papuensis</i>, New<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_284"></a>[284]</span> +Guinea; <i>S. timorensis</i>, Timor and Rotti; <i>S. andamanensis</i>, Andaman +Islands; <i>S. taëvanus</i>, Formosa; <i>S. leucomystax</i>, Japan; <i>S. +verrucosus</i>, Java, Borneo, Ceram; <i>S. barbatus</i>, Borneo; <i>S. celebensis</i>, +Celebes, Philippines, and Moluccas; <i>S. longirostris</i>, Borneo and +Java. The last four species form an allied group in which the +facial portion of the skull may be greatly +elongated; <i>S. barbatus</i>, and <i>S. celebensis</i> +being characterised by the small size and +simple structure of the talon of the third +molars. The skull of <i>S. longirostris</i> is +shown in <a href="#figure104">Figs. 104 and 105</a>. The small +<i>S. andamanensis</i> also has very simple third +molars. <i>S. vittatus</i>, <i>S. leucomystax</i>, <i>S. cristatus</i>, +<i>S. taëvanus</i>, and <i>S. papuensis</i> form +another group, in which the third molar +is generally of very complex structure, +more or less closely allied to the Wild +Boar; and Dr. Nehring is inclined to +think that the whole five might be included +under a single specific name. This +list will give some idea of the geographical +distribution of wild Pigs, but it must be +borne in mind that through the whole of +this region, and in fact now throughout +the greater part of the habitable world, +Pigs are kept by man in a domesticated +state, and it is still an open question +whether some of the wild Pigs of the +islands named above may not be local +races derived originally from, or crossed +with, imported domestic specimens. In +New Zealand a wild or rather “feral” +race is already established, the origin of +which is of course quite recent, since it is +well ascertained that no animal of the +kind ever lived upon the island until +after its settlement by Europeans. +Whether the various breeds of domestic Pigs have been derived +from one or several sources is still unknown. As in so many +similar cases, there is no historic evidence upon the subject, +and the researches of naturalists, as Nathusius, Rütimeyer, +Rolleston, Nehring, and others, who have endeavoured to settle +the question on anatomical evidence, have not led to any satisfactory +conclusions. It is, however, tolerably certain that all +the species or forms of wild Pigs enumerated above and all the +domestic races are closely allied, and it is probable (though <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_285"></a>[285]</span>of +this there has been no opportunity of proof) will breed freely +together. It is a curious circumstance that the young of all +the wild kinds of Pigs (so far as yet is known) present a +uniform coloration, being dark brown with longitudinal stripes of +a paler colour, a character which completely disappears after the +first few months. On the other hand, this peculiar marking is +rarely seen in domestic Pigs in any part of the world, although it +has been occasionally observed. It is stated by Darwin that the +Pigs which have run wild in Jamaica and the semiferal Pigs of New +Granada have resumed this aboriginal character, and produce longitudinally +striped young; these must of course be the descendants +of domestic animals introduced from Europe since the Spanish +conquest, as before that time there were no true Pigs in the New +World. Another character by which the European domestic Pig +differs from any of the wild species is the concave outline of the +frontal region of the skull, a form still retained by the feral Pigs +in New Zealand.</p> + +<p><i>B.</i>—The diminutive Pig of the Nipal, Terai, and Bhutan, <i>Sus +salvanius</i>, has been separated from the rest by Hodgson under the +generic name of <i>Porcula</i>, but all the alleged distinctive characters +prove on more careful investigation to have little real value. Owing +to its retired habits and power of concealment under bushes and +long grass in the depths of the great Sal Forest, which is its +principal home, very little has been known of this curious little<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_286"></a>[286]</span> +animal, scarcely larger than a hare. The acquisition of living +specimens in the London Zoological Gardens has, however, afforded +opportunities for careful anatomical observation.<a id="FNanchor_180" href="#Footnote_180" class="fnanchor">[180]</a></p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp90" id="figure106" style="max-width: 28.125em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure106.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 106.</span>—Wild Boar and Young.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>C.</i>—Two well-marked species of African Swine have been with +more reason separated under the name of <i>Potamochœrus</i>. The dentition +differs from that of the true <i>Sus</i>, inasmuch as the anterior +premolars have a tendency to disappear; sometimes in adult +specimens the first upper premolar is retained, but it is usually +absent, as well as the first and often the second lower premolars. +The molar teeth are also less complex: the last especially having a +much less developed talon. There are likewise characteristic cranial +differences. The two species are very distinct in outward appearance +and coloration. One is <i>S. africanus</i>, the South African River-Hog, +or Bosch-Vark, of a gray colour, and the other <i>S. porcus</i>, the West +African Red River-Hog (<a href="#figure107">Fig. 107</a>), remarkable for its vivid colouring +and long pencilled ears. It should be noted that the young of both +these species, as well as of the pigmy <i>S. salvanius</i>, present the striped +character of the true <i>Sus</i>, a strong indication of close affinities, +whereas in all the following forms this is absent.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp84" id="figure107" style="max-width: 28.125em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure107.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 107.</span>—The Red River-Hog (<i>Sus porcus</i>). From Sclater, <i>Guide to Animals +in Zoological Society’s Gardens</i>, 1883, p. 183.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The genus <i>Sus</i>, in the above extended sense, is well represented +in the Tertiaries of the Old World from the period of the <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_287"></a>[287]</span>Lower +Pliocene upwards. In the Pliocene and Pleistocene of India +<i>S. falconeri</i> and <i>S. karnuliensis</i> are characterised by the extremely +complex structure of the molars, in which they show decided signs +of approximation to the Wart-Hogs; the same feature being +exhibited by <i>S. phacochœroides</i> of the Algerian Pliocene. <i>S. titan</i> +and <i>S. giganteus</i>, of the Indian Pliocene, together with <i>S. antiquus</i> +and <i>S. erymanthius</i>, of the corresponding European deposits, are very +large species characterised by their comparatively simple molars; +<i>S. titan</i> being fully as large as a Tapir. <i>S. hysudricus</i> of the Pliocene +of India, and <i>S. palæochœrus</i> of that of Europe, are smaller allied +species not improbably related to <i>S. andamanensis</i>, with which they +agree in molar structure. <i>S. arvernensis</i>, of the Upper Pliocene +of France, appears to be allied to <i>S. africanus</i>; while in the +diminutive <i>S. punjabiensis</i> of the Pliocene of North-Western India +we probably have the direct ancestor of <i>S. salvanius</i>.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure108" style="max-width: 25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure108.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 108.</span>—Head of Babirusa (<i>Babirusa alfurus</i>).</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Babirusa.</i><a id="FNanchor_181" href="#Footnote_181" class="fnanchor">[181]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ²⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ²⁄₂, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 34. The total +number of teeth is therefore considerably reduced, the outer upper +incisor and the two anterior premolars of both jaws being absent. +The molars, especially the last, are smaller and simpler than in <i>Sus</i>; +but the great peculiarity of this genus is the extraordinary development +of the canines of the male. These teeth (<a href="#figure108">Fig. 108</a>) are +ever-growing, long, slender, and curved, and entirely without enamel +covering. Those of the upper jaw are directed upwards from their +base, so that they never enter the mouth, but piercing the skin of +the face, resemble horns rather than teeth, and curve backwards, +downwards, and finally often forwards again, almost or quite +touching the skin of the forehead. Vertebra: C 7, D 13, L 16, +S 4. There is but one species (<i>B. alfurus</i>), found only<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_288"></a>[288]</span> in the +islands of Celebes and Buru. Its external surface is almost +entirely devoid of hair. With regard to the curiously modified +dentition, Wallace (<i>Malay Archipelago</i>, vol. i. p. 435) makes the +following observations:—“It is difficult to understand what can +be the use of these horn-like teeth. Some of the old writers +supposed that they served as hooks by which the creature could +rest its head on a branch. But the way in which they usually +diverge just over and in front of the eye has suggested the more +probable idea, that they serve to guard these organs from thorns +and spines while hunting for fallen fruits among the tangled thickets +of rattans and other spiny plants. Even this, however, is not +satisfactory, for the female, who must seek her food in the same +way, does not possess them. I should be inclined to believe +rather that these tusks were once useful, and were then worn +down as fast as they grew, but that changed conditions of life have +rendered them unnecessary, and they now develop into a monstrous +form, just as the incisors of the Beaver and Rabbit will go on +growing if the opposite teeth do not wear them away. In old +animals they reach an enormous size, and are generally broken off +as if by fighting.”</p> + +<p><i>Phacochœrus.</i><a id="FNanchor_182" href="#Footnote_182" class="fnanchor">[182]</a>—The Wart-Hogs, so called from the large +cutaneous lobes projecting from each side of the face, have +the teeth still more remarkably modified than in <i>Babirusa</i>. +The milk-dentition, and even the early condition of the permanent +dentition, is formed on the same general type as that +of <i>Sus</i>, except that certain of the typical teeth are absent, the +formula being <i>i</i> ¹⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁄₂, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃, total 34; but as age advances all +the teeth have a tendency to disappear, except the canines and the +posterior molars, which in some cases are the only teeth left in +the jaws, and attain an extraordinary development. The upper +canines especially are of great size, and curve outwards, forwards, +and upwards. Their enamel covering is confined to the apex, and +soon wears away. The lower canines are much more slender, but +follow the same curve: except on the posterior surface, their crowns +are covered with enamel. Unlike those of the Babirusa, the canines +of the Wart-Hog are large in both sexes. The third molar tooth of +both jaws is of great size, and presents a structure at first sight +unlike that of any other mammal, being composed of numerous +(22-25) parallel cylinders or columns, each with pulp-cavity, dentine, +and enamel covering, and packed together with cement. Careful +examination will, however, show that a similar modification to that +which has transformed the comparatively simple molar tooth of +the Mastodon into the extremely complex grinder of the Indian +Elephant has served to change the tooth of the common Pig into +that of <i>Phacochœrus</i>, and, as already mentioned, some of the fossil<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_289"></a>[289]</span> +Indian and African species of <i>Sus</i> indicate the mode in which this +transition came about. The tubercles which cluster over the surface +of the crown of the molars of the common Pig are elongated and +drawn out into columns in the Wart-Hog, as the low transverse +ridges of the Mastodon’s tooth become the leaf-like plates of the +Elephant’s.</p> + +<p>Two species of this genus are commonly but rather doubtfully +distinguished:—<i>P. africanus</i>, Ælian’s Wart-Hog, widely distributed +over the continent; and <i>P. æthiopicus</i>, Pallas’s Wart-Hog, confined +to South-Eastern Africa. In specimens attributed to the latter +species the dentition reaches its most complete reduction, as in +adult animals the upper incisors are absent and the lower ones worn +down to the roots.</p> + +<h5><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Dicotylidæ</span>.</h5> + +<p>Snout as in <i>Suidæ</i>. Dentition: <i>i</i> ²⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 38. +Incisors rooted; upper canines directed downwards, with sharp +cutting hinder edges. Toes, four on the fore feet and three on the +hind feet (the fifth wanting). Stomach complex. A cæcum. +Confined to the New World.</p> + +<p><i>Dicotyles.</i><a id="FNanchor_183" href="#Footnote_183" class="fnanchor">[183]</a>—The teeth of the Peccaries (<i>Dicotyles</i>) differ from those +of the true Pigs (<i>Sus</i>) numerically in wanting the upper outer +incisor and the anterior premolar on either side of each jaw, and also +in the circumstance that the last premolar is nearly as complex as +the molars. The upper canines have their points directed downwards, +not outwards or upwards as in the Boars, and are very +sharp, with cutting hinder edges, and completely covered with +enamel until worn. The lower canines are large, directed upwards +and outwards, and slightly curved backwards. The premolar +and molar teeth form a continuous series, gradually increasing +in size from the first to the last. The true molars have square +quadricuspidate crowns. The stomach is much more complex than +in the true Pigs, almost approaching that of the ruminants. In the +feet the two middle (third and fourth) metapodial bones, which are +completely separate in the Pigs, are united at their upper ends, as +in the ruminants. On the fore foot the two (second and fifth) outer +toes are equally developed as in Pigs, but on the hind foot, although +the inner (or second) is present, the outer (or fifth) toe is entirely +wanting, giving an unsymmetrical appearance of the member, very +unusual in Artiodactyles. Vertebræ: C 7, D 14, L 5, S 4, C 7. +As in the Pigs, the snout is truncated, and the nostrils are situated +in its flat, expanded, disc-like termination. The ears are rather +small, ovate, and erect; and there is no external appearance of a +tail. The surface of the body is well covered with thick bristly<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_290"></a>[290]</span> +hair, and rather behind the middle of the back is a large and +peculiar gland, which secretes an oleaginous substance with a powerful +musky odour. This was mistaken by the old travellers for a +second navel, a popular error which suggested to Cuvier the name +of <i>Dicotyles</i>. When the animal is killed for food, it is necessary +speedily to remove this gland, otherwise it will taint the whole +flesh so as to render it uneatable.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp84" id="figure109" style="max-width: 28.125em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure109.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 109.</span>—The Collared Peccary (<i>Dicotyles tajacu</i>).</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>There are two species,<a id="FNanchor_184" href="#Footnote_184" class="fnanchor">[184]</a> so nearly allied that they will breed +together freely in captivity. Unlike the true Pigs, they never +appear to produce more than two young ones at a birth. The +Collared Peccary (<i>D. tajacu</i>, Linn., <i>torquatus</i>, Cuvier), <a href="#figure109">Fig. 109</a>, ranges +from the Red River of Arkansas through the forest districts of +Central and South America as far as the Rio Negro of Patagonia. +Generally it is found singly or in pairs, or at most in small herds of +from eight to ten, and is a comparatively harmless creature, not being +inclined to attack other animals or human beings. Its colour is dark +gray, with a white or whitish band passing across the chest from +shoulder to shoulder. The length of the head and body is about +36 inches. The White-lipped Peccary or Warree (<i>D. labiatus</i>, Cuvier) +is rather larger, being about 40 inches in length, of a blackish +colour, with the lips and lower jaw white. Its range is less extensive, +since it is not found farther north than British Honduras +or south of Paraguay. It is generally met with in large herds of +from fifty to a hundred or more individuals, and is of a more<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_291"></a>[291]</span> +pugnacious disposition than the former species, and capable of +inflicting severe wounds with its sharp tusks. A hunter who encounters +a herd of them in a forest has often to climb a tree as +his only chance of safety. Both species are omnivorous, living on +roots, fallen fruits, worms, and carrion; and when they approach +the neighbourhood of villages and cultivated lands they often +inflict great devastation upon the crops of the inhabitants.</p> + +<p>Remains of the two existing species of Peccary, as well as of one +much larger extinct form, are found in the cavern-deposits of Brazil; +while large Peccaries also occur in the Pleistocene of the United +States, which, although they have been referred to a distinct genus, +<i>Platygonus</i>, on account of their relatively smaller incisors and somewhat +simpler premolars, may well be included in <i>Dicotyles</i>.</p> + +<figure class="figleft illowp100" id="figure110" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure110.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 110.</span>—The three left upper molars of <i>Hyotherium +perimense</i>, from the Pliocene of India.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Allied Extinct Genera.</i>—In the Tertiary deposits of both +the Old and New World occur remains of Pig-like animals +which, so far as we can judge, appear to connect the Peccaries +so closely with the true Pigs as to render the <i>Dicotylidæ</i> +really inseparable from the <i>Suidæ</i>. Of these the American +genus <i>Chænohyus</i> has the lower canine with a triangular cross +section and received into a notch in the upper jaw, as in the Peccaries, +but the fourth upper premolar is simpler than the molars, as +in the under-mentioned genus <i>Hyotherium</i>. The typical forms have +only three premolars, but in others, which it has been proposed to +separate generically as <i>Bothriolabis</i>, there are four of these teeth. +<i>Hyotherium</i>, of the Pliocene +and Miocene of the Old +World, is a generalised +form allied both to <i>Sus</i> and +<i>Dicotyles</i> as well as to certain +extinct genera. The upper +molars (<a href="#figure110">Fig. 110</a>) are characterised +by their square +crowns, the last having no +distinct third lobe, and coming +into use before the first is much worn, while the last premolar is +simpler than the true molars. The canines, which have an oval section +and are scarcely larger than the incisors, are not received into a +notch in the upper jaw. In the Pliocene of India there occurs an +apparently allied genus known as <i>Hippohyus</i>, in which the crowns +of the molars are much taller, and have lateral infoldings of the +enamel, producing a very complex pattern on the worn crowns. +The European Miocene genus <i>Listriodon</i>, with the dental formula +<i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃, differs from all the preceding in having the +anterior and posterior pairs of tubercles of the molars united into +ridges running across their crowns, so that these teeth resemble the +lower molars of the Tapir. The genus is also found in the Lower +Pliocene of India.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_292"></a>[292]</span></p> + +<h5><span class="smcap">Extinct Transitional Artiodactyles.</span></h5> + +<p>In this place it will be convenient to notice briefly a few of +the extinct types of Tertiary Artiodactyles which connect the +existing bunodont Suina with the more specialised selenodont +groups mentioned below so closely as to show that in a strictly +palæontological classification such groups cannot be maintained. +It should be mentioned that while some of these extinct forms +were in all probability actual ancestral links between the bunodonts +and selenodonts, others, like the Anoplotheres, died out +entirely without giving rise to any more specialised descendants.</p> + +<figure class="figleft illowp66" id="figure111" style="max-width: 12.5em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure111.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 111.</span>—The imperfect third left +upper molar of <i>Hyopotamus giganteus</i>, +Miocene, India. (From the <i>Palæontologia +Indica</i>.)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Chœropotamidæ.</i>—In this family the molars are intermediate in +structure between those of the <i>Suidæ</i> and the next family. The +upper ones have very broad crowns, with the five columns arranged +as in <i>Anthracotherium</i>; while the premolars are not secant, and may +be very large. The best known forms are the small <i>Cebochœrus</i> of +the Phosphorites of Central France; <i>Chœropotamus</i> of the Upper +Eocene, the type species of which was of the size of a large Pig, +with the dental formula <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₃, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃, and no distinctly +selenodont structure in the molars; the much larger <i>Elotherium</i>, +from the Upper Eocene and Lower Miocene of both the Old and New +Worlds, which presents the very rare feature of the absence of a third +lobe to the last lower molar; and the equally large <i>Tetraconodon</i> of +the Pliocene of India, in which this third lobe was present and the +premolars were of enormous size. The remarkable North American +Eocene genus <i>Achænodon</i> should perhaps also be placed here.</p> + +<figure class="figright illowp68" id="figure112" style="max-width: 9.375em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure112.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 112.</span>—A right +upper molar of <i>Merycopotamus +pusillus</i>, +Pliocene, India. +(From the <i>Palæontologia +Indica</i>.)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Anthracotheriidæ.</i>—The genera <i>Anthracotherium</i> and <i>Hyopotamus</i>, +of the upper Eocene and Miocene, +have the typical Eutherian dental formula; +the upper molars (<a href="#figure111">Fig. 111</a>) +carrying three columns on the anterior +and two on the posterior half of the +crown, all of which are of a more or +less decidedly selenodont structure. +The mandible has a descending flange +at the angle. The figured tooth (in +which the antero-internal and antero-median +columns are imperfect) may be +compared with the diagram given in +<a href="#figure005">Fig. 5</a>, <a href="#figure005">p. 32</a>, when the homology of +the columns or tubercles will be at +once apparent, the broken antero-median +column representing the protoconule. +Some of the species are of +large size, while others are comparatively small.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_293"></a>[293]</span></p> + +<p><i>Merycopotamus.</i>—The genus <i>Merycopotamus</i> of the lower Pliocene +of India may be regarded as an Anthracotheroid which has lost +the antero-median column to the upper molars +(<a href="#figure112">Fig. 112</a>), so that these teeth are consequently +quadrituberculate; and may thus be regarded as +typical examples of the brachy-selenodont modification +of molar structure.</p> + +<p><i>Cotylopidæ.</i>—The Miocene genus <i>Cotylops</i> (<i>Oreodon</i><a id="FNanchor_185" href="#Footnote_185" class="fnanchor">[185]</a>) +is the type of a large American family in +which the upper molars are selenodont and usually +have four columns, while the lower canine is approximated +to the incisors and its form and function +assumed by the first premolar. The last upper +premolar is simpler than the molars. There is no +flange to the angle of the mandible; and the feet have four digits. +The affinities of this peculiar family are probably widely spread, +but they may have been derived from the <i>Anthracotheriidæ</i>. The +type genus has the full Eutherian dentition, but in some of the +more specialised forms (<i>Cyclopidius</i>) the upper incisors may be +wanting, and large vacuities occur in the lachrymal region. The +generalised genus <i>Protoreodon</i>, of the Upper or Uinta Eocene, has +five cusps on the upper molars, arranged as in the <i>Anthracotheriidæ</i>. +The pollex is retained in the manus of the type genus.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure113" style="max-width: 21.875em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure113.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 113.</span>—Restoration of <i>Anoplotherium commune</i> +(Upper Eocene). Cuvier.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The family may be divided into subfamilies as follows:—</p> + +<ul> +<li>I. Upper molars with four columns. + <ul> + <li>1. Orbits open, no lachrymal fossa, a diastema, the + last upper premolar with two outer columns, outer wall of upper + molars concave and inclined inwards.—<i>Agriochœrinæ</i> + (<i>Agriochœrus</i>).</li> + <li>2. Orbits closed, a lachrymal fossa, no diastema, the + last upper premolar with one outer column; outer wall of upper + molars flattened.—<i>Cotylopinæ</i> (<i>Cotylops</i>, + <i>Eporeodon</i>, <i>Merycochœrus</i>, <i>Cyclopidius</i>, etc.)</li> + </ul> + </li> + <li>II. Upper molars with five columns.—<i>Protoreontinæ</i> (<i>Protoreodon</i>). + </li> +</ul> + +<p><i>Anoplotheriidæ.</i>—This +family includes +several +Upper Eocene +European genera, +with selenodont +upper molars, +carrying five +columns arranged +as those<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_294"></a>[294]</span> in <i>Anthracotherium</i>. +One of +the earliest known, <i>Anoplotherium</i>, was fully described by Cuvier +from remains found in the Paris gypsum-beds (Upper Eocene). +Its forty-four teeth formed a series unbroken by a gap or diastema, +and were of uniform height (as in Man alone of existing mammals). +Its tail was long, with large chevron bones underneath, +not usually found in Ungulates, and there were either three or +two toes on each foot. It was in many respects a much-specialised +form, apparently not on the line of descent of any of +the existing groups.</p> + +<p><i>Dacrytherium</i> is an allied genus whose dentition leads on to that +of the smaller <i>Xiphodon</i>. The latter genus is characterised by the +compressed and elongated form of the crowns of the first three +premolars, which thus approximate to those of the Chevrotains. +There were only two functional digits to the feet. The so-called +<i>Hyopotamus picteti</i>, of the Swiss Eocene, is a species of <i>Dacrytherium</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Cænotheriidæ.</i>—The typical representatives of this family are +small animals not larger than the Chevrotains, with the full complement +of teeth, generally no marked gap in the series, and the +crowns of the upper molars carrying two columns on the anterior +and three on the posterior half of the crown—precisely the reverse +of the arrangement obtaining in the <i>Anthracotheriidæ</i>. The known +forms are from the Upper Eocene and Lower Miocene of Europe. +In <i>Cænotherium</i> the molars are selenodont, while they are bunodont +in <i>Dichobunus</i>. <i>Homacodon</i>, of the Bridger Eocene of the United +States, is closely allied to the latter. The first lower premolar +of <i>Dichobunus</i> assumes the form and function of a canine. <i>Spaniotherium</i> +(<i>Metriotherium</i>) is a much larger form, in which the molars +are not unlike those of <i>Anthracotherium</i>, if the arrangement of the +cusps were reversed; it occurs in the Eocene Phosphorites of +France. It is suggested that the <i>Tylopoda</i> may have originated +from this group.</p> + +<p><i>Tapirulus</i> is a small Eocene Artiodactyle with the columns of +the upper molars, which are somewhat like those of <i>Hyopotamus</i>, +tending to form transverse ridges; its family position is uncertain.</p> + +<p><i>Dichodontidæ.</i>—The European genera included in this family all +have quadritubercular selenodont molars, and show signs of approximating +more or less closely to existing types. <i>Dichodon</i>, from the +Upper Eocene and Lower Miocene, has the full complement of teeth, +which show no diastema, and have low crowns. The fourth upper +premolar has four columns, like the true molars, and the corresponding +lower tooth three complete lobes; these features being +unknown in any other Selenodonts. In <i>Lophiomeryx</i>, of the same +beds, the somewhat higher crowns of the molars approximate to +those of the <i>Cervidæ</i>, but the hinder lobes of the upper ones are +imperfectly developed; the genus may be allied, to the <i>Tragulidæ</i>.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_295"></a>[295]</span> +In the small <i>Gelocus</i>, of the Lower Miocene, the molars are not +unlike those of <i>Dichodon</i>; but the navicular and cuboid bones of +the tarsus were fused together, and the metatarsals had united to +form a “cannon-bone,” although the metacarpals still remained +distinct. It is not improbable that upper incisors were wanting; +and it has been suggested that we have in this genus the ancestral +type of the <i>Tragulidæ</i> and <i>Cervidæ</i>.</p> + +<h5><span class="smcap">Tylopoda.</span></h5> + +<h6><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Camelidæ</span>.</h6> + +<p>This group is represented at the present day by the two species +of Camels of the Old World and the Llamas of South America, +collectively constituting the family <i>Camelidæ</i>. The special characters +which the Llamas and Camels have in common, and the combination +of which distinguishes them from the rest of the Artiodactyles, +are as follows. The premaxillæ have the full number of incisor +teeth in the young state, and the outermost is persistent through +life as an isolated laniariform tooth. The canines are present in +both jaws, and those of the mandible are differentiated from the +long, procumbent, and spatulate incisors, being suberect and pointed. +The crowns of the true molars belong to the crescentic or selenodont +type, and are very hypsodont; but one or more of the +anterior premolars is usually detached from the series, and is +of simple pointed form. The auditory bulla is filled with cancellous +tissue. The hinder part of the body is much contracted, and the +femur long and vertically placed, so that the knee-joint is lower +in position, and the thigh altogether more detached from the +abdomen than in most quadrupedal mammals. The limbs are +long, but with only the third and fourth digits developed; no +traces of any of the others being present. The trapezoid and magnum +of the carpus, and the cuboid and navicular of the tarsus are +distinct. The two metapodial bones of each limb are confluent for +the greater part of their length, though separated for a considerable +distance at the lower end. Their distal articular surfaces, instead +of being pulley-like, with deep ridges and grooves, as in other recent +Artiodactyles, are simple, rounded, and smooth. The proximal +phalanges are expanded at their distal ends, and the wide, depressed +middle phalanges are embedded in a broad cutaneous pad, forming +the sole of the foot, on which the animal rests in walking, instead +of on the hoofs. The ungual phalanges are very small and nodular, +not flattened on their inner or opposed surfaces, and not completely +encased in hoofs, but bearing nails on their upper surface only. +The cervical region is long and flexuous, and the vertebræ of which<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_296"></a>[296]</span> +it is composed are remarkable for the position of the canal for +the transmission of the vertebral artery, which does not perforate +the transverse process, but passes obliquely through the anterior +part of the pedicle of the arch (a condition only found in two other +genera of mammals, <i>Macrauchenia</i> and <i>Myrmecophaga</i>). There are +no horns or antlers. Though these animals ruminate, the stomach +differs considerably in the details of its construction from that of +the Pecora. The interior of the rumen or paunch has no villi on +its surface, and there is no distinct psalterium or manyplies. Both +the first and second compartments are remarkable for the presence +of a number of pouches or cells in their walls, with muscular septa, +and a sphincter-like arrangement of their orifices, by which they can +be shut off from the rest of the cavity, and into which the fluid +portion only of the contents of the stomach is allowed to enter.<a id="FNanchor_186" href="#Footnote_186" class="fnanchor">[186]</a> +The placenta is diffuse, as in the Suina and Tragulina, not cotyledonary, +as in the Pecora. Finally, the <i>Camelidæ</i> differ not only +from other Ungulates, but from all other mammals, in the fact +that the red corpuscles of the blood, instead of being circular in +outline, are oval, as in the inferior vertebrated classes.</p> + +<p><i>Camelus.</i><a id="FNanchor_187" href="#Footnote_187" class="fnanchor">[187]</a>—Dentition of adult: <i>i</i> ¹⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁄₂, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 34. First +upper premolar simple, placed immediately behind the premaxillæ, +and separated by a long diastema from the penultimate tooth of +that series. Lower incisors somewhat proclivous, the outermost the +largest. Skull elongated, with an overhanging occiput, orbits completely +surrounded by bone, and the premaxillæ not articulating +with the arched and somewhat elongated nasals. Vertebræ: C 7, +D 12, L 7, S 4, C 13-15. Ears comparatively short and rounded. +One or two dorsal adipose humps. Feet broad, with the toes very +imperfectly separated. Tail well developed, tufted at the end. +Hair nearly straight, and not woolly. Size very large and bulky.</p> + +<p>The genus is now represented by two species, viz. the single-humped +Arabian Camel (<i>Camelus dromedarius</i>), and the double-humped<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_297"></a>[297]</span> +Bactrian Camel (<i>C. bactrianus</i>, <a href="#figure114">Fig. 114</a>).<a id="FNanchor_188" href="#Footnote_188" class="fnanchor">[188]</a> The former +is quite unknown in a wild state, but it is reported that wild +Bactrian Camels occur in the more remote parts of Turkestan. The +latter species is found in a domesticated state throughout a large +portion of Turkestan and the neighbouring region, extending as far +as the Crimea in the west and to Lake Baikal and Pekin in the +east. It is a heavier and more clumsy animal than the Arabian +Camel, with thicker hair, shorter legs, and the feet more callous +and better adapted to a hard ground. The hair is most developed +upon the top of the head, neck, humps, arm, and wrist. Bactrian +Camels are occasionally brought over the stupendous mountain +passes south of Yarkand to within a few days’ journey of Leh, in +Kashmir territory.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure114" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure114.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 114.</span>—The Bactrian Camel (<i>Camelus bactrianus</i>).</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The Arabian Camel is commonly employed as a beast of burden +in Africa and India, and has of late years been introduced into +Australia for the same purpose; it is especially valuable in crossing +long stretches of arid desert from its power of existing for a considerable +period of time without water. The female goes fully +eleven months with young, and produces but a single calf at a +birth, which is suckled for a whole year. In disposition the Camel +is surly and subject to furious outbursts of temper, especially during +the rutting season. At such periods the male utters a peculiar and +highly disagreeable bubbling noise in its throat, well known to all +who have travelled in India with Camels as their transport.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_298"></a>[298]</span> It has +been said that the Camel is docile, but Palgrave observes:—</p> + +<p>“If docile means stupid, well and good; in such a case the Camel is +the very model of docility. But if the epithet is intended to designate +an animal that takes an interest in its rider so far as a beast can, that +in some way understands his intentions, or shares them in a subordinate +fashion, that obeys from a sort of submissive or half-fellow-feeling +with his master, like the horse or elephant, then I say that +the camel is by no means docile—very much the contrary. He +takes no heed of his rider, pays no attention whether he be on his +back or not, walks straight on when once set agoing, merely +because he is too stupid to turn aside, and then should some +tempting thorn or green branch allure him out of the path, continues +to walk on in the new direction simply because he is too dull to turn +back into the right road. In a word, he is from first to last an +undomesticated and savage animal, rendered serviceable by stupidity +alone, without much skill on his master’s part, or any co-operation +on his own save that of an extreme passiveness. Neither attachment +nor even habit impress him; never tame, though not wide-awake +enough to be exactly wild.” The two species breed together +freely, and among the Yourouks of Asia Minor, hybrids, or mules, +the produce generally of a male Bactrian and a female Arabian +camel are preferred to either of the pure breeds.</p> + +<p>Fossil remains of Camels are found in the Pliocene of the +Siwalik Hills in Northern India. These differ from the existing +representatives of the genus in having a vertical ridge at the +antero-external angle of the lower molars, whereby they resemble +<i>Auchenia</i>; their cervical vertebræ are also intermediate in structure +between those of the latter and the existing Camels. A fossil +Camel is also found in the Pleistocene of Algeria.</p> + +<p><i>Auchenia.</i><a id="FNanchor_189" href="#Footnote_189" class="fnanchor">[189]</a>—Dentition of adults normally: <i>i</i> ¹⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ²⁄₂, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; +total 32—one of the lower premolars may, however, be wanting. In +the upper jaw there is a compressed, sharp, pointed laniariform incisor +near the hinder edge of the premaxilla, followed, in the male at least, +by a moderate-sized, pointed, curved true canine in the anterior part +of the maxilla. The isolated canine-like premolar which follows in +the Camels is not present. The teeth of the molar series, which are +in contact with each other, consist of two very small premolars (the +first almost rudimentary) and three broad molars, constructed generally +like those of <i>Camelus</i>. In the lower jaw the three incisors are +long, spatulate, and procumbent; the outer ones being the smallest. +Next to these is a curved, suberect canine, followed after an interval +by an isolated, minute, and often deciduous simple conical premolar; +then a contiguous series of one premolar and three molars, which +differ from those of existing species of <i>Camelus</i> in having a small +accessory column at the anterior outer edge. The skull generally<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_299"></a>[299]</span> +resembles that of <i>Camelus</i>, the relatively larger brain-cavity and +orbits and less developed cranial ridges being due to its smaller +size. The nasal bones are shorter and broader, and are joined +by the premaxillæ. Vertebræ: C 7, D 12, L 7, S 4, C 15-20. +Ears rather long and pointed. No dorsal hump. Feet narrow, +the toes being more separated than in the camels, each having +a distinct plantar pad. Tail short. Hairy covering long and +woolly. Size (in existing forms) smaller, and general form lighter +than in the Camels. At present and within historic times the +genus is entirely confined to the western side and southernmost +parts of South America, but fossil remains have been found in +the caves of Brazil, in the pampas of the Argentine republic, and +in Central and North America.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp70" id="figure115" style="max-width: 25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure115.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 115.</span>—Llama (<i>Auchenia glama</i>), from an animal living in the Gardens +of the Zoological Society of London.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The word Llama, sometimes spelt Lama, is the name by which +the Peruvians designated one of a small group of closely allied +animals, which, before the Spanish conquest of America, were the +only domesticated hoofed mammals of the country, being kept, not +only for their value as beasts of burden, but also for their flesh, +hides, and wool,—in fact, supplying in the domestic economy of +the people the place of the horse, the ox, the goat, and the <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_300"></a>[300]</span>sheep +of the Old World. The word is now sometimes restricted to one +particular species or variety of the group, and sometimes used in a +generic sense to cover the whole. Although they were often compared +by early writers to sheep, and spoken of as such, their affinity +to the camel was very soon perceived, and they were included in +the genus <i>Camelus</i> in the <i>Systema Naturæ</i> of Linnæus. They were, +however, separated by Cuvier in 1800 under the name of <i>Lama</i>, +changed by Illiger in 1811 to <i>Auchenia</i> (in allusion to the great +length of neck, αὐχήν), a term afterwards adopted by Cuvier, and +almost universally accepted by systematic zoologists, although there +has been of late a disposition to revive the earlier name.</p> + +<p>In essential structural characters, as well as in general appearance +and habits, all the animals of this genus very closely resemble +each other, so that the question as to whether they should be +considered as belonging to one, two, or more species has been one +which has led to a large amount of controversy among naturalists. +The question has been much complicated by the circumstances of +the great majority of individuals which have come under observation +being either in a completely or partially domesticated state, +and descended from ancestors which from time immemorial have +been in like condition, one which always tends to produce a certain +amount of variation from the original type. It has, however, lost +much of its importance since the doctrine of the distinct origin of +species has been generally abandoned.</p> + +<figure class="figright illowp75" id="figure116" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure116.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 116.</span>—Head of Vicugna, from an animal living +in the Gardens of the Zoological Society of London.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The four forms commonly distinguished by the inhabitants of +South America are recognised +by some naturalists +as distinct species, and have +had specific designations +attached to them, though +usually with expressions of +doubt, and with great difficulties +in defining their distinctive +characteristics. +These are (1) the Llama, +<i>Auchenia glama</i> (Linn.), or +<i>Lama peruana</i> (Tiedemann); +(2) the Alpaca, <i>A. pacos</i> +(Linn.); (3) the Guanaco or +Huanaco, <i>A. huanacus</i> (Molina); +and (4) the Vicugna, +<i>A. vicugna</i> (Molina), or <i>A. +vicunna</i>, (Cuv.) The first +and second are only known in the domestic state, and are variable +in size and colour, being often white, black, or piebald. The third +and fourth are wild, and of a nearly uniform light-brown colour,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_301"></a>[301]</span> +passing into white below. They certainly differ from each other, +the Vicugna being smaller, more slender in its proportions, and +having a shorter head (<a href="#figure116">Fig. 116</a>) than the Guanaco (<a href="#figure117">Fig. 117</a>). +It may therefore, according +to the usual view of species, +be considered distinct. It +lives in herds on the bleak +and elevated parts of the +mountain range bordering +the region of perpetual +snow, amidst rocks and +precipices, occurring in +various suitable localities +throughout Peru, in the +southern part of Ecuador, +and as far south as the +middle of Bolivia. Its +manners very much resemble +those of the Chamois +of the European Alps; and +it is as vigilant, wild, and +timid. The wool is extremely +delicate and soft, and highly valued for the purposes of +weaving, but the quantity which each animal produces is not great.</p> + +<figure class="figleft illowp75" id="figure117" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure117.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 117.</span>—Head of Guanaco, from an animal living +in the Gardens of the Zoological Society of London.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The Guanaco has an extensive geographical range, from the +highlands of the Andean region of Ecuador and Peru to the open +plains of Patagonia, and even the wooded islands of Tierra del +Fuego. It constitutes the principal food of the Patagonian Indians, +and its skin is invaluable to them, as furnishing the material out +of which their long robes are constructed. It is about the size of +a European Red Deer, and is an elegant animal, being possessed +of a long, slender, gracefully curved neck and fine legs. Dr. +Cunningham,<a id="FNanchor_190" href="#Footnote_190" class="fnanchor">[190]</a> speaking from observation on wild animals, says:—</p> + +<p>“It is not easy to describe its general appearance, which combines +some of the characters of a camel, a deer, and a goat. The body, +deep at the breast but very small at the loins, is covered with long, +soft, very fine hair, which on the upper parts is of a kind of fawn-colour, +and beneath varies from a very pale yellow to the most +beautiful snow-white. The head is provided with large ears, in +general carried well back, and is covered with short grayish hair, +which is darkest on the forehead. Occasionally the face is nearly +black. As a rule it lives in flocks of from half a dozen to several +hundreds, but solitary individuals are now and then to be met with. +They are very difficult to approach sufficiently near to admit of an +easy shot, as they are extremely wary, but, on being disturbed,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_302"></a>[302]</span> +canter off at a pace which soon puts a safe distance between them +and the sportsman, even though he should be mounted. Despite +their timidity, however, they are possessed of great curiosity, and +will sometimes advance within a comparatively short distance of an +unknown object, at which they will gaze fixedly till they take +alarm, when they effect a speedy retreat. Their cry is very peculiar, +being something between the belling of a deer and the neigh of a +horse. It would be difficult to overestimate their numbers upon +the Patagonian plains; for in whatever direction we walked we +always came upon numbers of portions of their skeletons and +detached bones.”</p> + +<p>Darwin, who has given an interesting account of the habits of +the Guanaco in his <i>Naturalist’s Voyage</i>, says that they readily take +to the water, and were seen several times at Port Valdes swimming +from island to island.</p> + +<p>The Llama is only known as a domestic animal, and is chiefly +met with in the southern part of Peru. Burmeister, a very competent +writer on the subject, says that he is perfectly satisfied that +it is the descendant of the wild Guanaco, an opinion opposed to +that of Tschudi. It generally attains a larger size than the +Guanaco, and is usually white or spotted with brown or black, +and sometimes altogether black. The earliest and often-quoted +account of this animal by Agustin de Zarate, treasurer-general of +Peru in 1544, will bear repeating as an excellent summary of the +general character and uses to which it was put by the Peruvians at +the time of the Spanish conquest. He speaks of the Llama as a +sheep, observing, however, that it is camel-like in shape though +destitute of a hump:—</p> + +<p>“In places where there is no snow the natives want water, and +to supply this they fill the skins of sheep with water and make +other living sheep carry them; for, it must be remarked, these +sheep of Peru are large enough to serve as beasts of burden. They +can carry about one hundred pounds or more, and the Spaniards +used to ride them, and they would go four or five leagues a day. +When they are weary they lie down upon the ground; and as there +are no means of making them get up, either by beating or assisting +them, the load must of necessity be taken off. When there is a +man on one of them, if the beast is tired and urged to go on, he +turns his head round and discharges his saliva, which has an unpleasant +odour, into the rider’s face. These animals are of great +use and profit to their masters, for their wool is very good and fine, +particularly that of the species called Pacas, which have very long +fleeces; and the expense of their food is trifling, as a handful of +maize suffices them, and they can go four or five days without +water. Their flesh is as good as that of the fat sheep of Castile. +There are now public shambles for the sale of their flesh in all parts<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_303"></a>[303]</span> +of Peru, which was not the case when the Spaniards came first; for +when one Indian had killed a sheep his neighbours came and took +what they wanted, and then another Indian killed a sheep in his +turn.”</p> + +<p>The disagreeable habit here noticed of spitting in the face of +persons whose presence is obnoxious is common to all the group, as +may be daily witnessed in specimens in confinement in the +menageries of Europe. One of the principal labours to which the +Llamas were subjected at the time of the Spanish conquest was that +of bringing down ore from the mines in the mountains. +Gregory de Bolivar estimated that in his day as many as three +hundred thousand were employed in the transport of the produce +of the mines of Potosi alone; but since the introduction of horses, +mules, and donkeys the importance of the Llama as a beast of +burden has greatly diminished.</p> + +<p>The Alpaca, though believed by many naturalists to be a variety +of the Vicugna, is more probably, like the Llama, derived from the +Guanaco, having the naked callosities on the hind limbs, and the +relatively large skull of the latter. It is usually found in a +domesticated or semi-domesticated state, being kept in large flocks +which graze on the level heights of the Andes of southern Peru +and northern Bolivia at an elevation of from 14,000 to 16,000 feet +above the sea-level, throughout the year. It is smaller than the +Llama, and, unlike that animal, is not used as a beast of burden, +but is valued only for its wool, of which the Indian blankets and +ponchas are made. Its colour is usually dark brown or black.</p> + +<p>Mention has already been made of the occurrence of fossil +Llamas in America, but some diversity of view obtains as to the +generic position of some of these forms, owing to variations in their +dental formula. Remains apparently referable to the existing +species occur in the cavern-deposits of Brazil. In the Pleistocene +of Mexico we meet with <i>A. (Palauchenia) magna</i>, which attained +the size of a Camel, and had always two, and occasionally three, +lower premolars; while in one South American Pleistocene species, +which has been generically separated as <i>Hemiauchenia</i>, there were +invariably three premolars in each jaw. In <i>A. (Holomeniscus) +hesterna</i>, from the Pleistocene of North America, which was equal +in size to <i>A. magna</i>, the premolars were reduced to one in each +jaw; and the same condition obtains in <i>A. (Eschatius) vitakeriana</i>, +where, however, the upper one is of simpler structure.</p> + +<p><i>Extinct Cameloids.</i>—Until within the last few years the existence +of two genera having so very much in common as the Camels and +the Llamas, and yet so completely isolated geographically, had not +received any satisfactory explanation; for the old idea that they in +some way “represented” each other in the two hemispheres of the +world was a mere fancy without philosophical basis. The<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_304"></a>[304]</span> discoveries +made mostly within the past twenty years of a vast and +previously unsuspected extinct fauna in the American continent of +the Tertiary period, as interpreted by Leidy, Cope, Marsh, and +others, has thrown a flood of light upon the early history of this +family, and upon its relations to other mammals.</p> + +<p>There have been found in these regions many Camel-like +animals exhibiting different generic modifications; and, what is +more interesting, a gradual series of changes, coinciding with the +antiquity of the deposits in which they are found, have been traced +from the thoroughly differentiated species of the modern epoch +down through the Pliocene to the early Miocene beds, where, their +characters having become by degrees more generalised, they have +lost all that specially distinguishes them as <i>Camelidæ</i>, and are +merged into forms common to the ancestral type of all the other +sections of the Artiodactyles. Hitherto none of these annectant +forms have been found in any of the fossiliferous strata of the Old +World; and it may therefore be fairly surmised (according to +the evidence at present before us) that America was the original +home of the Tylopoda, and that the true Camels have passed over into +the Old World, probably by way of the north of Asia, where we +have every reason to believe there was formerly a free communication +between the continents, and then, gradually driven southward, +perhaps by changes of climate, having become isolated, have undergone +some further special modifications; while those members of +the family that remained in their original birthplace have become, +through causes not clearly understood, restricted solely to the +southern or most distant part of the continent. The occurrence +in the dentition of the fossil Siwalik Camels of a feature now +found only in <i>Auchenia</i> is especially interesting from this point +of view.</p> + +<p>Briefly referring to some of these fossil types, we may note +that <i>Pliauchenia</i>, of the Loup Fork beds (Lower Pliocene) of +the United States, has three lower premolars, while in <i>Procamelus</i> +there were four of these teeth. In <i>Protolabis</i> of the Miocene +we have a more generalised form, in which the dental formula +is <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₄, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; and from this type a transition may be +traced to <i>Poëbrotherium</i>, which, while having the same dental +formula, was no larger than a Fox, and had the third and fourth +metacarpals separate, with rudiments of the fourth and fifth. The +earliest undoubted representative of the group is <i>Leptotragulus</i>, of +the Uinta Eocene, which appears to have been closely allied to +<i>Poëbrotherium</i>. It is, however, probable that the first lower premolar +was wanting; while the other premolars of the mandible +were much shorter antero-posteriorly than in the last-named genus. +The manus, moreover, appears to have been less reduced, the second +metacarpal retaining its connection with the magnum. It is<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_305"></a>[305]</span> +suggested that <i>Leptotragulus</i> may have been derived from the +Bunodont genus <i>Homacodon</i> of the Bridger Eocene, mentioned +among the <i>Cænotheriidæ</i>.</p> + +<h5><span class="smcap">Tragulina.</span></h5> + +<h6><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Tragulidæ</span>.</h6> + +<p>No teeth in premaxillæ. Upper canines well developed, especially +in the males; narrow and pointed. Lower canines incisiform. +No caniniform premolars in either jaw, all the premolars except the +last in the upper jaw being secant. Molariform teeth in a continuous +series, consisting of <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃. Odontoid process of axis +vertebra conical. Fibula complete. Four complete toes on each +foot. The middle metapodials generally confluent, the outer ones +(second and fifth) very slender but complete, <i>i.e.</i> extending from +the carpus or tarsus to the digit. Navicular, cuboid, and ectocuneiform +bones of tarsus united. Tympanic bullæ of skull filled with +cancellar tissue. No frontal appendages. Ruminating, but the +stomach with only three distinct compartments, the manyplies or +third cavity of the stomach of the Pecora being rudimentary. +Placenta diffused.</p> + +<p>This section is represented only by the single family <i>Tragulidæ</i>, +containing a few animals of small size, commonly known as +Chevrotains, intermediate in their structure between the Deer, the +Camels, and the Pigs. The large size of the canines of the male and +the absence of horns caused them to be associated formerly with +<i>Moschus</i>, one of the <i>Cervidæ</i>; hence they are often spoken of as +“Pigmy Musk-Deer,” although they have no musk-secreting gland, +or, except in the above-named trivial external characters, no special +affinities with the true Musk-Deer. There has scarcely been a more +troublesome and obdurate error in zoology than in this association +of animals so really distinct. It has been troublesome, not only in +preventing a just conception of the relations of existing Artiodactyles, +but also in causing great confusion and hindrance in palæontological +researches among allied forms; and most obdurate, inasmuch +as all that has been recently done in advancing our knowledge of +both groups has not succeeded in eradicating it, not only from +nearly every one of our zoological text-books, whether British or +Continental, but even from works of the highest scientific pretensions.</p> + +<p>The family is now generally divided into two genera.</p> + +<p><i>Tragulus</i>,<a id="FNanchor_191" href="#Footnote_191" class="fnanchor">[191]</a> containing the smallest of the existing Ungulates, +animals having more of the general aspects and habits of some +Rodents, as the Agoutis, than of the rest of their own order. The<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_306"></a>[306]</span> +best-known species are <i>T. javanicus</i>, <i>T. napu</i>, <i>T. stanleyanus</i>, and +<i>T. memmina</i>. The first three are from the Malay Peninsula, or the +islands of the Indo-Malayan Archipelago, the last from Ceylon and +India. A fossil species occurs in the Pliocene of the latter country.</p> + +<p><i>Dorcatherium</i><a id="FNanchor_192" href="#Footnote_192" class="fnanchor">[192]</a> is distinguished chiefly by the feet being stouter +and shorter, the outer toes better developed, and the two middle +metacarpals not ankylosed together. Its dental formula (as that +of <i>Tragulus</i>) is usually <i>i</i> ⁰⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃ = 34. Vertebræ: C 7, +D 13, L 6, S 5, C 12-13. The only existing species, <i>D. aquaticum</i> +(<a href="#figure118">Fig. 118</a>), from the west coast of Africa, is rather larger than any +of the Asiatic Chevrotains, which it otherwise much resembles, but +it is said to frequent the banks of streams, and have much the +habits of Pigs. It is of a rich brown colour, with back and sides +spotted and striped with white. It is evidently the survivor of a +very ancient form, as remains of the type species (<i>D. naui</i>), only +differing in size, occur in the lower Pliocene and Miocene of +Europe; fossil species are also found in the Indian Pliocene. +In <i>D. naui</i> there are, at least frequently, four lower premolars, +while the existing species has but three of these teeth.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="figure118" style="max-width: 25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure118.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 118.</span>—The African Water-Chevrotain (<i>Dorcatherium aquaticum</i>).</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_307"></a>[307]</span></p> + +<p><i>Extinct Traguloids.</i>—A number of small selenodont Artiodactyles +from various Miocene and Pliocene deposits appear to connect the +modern Tragulina so closely with <i>Gelocus</i> (<a href="#Page_294">p. 294</a>), and thus with +the ancestral <i>Cervidæ</i>, that their classification is almost an impossibility. +Thus <i>Leptomeryx</i>, from the Miocene of the United States, +is regarded as a Traguloid, having four premolars in each jaw +and with the metatarsals fused into a cannon-bone. <i>Prodremotherium</i>, +of the Upper Eocene Phosphorites of France, differs in that the +metacarpals also form a cannon-bone; while in the American +<i>Hypertragulus</i>, both metacarpals and metatarsals remain separate. +<i>Bachitherium</i>, of the French Phosphorites, apparently presents +affinity with <i>Gelocus</i>, <i>Prodremotherium</i>, and <i>Dorcatherium</i>. In this +genus the first of the four lower premolars assumes the character +and function of a canine, the true canine being incisor-like, and +there are traces of minute upper incisors.</p> + +<h5><span class="smcap">Pecora, or Cotylophora.</span></h5> + +<p>No premaxillary teeth or caniniform premolars. Upper canines +generally absent, though sometimes largely developed. Inferior +incisors, three on each side with an incisiform canine in contact +with them. Molariform teeth consisting of <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃, in continuous +series. Auditory bullæ simple and hollow within. Odontoid +process in the form of a crescent, hollow above. Distal +extremity of the fibula represented by a distinct malleolar bone of +peculiar shape, articulating with the outer surface of the lower end +of the tibia. Third and fourth metacarpals and metatarsals confluent. +Outer or lateral toes small and rudimentary, or in some +cases entirely suppressed; their metapodial bones never complete +in existing forms. Navicular and cuboid bones of tarsus united. +Horns or antlers usually present, at least in the male sex. Left +brachial artery arising from a common innominate trunk, instead +of coming off separately from the aortic arch as in the preceding +sections. Stomach with four complete cavities. Placenta +cotyledonous.<a id="FNanchor_193" href="#Footnote_193" class="fnanchor">[193]</a></p> + +<figure class="figleft illowp51" id="figure119" style="max-width: 17.1875em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure119.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 119.</span>—A shed right antler of the Red Deer +(<i>Cervus elaphus</i>), found in an Irish lake. <i>a</i>, Brow +tine; <i>b</i>, bez tine; <i>c</i>, tres tine; <i>d</i>, crown or royal +tine. (After Owen.)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The Pecora or true Ruminants form at the present time an +extremely homogeneous group, one of the best-defined and most +closely united of any of the Mammalia. But, though the original +or common type has never been departed from in essentials, variation +has been very active among them within certain limits; and +the great difficulty which all zoologists have felt in subdividing +them into natural minor groups arises from the fact that +the changes in different organs (feet, skull, frontal appendages, +teeth, cutaneous glands, etc.) have proceeded with such apparent<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_308"></a>[308]</span> +irregularity and absence of correlation that the different modifications +of these parts are most variously combined in different +members of the group. It appears, however, extremely probable +that they soon branched into two main types, represented in the +present day by the <i>Cervidæ</i> and the <i>Bovidæ</i>,—otherwise the +antlered and horned Ruminants. Intermediate smaller branches +produced the existing Musk-Deer and Giraffe, as well as the extinct +<i>Helladotherium</i> inclining to the first-named group, and the extinct +<i>Sivatherium</i>, <i>Brahmatherium</i>, <i>Hydaspitherium</i>, and others more allied +to the latter, although upon the true relationship of these forms +there is a difference of opinion.</p> + +<figure class="figright illowp56" id="figure120" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure120.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 120.</span>—Head of Deer (<i>Cervus schomburgki</i>), showing antlers. +From Sclater, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1877, p. 682.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The earliest forms of true Pecora, as <i>Palæomeryx</i>, generally had +no frontal appendages, and some few forms continue to the present +day in a similar case. In the very large majority, however, either +in both sexes or in the male +only, a pair or occasionally two +pairs (<i>Tetraceros</i> and the extinct +<i>Sivatherium</i>) of processes are developed +from the frontal bones +as weapons of offence and defence, +these being almost always +formed on one or other of two +types.</p> + +<p>1. “Antlers” are outgrowths +of true bone, covered during +their growth with vascular, +sensitive integument coated with +short hair. When the growth +of the antler is complete, the +supply of blood to it ceases, the +skin dies and peels off, leaving +the bone bare and insensible, +and after a time, by a process +of absorption near the base, it +becomes detached from the skull +and is “shed” (<a href="#figure119">Fig. 119</a>). A +more or less elongated portion +or “pedicle” always remains on +the skull from the summit of +which a new antler is developed. In the greater number of existing +species of Deer this process is repeated with great regularity at +the same period of each year. The antler may be simple, straight, +subcylindrical, tapering and pointed, but more often it sends off +one or more branches called “tines” or “snags” (<a href="#figure119">Fig. 119</a>). In +this case the main stem is termed the “beam.” Commonly all the +branches of the antler are cylindrical and gradually tapering.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_309"></a>[309]</span> +Sometimes they are more or less expanded and flattened, the +antler being then said to be “palmated.” In young animals the +antlers are always small and simple, and in those species in which +they are variously branched or palmated, this condition is only +gradually acquired +in several +successive annual +growths. An +interesting parallel +has been observed +here, as +in so many other +cases, between +the development +of the race and +that of the individual. +Thus the earliest +known forms of +Deer, those of +the Lower Miocene, +generally +have no antlers, +as in the young +of the existing +species. The +Deer of the +Middle Miocene +have simple antlers, +with not +more than two +branches, as in +existing Deer of +the second year; +but it is not until the Pliocene and Pleistocene times that Deer +occur with antlers developed with that luxuriance of growth and +beauty of form characteristic of some of the existing species in a +perfectly adult state. Among recent <i>Cervidæ</i>, antlers are wanting +in the genera <i>Moschus</i> and <i>Hydropotes</i>; they are present in both sexes +in <i>Tarandus</i> (the Reindeer), and in the male sex only in all others.</p> + +<p>In those forms with the most complex antlers (<a href="#figure119">Figs. 119, 120</a>) +the tine immediately over the forehead is termed the <i>brow tine</i>, the +next one the <i>bez tine</i>, and the third one the <i>tres tine</i>; the mass of +points at the summit of the antler being termed either the <i>royal</i> +and <i>surroyal tines</i>, or collectively the <i>crown</i>. The nodulated bony +ring at the base of the antler, just above the point at which it<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_310"></a>[310]</span> +separates from the pedicle when it is shed, is termed the <i>burr</i>.</p> + +<figure class="figleft illowp50" id="figure121" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure121.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 121.</span>—Head of Antelope (<i>Gazella granti</i>), showing horns. From +Sir V. Brooke, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1878, p. 724.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>2. The horns of the <i>Bovidæ</i> consist of permanent, conical, +usually curved bony processes, into which air-cells continued from +the frontal sinuses +often extend, +called “horn-cores,” +ensheathed +in a case of true +horn, an epidermic +development +of fibrous structure, +which grows +continuously, +though slowly, +from the base, and +wears away at the +apex, but is very +rarely shed entire. +The only existing +species in which +the latter process +occurs regularly +and periodically +is the American +Prong-Buck +(<i>Antilocapra</i>), in +which the horns +also differ from +those of all others +in being bifurcated. +Horns are +not present at +birth, but begin +to grow very soon +afterwards. The +males of all existing +<i>Bovidæ</i> possess +them, and they are also present (though usually not so fully +developed) in the females of all except the genera <i>Boselaphus</i>, +<i>Strepsiceros</i>, <i>Tragelaphus</i>, <i>Antilope</i>, <i>Æpyceros</i>, <i>Saiga</i>, <i>Cobus</i>, <i>Cervicapra</i>, +<i>Pelea</i>, <i>Nanotragus</i>, <i>Neotragus</i>, <i>Cephalophus</i>, and <i>Tetraceros</i>; as well as +in some species of <i>Gazella</i>, such as <i>G. picticandata</i> and <i>G. walleri</i>.</p> + +<figure class="figright illowp70" id="figure122" style="max-width: 9.375em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure122.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 122.</span>—Crown surface +of a worn left upper +molar of <i>Palæomeryx sivalensis</i>, +to show brachydont +type. (From the <i>Palæontologia Indica</i>.)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>Another character by which different members of the <i>Pecora</i> can be +distinguished among themselves is derived from the nature of the molar +teeth. Although there is nothing in the general mode and arrangement +of the enamel-folds, or in the accessory columns, absolutely<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_311"></a>[311]</span> +distinctive between the two principal families, existing species may +generally be distinguished, inasmuch as the true molars of the <i>Cervidæ</i> +are more or less brachydont, and those of the <i>Bovidæ</i> generally +hypsodont, <i>i.e.</i>, the teeth of the former have +comparatively short crowns (<a href="#figure122">Fig. 122</a>), which, +as in most mammals, take their place at once +with the neck (or point where the crown and +root join) on a level with or a little above the +alveolar border, and remain in this position +throughout the animal’s life; whereas in the +other forms (<a href="#figure123">Fig. 123</a>), the crown being lengthened +and the root small, the neck does not come up +to the alveolar level until a considerable part +of the surface has worn away, and the crown of +the tooth thus appears for the greater part of +the animal’s life partially buried in the socket. +In this form of tooth (which is almost always most developed +in the posterior molars of the permanent series) the constituent +columns of the crown are necessarily nearly parallel, whereas +in the first-described they diverge from the neck towards the free +or grinding surface of the tooth. In the completely hypsodont +form the interstices of the lengthened columnar folds of enamel +and dentine are filled up with cement, which gives stability to +the whole organ, and is entirely or nearly wanting in the short-crowned +teeth. The same modification from low to high crowns +without essential alteration of pattern is seen in an even still +more marked manner in some of the Perissodactyle Ungulates, +the tooth of the Horse bearing to that of <i>Anchitherium</i> the same<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_312"></a>[312]</span> +relation as that of an Ox does to the early selenodont Artiodactyles. +A parallel modification has also taken place in the molar teeth of +the Proboscidea.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure123" style="max-width: 25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure123.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 123.</span>—Inner and outer aspects of an almost unworn left upper molar of the Nilghai +(<i>Boselaphus tragocamelus</i>), to show hypsodont type. (From the <i>Palæontologia Indica</i>.)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>As the hypsodont tooth is essentially a modification of, and, as +it were, an improvement upon, the brachydont, it is but natural to +expect that all intermediate forms may be met with. Even among +the Deer themselves, as pointed out by Lartet, the most ancient +have very short molars, and the depressions on the grinding surface +are so shallow that the bottom is always visible; while in the <i>Cervidæ</i> +of the more recent Tertiary periods, and especially the Pleistocene +and living species, these same cavities are so deep that whatever be +the state of the dentition the bottom cannot be seen. Some +existing Deer, as the Axis, are far more hypsodont than the majority +of the family; and, on the other hand, many of the Antelopes (as +<i>Tragelaphus</i>) retain much of the brachydont character, which is, +however, completely lost in the more modern and highly specialised +Sheep and Oxen.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure124" style="max-width: 25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure124.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 124.</span>—Stomach of Ruminant opened to show internal structure. <i>a</i>, Œsophagus; <i>b</i>, +rumen or paunch; <i>c</i>, reticulum or honey-comb bag; <i>d</i>, psalterium or manyplies; <i>e</i>, abomasum +or reed; <i>f</i>, duodenum.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The complicated stomach of the Pecora (<a href="#figure124">Fig. 124</a>), which is +necessary for the performance of the peculiar function known as +“chewing the cud”—a function common also to the Tragulina +and Tylopoda—is divided into four well-defined compartments, +known as (1) the Rumen or Paunch, (2) the Reticulum or Honey-comb +Bag, (3) the Psalterium or Manyplies, (4) the Abomasum +or Reed. The paunch is a very capacious receptacle, shaped like a +blunted cone bent partly upon itself. Into its broader base opens +the œsophagus or gullet at a spot not far removed from its wide +orifice of communication with the second stomach or honey-comb +bag. Its inner walls are nearly uniformly covered with a +pale mucous membrane, which is beset with innumerable close-set, +short, and slender villi, resembling very much the “pile” on<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_313"></a>[313]</span> +velvet. The honey-comb bag is very much smaller than the paunch. +It is nearly globose in shape, and receives its name on account of +the peculiar arrangement of its mucous membrane which forms +shallow hexagonal cells all over its inner surface. Running along +its upper wall there is a deep groove, coursing from the first to the +third stomach. This groove plays an important part in the act of +rumination. Its walls are muscular, like those of the viscus with +which it is associated, which allows its calibre to be altered. Sometimes +it completely closes round so as to become converted into a +tube by the opposition of its edges. At others it forms an open +canal. The manyplies is globular in form, and its lining membrane +is raised into longitudinal folds or laminæ arranged very much like +the leaves of a book, and very close together. Their surfaces +are roughened by the presence of small projections or papillæ. +The reed is the proper digestive stomach, corresponding with the +same organ in man. Its shape is somewhat pyriform, and its +walls are formed of a smooth mucous membrane, which secretes the +gastric juice.</p> + +<p>When the food is first swallowed it is conveyed into the paunch, +and after undergoing a softening process there it is regurgitated +into the mouth, and undergoes a further trituration by the molar +teeth and mixture with the secretion of the salivary and buccal +glands. It is then swallowed again, but now passes directly through +the before-mentioned groove into the manyplies, and, after filtering +through the numerous folds of the lining membrane of this cavity, +finally reaches the fourth or digestive stomach.</p> + +<p>The placenta of the Pecora is characterised by the fœtal villi +being collected into groups or cotyledons, which may present either +a convex or a concave surface to the uterus. These cotyledons are +received into permanent elevations in the mucous membrane of the +uterus, the surfaces of which present a curvature which is the +reverse of the cotyledons.</p> + +<h6><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Cervidæ</span>.</h6> + +<p>Frontal appendages, when present, in the form of antlers. First +molar, at least, in both jaws brachydont. Two orifices to the lachrymal +duct, situated on or inside the rim of the orbit. An antorbital or +lachrymal vacuity of such dimensions as to exclude the lachrymal bone +from articulation with the nasal. Upper canines usually present in +both sexes and sometimes attaining a very great size in the male +(see <a href="#figure134">Fig. 134</a>). Lateral digits of both fore and hind feet, almost +always present, and frequently the distal ends of the metapodials. +Placenta with few cotyledons. Gall-bladder absent (except in +<i>Moschus</i>). This family contains numerous species, having a wide<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_314"></a>[314]</span> +geographical distribution, ranging in the New World from the Arctic +Circle as far south as Chili, and in the Old World throughout the +whole of Europe and Asia, though absent in the Ethiopian and +Australian regions.</p> + +<p>It may be divided into two subfamilies.</p> + +<p>Subfamily <b>Moschinæ</b>.—This subfamily is represented solely by +the Musk-Deer, which differs so remarkably from the true Deer that +it is considered by several writers as the representative of a separate +family. The late Professor Garrod even suggested that it should +be regarded as an extremely aberrant member of the <i>Bovidæ</i>.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="figure125" style="max-width: 25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure125.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 125.</span>—The Musk-Deer (<i>Moschus moschiferus</i>).</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Moschus.</i><a id="FNanchor_194" href="#Footnote_194" class="fnanchor">[194]</a>—The Musk-Deer (<a href="#figure125">Fig. 125</a>) in many respects stands by +itself as an isolated zoological form, retaining characters belonging to +the older and more generalised types of ruminants before they were +distinctly separated into the horned and the antlered sections now +dominant upon the earth. One of these characters is that both +sexes are entirely devoid of any sort of frontal appendage. In this, +however, it agrees with one existing genus of true Deer (<i>Hydropotes</i>); +and, as in that animal, the upper canine teeth of the males are +remarkably developed, long, slender, sharp pointed, and gently +curved, projecting downwards out of the mouth with the ends +turned somewhat backwards. Vertebræ: C 7, D 14, L 5, S 5, C 6. +Among the anatomical peculiarities in which it differs from all<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_315"></a>[315]</span> +true Deer and agrees with the <i>Bovidæ</i> is the presence of a gall-bladder. +The hemispheres of the brain are but slightly convoluted, +and the cotyledons of the placenta are arranged in a peculiar linear +manner.<a id="FNanchor_195" href="#Footnote_195" class="fnanchor">[195]</a></p> + +<p>Although, owing to variations of colour presented by different +individuals in different localities and seasons, several nominal species +have been described, zoologists are now generally agreed that there +is but one, the <i>Moschus moschiferus</i> of Linnæus. In size it is rather +less than the European Roe Deer, being about 20 inches high at the +shoulder. Its limbs, especially the hinder ones, are long. The feet +are remarkable for the great development of the lateral pair of hoofs, +and for the freedom of motion they all present, so that they appear +to have the power of grasping projecting rocky points,—a power +which must be of great assistance to the animal in steadying it in +its agile bounds among the crags of its native haunts. The ears are +large, and the tail quite rudimentary. The hair covering the body +is long, coarse, and of a peculiarly brittle and pith-like character, +breaking with the application of an extremely slight force; it is +generally of a grayish-brown colour, sometimes inclined to yellowish-red, +and often variegated with lighter patches. The Musk-Deer has +a wide distribution over the highlands of central and eastern Asia, +including the greater part of southern Siberia, and extends to +Kashmir on the south-west and Cochin-China on the south-east, +always, however, at considerable elevations,—being rarely found in +summer below 7000 feet above the sea-level, and ranging as high as +the limits of the thickets of birch or pines, among which it mostly +conceals itself in the daytime. It is a hardy, solitary, and retiring +animal, chiefly nocturnal in its habits, and almost always found +alone, rarely in pairs, and never in herds. It is exceedingly active and +sure-footed, having few equals in traversing rocky and precipitous +ground; and it feeds on moss, grass, and leaves of the plants +which grow on the mountains among which it makes its home.</p> + +<p>Most of the animals of the group to which the Musk-Deer +belongs, in fact the large majority of mammals, have some portion +of the cutaneous surface peculiarly modified and provided with +glands secreting some odorous and oleaginous substance specially +characteristic of the species. This, correlated with the extraordinary +development of the olfactory organs, appears to offer the principal +means by which animals in a state of nature become aware of +the presence of other individuals of their own species, or of those +inimical to them, even at very great distances, and hence it is of +extreme importance both to the well-being of the individual and to +the continuance of the race. The situation of this specially modified +portion of skin is extremely various, sometimes between the toes,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_316"></a>[316]</span> +as in Sheep, sometimes on the face in front of the eyes, as in many +Deer and Antelopes. Sometimes it is in the form of a simple depression +or shallow recess, often very deeply involuted, and in its fullest +state of development it forms a distinct pouch or sac with a narrow +tubular orifice. In this sac a considerable quantity of the secretion +can accumulate until discharged by the action of a compressor +muscle which surrounds it. This is the form taken by the special +gland of the Musk-Deer, which has made the animal so well known, +and has proved the cause of an unremitting persecution to its +possessor. It is found in the male only, and is a sac about the size +of a very small orange, situated beneath the skin of the abdomen, +the orifice being immediately in front of the preputial aperture. +The secretion with which the sac is filled is of dark-brown or +chocolate colour, and when fresh described as being of the consistence +of “moist gingerbread,” but becoming dry and granular after +keeping. It has a peculiar and very powerful scent, which when +properly diluted and treated forms the basis of many of our most +admired perfumes. When the animal is killed the whole gland or +“pod” is cut out and dried, and in this form reaches the market of +the Western World, chiefly through China.</p> + +<p>Subfamily <b>Cervinæ.</b>—This subfamily includes all the true Deer. +According to the arrangement proposed by Sir V. Brooke<a id="FNanchor_196" href="#Footnote_196" class="fnanchor">[196]</a> the +existing <i>Cervinæ</i> may be divided into the sections Plesiometacarpalia +and Telemetacarpalia.</p> + +<p><b>Plesiometacarpalia.</b>—In this section, which is mainly characteristic +of the Old World, the proximal portions of the lateral (second +and fifth) metacarpals persist, and the vomer is never so ossified +as to divide the posterior osseous nares into two distinct passages. +The premaxillæ nearly always articulate with the nasals.</p> + +<p><i>Cervulus.</i><a id="FNanchor_197" href="#Footnote_197" class="fnanchor">[197]</a>—Antlers half the length of the head, placed on +pedicles nearly equal to them in length. Brow tine short, +inclined inwards and upwards; terminal extremity of beam +unbranched, and curved downwards and inwards. Lachrymal fossa +of skull very large, and extending into facial part of jugal; lachrymal +(antorbital) vacuity moderate. Ascending portion of premaxillæ +at least as long as nasals. A permanent ridge extending +from each pedicle over the orbit, lachrymal fossa and vacuity. +Auditory bulla much inflated. Upper canines of males very large. +Ectocuneiform united with naviculo-cuboid of tarsus. No traces of +the phalanges of the lateral digits.</p> + +<p>The native name Muntjac has been generally adopted in +European languages for a small group of Deer indigenous to the +southern and eastern parts of Asia and the adjacent islands, which +are separated by very marked characters from all their allies. <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_317"></a>[317]</span>They +are also called “Kijang” or “Kidjang,” and constitute the genus +<i>Cervulus</i> of Blainville and most zoologists;—<i>Styloceros</i> of Hamilton-Smith, +and <i>Prox</i> of Ogilby. They are all of small size compared +with the majority of Deer, and have long bodies and rather short +limbs and neck. The antlers, which as in most Deer are present in +the male only, are small and simple, and the main stem or beam, +after giving off a very short brow tine, inclines backwards and upwards, +is unbranched and pointed, and when fully developed curves +inwards and somewhat downwards at the tip. These small antlers +are supported upon pedicles or permanent processes of the frontal +bones, longer than in any other Deer, and the front edges of which +are continued downwards as strong ridges passing along the sides of +the face above the orbits, and serving to protect the large supraorbital +glands lying on their inner sides. The lachrymal fossa of +the skull, in which is lodged the large suborbital gland or crumen, +is of great depth and extent. The upper canine teeth of the males +are strongly developed and sharp, curving downwards, backwards, +and outwards, projecting visibly outside the mouth as tusks, and +loosely implanted in their sockets. In the females they are very +much smaller. The limbs exhibit several structural peculiarities not +found in other Deer. The lateral digits of both fore and hind feet are +very little developed, the hoofs alone being present and their bony +supports (found in all other Deer) wanting. There is a tufted gland +on the outer side of the metatarsus.</p> + +<p>The Muntjacs are solitary animals, very rarely even two being +seen together. They are fond of hilly ground covered with forests, +in the dense thickets of which they pass most of their time, only +coming to the skirts of the woods at morning and evening to +graze. They carry the head and neck low and the hind-quarters +high, their action in running being peculiar and not very elegant, +somewhat resembling the pace of a sheep. Though with no +power of sustained speed or extensive leap, they are remarkable +for flexibility of body and facility of creeping through tangled +underwood. They are often called by Indian sportsmen “Barking +Deer,” a name given on account of their alarm cry, a kind of +short shrill bark, like that of a fox but louder, which may often +be heard in the jungles they frequent both by day and by night. +When attacked by dogs the males use their sharp canine teeth +with great vigour, inflicting upon their opponents deep and even +dangerous wounds.</p> + +<p>There is some difference of opinion among zoologists as to the +number of species of the genus <i>Cervulus</i>. Sir Victor Brooke, who +investigated this question in 1878 (see <i>Proceedings of the Zoological +Society of London</i> for that year, p. 898), came to the conclusion that +there are certainly three which are quite well marked, viz.—</p> + +<p><i>C. muntjac</i> (<a href="#figure126">Fig. 126</a>), found in British India, Burma, the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_318"></a>[318]</span> Malay +Peninsula, Sumatra, Java, Hainan, Banca, and Borneo. The general +colour is a bright yellowish-red, darker in the upper parts of the +back; the fore legs from the shoulder downwards and the lower part +of the hind legs, dark bluish-brown; anterior parts of the face from +the muzzle to between the eyes, brown—a blackish line running up +the inside of each frontal ridge; chin, throat, inside of hind legs, +and under surface of tail white. The female has a black bristly +tuft of hair on the spot from which the pedicles of the antlers of the +male grow. The average length of the male, according to Jerdon, +is 3½ feet, tail 7 inches, height 26 to 28 inches. The female is a +little smaller. The specimens from Java, Sumatra, and Borneo are +of larger size than those from the mainland, and may possibly be of +distinct species or race.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp84" id="figure126" style="max-width: 28.125em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure126.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 126.</span>—The Muntjac (<i>Cervulus muntjac</i>).</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>C. lacrymans</i> of Milne-Edwards, or Sclater’s Muntjac of Swinhoe, +from Moupin, and near Hangchow, China.</p> + +<p><i>C. reevesi</i>, a very small species from southern China.</p> + +<p>Subsequently the name <i>C. crinifrons</i> has been applied to a Muntjac +from Ningpo, China, readily distinguished from all other species +by its bushy forehead and long tail. Another species from Tenasserim +has been described as <i>C. feæ</i>.</p> + +<p>Small Deer from the European Pliocene have been provisionally +referred to <i>Cervulus</i>, but the so-called <i>Prox furcatus</i>, of the Miocene, +is now included in <i>Palæomeryx</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_319"></a>[319]</span></p> + +<p><i>Elaphodus.</i><a id="FNanchor_198" href="#Footnote_198" class="fnanchor">[198]</a>—Antlers very small, unbranched, supported on long, +slender, converging pedicles. Ascending rami of premaxillæ shorter +than nasals. No supraorbital ridges or frontal glands. Upper +canines of male long, but not everted. A distinct frontal tuft +of hair. Other characters as in <i>Cervulus</i>.</p> + +<p>This genus (which has also received the name of <i>Lophotragus</i>) is +represented by a small Deer (<a href="#figure127">Fig. 127</a>) from China of about the +same size as the Indian Muntjac. The male has minute simple +antlers and very large canine teeth. There are no supraorbital +glands, nor is there a tufted gland on the metatarsus. The limbs +have the same peculiarities as in <i>Cervulus</i>, but the mesocuneiform +may also ankylose with the ectocuneiform, and traces of the metacarpals +may remain. The hair is coarse and somewhat quill-like.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp88" id="figure127" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure127.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 127.</span>—Male of <i>Elaphodus michianus</i>. From Sclater <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1876, p. 273.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Cervus.</i><a id="FNanchor_199" href="#Footnote_199" class="fnanchor">[199]</a>—The great majority of the Deer of the Old World may +be included in this large genus, which is one not easy of definition. +The antlers of the male are, however, large, and two or three times +the length of the head, and may be either rounded or palmate; the +canines are never large; the ectocuneiform of the tarsus remains +distinct from the naviculo-cuboid; the lateral digits are represented +by their phalanges; and the skull does not carry prominent frontal<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_320"></a>[320]</span> +ridges. Vertebræ: C 7, D 13, L 6, S 4, C 11-14. The size of the +lachrymal fossa and vacuity, and the degree of inflation of the auditory +bulla, are subject to variation in the different groups into +which the genus may be divided.</p> + +<p>The <i>Rusine</i> group is characteristic of the Oriental region, where +it is typically represented by the Sambur (<i>C. aristotelis</i>) of India, +Burma, and China. The antlers are rounded, and often strongly +grooved, without a bez tine, and with the beam simply forked at the +extremity, upright, and but slightly curved; the angle formed by +the brow tine, which rises close to the burr, being acute. The +molars are markedly hypsodont, with small accessory columns. The +lachrymal fossa is deep and the vacuity large; the auditory bulla +is slightly inflated and rugose. Tail moderate; neck maned.</p> + +<p>The Sambur, which is abundant in hilly districts, is a fine animal, +standing nearly 5 feet in height, and of massive build; the general +colour being deep brown. <i>C. equinus</i>, of Borneo, Sumatra, and +Singapore, <i>C. swinhoei</i>, of Formosa, <i>C. philippinus</i>, and <i>C. alfredi</i> of +the Philippines, are closely allied species, of which the two latter +are of smaller dimensions. The Indian Hog Deer (<i>C. porcinus</i>) is a +still smaller form, not larger than the Roe. <i>C. hippelaphus</i> of Java, +<i>C. timoriensis</i>, and <i>C. moluccensis</i> are distinguished by the posterior +branch of the beam of the antler being considerably larger than the +anterior.</p> + +<p>The <i>Rucervine</i> group is another strictly Oriental one, and is +represented by the Swamp Deer (<i>C. duvaucelli</i>) of India, the closely +allied <i>C. schomburgki</i> of Siam, of which the antlers are shown in +<a href="#figure119">Fig. 119</a> (<a href="#figure119">p. 309</a>), and <i>C. eldi</i> of Burma and Hainan. The beam of +the antler is somewhat flattened, and more curved than in the Rusine +group; the large brow tine is given off from the beam at an obtuse +angle and curves upwards; the beam bifurcates into two branches, +which again divide. Skull as in the Rusine group, but relatively +narrower. Tail short; neck maned.</p> + +<p>The Swamp Deer is somewhat smaller than the Sambur, and of +a full yellowish colour. Fossil representatives of this group occur +in the Pliocene of India.</p> + +<p>The <i>Elaphurine</i> group is represented only by the very aberrant +<i>C. davidianus</i> of Northern China. In size and proportions this +species approximates to the Swamp Deer, but the antlers are peculiar +in rising straight from the brow and then giving off a long and +straight back tine (correlated by Sir V. Brooke with the posterior +branch of the Rusine antler); the summit of the beam is forked, +and in old individuals the two tines of the fork may again branch. +Nasals long, and much expanded between the lachrymal vacuities, +of which they form the inner border; lachrymal fossa large and +deep. Tail long; neck maned.</p> + +<p>The <i>Axine</i> group includes only the well-known Axis of India,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_321"></a>[321]</span> +readily distinguished by the white spots with which the body is +marked. Antlers of a Rusine type, the beam being much +curved, and the brow tine usually given off at an acute or +right angle. Molars very hypsodont. The coloration of the +Axis is more brilliant than that of any other member of the +family.</p> + +<p>Here may be noticed a group of Deer mainly characteristic of +the eastern Palæarctic region, frequently known as the <i>Pseudaxine</i> +group, which appears to connect the Axine with the Elaphine +type. Well-known representatives of this group are <i>C. sika</i> (<a href="#figure128">Fig. +128</a>) of Japan, <i>C. mantchuricus</i> of China, and <i>C. taëvanus</i> of Formosa. +The antlers have a brow and tres tine, and then a forked beam, of +which the posterior tine is the smaller. The lachrymal vacuity +and fossa are of moderate size; and the auditory bulla is only +moderately inflated, and quite smooth externally. Tail moderate; +neck maned. In summer the coat is spotted, but is plain in +winter. A herd of <i>C. sika</i> have been acclimatised in Ireland +by Viscount Powerscourt, at Powerscourt, County Wicklow. A +number of Deer from the Pliocene of Europe, such as <i>C. perrieri</i> +and <i>C. etueriarum</i>, appear to be allied both to the Pseudaxine and +Axine groups.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp90" id="figure128" style="max-width: 28.125em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure128.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 128.</span>—The Japanese Deer (<i>Cervus sika</i>). From Lord Powerscourt, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> +1884, p. 209.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The <i>Elaphine</i> or typical group is at once characterised by the +presence of a bez tine to the antlers (<a href="#figure129">Fig. 129</a>), in which the beam<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_322"></a>[322]</span> +is rounded, and splits up near the summit into a larger or smaller +number of snags, often arranged in a cup-like manner. Skull as +in the preceding group. All the species large. The Red Deer, +<i>C. elaphus</i>, which is dark brown in colour, with a light patch on +the rump, inhabits Europe, Western Asia, and Northern Africa—the +so-called Barbary Deer not being specifically distinct. A full-grown +Scotch Stag is fully 4 feet in height at the withers. The antlers are +shed between the end of February and the early part of April; old +animals shedding earlier than younger ones. The young, which +(as in all the members of the genus except some of the Rusine +species) are spotted, are born at the end of May or the beginning +of June. The points on the antlers increase in number with the +age of the creature, and when twelve are present it is known in +Scotland as a “royal stag.” This number, however, is sometimes +exceeded, as in the case of a pair of antlers, weighing 74 lbs., from +a stag killed in Transylvania, which had forty-five points. The +antlers during the second year consist of a simple unbranched stem, +to which a tine or branch is added in each succeeding year, until +the normal development is attained, after which their growth is +somewhat irregular. Many of the antlers dug up in British peat-beds +(as <a href="#figure118">Fig. 118</a>) are larger than those of living individuals, and +in the cave-deposits of England and the Continent antlers are met<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_323"></a>[323]</span> +with rivalling those of the Wapiti in size; these large fossil antlers +probably indicating the ancestral form from which the Red Deer +and several of the allied species are descended.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp85" id="figure129" style="max-width: 25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure129.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 129.</span>—Head of the Wapiti (<i>Cervus canadensis</i>).</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The North American Wapiti (<i>Cervus canadensis</i>, <a href="#figure129">Fig. 129</a>), the +Persian Maral (<i>C. maral</i>), the Kashmir Stag (<i>C. cashmeerianus</i>), as +well as <i>C. affinis</i> of Tibet, are all closely allied to the Red Deer, but +are of larger size, this being especially the case with the first two. +A fine example of the antlers of the Wapiti is shown in the +accompanying woodcut, and exhibits the absence of a cup at the +surroyals, by which this species is distinguished from the Red Deer.</p> + +<p>The last, or <i>Damine</i> group of existing Deer includes the Common +and the Persian Fallow Deer. These are readily characterised +by the palmation of the antlers in the region of the surroyals +and the spotted coat. The Common Fallow Deer (<i>C. dama</i>) stands +about three feet in height. The Persian Fallow Deer (<i>C. +mesopotamicus</i>) is very closely allied, differing only in its slightly +larger size and the form of the antlers, the two breeding together. +The common species, although now kept in English parks, does not +appear to be a native of this country, having probably been +introduced from the regions bordering the Mediterranean. The fur +is of a yellowish-brown colour (whence the name “fallow”), marked +with white spots; there is, however, a uniformly dark brown variety +found in Britain. The bucks and does live apart, except during the +pairing season; and the doe produces one or two, and sometimes +three fawns at a birth. The Fallow Deer from the Pleistocene and +Pliocene deposits of the East Coast described under the names of +<i>C. browni</i> and <i>C. falconeri</i> appear to have been closely allied to the +existing species. The remarkable <i>C. verticornis</i>, of the Norfolk +Forest-bed, is regarded as an aberrant member of this group, in +which the antlers are very short and thick, with the brow tine +cylindrical and downwardly curved, and the beam expanded above +the tres tine into a crown with two points.</p> + +<p>The extinct Irish Deer (<i>Cervus giganteus</i>), of which the skeleton +is shown in the woodcut (<a href="#figure130">Fig. 130</a>), is the only representative of the +<i>Megacerotine</i> group. The antlers, which may have a span of over +11 feet, are enormously palmated, and have a bifurcated brow +tine, a small bez tine, and a third posterior tine. The skeleton +measures upwards of 6 feet at the withers. Remains of this +species are especially common in the peat-bogs of Ireland, but are +also met with in Pleistocene deposits over a large part of Europe. +In addition to the forms already mentioned there are many other +fossil species of <i>Cervus</i>, some of which, like the English Pleistocene +<i>C. sedgewicki</i>, cannot be included in any of the existing groups. +There is no conclusive evidence of the existence of any species of +<i>Cervus</i> before the Lower Pliocene period.</p> + +<p><b>Telemetacarpalia.</b>—This section includes all the Deer of <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_324"></a>[324]</span>the New +World, together with some Old World forms, and is characterised +by retaining the distal extremities of the lateral (second +and fifth) metacarpals. With the exception of <i>Alces</i>, <i>Capreolus</i>, +and <i>Hydropotes</i> (which are either partly or entirely Old World +types), the vomer is so much ossified as to divide the posterior +bony nares into two distinct orifices (<a href="#figure132">Fig. 132</a>).</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp67" id="figure130" style="max-width: 28.125em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure130.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 130.</span>—Skeleton of the Gigantic Irish Deer (<i>Cervus giganteus</i>). After Owen.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Rangifer.</i><a id="FNanchor_200" href="#Footnote_200" class="fnanchor">[200]</a>—The Reindeer, or Caribou as it is termed in North +America, is the sole representative of the genus <i>Rangifer</i>, which +is sufficiently distinguished from all its allies by the presence of +antlers in both sexes. The lachrymal vacuity is small. This +animal is distributed over the northern parts of Europe, Asia, and +America; the differences which may be observable in specimens from +different regions not being sufficient to allow of specific distinction.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_325"></a>[325]</span> +The Reindeer is a heavily built animal, with short limbs, in which +the lateral hoofs are well developed, and the cleft between the +two main hoofs is very deep, so that these hoofs spread out as +the animal traverses the snow-clad regions in which it dwells. +The antlers +(<a href="#figure131">Fig. 131</a>) are +of very large +relative size. +There is a bez +as well as a +brow tine, which +are peculiar in +being either +branched or +palmated. In +the American +race (Caribou), +as well as +in some of +the specimens +found fossil in +the English +Pleistocene +(<a href="#figure131">Fig. 131</a>), one +of the brow +tines is generally +aborted to +allow of the +great development +of the +other. The +dentition of the Reindeer is frequently remarkable for the very +small size of the posterior lobe of the last lower molar. Vertebræ: +C 7, D 14, L 5, S 5, C 11.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp66" id="figure131" style="max-width: 25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure131.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 131.</span>—Skull and antlers of the Reindeer (<i>Rangifer tarandus</i>), +from an English Pleistocene deposit. <i>br</i>, Brow tine; <i>bz</i>, bez tine. +(After Owen.)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The Reindeer has long been domesticated in Scandinavia, and is +of especial value to the Laplanders, whom it serves as a substitute +for the Horse, Cow, Sheep, and Goat. It is capable of drawing a +weight of 300 lbs., and its fleetness and endurance are remarkable. +Harnessed to a sledge it will travel without difficulty 100 miles a +day over the frozen snow, on which its broad and deeply cleft hoofs +are admirably adapted for travelling. During the summer the +Lapland Reindeer feeds chiefly on the young shoots of the willow +and birch; and since at this season migration to the coast seems +necessary to the well-being of this animal, the Laplander, with his +herds, sojourns for several months in the neighbourhood of the sea. +In winter its food consists chiefly of the so-called reindeer-moss<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_326"></a>[326]</span> and +other lichens which the animal makes use of its hoofs in seeking +for beneath the snow. The wild Reindeer grows to a much greater +size than the tame breed; but in Northern Europe the former +are being gradually reduced through the natives entrapping and +domesticating them. +The tame breed found +in Northern Asia is +much larger than the +Lapland form, and is +there used to ride on. +Remains referable to +the existing species are +found in the cavern +and other Pleistocene +deposits of Europe.</p> + +<figure class="figright illowp64" id="figure132" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure132.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 132.</span>—Hinder part of the base of the cranium of the +Virginian Deer (<i>Cariacus virginianus</i>). From Garrod, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1877, p. 13.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Alces.</i><a id="FNanchor_201" href="#Footnote_201" class="fnanchor">[201]</a>—The Elk or +Moose (<i>Alces machlis</i>) +has the same general +distribution as the +Reindeer, and is likewise +the single existing +representative of its +genus. It is the largest +existing member of the +family, attaining sometimes +a height of 8 feet +at the withers. The +antlers (<a href="#figure133">Fig. 133</a>) have neither brow nor bez tine, but form an +enormous basin-shaped palmation, primarily composed of an anterior +and a posterior branch; their weight may be as much as 60 lbs. +The nasal bones are very short, and the narial aperture of great +size. The Elk is covered with a thick coarse fur of a brownish +colour, longest on the neck and throat. Its legs are long and +its neck short, and as it is thus unable to feed close to the +ground, it browses on the tops of low plants, the leaves of +trees, and the tender shoots of the willow and birch. Its antlers +attain their full length by the fifth year, but in after years they +increase in breadth and in the number of snags, until fourteen of +these are produced. Although spending a large part of their lives +in forests, Elks do not suffer much inconvenience from the great +expanse of their antlers, as in making their way among trees +they are carried horizontally to prevent entanglement with the +branches. Their usual pace is a shambling trot, but when frightened +they break into a gallop. The natural timidity of the Elk +forsakes the male at the rutting season, and he will then attack<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_327"></a>[327]</span> +whatever animal comes in his way. The antlers and hoofs are his +principal weapons, and with a single blow from the latter he has +been known to kill a wolf. The female often gives birth to two +fawns, and with these she retires into the deepest recesses of the +forest, the young remaining with her till their third year. The Elk +ranges, but in scanty numbers, over the whole of Northern Europe +and Asia, as far south as East Prussia, the Caucasus, and North +China, and over North America from the New England States +westward to British Columbia. Fossil species are found in the +Pleistocene deposits of Europe.</p> + +<p><i>Cervalces.</i><a id="FNanchor_202" href="#Footnote_202" class="fnanchor">[202]</a>—A remarkable extinct Deer from the Pleistocene of +North America, described as <i>Cervalces</i>, appears in some respects +(although a true Telemetacarpalian) to connect <i>Alces</i> with <i>Cervus</i>. +Thus the palmated antlers are divided into anterior and posterior +branches, but below this division there are two tines apparently +corresponding to the bez and posterior tines of <i>Cervus giganteus</i> +(<a href="#figure130">Fig. 130</a>).</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure133" style="max-width: 25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure133.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 133.</span>—Head of Elk (<i>Alces machlis</i>).</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Capreolus.</i><a id="FNanchor_203" href="#Footnote_203" class="fnanchor">[203]</a>—Antlers (in the existing species) less than twice the +length of the head, usually with three tines on each. Brow tine +developed from the anterior surface of the upper half of the antler, +and directed upwards. Lachrymal vacuity small. Premaxillæ not +always articulating with nasals. Auditory bullæ slightly inflated, +rugose externally. Vertebræ: C 7, D 13, L 6, S 6, C 8. Tail very +short. Glands in fore feet rudimentary; large in hind feet.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_328"></a>[328]</span></p> + +<p>The Roe, or Roe Deer (<i>Capreolus caprea</i>), is a small form distributed +over Europe and Western Asia, being one of the species +found in the British Isles. The male is somewhat over two feet +in height at the withers, of a dark reddish-brown colour in summer, +with a white patch on the rump. The small antlers are approximated +at their bases, and consist of a rugged beam rising vertically +for some distance, then bifurcating, and the posterior branch again +dividing. The Roe dates from the Pleistocene period. Extinct +Deer from the Continental Pliocene have been provisionally referred +to <i>Capreolus</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Hydropotes.</i><a id="FNanchor_204" href="#Footnote_204" class="fnanchor">[204]</a>—No antlers in either sex. Lachrymal fossa deep +and short (<a href="#figure134">Fig. 134</a>); lachrymal vacuity of moderate size. Orbits +small and but slightly prominent. Auditory bulla much inflated. +Angle of mandible much produced backwardly (<a href="#figure134">Fig. 134</a>); alveolar +margins of mandible in diastema sharp and everted. Canines of +male very large, and slightly convergent. Vertebræ: C 7, D 12, +L 6, S 4, C 10. No tufts +on metatarsals. Foot +glands small in fore feet, +deep in hind ones.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure134" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure134.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 134.</span>—The left lateral view of the skull of a male Chinese Water Deer (<i>Hydropotes +inermis</i>), with the wall of the maxilla cut away to show the root of the canine. ½ natural +size. (From Sir V. Brooke, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1872, p. 524.)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<figure class="figleft illowp100" id="figure135" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure135.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 135.</span>—Upper surface of the brain of <i>Hydropotes +inermis</i>. (From Garrod, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1877, p. 792.)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The Chinese Water +Deer (<i>H. inermis</i>) is the +sole representative of this +genus. In the absence of +antlers and the large canines +of the male it resembles +<i>Moschus</i>, although very +different in other respects. +Thus the brain (<a href="#figure135">Fig. 135</a>) +has the hemispheres much<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_329"></a>[329]</span> +convoluted, as in other <i>Cervinæ</i>, and approximates to that of <i>Pudua</i>; +while the placenta and viscera likewise agree with those of the true +Deer. In the total absence of any ossification of the vomer to +divide the posterior nares <i>Hydropotes</i> resembles <i>Capreolus</i> and differs +from all the following genera. The Chinese Water-Deer is nearly +of the same size as the Indian Muntjac. It has short legs and a +long body, the hair covering the latter being of a light reddish-brown. +It is a remarkably prolific animal, differing from all other +Deer in producing five or six young at a time.</p> + +<p>The mandible of a ruminant from the Middle Miocene of Gers +in France, described under the name of <i>Platyprosopus</i>, presents such +a marked resemblance to <i>Hydropotes</i> in the form of the angle as to +suggest a more or less intimate affinity.</p> + +<p><i>Cariacus.</i><a id="FNanchor_205" href="#Footnote_205" class="fnanchor">[205]</a>—Skull (<a href="#figure132">Fig. 132</a>) with the vomer dividing the +posterior nares into two distinct chambers; premaxillæ not reaching +nasals. Antlers never greatly exceeding the length of the head. +Lachrymal vacuity very large, and lachrymal fossa small. Auditory +bullæ slightly inflated. Vertebræ: C 7, D 13, L 6, S 4, C 13. Tail +long or short. Colour uniform in adult.</p> + +<p>This genus, which agrees with the Reindeer in the division of +the posterior nares by the ossified vomer, comprises a number of +species confined to the New World, none of which attain very +large dimensions, and the antlers of which are relatively smaller +than in the existing species of <i>Cervus</i>. The genus may be divided +into groups.</p> + +<p>The typical <i>Cariacine</i> group, as represented by <i>C. virginianus</i>, +has well-developed antlers, with a short brow tine rising from +the inner side of the beam, and directed upwards, and several +branches; a long tail; and no upper canines. In this species, as +well as in <i>C. mexicanus</i> and other forms, the antlers do not divide +dichotomously, and the lachrymal fossa is of moderate depth. The +Mule Deer (<i>C. macrotis</i>) of North America is distinguished by the +dichotomous branching of the antlers and the deeper lachrymal +fossa. The Virginian Deer is somewhat smaller than the Fallow +Deer, and of a uniform reddish-yellow colour in summer, and light +gray in winter.</p> + +<p>The <i>Blastocerine</i> group of South America is represented by <i>C. +paludosus</i> and <i>C. campestris</i>, and has dichotomous antlers, with no +brow tine, and the posterior branch the larger, a short tail, and no +upper canines. The <i>Furciferine</i> group includes <i>C. chilensis</i> and +<i>C. antisiensis</i>, confined to western South America. The antlers are +not longer than the head, with a large anterior tine curving forwards +at right angles to the simple posterior one. Auditory bullæ slightly +inflated, and rugose. Upper canines may be present. The species +are of medium size. <i>C. clavatus</i>, of Central America, while<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_330"></a>[330]</span> resembling +this group in the characters of the skull and the arrangement +of the hair on the face, agrees with the next one in having simple +spike-like antlers.</p> + +<p>The South American <i>Coassine</i> group comprises the small forms +known as Brockets, in which the antlers form simple spikes not +exceeding half the length of the head. Some six species are known.</p> + +<p>Remains of <i>Cariacus</i>, mostly or entirely referable to existing +species, are of common occurrence in the Brazilian cave-deposits. +<i>Blastomeryx</i>, of the Pliocene of North America, is believed to be an +allied type.</p> + +<p><i>Pudua.</i><a id="FNanchor_206" href="#Footnote_206" class="fnanchor">[206]</a>—Antlers in the form of minute simple spikes. +Distinguished from the Coassine group of <i>Cariacus</i> by the articulation +of the premaxillæ with the nasals (as in the <i>Furciferine</i> group), +and the coalescence of the ectocuneiform with the naviculo-cuboid, +as well as by various external characters. No upper canines. Represented +only by the very small <i>P. humilis</i> of the Chilian Andes.</p> + +<p><i>Extinct Genera.</i>—In the European and other Tertiary deposits +several genera of extinct <i>Cervidæ</i> occur, of which the more important +may be briefly mentioned. <i>Amphitragulus</i>, of the Lower Miocene +of the Continent, has four lower premolars, brachydont molars, and +no antlers; the largest species being somewhat bigger than the +Musk-Deer. The closely allied <i>Palæomeryx</i> (<i>Dremotherium</i> or <i>Micromeryx</i>) +generally has but three lower premolars, and the brachydont +upper molars (<a href="#figure122">Fig. 122</a>), like those of <i>Amphitragulus</i>, want the small +accessory inner column<a id="FNanchor_207" href="#Footnote_207" class="fnanchor">[207]</a> found in modern Deer. In <i>P. feignouxi</i>, of +the Lower Miocene, the lateral metacarpals, although slender, were +complete, and the males had large canines, but no antlers. +<i>P. furcatus</i>, of the Middle Miocene, had small antlers, and the canines +appear to have been reduced in size. This genus, besides being represented +in the European Miocene, also occurs in the Pliocene of India +and China; some of the species being as large as the Red Deer.</p> + +<h6><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Giraffidæ</span>.</h6> + +<p>In the existing genus the frontal appendages consist of a pair +of short, erect, permanent bony processes placed over the union of +the frontal and the parietal bones, ossified from distinct centres, +though afterwards ankylosed to the skull, covered externally with +a hairy skin, present in both sexes, and even in the new-born animal. +Anterior to these is a median protuberance on the frontal and +contiguous parts of the nasal bones, which increases with age, and +is sometimes spoken of as a third horn. Skull with a lachrymal<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_331"></a>[331]</span> +vacuity. No upper canines. Molars brachydont, with rugose +enamel; the upper ones having no inner accessory column. Lateral +digits entirely absent on both fore and hind feet, even the hoofs +not developed. Humerus with double bicipital groove. Vertebræ: +C 7, D 14, L 5, S 3, C 20. Gall-bladder generally absent. Male +reproductive organs and placenta of a Bovine type. Dentition: +<i>i</i> ⁰⁄₃, <i>c</i> ⁰⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp48" id="figure136" style="max-width: 28.125em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure136.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 136.</span>—The Giraffe (<i>Giraffa camelopardalis</i>).</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Giraffa.</i><a id="FNanchor_208" href="#Footnote_208" class="fnanchor">[208]</a>—The Giraffe (<i>G. camelopardalis</i>) is the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_332"></a>[332]</span> + sole existing +representative of the genus, now confined to the Ethiopian region.</p> + +<p>In addition to the characters noticed above, the Giraffe is +characterised by its great size and peculiar proportions; the neck +and limbs being of great length, and the back inclining upwards +from the loins to the withers.</p> + +<p>To produce the extremely elongated neck the seven cervical +vertebræ are proportionately long, which gives a somewhat stiff and +awkward motion to the neck. The ears are large, the lips long and +thin, the nostrils closable at the will of the animal, the tongue very +long and extensile, and the tail of considerable length, with a large +terminal tuft. An adult male may have a total height of 16 feet. +The coloration consists of large blotches of darker or lighter chestnut-brown +on a paler ground, the lower limbs and under parts being of +a uniform pale colour. The Giraffe feeds almost exclusively on the +foliage of trees, showing a preference for certain varieties of mimosa, +and for the young shoots of the prickly acacia, for browsing on +which its prehensile tongue and large free lips are specially adapted. +It is gregarious in its habits, living in small herds of about twenty +individuals, although Sir S. Baker, who hunted it in Abyssinia, +states that he has seen as many as a hundred together.</p> + +<p>Fossil species of <i>Giraffa</i> occur in Pliocene deposits over Greece, +Persia, India, and China, thus affording one of many striking instances +of the former wide distribution of the generic types now confined to +the Ethiopian region.</p> + +<p><i>Allied Extinct Types.</i>—The Pliocene deposits of many parts of the +Old World yield remains of a number of large Ruminants which show +such evident signs of affinity with the Giraffe that it is difficult to +draw up a definition by which they can be separated in characters of +family value from that genus. On the other hand, some of these +forms approximate in the characters of the skull to some of the +brachydont members of the <i>Bovidæ</i>, although it is quite clear from +the nature of the cranial appendages that they cannot be included in +that family. All these forms have brachydont molars, with rugose +enamel, like those of the Giraffe; while several of them have limb-bones +approximating to those of the latter—the humerus, when +known, having a double bicipital groove. The nature of the cranial +appendages (when present) is not fully understood, but it appears +that in some cases these approximated more to the type of an antler +than to that of a horn; although, from the absence of a “burr,” they +appear never to have been shed. A gradual diminution in the +length of the limbs and neck can be traced from the more Giraffoid +to the more Bovoid forms of this extinct group; and it is manifest +that if these animals be included in the <i>Giraffidæ</i> the definition of +that family as given above must be somewhat modified. Only brief +mention can be made of the more important genera.</p> + +<p>The imperfectly known <i>Vishnutherium</i>, of the Pliocene of India<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_333"></a>[333]</span> +and Burma, seems to make the nearest approach to the Giraffe, but +the limbs and cervical vertebræ were decidedly shorter, although of +a similar slender type. <i>Helladotherium</i>, of the Pliocene of Greece +and India, is represented by a species of considerably larger size +than the Giraffe, with no appendages or lachrymal vacuity to the +skull, and with shorter and stouter limbs and neck.</p> + +<p><i>Hydaspitherium</i>, <i>Bramatherium</i>, and <i>Sivatherium</i> are Indian genera, +characterised by the presence of large palmated and antler-like +cranial appendages, varying considerably in arrangement. The +former genus has a large lachrymal vacuity which is absent in the +two latter. In the first and second genera all the appendages rise +from a common base; but in <i>Sivatherium</i> there is a pair of simple +horn-like projections on the orbits in addition to the posterior +palmated antlers. <i>Sivatherium</i> was an animal of huge bulk, being +the largest known representative of the Pecora.</p> + +<p>Another apparently allied type is <i>Samotherium</i>, of the Pliocene +of the Isle of Samos, which appears also to have some affinity with +the Antelopes. The skull is nearly as large as that of the Giraffe, +and is of the same elongated shape, although depressed between the +conical horn-cores, which rise vertically above the orbits, and without +a median bony prominence on the frontals. The horn-cores form +mere processes of the frontals. The diastema and the mandibular +symphysis are shorter than in the Giraffe, and the latter is less +deflected. The teeth, although larger, are almost indistinguishable +from those of the Giraffe, the only well-marked difference being that +the last lower premolar has a double in place of a single postero-internal +column.</p> + +<h6><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Antilocapridæ</span>.</h6> + +<p>Closely allied to the <i>Bovidæ</i>, but the horns deciduous and branched.</p> + +<p><i>Antilocapra.</i><a id="FNanchor_209" href="#Footnote_209" class="fnanchor">[209]</a>—The Prong-buck, or Prong-horned Antelope +(<i>Antilocapra americana</i>), as the single existing member of this family +is called, is an animal of nearly the same size as the Fallow Deer, +but of a lighter and more graceful build. It is an inhabitant of the +prairies of North America, where it is one of the few representatives +of the Cavicorn Pecora. The bony horn-cores are unbranched, +and form vertical, blade-like projections immediately above the +orbit. The horns themselves are compressed, and nearly one foot in +length, having a gentle backward curvature, the short branch arising +somewhat above the middle of its height, and inclining forwards. +When the horn is about to be cast off it becomes loosened, and a +new one is formed upon the bony core beneath it. The ears are +long and pointed, and the tail is short. The neck has a thick mane +of long<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_334"></a>[334]</span> chestnut-coloured hair, and there is a white patch on the +rump.</p> + +<h6><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Bovidæ</span>.</h6> + +<p>Frontal appendages, when present, in the form of non-deciduous +horns. Molars frequently hypsodont. Usually only one orifice to +the lachrymal canal, situated inside the rim of the orbit. Lachrymal +bone almost always articulating with the nasal. Canines absent in +both sexes. The lateral toes may be completely absent, but more +often they are represented by the hoofs alone, supported sometimes +by a very rudimentary skeleton, consisting of mere irregular +nodules of bone. Distal ends of the lateral metapodials never +present. Gall-bladder almost always present. The number of +cotyledons in the placenta generally varies from 60 to 100; whereas +in the <i>Cervidæ</i> the number is usually from 5 to 12, <i>Capreolus</i> and +<i>Hydropotes</i> having the fewest. In <i>Giraffa</i> the number is upwards of +180. The nature of the horns and horn-cores has been already +explained; in the majority of genera these appendages are present +in both sexes, although much larger in the male (see <a href="#Page_310">p. 310</a>).</p> + +<p>The <i>Bovidæ</i>, or hollow-horned Ruminants (Cavicornia), form a +most extensive family, with members widely distributed throughout +the Old World, with the exception of the Australian region; +but in America they are less numerous, and confined to the Arctic +and northern temperate regions, no species being indigenous either +to South or Central America. There is scarcely any natural and +well-defined group in the whole class which presents greater +difficulties of subdivision than this; consequently zoologists are as +yet very little agreed as to the extent and boundaries of the genera +into which it should be divided. For the present the genera +provisionally adopted may be arranged under a number of sections +or groups, which some writers regard as subfamilies. The series +may be commenced with the Antelopes, the greater number of which +are now characteristic of the Ethiopian region.</p> + +<p><i>Alcelaphine Section.</i>—Includes large African Antelopes, of which +the type genus ranges into Syria; generally characterised by their +great height at the withers as compared with the rump. Skull with +large frontal sinuses, extending into the horn-cores, and the horns lyre-shaped +or recurved, and more or less approximated at the base. No +large pits at apertures of supraorbital foramina in frontals; upper +molars hypsodont and narrow. Horns in both sexes. General +colour mostly uniform.</p> + +<p><i>Alcelaphus.</i><a id="FNanchor_210" href="#Footnote_210" class="fnanchor">[210]</a>—If <i>Damalis</i> be included, this genus is represented +by some nine or ten living species. Head more or less long and +narrow, with the muffle moderately broad and naked. Nostrils +approximated, edged with stiff hairs. Horns compressed and ringed +at the base, more or less lyrate, and bent back at the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_335"></a>[335]</span> tips. Hoofs +small. Tail of moderate length, and heavy. Two mammæ.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="figure137" style="max-width: 25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure137.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 137.</span>—The Harte-beest (<i>Alcelaphus caama</i>).</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>In the typical forms, such as the Bubaline Antelope (<i>A. bubalinus</i>), +the Harte-beest (<i>A. caama</i>, <a href="#figure137">Fig. 137</a>), and the Tora Antelope +(<i>A. tora</i>, <a href="#figure138">Fig. 138</a>), the horns, which present the peculiar curvature +shown in the figures, are situated on a crest at the vertex of the skull, +and the facial portion of the cranium is greatly elongated. The Harte-beest, +which is found throughout Central and Southern Africa, +stands nearly 5 feet high at the withers, and is a somewhat ungainly +looking animal, with short hair, which is grayish-brown above +and nearly white beneath. In the Pliocene of the Siwalik Hills in +Northern India there occur remains of an <i>Alcelaphus</i> (<i>A. palæindicus</i>) +in which the skull had the long facial portion characteristic of the +typical group, while the horns approximate to those of the +Bontebok. The Blessbok (<i>A. albifrons</i>) and Bontebok (<i>A. pygargus</i>), +belonging to the genus <i>Damalis</i> of many authors, have the facial +portion of the skull shorter, the horns situated more in advance of +the plane of the occiput, and inclining regularly backwards. Of the +Blessbok Mr. C. J. Anderson observes that “it is of a beautiful +violet colour, and is found in company with black Wildebeests and +Springboks in countless thousands on the vast green plains of short +crisp, sour grass occupying a central position in South Africa. Cattle +and horses refuse to pasture on the grassy products of these plains, +which afford sustenance to myriads of this Antelope, whose skin<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_336"></a>[336]</span> +emits a most delicious and powerful perfume of flowers and sweet-smelling +herbs.” Since the time this was written these Antelopes +have been greatly reduced in number. <i>A. (Damalis) hunteri</i>, from +East Africa, appears to be allied to <i>A. senegalensis</i>, but in the more +elongated facial portion of the skull approximates to the Harte-beest, +and thus confirms the view that <i>Damalis</i> should not form a distinct +genus.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp56" id="figure138" style="max-width: 23.4375em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure138.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 138.</span>—Head of <i>Alcelaphus tora</i>. From Sclater, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1873, p. 762.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Connochætes.</i><a id="FNanchor_211" href="#Footnote_211" class="fnanchor">[211]</a>—Head short and massive, with the muffle very +broad and bristly. Nostrils widely separated, hairy within. Horns +on the vertex of the skull, immediately over the occiput, approximated +at base, cylindrical, bent outwards, and recurving upwards +at the tip. Extremities of premaxillæ much expanded laterally, +and firmly ankylosed. Vertebræ: C 7, D 14, L 6, S 4, C 16. +Hoofs very narrow. Tail very long, covered throughout with long<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_337"></a>[337]</span> +hairs. Four mammæ. Two species, <i>C. taurina</i> and <i>C. gnu</i> (<a href="#figure139">Fig. 139</a>), +both from South Africa. The former, or Brindled Gnu, is distinguished +by the absence of long hair on the face, the black (instead +of white) tail, and the presence of dark vertical streaks on the +shoulders; it is never found to the south of the Orange River.</p> + +<p>The White-tailed Gnu stands about 4 feet 6 inches at the +withers. These animals were formerly found in large herds, and +are remarkable not only on account of their peculiar form, but also +for their grotesque actions when alarmed. Some interesting +observations have recently been published upon the mode of +development of the horns of the Gnu,<a id="FNanchor_212" href="#Footnote_212" class="fnanchor">[212]</a> from which it appears that +in very young individuals the horns are straight and divergent, +situated some distance below the vertex of the head, and separated +by a wide hairy interval. These young horns form the straight +tips of those of the adult, the basal downwardly curved portion +being subsequently developed. In the fully adult animal the base +of the horns forms a helmet-like mass on the forehead which +completely obliterates the hairy frontal space of the young.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp79" id="figure139" style="max-width: 28.125em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure139.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 139.</span>—The White-tailed Gnu (<i>Connochætes gnu</i>).</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Cephalophine Section.</i>—Small or medium-sized African and +Indian Antelopes, with simple horns present only in the males, a +more or less elongated suborbital gland, a lachrymal depression +in the skull, and square-crowned<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_338"></a>[338]</span> upper molars (<a href="#figure140">Fig. 140</a>). Lateral +hoofs well developed.</p> + +<p><i>Cephalophus.</i><a id="FNanchor_213" href="#Footnote_213" class="fnanchor">[213]</a>—One pair of horns, arising far back on the frontals, +conical, short, angulated at the base, and erect or recurved. Suborbital +gland opening in the form of a slit, or as a row of pores. +Auditory bulla divided by a distinct septum. Muffle large and moist. +Tail very short. Head tufted. Upper molars of larger species with +an accessory internal column. Dorsal vertebræ fourteen in number. +Some sixteen species, confined to southern and tropical Africa.</p> + +<p>The Duikerboks, as the members of this genus are called, are +among the most graceful of the African Antelopes, the smallest +species not being larger than a rabbit. The West African <i>C. +sylvicultor</i> and <i>C. longiceps</i> are the largest species.</p> + +<p><i>Tetraceros.</i><a id="FNanchor_214" href="#Footnote_214" class="fnanchor">[214]</a>—Two pairs of conical horns, of which the anterior +are much the smaller. Suborbital gland elongated, and lachrymal +fossa very large. Upper molars +(<a href="#figure140">Fig. 140</a>) without accessory internal +column. One existing Indian species +(<i>T. quadricornis</i>).</p> + +<figure class="figright illowp75" id="figure140" style="max-width: 15.625em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure140.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 140.</span>—Palatal and outer aspects of +the three right upper premolars and first +molar of the Four-horned Antelope (<i>Tetraceros +quadricornis</i>). From the <i>Palæontologia +Indica</i>.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The Four-horned Antelope is found +throughout the peninsula of India in +jungle. The general colour is brown, +lighter beneath and on the inside of +the limbs. Remains of this species +are found fossil in the cave-deposits +of Madras, and a small Ruminant from +the Pliocene of the Siwalik Hills has +been provisionally referred to this +genus.</p> + +<p><i>Cervicaprine Section.</i>—Small or +large Antelopes now confined to the +Ethiopian region, with horns present +only in the males, lachrymal vacuity generally large, more or less +distinct pits at the apertures of the supraorbital foramina in the +frontals, and narrow upper molars in which there is no accessory +internal column.</p> + +<p><i>Neotragus.</i><a id="FNanchor_215" href="#Footnote_215" class="fnanchor">[215]</a>—Distinguished from the next genus by having the +crown of the head tufted, muzzle hairy, premaxillæ long and +reaching the lachrymals, nasals very short, mesethmoid much +ossified, third lobe of last lower molar either absent or very small, +and the hinder lobe of the corresponding upper molar much reduced.</p> + +<p>Three species, Salt’s Antelope (<i>N. saltianus</i>), from Abyssinia, +and also <i>N. kirki</i> and <i>N. damarensis</i>; the two latter<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_339"></a>[339]</span> having a small +third lobe to the last molar. Writing of the first-named species, +Mr. W. T. Blanford<a id="FNanchor_216" href="#Footnote_216" class="fnanchor">[216]</a> observes that “the <i>Beni-Israel</i>, or <i>Om-dig-dig</i>, +one of the smallest Antelopes known, abounds on the shores of +the Red Sea and throughout the tropical and subtropical regions of +Abyssinia. It is occasionally, but rarely, found at higher elevations; +I heard of instances of its being shot both at Serafie and +Dildi, but it is not often seen above about 6000 feet. It inhabits +bushes, keeping much to heavy jungle on the banks of water-courses, +and is usually single, or in pairs, either a male and female or a +female and young being found together; less often the female is +accompanied by two young ones, which remain with her until +full grown.”</p> + +<p><i>Nanotragus.</i><a id="FNanchor_217" href="#Footnote_217" class="fnanchor">[217]</a>—Horns small, parallel with frontals, and rising +immediately above postorbital process of frontals, in front of the +fronto-parietal suture. Lachrymal fossa very large, suddenly +descending in front of the orbit, and extending on to the +maxilla; lachrymal vacuity small. Auditory bulla large and +smooth, without internal septum. Nasals of moderate length. +Crown of the head smooth; naked part of muffle small; aperture +of suborbital gland small. Lateral hoofs small or absent. Nine +species.<a id="FNanchor_218" href="#Footnote_218" class="fnanchor">[218]</a></p> + +<p>The typical species is the Royal Antelope (<i>N. pygmæus</i>) of +Guinea, the smallest existing representative of the Pecora. This +species, together with <i>N. moschatus</i> and <i>N. tragulus</i> have no lateral +hoofs, or tufts on the knees. In the <i>Scopophorine</i> group, comprising +<i>N. scoparia</i>, <i>N. montanus</i>, and <i>N. hastatus</i>, both these appendages +are present; while in the <i>Oreotragine</i> group (<i>N. melanotis</i> and +<i>N. oreotragus</i>) the former are present and the latter absent.</p> + +<p><i>Pelea.</i><a id="FNanchor_219" href="#Footnote_219" class="fnanchor">[219]</a>—Horns rather small, compressed, upright, scarcely +diverging, and placed immediately over the orbits. No suborbital +gland, nor lachrymal fossa; premaxillæ not reaching nasals. Tail +short and bushy. Colour uniform. One species—the Rehbok +(<i>P. capreola</i>), South Africa, is nearly of the size of a Fallow Deer, +although more resembling a Chamois in build and habits. The +colour is of a uniform light gray. This animal inhabits bare +rocky districts, and thus differs widely from the Water-buck and +its allies.</p> + +<p><i>Cobus.</i><a id="FNanchor_220" href="#Footnote_220" class="fnanchor">[220]</a>—Large Antelopes, with the horns large, elongate, sublyrate, +and ringed at the base, and with rudimentary suborbital<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_340"></a>[340]</span> +glands. Skull with a deep frontal hollow, no lachrymal depression, +large lachrymal vacuity, and the premaxillæ reaching the very long +nasals. Tail long, with a ridge of hair above, and slightly tufted +at the end. Colour uniform. Six species, African.</p> + +<p>The Antelopes of this genus are water-loving animals, the +Water-buck (<i>C. ellipsiprymnus</i>) and the Singsing (<i>C. defassus</i>) being +well-known examples. Both these species are much alike, standing +as much as 4 feet 6 inches at the withers. The Water-buck of +South and Eastern Africa is characterised by the coarseness of +its long hair; while in the Singsing of West and Central Africa +the hair is remarkably fine and soft. Fossil Antelopes from the +Pliocene of India are referred to <i>Cobus</i>. <i>Helicophora</i>, from the +Lower Pliocene of Attica, is regarded as allied to <i>Cobus</i>, but it has +no distinct supraorbital pits.</p> + +<p><i>Cervicapra.</i><a id="FNanchor_221" href="#Footnote_221" class="fnanchor">[221]</a>—An allied South African genus in which the tail is +short and bushy and the premaxillæ do not reach the nasals. Three +species.</p> + +<p>The Reitbok (<i>C. arundineum</i>) is of a grizzly ochre colour; it +stands nearly 3 feet in height, and has horns about 1 foot in +length. The Nagor (<i>C. redunca</i>) is about 6 inches shorter, with +horns of half the length, and fulvous brown above and white +below; the West African <i>C. bohor</i> being rather larger.</p> + +<p><i>Antilopine Section.</i>—A large group of moderate-sized or +small Antelopes, most abundant in the deserts bordering the +Palæarctic, Oriental, and Ethiopian regions. Horns generally +compressed and lyrate, or recurved, or cylindrical and spiral, +ringed at base, sometimes present in both sexes. Skull with large +pits at apertures of supraorbital foramina of frontals, and generally +a distinct lachrymal fossa. Molars of upper jaw narrow, without +inner accessory column, and resembling those of the Sheep and +Goats. Tail moderate, compressed, hairy above.</p> + +<p><i>Antilope.</i><a id="FNanchor_222" href="#Footnote_222" class="fnanchor">[222]</a>—Horns, present only in the male, long, cylindrical, +subspiral, and diverging. Suborbital gland large, with a somewhat +linear opening; lachrymal depression of skull very large, and a +small lachrymal fissure. Glands in the feet; lateral hoofs present. +One species, India.</p> + +<p>The well-known Black-buck (<i>A. cervicapra</i>) is found on open +plains all over India, except in lower Bengal and Malabar. Old +males are deep blackish-brown in colour on the back and sides and +the outer surfaces of the limbs, the under parts and inner surfaces +of the limbs white, and the back of the head, nape, and neck +yellowish. Young males and females are fawn-coloured above. +Very large herds are seen in the plains about Delhi and Mattra, +which are said in some instances to reach to thousands. Horn-cores<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_341"></a>[341]</span> +are found in the Pleistocene deposits of the valley of the +Jumna which cannot be distinguished from those of the existing +species.</p> + +<p><i>Æpyceros.</i><a id="FNanchor_223" href="#Footnote_223" class="fnanchor">[223]</a>—Horns compressed, lyrate, and wide-spreading; +present only in male. No suborbital gland, or lachrymal depression +in the skull. No lateral hoofs. Two species; one from South and +the other from West Africa.</p> + +<p>The Palla (<i>Æ. melampus</i>) is a large Antelope standing over +3 feet high at the withers, and readily distinguished by its dark red +colour, gradually shading to white below. It is usually found on +or near hills in herds of from twenty to thirty. <i>Æ. petersi</i> is +from the Congo.</p> + +<p><i>Saiga.</i><a id="FNanchor_224" href="#Footnote_224" class="fnanchor">[224]</a>—Nose very large, convex, and inflated. Supraorbital +gland present. Lachrymal fossa of skull small, and fissure absent; +narial aperture very large; nasals extremely short; supraorbital +pits rather small. Horns yellow, lyrate, of moderate length; +present only in male. Vertebræ: C 7, D 13, L 6, S 4, C 10. One +species, Eastern Europe and Western Asia.</p> + +<p>The Saiga (<i>S. tatarica</i>) is a clumsily built and somewhat +sheep-like Antelope inhabiting the steppes; it occurs fossil in the +Pleistocene of France and England.</p> + +<p><i>Pantholops.</i><a id="FNanchor_225" href="#Footnote_225" class="fnanchor">[225]</a>—Allied in the characters of the head and skull to +<i>Saiga</i>, but the nose less convex, the nostrils of the male more +swollen, and the horns of that sex black, very long, compressed, +and lyrate; those of female very short. One species, Central Asia.</p> + +<p>The Chiru (<i>P. hodgsoni</i>) inhabits the highlands of Western Tibet +and Turkestan. In the former area it generally goes in small herds +of from three to six, and in the summer may be found grazing in +early morning on the level spaces frequently found in the river +valleys at elevations of about 15,000 feet. It is excessively shy +and difficult to approach. The large size of the narial aperture in +the skull of Chiru is suggestive of a connection with respiration at +a high altitude, but this appears to be negatived by the occurrence +of the same feature in the Saiga.</p> + +<p><i>Gazella.</i><a id="FNanchor_226" href="#Footnote_226" class="fnanchor">[226]</a>—Delicately built and sandy-coloured Antelopes, with +lyrate or recurved horns, which may be absent in the female, and +are always smaller and simpler in that sex than in the male. Skull +with moderate lachrymal fossa, and a distinct lachrymal fissure. +Vertebræ: C 7, D 13, L 6, S 4, C 14. Suborbital gland frequently +small, and covered with hair. Face with a white streak running +from the outer side of the base of each horn nearly down to the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_342"></a>[342]</span> +upper end of each nostril, cutting off a dark triangular central +patch, and bordered externally by a diffused dark line (see <a href="#figure121">Fig. +121</a>, <a href="#figure121">p. 310</a>). The Gazelles, of which there are some twenty-four +existing species, are typically Palæarctic desert forms, the +Springbok (<i>G. euchore</i>) being an outlying South African species. +<i>G. picticaudata</i> and <i>G. gutturosa</i> are respectively found in Western +Tibet and Mongolia, the former at great elevations. The +majority of the Gazelles do not exceed 30 inches in height, +although <i>G. mohr</i> is 36. Sir Victor Brooke classifies<a id="FNanchor_227" href="#Footnote_227" class="fnanchor">[227]</a> the Gazelles +as follows:—</p> + +<ul> + <li>A. No stripe on back; three lower premolars. + <ul> + <li><i>a.</i> White of rump not encroaching on the fawn + of the haunches. + <ul> + <li>I. Female with horns. + <ul> + <li>1. Horns lyrate or sublyrate—<i>G. dorcas</i>, <i>G. + isabella</i>, <i>G. rufifrons</i>, <i>G. lævipes</i>, <i>G. + tilonura</i>, <i>G. naso</i>.</li> + <li>2. Horns non-lyrate—<i>G. cuvieri</i>, <i>G. leptoceros</i>, + <i>G. spekei</i>, <i>G. arabica</i>, <i>G. bennetti</i>, <i>G. + fuscifrons</i>, <i>G. muscatensis</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + <li>II. Female without horns. + <ul> + <li><i>G. subgutturosa</i>, <i>G. gutturosa</i>, <i>G. + picticaudata</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + <li><i>b.</i> White of rump projecting forwards in an angle + into the fawn colour of the haunches. Horns in both sexes. + <ul> + <li><i>G. dama</i>, <i>G. mohr</i>, <i>G. soemmerringi</i>, + <i>G. granti</i> (<a href="#figure121">Fig. 121</a>), <i>G. + thomsoni</i>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + <li>B. A white stripe down the back, two lower premolars. + Horns in both sexes.—<i>G. euchore.</i> + </li> +</ul> + +<p>The East African <i>G. walleri</i> is an aberrant species, in which the +females are hornless, which has been made the type of the genus +<i>Lithocranius</i>. It is characterised by the extreme density of the +horns and skull, the slenderness of the mandible, and the small +size of the cheek-teeth, the upper molars being relatively broader +and lower than usual. The cranium is remarkable for the shortness +of its facial portion, the large size and production backwards +of the supraoccipital, and for the circumstance that the long +basicranial axis is nearly parallel with the plane of the palate.</p> + +<p>Fossil species of <i>Gazella</i> are found in the Pliocene and Pleistocene +deposits of Europe and India. <i>G. deperdita</i> (<i>brevicornis</i>), of the +Lower Pliocene of France and Greece, appears to be a generalised +species in which the lower molars frequently have accessory +columns, traces of which are found in some of the existing forms.</p> + +<p><i>Hippotragine Section.</i>—Includes very large African Antelopes, +with long horns, present in both sexes, which are placed over or +behind the orbit, and are either recurved, straight, or subspiral. +Skull with no distinct pits at apertures of supraorbital foramina in +frontals, no lachrymal fossa, and only a small lachrymal fissure.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_343"></a>[343]</span> +No suborbital gland. Tail long, cylindrical, and tufted at the end. +Upper molars extremely hypsodont, very broad, and with large +accessory columns, thus closely resembling those of the Oxen. +Some authorities divide this section into two. In the Pliocene it +occurs in India and Europe.</p> + +<p><i>Hippotragus.</i><a id="FNanchor_228" href="#Footnote_228" class="fnanchor">[228]</a>—Horns stout, rising vertically from a crest over +the orbit at an obtuse angle to the plane of the nasals, then +recurved; lachrymal fissure in some instances almost obliterated. +Neck with an erect recurved mane. Tail very distinctly tufted. +Four species, tropical Africa and south to the Cape.</p> + +<p>The Sable Antelope (<i>H. niger</i>) is one of the best-known +examples of this genus, occurring in South and East Africa. It +stands upwards of 4½ feet in height at the withers, and, except +for some white streaks on the face and the whole of the under +surface of the body, is of a black colour. The Blaubok (<i>H. leucophæus</i>) +is distinguished by the glaucous hue of the hair. The other +species are the Equine Antelope (<i>H. equinus</i>) and Baker’s Antelope +(<i>H. bakeri</i>) from the Sudan, both closely allied, but the latter +distinguished by its pale fulvous colour, pencilled ears, and black +stripes on the shoulder.</p> + +<p>Skulls of fossil Antelopes from the Pliocene of India have been +referred to <i>Hippotragus</i> (<i>H. sivalensis</i>), and Sir V. Brooke suggests +that the European Pliocene <i>Antilope recticornis</i> is not generically +separable.</p> + +<p><i>Oryx.</i><a id="FNanchor_229" href="#Footnote_229" class="fnanchor">[229]</a>—Horns long, slender, nearly straight or somewhat +recurved, rising behind the orbit, and inclining backwards in the +plane of the nasals; lachrymal fossa distinct. Nape maned; tail +long, and more haired than in <i>Hippotragus</i>. Four species, ranging +over all the African deserts to Arabia and Syria.</p> + +<p>The Gemsbok (<i>O. gazella</i>, <a href="#figure141">Fig. 141</a>), is a South African species +characterised by its straight horns, the presence of a tuft of +hair on the throat, as well as by the large patches and stripes +of black on the head, back, limbs, and flanks. It stands nearly +4 feet in height at the shoulder, and the horns are 2 feet 9 +inches in length. The colour of the upper part of the body is +a rusty gray, and of the under part white, while these are separated +from each other by a well-defined black band on either side. +These bands unite on the breast, and are continued as a single +black band until reaching the lower jaw, where they again divide +and form two transverse bands on the head, terminating at +the base of the horns. The head otherwise is white, as also are +the limbs, with the exception of the thighs, which are black. +The Gemsbok generally goes in pairs, or in small herds of three +or four. The Beisa (<i>O. beisa</i>) of Abyssinia is distinguished<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_344"></a>[344]</span> by +the absence of the tuft of hair on the throat. Writing of this +species in his <i>Geology and Zoology of Abyssinia</i>, Mr. W. T. Blanford +observes that “the appearance of a herd of Oryx is very imposing. +They are some of the most elegant and symmetrical of animals, the +motions being those of a wild Horse rather than of an Antelope. +Their favourite pace appears to be either a steady quick walk or a +trot; they rarely break into a gallop unless greatly alarmed. +When frightened they dash off, sometimes snorting and putting +their heads down as if charging, raising their long tails, and looking +very formidable. They are wary animals, though far less so +than some other Antelopes. It is said that they frequently attack +when wounded, and their long straight horns are most deadly +weapons.” The Arabian Beatrix Antelope (<i>O. beatrix</i>) is a much +smaller animal, with the black markings confined to the head, fore +limbs, and flanks. Finally, the Leucoryx (<i>O. leucoryx</i>) of North +Africa, while agreeing in size with the Beatrix, differs by its curved +horns and uniform coloration.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp66" id="figure141" style="max-width: 25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure141.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 141.</span>—The Gemsbok (<i>Oryx gazella</i>).</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The extinct <i>Palæoryx</i>, of the Lower Pliocene of Europe and the +Isle of Samos, appears to have been an ancestral form of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_345"></a>[345]</span> <i>Oryx</i>, said +to show some signs of affinity with <i>Hippotragus.</i></p> + +<p><i>Addax.</i><a id="FNanchor_230" href="#Footnote_230" class="fnanchor">[230]</a>—Horns with the same inclination as in <i>Oryx</i>, but with +a slight spiral twist. No mane on nape, but a slight one on the +throat. Hoofs rounded. One species (<i>A. nasomaculatus</i>), from North +Africa and Arabia, the colour of which is nearly white.</p> + +<p><i>Tragelaphine Section.</i>—Includes large, so-called Bovine, Antelopes +now mainly characteristic of the Ethiopian region, but with +one Oriental genus. Horns usually present in the male only (if +developed in the female smaller), with a more or less distinct ridge +in front, and usually twisted spirally, the front ridge twisting +outwards from the base of the horn. Skull without lachrymal +fossa, but with a large or small lachrymal fissure; usually large +pits at the apertures of the supraorbital foramina on the frontals; +premaxillæ reaching nasals. Muffle large and moist; nostrils +approximated. Molars hypsodont or brachydont. Vertical white +stripes frequently present on the body.</p> + +<p><i>a.</i> <i>Hind limbs much shorter than the fore. Horns behind the orbit, +short, conical, faintly angulated. Nose bovine. Body without +vertical stripes. Molars</i> (<a href="#figure123">Fig. 123</a>, <a href="#figure123">p. 311</a>) <i>hypsodont, with +a large accessory column in those of the upper jaw. One +Oriental genus.</i></p> + +<p><i>Boselaphus.</i><a id="FNanchor_231" href="#Footnote_231" class="fnanchor">[231]</a>—The one genus of this subsection is represented +only by the well-known Nilghai (<i>B. tragocamelus</i>) of India. The +male stands over 4 feet in height at the shoulder, with horns +about 8 inches in length; the hornless female being about one +third smaller. Both sexes have a short erect mane, and the male +has also a tuft of hair upon the throat. When adult the sexes +are very different in colour, the male being of a dark iron gray +or slate colour, approaching black on the head and legs, while +the female and young are of a bright light brown or fawn colour. +In both male and female at all ages the lips, chin, and under parts, +as well as two transverse stripes on the inner sides of the ears and +rings on the fetlocks, are white, and the mane and tip of the tail +black. The Nilghai is one of the few Antelopes occurring in India, +where it is found from near the foot of the Himalaya to the south +of Mysore, though rare to the north of the Ganges and also in the +extreme south. It is most abundant in Central India, and does not +occur in Assam or the countries to the east of the Bay of Bengal. +It frequents forests and low jungles, though often found in tolerably +open plains, associating in small herds. One, or very often +two, young produced at a birth. Fossil remains of species of this +genus occur in the Pleistocene and Pliocene deposits of India.</p> + +<p><i>b.</i> <i>Fore and hind limbs equal. Horns long, and spirally<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_346"></a>[346]</span> twisted. +Nose cervine, and aperture of suborbital gland very small. +Body generally striped. Molars brachydont, those of the +upper jaw in existing forms with a smaller inner accessory +column. Three existing Ethiopian genera.</i></p> + +<p><i>Tragelaphus.</i><a id="FNanchor_232" href="#Footnote_232" class="fnanchor">[232]</a>—Female hornless. Horns of males (<a href="#figure142">Fig. 142</a>) over +orbit, with one or two spiral turns, obscurely ridged, the posterior +ridge being more developed than the anterior. Skull with small +supraorbital pits, very small lachrymal fissure, and no deep intercornual +depression in the frontals. Neck maned or smooth. Hoofs +short or long. Coloration usually brilliant, differing markedly in +the two sexes, and the white bands on the body, when present, +numerous and distinct. Seven species.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_347"></a>[347]</span></p> +<figure class="figcenter illowp57" id="figure142" style="max-width: 25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure142.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 142.</span>—Head of <i>Tragelaphus gratus</i>. From Sclater, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1883, p. 36.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The Harnessed Antelopes are among the handsomest of the +whole group. The small Guib (<i>T. scriptus</i>) is not larger than a +Goat, but <i>T. angasi</i> is 3 feet 4 inches in height at the shoulder. In +<i>T. scriptus</i>, <i>T. angasi</i>, and <i>T. euryceros</i>, the two sexes differ in colour, +the body is marked by white stripes descending from a white dorsal +streak, and the hoofs are short; the third species differing from the +others by the absence of a mane on the neck, back, and belly. +<i>T. gratus</i> agrees with this group in coloration (the mane being +absent), but differs in the extreme elongation of its hoofs. The +Nakong, <i>T. spekei</i>, while having the long hoofs of <i>T. gratus</i>, has a +perfectly plain body coloration, with a mane on the neck. The two +species with elongated hoofs inhabit swampy districts, for which +this peculiar structure is admirably adapted; and the Nakong, when +frightened, will rush into the water and leave only its nostrils and +the tips of the horns above the surface. The small Bushbuck +(<i>T. sylvaticus</i>) of South Africa has no stripes, and short hoofs.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="figure143" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure143.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 143.</span> The Kudu (<i>Strepsiceros kudu</i>). From Sclater, <i>List of Animals in Zoological Society’s +Gardens</i>, 1883, p. 136.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Strepsiceros.</i><a id="FNanchor_233" href="#Footnote_233" class="fnanchor">[233]</a>—Females hornless. Horns (<a href="#figure143">Fig. 143</a>) more twisted<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_348"></a>[348]</span> +than in <i>Tragelaphus</i>, forming an open spiral, with the anterior ridge +very strongly developed, and rising at an obtuse angle to the plane +of the nasals. Skull with large supraorbital pits, large lachrymal +fissure, and deep intercornual depression. Hoofs short. Body with +white vertical stripes descending from a longitudinal dorsal streak. +Two existing species.</p> + +<p>The Kudu (<i>S. kudu</i>, <a href="#figure143">Fig. 143</a>) extends from South Africa to +Abyssinia, and is only inferior in size to the Eland. The horns +are about 4 feet in length, and form a very open spiral, and +there is a fringe of long hair down the front of the neck. The +Lesser Kudu (<i>S. imberbis</i>), of Somali-land is a much smaller form, +without the fringe of hair on the neck, and with a much smaller +axis formed by the spiral of the horns.</p> + +<p>An imperfect skull from the Pliocene of Northern India has +been referred to <i>Strepsiceros</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Oreas.</i><a id="FNanchor_234" href="#Footnote_234" class="fnanchor">[234]</a>—Females horned. Horns twisted on their own axis, +with very strong ridges, inclining upwards and outwards in the +plane of the nasals. General characters of skull as in preceding +genus. Stripes on body, if present, very faintly marked. One +existing species.</p> + +<p>The Eland (<i>O. canna</i>) is the largest of all the Antelopes, the +males standing nearly 6 feet at the withers. One variety from +South Africa is of a uniform pale fawn colour, while the Central +African form is of a bright tan colour, marked by a number of thin +pale vertical stripes descending from a dark dorsal ridge—these +markings fading more or less in the adults. The males have a +large dewlap, a tuft of brown hair on the forehead, and a small +mane on the neck. The straight black horns of the male are +usually about 18 inches long. Elands were formerly extremely +abundant in Southern and Eastern Africa, but their destruction +has been so relentless that they have totally disappeared from +extensive areas, and are daily becoming scarcer.</p> + +<p>Portions of upper jaws from the Pliocene deposits of India appear +to indicate the former existence in that area of large Antelopes +closely allied to the Eland, but distinguished from the living species +by the greater size of the inner accessory column in the upper +molars.</p> + +<p><i>Allied Extinct Types.</i>—Large Antelopes with spirally twisted +horns appear to have been common over Southern Europe in Pliocene +times, but their exact affinity is in many cases difficult to determine. +Of these, <i>Palæoreas</i>, which occurs in the Lower Pliocene of Europe +and Algeria, appears to present affinities both to <i>Oreas</i> and +<i>Strepsiceros</i>, and may have been the ancestral type from which +these two genera are derived; the upper molars have well-developed +accessory columns.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_349"></a>[349]</span></p> + +<p>The so-called <i>Antilope torticornis</i>, of the French Pliocene, +resembles <i>Tragelaphus</i> in the greater development of the posterior +as compared with the anterior ridge of the horn-cores, and has +accordingly been referred to that genus. <i>Protragelaphus</i>, of the +Lower Pliocene of Attica, differs from all the other types in the +absence of the anterior ridge on the horn-cores and of the +supraorbital pits, while it has a distinct lachrymal fossa.</p> + +<p>In this place it will be convenient to notice certain fossil forms +which do not accord with any of the existing sections of the family, +and for the reception of which the <i>Palæotragine</i> section has been +formed. In these types the horn-cores are laterally compressed +like those of the modern Goats, but the upper molars resemble those +of the brachydont Antelopes. The earliest of these genera, and the +first representative of the Antelopes yet known, is <i>Protragoceros</i>, of +the Middle Miocene of France, first described as <i>Antilope clavata</i>; +<i>Palæotragoceros</i> and <i>Tragoceros</i>, of the Lower Pliocene, are distinguished +by their larger horns and wider molars.</p> + +<p>A remarkable large Antelope from the Lower Pliocene of the +Isle of Samos, in the Turkish Archipelago, proposed to be described +as <i>Criotherium</i>, appears to be unlike any other form. The horns, +which are placed on the extreme vertex of the skull, are very +short, tightly twisted, and project in front of the forehead. The +upper molars have short and broad crowns, with no accessory +column on the inner side.</p> + +<p><i>Rupicaprine Section.</i>—The Caprine Antelopes, as the typical +members of this section may be termed, appear to connect the true +Antelopes with the Goats. They are mostly small or medium-sized +forms, inhabiting portions of the Palæarctic and Oriental +regions, with one outlying North American genus. The typical +forms present the following features. Horns present, and of nearly +equal size in both sexes, rising behind the orbits, short, ringed at +the base, conical or somewhat compressed, and recurved. Suborbital +gland generally present, in some cases small. Build clumsy; +hoofs large; tail short, tapering, hairy above. Skull with lachrymal +fossa, but no fissure. Molars as in the Caprine section.</p> + +<p><i>Rupicapra.</i><a id="FNanchor_235" href="#Footnote_235" class="fnanchor">[235]</a>—Horns short and cylindrical, rising perpendicularly +from the forehead for some distance, then bending sharply backwards +and downwards, forming hooks with pointed tips. Premaxillæ +not reaching the nasals. One species, Palæarctic.</p> + +<p>The Gemse, or Alpine Chamois (<i>R. tragus</i>), inhabits the high +mountains of Europe from the Pyrenees to the Caucasus. It stands +about 2 feet in height at the withers. The body is covered in +winter with long hair of a chestnut-brown colour, that of the head +being paler, with a dark brown streak on each side. At other +seasons the colour is somewhat lighter, in spring approaching<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_350"></a>[350]</span> +to gray. Underneath the external covering the body is further +protected from cold by a coat of short thick wool of a grayish colour. +The tail is black; the ears are pointed and erect; the hoofs have the +outer edges higher than the soles, and are thus admirably adapted +for laying hold of the slightest projection or roughness on the face +of the rocky precipices it frequents. The Chamois is gregarious, +living in herds of fifteen or twenty, and feeding generally in the +morning or evening. The old males, however, live alone, except in +the rutting season, which occurs in October, when they join the +herds, driving off the young males, and engaging in contests with +each other that often end fatally. The period of gestation is +twenty weeks, when the female, beneath the shelter of a projecting +rock, produces one and sometimes two young. In summer the +Chamois ascends to the limits of perpetual snow, being only outstripped +in the loftiness of its haunts by the Ibex; and during that +season it shows its intolerance of heat by choosing such browsing +grounds as have a northern exposure.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp90" id="figure144" style="max-width: 28.125em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure144.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 144.</span>—<i>Nemorhædus crispus.</i> From Sclater, <i>List of Animals in Zoological Society’s Gardens</i>, +1883, p. 151.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Nemorhædus.</i><a id="FNanchor_236" href="#Footnote_236" class="fnanchor">[236]</a>—Horns rounded, gradually recurving, without +distinct hook at the end. Suborbital gland small or wanting; ears +large; skull with a large lachrymal depression, and the premaxillæ +not quite reaching the nasals. Some nine species, ranging from<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_351"></a>[351]</span> +the Eastern Himalayas to North China and Japan, and southwards +to Formosa, the Malay Peninsula, and Sumatra. The smallest +species is the Himalayan Goral (<i>N. goral</i>). Of the larger forms we +may mention the Himalayan Serow (<i>N. bubalinus</i>) the Cambing-Utan +(<i>N. sumatrensis</i>) of Sumatra, and the Japanese <i>N. crispus</i> +(<a href="#figure144">Fig. 144</a>). Of the Serow, Colonel Kinloch remarks that “it +is a large and powerful beast. The body is covered with very +coarse hair, which assumes the form of a bristly mane on the +head and shoulders, and gives the beast a ferocious appearance, +which does not belie its disposition. The colour is a dull black +on the back, bright red on the sides, and white underneath, the +legs also being dirty white. The ears are very large, the muzzle +is coarse. The Serow has an awkward gait, but in spite of this can +go over the worst ground; and it has perhaps no superior in going +down steep hills. It is a solitary animal, and nowhere numerous.”</p> + +<p><i>Haploceros.</i><a id="FNanchor_237" href="#Footnote_237" class="fnanchor">[237]</a>—The Rocky-Mountain Goat (<i>Haploceros montanus</i>), +inhabiting the northern parts of California, appears to be very +closely allied to <i>Nemorhædus</i>. The horns are somewhat compressed +at the base; there is no suborbital gland; and the ears are small. +The hair, which is whitish in colour, is very long, and especially +abundant in the region of the throat, shoulders, flanks, and tail. +The animal is about the size of a large Sheep.</p> + +<p><i>Budorcas.</i><a id="FNanchor_238" href="#Footnote_238" class="fnanchor">[238]</a>—The Takin (<i>B. taxicolor</i>) of the Mishmi Hills in +Assam, and an allied species from Eastern Tibet, are larger forms +apparently related to <i>Nemorhædus</i>, but with a much greater development +of the horns. The horns of what is considered to be the +male<a id="FNanchor_239" href="#Footnote_239" class="fnanchor">[239]</a> arise from the vertex of the skull, and are nearly in contact +in the middle line; they first bend outwards and downwards, +and then suddenly upwards and backwards. Those regarded by +Mr. Hume as referable to the female are directed at first outwards, +and then gradually curve upwards and backwards, without any downward +flexure or angulation. The horns of the male may be 2 feet in +length, with a basal diameter of 13 inches. The muzzle is hairy, with +a small naked muffle. There appear to be considerable seasonal +and sexual variations in colour; the body being in some cases of +a yellow dun, while in others it is a dusky, reddish-brown, with +much black intermingled. The heads of large males are blackish.</p> + +<p>Scarcely anything is known of the habits of the Takin, which +never appears to have been seen alive by Europeans.</p> + +<p><i>Caprine Section.</i>—Both sexes with horns, but those of the female +small. Horns usually compressed, triangular, with transverse +ridges, and either curving backwards or spiral. Muzzle hairy,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_352"></a>[352]</span> +without naked muffle. Suborbital gland small or absent; lachrymal +fossa of skull present or absent. Tail short and flattened. Foot-glands +frequently present. Molars very hypsodont; those of the +upper jaw being narrow, without an accessory internal column. +Mainly Palæarctic, but with some outlying forms.</p> + +<p>This section includes the Goats and Sheep, which are so closely +connected that it is difficult to give well-marked generic characters +that will hold good for all the species. They seem to be one of +the latest developments of the <i>Bovidæ</i>, since they are unknown +before the Pliocene period; and are essentially mountain forms.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp66" id="figure145" style="max-width: 25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure145.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 145.</span>—The Alpine Ibex (<i>Capra ibex</i>).</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Capra.</i><a id="FNanchor_240" href="#Footnote_240" class="fnanchor">[240]</a>—Horns flattened from side to side, and either curving +backwards (<a href="#figure145">Fig. 145</a>) or spirally twisted. No suborbital gland, +and no lachrymal fossa in the skull. Foot-glands, if present, only +in the fore feet. Chin more or less bearded. Males with a strong +odour. Vertebræ: C 7, D 13, L 6, S 4, C 9-13. Some dozen species, +ranging over all the higher mountains of Southern Europe, from +Spain to the Caucasus; also found in Abyssinia, Persia, Sind, and +Baluchistan, thence through the higher Himalaya, and so on to +Tibet and Northern China. One <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_353"></a>[353]</span>outlying species occurs in the +Nilgherries of Southern India.</p> + +<p>The European Ibex or Steinbok (<a href="#figure145">Fig. 145</a>), which may be +taken as a typical Goat, stands about 2½ feet in height at the +shoulder. In summer the hair is short and smooth, and of an +ashy-gray colour, but a long coat is developed in winter. The +horns of the male rise in a bold backward sweep from the forehead, +and are characterised by the strong transverse ridges on the broad +and flat anterior surface. They are said to be not more than some +2 feet in length, but these dimensions are greatly exceeded by the +horns of the Himalayan Ibex. The Alpine Ibex lives at a greater +height than the Chamois, spending the day just at the limit of +perpetual snow, and descending at night to graze at lower levels. +Both this and the Himalayan species generally live in small herds +of from five to fifteen or more; they are wary animals, although not +so much so as many of the wild Sheep. The following list, mainly +taken from two papers by Mr. Sclater,<a id="FNanchor_241" href="#Footnote_241" class="fnanchor">[241]</a> gives the distribution +of the various species of Goats, with some remarks on their +peculiarities:—</p> + +<p>(1) <i>C. ibex</i>, confined to the Alps of Switzerland, Savoy, and +the Tyrol, and now nearly extinct, except where artificially preserved. +(2) <i>C. sibirica</i>, closely allied to the preceding, but with +larger horns, occurs in the Altai Mountains, and throughout the +Himalaya from Kashmir to Nipal, and northward towards Turkestan. +(3) <i>C. sinaitica</i>, of the mountains of Upper Egypt, the +Sinaitic Peninsula, and Palestine, is allied to the two preceding +species, but has the horns somewhat more compressed, with a +difference in the ridges on the front. (4) <i>C. caucasica</i>, a very +distinct species, confined to the Caucasus, where it inhabits the +western part of the Great Caucasus; with thick horns curving +backwards and outwards in one plane, with the exception of their +tips, which incline inwards.<a id="FNanchor_242" href="#Footnote_242" class="fnanchor">[242]</a> (5) <i>C. pallasi</i> is an allied species from +the Eastern Caucasus, distinguished, among other features, by the +curvature of the horns, which lie flatter and twist more outward +from the forehead, with a greater terminal inward bend. (6) <i>C. +pyrenaica</i>, of the Pyrenees, and the higher ranges of Central Spain, +Andalusia, and Portugal, is another nearly related species. (7) +<i>C. ægagrus</i>, formerly abundant over the Grecian Archipelago, but +now restricted in Europe to Crete and some of the Cyclades, is +found throughout the mountains of Asia Minor and Persia, and +thence to Baluchistan and Sind. The horns are thinner and +sharper in front than in the Ibexes, and this species is generally +regarded as the ancestral stock of the various breeds of domestic +Goats. (8) <i>C. dorcas</i>, a Goat from the island of Jura, near Eubœa,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_354"></a>[354]</span> +has been described under this name, and is apparently nearly allied +to <i>C. ægagrus</i>. (9) <i>C. walie</i>, an apparently well-characterised +species from the highest ranges of Abyssinia. (10) <i>C. falconeri</i>; +the Markhoor differs from all the preceding species by the spiral +twisting of its horns, which attain enormous dimensions. It occurs +in the Pir-Panjal range south of Kashmir, and thence into +Afghanistan and the Suleiman range, and northwards to Astor, +Gilgit, and Scardo (Baltistan). The specimens from the Suleiman +range have the spiral of the horns very close, somewhat as in the +Eland; while in those from Astor, Gilgit, and Scardo it is very open, +as in the Kudu. The Pir-Panjal race occupies a somewhat intermediate +position in this respect. (11) <i>C. jemlaica</i>, the Thar, +inhabits suitable regions along the whole range of the Himalaya +from Kashmir to Bhutan. Together with the next species, it +differs from the more typical Goats in its short, thick, and much +compressed horns, the anterior border of which is keeled, and the +moist naked muffle. There are no glands in the fore feet. It was +generically separated by Gray as <i>Hemitragus</i>. (12) <i>C. hylocrius</i>, +the so-called Ibex of the Nilgherries, Anamallays, and other adjoining +ranges of Southern India, is an outlying species, apparently +allied to the preceding, but with somewhat different horns, in +which the external angle in front is much rounded off.</p> + +<p>Of fossil Goats we have but little knowledge. Remains of +<i>C. pyrenaica</i> are found in cave-deposits at Gibraltar; and it is not +improbable that the genus is represented in the Upper Pliocene of +France. Several species occur in the Pliocene of India, <i>C. sivalensis</i> +being apparently closely allied to <i>C. jemlaica</i>, while another has +horns resembling those of <i>C. falconeri</i>, and it is possible that a +third may be more nearly related to the Ibexes.</p> + +<p><i>Ovis.</i><a id="FNanchor_243" href="#Footnote_243" class="fnanchor">[243]</a>—Horns curving backwards and downwards in a bold +sweep, with the tips everted, generally with more or less prominent +transverse ridges, and brownish in colour. Suborbital gland and +lachrymal fossa usually present, but generally small. Foot-glands +in all the feet. Chin not bearded;<a id="FNanchor_244" href="#Footnote_244" class="fnanchor">[244]</a> males without a strong odour. +Vertebræ: C 7, D 13, L 6, S 4, C 10-14. Some twelve species, +mainly Palæarctic, but extending into the adjacent portions of the +Oriental region, and with one outlying species in North America.</p> + +<p>The more typical Sheep are closely connected with the Goats by +the Himalayan Bharal (<i>O. nahura</i>) and the Aoudad (<i>O. tragelaphus</i>) of +Northern Africa, both these species having no suborbital gland and +no lachrymal fossa, while their comparatively smooth and olive-coloured +horns show a decided approximation to those of the +Goats. Both present, however, the ovine character of glands in +all the feet. In the typical Sheep the basioccipital of the skull<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_355"></a>[355]</span> +is wider in front than behind, with the anterior pair of tubercles +widely separated and much larger than the posterior pair. The +Bharal, however, resembles the Goats in having an oblong basioccipital, +with the posterior tubercles larger and more prominent +than the anterior ones, both being situated in the same antero-posterior +line. These transitions towards the caprine type are, +however, not sufficient to support the view that the Bharal should +form the type of a distinct genus (<i>Pseudois</i>), more especially since +some of the typical Sheep, like <i>O. canadensis</i>, have the lachrymal +fossa of the skull very much reduced in size.</p> + +<p>The distinction of the various permanent modifications under +which wild Sheep occur is a matter of considerable difficulty. Trivial +characters, such as size, slight variations in colour, and especially +the form and curvature of the horns, are relied upon by different +zoologists who have given attention to the subject in the discrimination +of species, but no complete accord has yet been established. +The most generally recognised forms are enumerated below.</p> + +<p>The geographical distribution of wild Sheep is interesting. The +immense mountain ranges of Central Asia, the Pamir and Thian-Shan +of Turkestan, may be looked upon as the centre of their +habitat. Here, at an elevation of 16,000 feet above the sea-level, +is the home of the magnificent <i>Ovis poli</i>, named after the celebrated +Venetian traveller Marco Polo, who met with it in his adventurous +travels through this region in the thirteenth century. It is remarkable +for the great size of the horns of the old rams and the wide +open sweep of their curve, so that the points stand boldly out on each +side, far away from the animal’s head, instead of curling round +nearly in the same plane, as in most of the other species. A Sheep +from the same region, in which the horns retain their more normal +development, has received the name of <i>O. karelini</i>, but, according to +Mr. W. T. Blanford,<a id="FNanchor_245" href="#Footnote_245" class="fnanchor">[245]</a> is not distinct specifically from <i>O. poli</i>. Eastward +and northward is found the Argali (<i>O. argali</i>), with a wide and +not very well determined range; it formerly occurred in the Altai, +but is now found in Northern Mongolia. Still farther north, in the +Stanovoi Mountains and Kamschatka, is <i>O. nivicola</i>, and away on +the other side of Behring’s Strait, in the Rocky Mountains and +adjacent highlands of western North America, is the “Bighorn” +or Mountain Sheep (<i>O. canadensis</i>), the only member of the genus +found in that continent, and indeed—except the Bison, Musk-Ox, +Mountain Goat (<i>Haploceros</i>), and the Prong-buck (<i>Antilocapra</i>)—the +only hollow-horned Ruminant, being like the rest obviously +a straggler from the cradle of its race. The two last-named +species are nearly allied, and are characterised by the slight +development of the ridges on their horns and the very shallow +lachrymal fossa. Turning southward from the point from which we<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_356"></a>[356]</span> +started, and still a little to the east, in Nipal and Western Tibet, +is the Himalayan Argali (<i>O. hodgsoni</i>), having massive and strongly +curved horns, with bold ridges, like those of the true Argali. +Indeed, were it not for their isolated areas there would appear to +be no grounds for distinguishing these two closely allied forms, +and it is not improbable that they are really identical. <i>O. brookei</i>, +appears to have been founded on a hybrid between <i>O. hodgsoni</i> and +<i>O. vignei</i>. In the same districts, and also in Southern Ladak, there +occurs the Bharal (<i>O. nahura</i>), with smaller, smoother, and more +spreading horns. Passing in a south-westerly direction we find a +series of smaller forms, <i>O. vignei</i> of Ladak, <i>O. cycloceros</i> of Northern +India, Persia, and Baluchistan. <i>O. gmelini</i> of Asia Minor and Persia, +<i>O. ophion</i>, confined to the elevated pine-clad Troodos Mountains of +the island of Cyprus, and said at the time of the British occupation +in 1878 to have been reduced to a flock of about twenty-five +individuals, and <i>O. musimon</i>, the Moufflon of Corsica and Sardinia +(see <a href="#figure146">Fig. 146</a>), believed to have been formerly also a native of +Spain. In the three latter species the females are hornless. Lastly, +we have the somewhat aberrant, Goat-like Aoudad (<i>O. tragelaphus</i>), +of the great mountain ranges of North Africa, in which, as already +mentioned, the skull and horns resemble those of the Bharal, +although the tail is longer, and there is a thick fringe of long hair +on the throat, chest, and fore legs.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="figure146" style="max-width: 25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure146.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 146.</span>—The Moufflon (<i>Ovis musimon</i>). From a living animal in the London Zoological +Gardens.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_357"></a>[357]</span></p> + +<p>We thus find that Sheep are essentially inhabitants of high +mountainous parts of the world, for dwelling among which their +wonderful powers of climbing and leaping give them special +advantages. No species frequent by choice either level deserts, +open plains, dense forests, or swamps. By far the greater number +of species are inhabitants of the continent of Asia, one extending +into North America, one into Southern Europe, and one into North +Africa. No wild Sheep exist in any other part of the world, +unless the so-called Musk-Ox of the Arctic regions, the nearest +existing ally to the true Sheep, may be considered as one. Geologically +speaking, Sheep appear to be very modern animals, or +perhaps it would be safer to say that no remains that can be with +certainty referred to the genus have been met with in the hitherto +explored true Tertiary beds, which have yielded such abundant +modifications of Antelopes and Deer. They are generally considered +not to be indigenous in the British Isles, but to have been +introduced by man from the East in prehistoric times. A fossil +Sheep (<i>Ovis savigni</i>), apparently allied to the Argali, has, however, +been described from the so-called Forest-bed of the Norfolk coast.</p> + +<p>The Sheep was a domestic animal in Asia and Europe before +the dawn of history, though quite unknown as such in the New +World until after the Spanish conquest. It has now been introduced +by man into almost all parts of the world where settled agricultural +operations are carried on, but flourishes especially in the +temperate regions of both hemispheres. Whether our well-known +and useful animal is derived from any one of the existing wild +species, or from the crossing of several, or from some now extinct +species, is quite a matter of conjecture. The variations of external +characters seen in the different domestic breeds are very great. +They are chiefly manifested in the form and number of the horns, +which may be increased from the normal two to four or even eight, +or may be altogether absent in the female alone, or in both sexes; +in the form and length of the ears, which often hang pendent by +the side of the head; in the peculiar elevation or arching of the +nasal bones in some Eastern races; in the length of the tail, and +the development of great masses of fat at each side of its root, or +in the tail itself; and in the colour and quality of the fleece.</p> + +<p><i>Ovibos.</i><a id="FNanchor_246" href="#Footnote_246" class="fnanchor">[246]</a>—This genus is generally considered to be a connecting +link between the Caprine and Bovine sections, but should rather +be regarded as an aberrant type of the former. Horns of adult +male rounded, smooth, and closely approximated at their bases, +where they are depressed and rugose; curving downwards, and +then upwards and forwards. Muzzle caprine; no suborbital gland, +no lachrymal fossa or fissure in skull; orbits tubular; a large<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_358"></a>[358]</span> narial +aperture and very short nasals; premaxillæ not reaching nasals. +Tail short, and molar teeth caprine. One existing and two fossil +species, Palæarctic and Nearctic.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp85" id="figure147" style="max-width: 25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure147.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 147.</span>—The Musk-Ox (<i>Ovibos moschatus</i>).</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The animal commonly known as the Musk-Ox (<i>Ovibos moschatus</i>), +though approaching in size the smaller varieties of Oxen, is in +structure and habits closely allied to the Sheep, its affinities being +well expressed by the generic name <i>Ovibos</i> bestowed upon it by +De Blainville. The specific name, as also the common English +appellatives “Musk-Ox,” “Musk-Buffalo,” or “Musk-Sheep,” applied +to it by various authors, refer to the musky odour which the animal +exhales. This does not appear to be due to the secretion of a +special gland, as in the case of the Musk-Deer; but it must be +observed that, except as regards the osteology, very little is known +of the anatomy of this species. It about equals in size the small +Welsh and Scotch cattle. The head is large and broad. The horns +in the old males have extremely broad bases, meeting in the median +line, and covering the brow and whole crown of the head. They +are directed at first downwards by the side of the face and then +turn upwards and forwards, ending in the same plane as the eye. +Their basal halves are of a dull white colour, oval in section and +coarsely fibrous; their middle part smooth, shining, and round; their +tips black. In the females and young males the horns are smaller, +and their bases are separated from each other by a space in the +middle of the forehead. The ears are small, erect, and pointed, and +nearly concealed in the hair. The space between the nostrils and +the upper lip is covered with short close hair, as in Sheep and Goats,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_359"></a>[359]</span> +without any trace of the bare muffle of the Oxen. The greater part +of the animal is covered with long brown hair, thick, matted, and +curly on the shoulders, so as to give the appearance of a hump, but +elsewhere straight and hanging down,—that of the sides, back, and +haunches reaching as far as the middle of the legs and entirely +concealing the very short tail. There is also a thick woolly under-fur, +shed in the summer. The hair on the lower jaw, throat, and +chest is long and straight, and hangs down like a beard or dewlap, +though there is no loose fold of skin in this situation as in Oxen. +The limbs are stout and short, terminating in unsymmetrical hoofs, +the external one being rounded, the internal pointed, and the sole +partially covered with hair.</p> + +<p>The Musk-Ox is at the present day confined to the most northern +parts of North America, where it ranges over the rocky barren +grounds between the 60th parallel and the shores of the Arctic +Sea. Its southern range is gradually contracting, and it appears +that it is no longer met with west of the Mackenzie River, though +formerly abundant as far as Eschscholtz Bay. Northwards and +eastwards it extends through the Parry Islands and Grinnell Land +to North Greenland, reaching on the west coast as far south as +Melville Bay; and it was also met with in abundance by the +German polar expedition of 1869-70 at Sabine Island on the east +coast. No trace of it has been found in Spitzbergen or Franz +Joseph Land. As proved by the discovery of fossil remains, it +ranged during the Pleistocene period over northern Siberia and the +plains of Germany and France, its bones occurring very generally +in river deposits along with those of the Reindeer, Mammoth, and +Woolly Rhinoceros. It has also been found in Pleistocene gravels +in several parts of England, as Maidenhead, Bromley, Freshfield +near Bath, Barnwood near Gloucester, and also in the lower brick-earth +of the Thames valley at Crayford, Kent.</p> + +<p>It is gregarious in habit, assembling in herds of twenty or thirty +head, or, according to Hearne, sometimes eighty or a hundred, in +which there are seldom more than two or three full-grown males. +The Musk-Ox runs with considerable speed, notwithstanding the +shortness of its legs. Major H. W. Feilden, naturalist to the Arctic +expedition of 1875, says: “No person watching this animal in a +state of nature could fail to see how essentially ovine are its actions. +When alarmed they gather together like a flock of sheep herded by +collie dog, and the way in which they pack closely together and +follow blindly the vacillating leadership of the old ram is unquestionably +sheep-like. When thoroughly frightened they take to the hills, +ascending precipitous slopes and scaling rocks with great agility.” +They feed chiefly on grass, but also on moss, lichens, and tender +shoots of the willow and pine. The female brings forth a single +young one in the end of May or beginning of June after a gestation<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_360"></a>[360]</span> +of nine months. According to Sir J. Richardson, “when this animal +is fat its flesh is well tasted, and resembles that of the Caribou, but +has a coarser grain. The flesh of the bulls is highly flavoured, and +both bulls and cows when lean smell strongly of musk, their flesh +at the same time being very dark and tough, and certainly far +inferior to that of any other ruminating animal existing in North +America.” The carcase of a Musk-Ox weighs, exclusive of fat, above +3 cwt. On this subject, Major Feilden<a id="FNanchor_247" href="#Footnote_247" class="fnanchor">[247]</a> says: “The cause of the +disagreeable odour which frequently taints the flesh of these animals +has received no elucidation from my observations. It does not +appear to be confined to either sex, or to any particular season of +the year; for a young unweaned animal, killed at its mother’s side +and transferred within an hour to the stew-pans, was as rank and +objectionable as any. The flesh of some of these animals of which +I have partaken was dark, tender, and as well flavoured as that of +four-year old Southdown mutton.”</p> + +<p>Remains of two fossil species of this genus (<i>O. bombifrons</i> and +<i>O. cavifrons</i>) have been described from Pleistocene beds in the +United States, the one from Kentucky and the other from the +Arkansas River. Both (if indeed they be valid species) appear +closely allied to the living form.</p> + +<p><i>Bovine Section.</i>—Horns present and of nearly equal size in both +sexes; in form rounded or angulated, placed on or near the vertex +of the skull, extending more or less outwards, and curving upwards +near the extremities; external surface comparatively smooth and +never marked by prominent transverse ridges or knobs. Muzzle +broad, with large naked muffle; nostrils lateral; no suborbital +gland. Skull without any trace of lachrymal fossa or fissure. Tail +long and cylindrical; generally tufted at the extremity, rarely +hairy throughout. Males usually with a dewlap on the throat. No +foot-glands. Molar teeth extremely hypsodont; those of the upper +jaw with a nearly square cross-section, and a large accessory inner +column.</p> + +<p>The section is abundantly represented in the Palæarctic, +Oriental, and Ethiopian regions, with one Nearctic species and an +outlying and aberrant species in Celebes.</p> + +<p><i>Bos.</i><a id="FNanchor_248" href="#Footnote_248" class="fnanchor">[248]</a>—The whole of the species of Oxen were included by +Linnæus in the single genus <i>Bos</i>, and although the species have +been distributed by modern zoologists in several genera—such as +<i>Anoa</i>, <i>Bubalus</i>, <i>Bison</i>, <i>Poëphagus</i>, <i>Bibos</i>, and <i>Bos</i>—the characters by +which they are separated are so slight that it seems, on the whole, +preferable to retain the old genus in its original wide sense. Using +then the term <i>Bos</i> in this sense, it will include all the representatives +of the section—about<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_361"></a>[361]</span> a dozen in number—and may be divided +into several groups.</p> + +<p>The first group includes the Buffaloes (genus <i>Bubalus</i>), chiefly +characterised by their more or less flattened and angulated horns, +which incline upwards and backwards, with an inward curve +towards their tips, and are placed below the plane of the occiput, +or vertex of the skull. The premaxillæ reach to the nasals, and +the vomer is peculiar in being so much ossified as to join the +posterior border of the palate. The back has a distinct ridge in +the region of the withers; and the forehead is frequently convex. +Oriental and Ethiopian region, and Celebes.</p> + +<p>The most generalised representative of this group is the small +Anoa (<i>B. depressicornis</i>) of Celebes, the type of the genus <i>Anoa</i> or +<i>Probubalus</i>, which has the same cranial structure as in the more +typical Buffaloes, to the young of which (as was pointed out by +the late Professor Garrod) it presents a striking resemblance. Its +colour is black; and the short and prismatic horns are directed +upwards from the forehead. In the Pliocene Siwaliks of India +there occur the remains of larger Buffaloes (<i>B. occipitalis</i> and +<i>B. acuticornis</i>) closely allied to the Anoa, but with longer and more +distinctly angulated horns. The still larger <i>B. platyceros</i> of the +last-named deposits, in which the horns are wide-spreading and +much flattened, appears to be in some respects intermediate between +the preceding and following forms. The typical Indian Buffalo +(<i>Bos buffelus</i>), which has been domesticated over South-East Asia, +Egypt, and Southern Europe, is, in the wild state, a gigantic animal +with enormous horns. These horns are longer, more slender, and +more outwardly directed in the female than in the male; and in +the former sex may have a length of more than 6 feet from base +to tip. They are widely separated at their bases, the forehead is +very convex, and the ears are not excessively large, and have no +distinct fringe. These Buffaloes frequent swampy and moist districts +in several parts of India, but it is in many instances difficult +to decide whether they belong to really wild or to feral races. +Very large skulls, specifically indistinguishable from those of the +existing form, occur in the Pleistocene deposits of the Narbada +valley in India; while an allied, if not specifically identical form, +occurs in the Pliocene of the same country. There is some doubt +whether <i>B. antiquus</i> of the Pleistocene of Algeria is most nearly +related to the Indian or to the African species.</p> + +<p>In Africa two species of Buffalo are recognised by Sir Victor +Brooke,<a id="FNanchor_249" href="#Footnote_249" class="fnanchor">[249]</a> namely the large <i>B. caffer</i>, occurring typically at the Cape, +but said by this writer to range to Abyssinia, and the smaller +<i>B. pumilus</i>, which seems to have a very wide distribution. The +skulls of both these forms are shorter than in the Indian species, +while the horns are also shorter, much more curved inwardly, and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_362"></a>[362]</span> +more approximated on the forehead. In the large typical form of +<i>B. caffer</i> from South Africa the colour is black, the horns of the male +are very thick, much reflected, and closely approximated on the +forehead, where they form a helmet-like mass.<a id="FNanchor_250" href="#Footnote_250" class="fnanchor">[250]</a> The large northern +form described as <i>B. æquinoctialis</i> has the horns somewhat less thick, +and thus approximates to the so-called <i>B. pumilus</i>.</p> + +<p>The latter occurs typically in Western Africa, where it has also +been described as <i>B. brachyceros</i>. In the typical form the horns are +thinner and less reflected than in <i>B. caffer</i>, and in some specimens +they are more widely separated on the forehead, and are marked at +their bases by distinct rugæ. The colour is ruddy brown, inclining +to rufous in one specimen. The skulls of Buffaloes from West +Africa, probably referable to the form described as <i>B. centralis</i>, appear +to connect <i>B. pumilus</i> with <i>B. caffer</i>, as shown by their larger size +and the form of their horns; so that further observations are +required to show whether the smaller form is really entitled to +rank as a distinct species, or merely as a well-marked local race.</p> + +<p>The second group comprises the Bisons, which are more nearly +allied to the true Oxen, having similar rounded horns, but the skull +being less massive, with a longer and more tapering frontal region, +and a wider frontal diameter. The superior part of the forehead +is transversely arched, the intercornual space elevated in the +middle, the horns situated below the plane of the occiput, and +the orbits more or less prominent. The premaxillæ do not extend +upwards to reach the nasals. The Bisons (<a href="#figure148">Fig. 148</a>) have the body +covered with short, crisp, woolly hair, while on the head and neck +there is an abundance of much longer and darker hair, which forms +a mane concealing the eyes, ears, and the bases of the horns. There +is also a long beard beneath the chin; while a line of long hair +extends from the head nearly to the tail, the latter being tufted +at the extremity. The withers are much higher than the hind +quarters, so that there is a kind of hump at the shoulders.</p> + +<p>The group is represented by two species—the European and +the American Bison. The former is the <i>Bos bonasus</i> of Linnæus, +and is also identical with the <i>Bos bison</i> of Ray. The German name +<i>Wisent</i> is the equivalent of the Greek <i>Bison</i>. The American +species is the <i>Bos americanus</i> of Gmelin. Both species are closely +allied, but the American Bison is slightly the smaller animal of +the two, and is shorter and weaker in the hind quarters, with +a smaller pelvis; its body is, however, more massive in front; +and the hair on the head, neck, and fore quarters is longer and +more luxuriant. A large bull American Bison, preserved in the +Museum at Washington, stands 5 feet 8 inches in height at<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_363"></a>[363]</span> the +withers. The European Bison appears to have been formerly +abundant over a large portion of Europe in the Pleistocene period—the +fossil race described as <i>B. priscus</i> not being specifically distinct; +but at the present day it exists only in the primeval forests +of Lithuania, Moldavia, Wallachia, and the Caucasus, where it is +artificially preserved.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure148" style="max-width: 25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure148.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 148.</span>—The American Bison (<i>Bos americanus</i>). After Hornaday.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The American Bison formerly ranged over about one-third of +the North American continent. Thus, to quote from Mr. Hornaday,<a id="FNanchor_251" href="#Footnote_251" class="fnanchor">[251]</a> +“starting almost at tide-water on the Atlantic coast, it extended +across the Alleghany mountain system to the prairies along +the Mississippi, and southward to the delta of that great system. +Although the great plain country of the West was the natural +home of the species, where it flourished most abundantly, it also +wandered south across Texas to the burning plains of North-Eastern +Mexico, westward across the Rocky Mountains into New Mexico, +Utah, and Idaho, and northward across a vast treeless waste to the +bleak and inhospitable shores of the Great Slave Lake itself.” In +consequence of the settlement of the country by Europeans the area +inhabited by the Bison was gradually contracted, till about 1840 +one mighty herd occupied the centre of its former range. The +completion of the Union Pacific Railway in 1869 divided this great +herd into a southern and a northern division, the former comprising +a number of individuals estimated at nearly four millions, while the +latter contained about a million and a half. Before 1880 the +southern herd had, however, practically ceased to exist; while the +same fate overtook the northern one in 1883. In 1889 some twenty +stragglers in Texas represented the last of the southern herd;<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_364"></a>[364]</span> +while there were a few others in Colorado, Wyoming, Montana, +and Dakota. A herd of some two hundred wild individuals, +derived from the northern herd, is preserved by the United States +Government in the Yellowstone National Park; and it is believed +that some five hundred of the race known as Wood-Bison exist in +British territory; but with these exceptions this magnificent species +is exterminated. The multitudes in which the American Bison +formerly existed are almost incredible; the prairies being absolutely +black with them as far as the eye could reach, and the numbers +in the herds being, as we have said, reckoned by millions. Mr. +Hornaday even considers that the whole of the game in South +Africa was never equal to the number of Bison on an equal area of +the American prairies.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp88" id="figure149" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure149.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 149.</span>—The Yak (<i>Bos grunniens</i>), domestic variety.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>An extinct Bison from the Pleistocene of Texas, known as <i>Bos +latifrons</i>, was probably the ancestor of the recent American species.</p> + +<p>The Yak (<i>Bos grunniens</i>) appears to be allied both to the Bisons +and the true Oxen, being distinguished from the former by the +different position occupied by the long hair, which forms a fringe +investing the shoulders, flanks, and thighs, and grows over the +whole of the tail. In the skull the orbits are less tubular, the forehead +flatter, and the premaxillæ less widely separated from the +nasals. There is no distinct dewlap. Wild Yaks inhabit the +higher regions of Chinese Tibet and the region of the Karakoram, +as well as the more outlying parts of Ladak, such as the Changchemo +valley. Owing, however, to incessant pursuit those now found<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_365"></a>[365]</span> +within the territories of the Maharaja of Kashmir are stragglers +from Chinese Tibet. The height of the Yak is somewhat lower +than that of the larger domestic cattle. The colour of the wild race +is black, tending to brown on the flanks; but many of the tame +breeds which have been crossed with ordinary cattle have more or +less white (<a href="#figure149">Fig. 149</a>), and it is the white tails of these half-breeds +that are so esteemed in India as “chowries.” Yaks are exceedingly +intolerant of heat, and the wild ones always live at very great +elevations. Tame Yaks are extensively used as beasts of burden +in Tibet, where they are extremely valuable in crossing the high +and desolate wastes of that region; they have, however, the great +drawback that they refuse to eat corn, so that in districts where +there is no grass it is frequently necessary to make forced marches +with wearied beasts in order to prevent them (and thus the whole +party) perishing from starvation.</p> + +<p>The skull of an extinct species from the Pliocene of Northern +India, described as <i>Bos sivalensis</i>, appears to indicate a species allied +to the Yak.</p> + +<p>With the Bibovine group we come to the consideration of three +Oriental species which connect the preceding forms with the +typical Oxen. The three species are the Gaur (<i>B. gaurus</i>) the +Gayal (<i>B. frontalis</i>, <a href="#figure150">Fig. 150</a>) of India, and the Banteng (<i>B. sondaicus</i>) +of Burma, Java, Bali, and Lambok. In this group, as in the true +Oxen, there are thirteen pairs of ribs, against fourteen in the +Bisons. All the three species are characterised by the great height +of the spines of the anterior dorsal vertebræ, causing a prominent +ridge down the back. The horns, which are of a greenish +colour in the Gaur, are somewhat flattened, and after running outwards +are directed upwards instead of backwards; they occupy the +vertex of the skull. The frontals are more or less concave, the +premaxillæ do not join the nasals, and the occipital aspect of the +skull is characterised by the deep incisions made by the temporal +fossæ. The lower part of the legs is white (<a href="#figure150">Fig. 150</a>), and the hoofs +are comparatively small and pointed. The Gaur (<i>B. gaurus</i>) is the +largest of the three species, and inhabits all the large forests of India +from near Cape Comorin to the foot of the Himalaya; it is commonly +known to sportsmen as the Indian Bison. It stands fully 6 feet in +height at the withers, which are much elevated; and since the whole +back is arched the line from the nose to the root of the tail forms +an almost continuous curve. The most characteristic feature of the +animal is, however, the large and convex intercornual frontal crest, +which curves forward, and thus gives a concave profile to this part +of the skull. As a rule the Gaur prefers hilly regions, although it +is sometimes met with on the flat. It is very shy and readily +frightened; and it has never been domesticated. The Gayal, or +Mithan, of which a figure is given in woodcut 150, is<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_366"></a>[366]</span> at once distinguished +from the Gaur by the straight line between the horns +(which are black in colour), owing to the absence of the intercornual +crest of the latter. The horns are also shorter, more rounded, +and less curved. In the Indian Museum, Calcutta, there are, however, +skulls which are to a great extent intermediate between those +of typical Gaurs and those of typical Gayals, but these may belong +to hybrids. The Gayal occurs in Assam, Chittagong, and adjacent +districts, but it appears that these animals exist in a semi-domesticated +condition, no wild race being known to Europeans, although +it is probable that such may exist in the unexplored Mishmi Hills.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp78" id="figure150" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure150.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 150.</span>—The Gayal (<i>Bos frontalis</i>). From Sclater, <i>List of Animals in Zoological +Society’s Gardens</i>, 1883.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The Banteng (<i>B. sondaicus</i>) is a smaller and lighter built animal +than either of the preceding, with a longer and sharper head, and +more rounded and slender horns. The dorsal ridge is, moreover, +but slightly developed; while the bright dun colour of the body +of the female readily distinguishes it from the darker hue of the +Gaur and Gayal.</p> + +<p>A fossil skull from the Pleistocene deposits of the Narbada +valley, India, described as <i>Bos palæogaurus</i>, is believed to indicate +a species<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_367"></a>[367]</span> nearly allied to the Gaur, if indeed it be specifically +distinct.</p> + +<p>The true Oxen, or Taurine group, are now represented solely +by <i>Bos taurus</i> and <i>Bos indicus</i>. Both of these species are now known +only by domesticated races, unless the herds of the former preserved +at Chillingham and some other British parks are the survivors +of an original wild race. The dorsal ridge of the Bibovine group +is here wanting; the horns are rounded, with their extremities +directed backwards, and are placed at the extreme vertex of the +skull; while the long frontal region is nearly flat; the temporal +fossæ scarcely intrude upon the occipital aspect of the skull; and +the premaxillæ reach the nasals. The hoofs are large and rounded. +It is known that wild Oxen were abundant in the forests of Europe +at the time of Julius Cæsar, by whom they were described as the +Urus, equal to the German Aurochs; and the large skulls found in +turbary and Pleistocene deposits, and described under the name of +<i>Bos primigenius</i>, can only be regarded as having belonged to the +large original race of <i>B. taurus</i>, of which it has been thought the +Chillingham cattle are smaller descendants.<a id="FNanchor_252" href="#Footnote_252" class="fnanchor">[252]</a> The subfossil skulls +described as <i>B. longifrons</i> and <i>B. frontosus</i> must also be looked upon +as referable to smaller races of the same species. That the domestic +cattle of Europe are descendants from the various races of the same +original species there can be no doubt, but in the case of the humped +cattle of India (<i>B. indicus</i>) it is quite probable that their origin +may be, at least in part, different. The extinct <i>Bos namadicus</i>, of +the Pleistocene deposits of India, was a species with the general +characters of the Taurine group, but with an inclination to a +flattening of the horns, and with an approximation to a Bibovine +type of occiput, as well as with the separation of the premaxillæ +from the nasals.</p> + +<p>The earliest representatives of this group occur in the Pliocene +of the Siwalik Hills in Northern India. One of these species +(<i>B. planifrons</i>) appears to be allied to <i>B. namadicus</i>; but the other +(<i>B. acutifrons</i>) was a gigantic species characterised by the sharp +median angulation of the frontal region, and the pyriform section +of the enormous horn-cores.</p> + +<p>The extinct <i>B. elatus</i>, from the Upper Pliocene of France and +Italy, is the representative of a generalised type, which may be +known as the Leptobovine group. The males had rounded horn-cores +widely separated at their bases, and placed low down on the +forehead. The females (which have been described as <i>Leptobos</i>) were +often or always hornless. The limbs were unusually slender.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_368"></a>[368]</span> +This group also occurs in the Pliocene of the Siwalik Hills.</p> + +<h4><i>Suborder</i> <span class="smcap">Perissodactyla</span>.</h4> + +<p>This is a perfectly well-defined group of Ungulate mammals, +represented in the actual fauna of the world by only three distinct +types or families—the Tapirs, the Rhinoceroses, and the Horses—poor +in genera and species, and (except in the case of the two +domesticated species of <i>Equus</i>, which have been largely multiplied +and diffused by man’s agency) not generally numerous in individuals, +though widely scattered over the earth’s surface. Palæontological +records, however, show very clearly that these are but the surviving +remnants of a very extensive and much-varied assemblage of +animals, which flourished upon the earth through the Tertiary +geological period, and which, if it could be reconstructed in its +entirety, would not only show members filling up structurally the +intervals between the existing apparently isolated forms, but would +also show several marked lines of specialisation which have become +extinct without leaving any direct successors.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp78" id="figure151" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure151.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 151.</span>—Bones of right fore foot of existing Perissodactyles. A, Tapir (<i>Tapirus indicus</i>), +× ⅕; B, Rhinoceros (<i>Rhinoceros sumatrensis</i>), × ⅙; C, Horse (<i>Equus caballus</i>), × ⅛. <i>U</i>, ulna; +<i>R</i>, radius; <i>c</i>, cuneiform; <i>l</i>, lunar; <i>s</i>, scaphoid; <i>u</i>, unciform; <i>m</i>, magnum; <i>td</i>, trapezoid; <i>tm</i>, +trapezium.—From Flower, <i>Osteology of Mammalia</i>.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The following are the principal characters distinguishing them +from the Artiodactyla. Premolar and molar teeth in continuous +series, with massive, quadrate, transversely ridged or complex<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_369"></a>[369]</span> +crowns,—the posterior premolars often resembling the true molars +in size and structure. Crown of the last lower molar commonly +bilobed, and if a third lobe is present in this tooth it is wanting in +the last lower milk-molar. Dorso-lumbar vertebræ never fewer than +twenty-two, usually twenty-three in the existing species. Nasal +bones expanded posteriorly. An alisphenoid canal. Femur with +a third trochanter.<a id="FNanchor_253" href="#Footnote_253" class="fnanchor">[253]</a> The middle or third digit on both fore and +hind feet larger than any of the others, and symmetrical in itself, +the free border of the ungual phalanx being evenly rounded (see +<a href="#figure151">Fig. 151</a>). This may be the only functional toe, or the second and +fourth may be subequally developed on each side of it. In the +Tapirs and many extinct forms, the fifth toe also remains on the +fore limb, but its presence does not interfere with the symmetrical +arrangement of the remainder of the foot around the median line +of the third or middle digit. Traces of a hallux have only been +found in some extremely ancient and primitive forms. The +astragalus has a pulley-like surface above for articulation with the +tibia, but its distal surface is flattened and unites to a much greater +extent with the navicular than with the cuboid, which bone is +of comparatively less importance than in the Artiodactyla. The +calcaneum does not articulate with the lower or distal extremity of +the fibula. The stomach is always simple, the cæcum is large and +capacious, the placenta diffused, and the mammæ are inguinal. +The gall-bladder is invariably absent.</p> + +<p>As regards the dentition, the whole of the premolar series +may be preceded by milk-teeth; and it has been demonstrated in +<i>Rhinoceros</i> that when there is no displacement of the first cheek-tooth +that tooth is a persistent milk-molar; the same condition +apparently holding good in <i>Palæotherium.</i> This feature indicates +considerable dental specialisation, the milk-molars, according to the +theory generally accepted by the leading English zoologists, being +the acquired, and the premolars the original series. Another +peculiar feature of the dentition of the Perissodactyla, very rarely +met with among the Artiodactyla, is that the premolars tend to +resemble the true molars; this feature occurring in all the existing +genera, although not found in the earlier generalised types. The +cheek-teeth of all the members of the suborder are primarily constructed +on some modification of what is known as the lophodont +plan. Thus the upper molars (<a href="#figure155">Fig. 155</a>, <a href="#figure155">p. 375</a>) have an outer antero-posterior +wall from which proceed two transverse ridges, formed by +the coalescence of the primitive inner and outer columns, towards +the inner aspect of the crown; while in the lower molars there +may be either two simple transverse ridges, or these ridges may be +curved into crescents, coming into contact with one another at their +extremities. Those forms having brachydont teeth show this plan<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_370"></a>[370]</span> +of structure in its simplest modification; but in cases, as in the +Horse, where the teeth assume an extremely hypsodont form, the +original plan is so obscured by infoldings of the enamel that it can +only be traced with difficulty.</p> + +<p>At the present day the Perissodactyla are sharply differentiated +into Horses, Tapirs, and Rhinoceroses, but the knowledge +already gained of the extinct representatives of the suborder shows +such a close alliance between these groups that it is exceedingly +difficult to make any satisfactory classification of the whole. This +is of course exactly what might have been expected; and the same +would doubtless be the case with all other groups if we knew as +much of their past history as we do of that of the Perissodactyles.</p> + +<p>The detailed account of the anatomy of the Horse given in the +sequel will afford much information as to the general structure of +the members of the suborder.</p> + +<h5><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Tapiridæ</span>.</h5> + +<p>Both upper and lower cheek-teeth brachydont and simply +bilophodont; hinder premolars as complex as the molars; last lower +molar without third lobe; first upper cheek-tooth with a milk-predecessor.<a id="FNanchor_254" href="#Footnote_254" class="fnanchor">[254]</a> +Outer columns of upper molars conical. Four digits +in the manus, and three in the pes.</p> + +<p><i>Tapirus.</i><a id="FNanchor_255" href="#Footnote_255" class="fnanchor">[255]</a>—Dentition <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₃, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 42. Of the +upper incisors, the first and second are nearly equal, with short, +broad crowns; the third is large and conical, considerably larger +than the canine, which is separated from it by an interval. Lower +incisors diminishing in size from the first to the third; the canine, +which is in contact with the third incisor, large and conical, working +against (and behind) the canine-like third upper incisor. In both +jaws there is a diastema between the canines and the commencement +of the teeth of the cheek-series, which are all in contact. +First upper premolar with a triangular crown, narrow in front +owing to the absence of the anterior inner cusp. The other upper +premolars and molars all formed on the same plan and of nearly +the same size, with four roots and quadrate crowns, rather wider +transversely than from before backwards, each having four cusps, +connected by a pair of transverse ridges, anterior and posterior. +The first lower premolar compressed in front; the others composed +of a simple pair of transverse crests, with a small anterior and +posterior circular ridge.</p> + +<p>Skull elevated and compressed. Orbit and temporal fossa +widely continuous, there being no true postorbital process from +the frontal bone. Anterior narial apertures very large, and extending<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_371"></a>[371]</span> +high on the face between the orbits; nasal bones short, elevated, +triangular, and pointed in front. Vertebræ: C 7, D 18, L 5, S 6, +C about 12. Limbs short and stout. Forefeet with four toes, +having distinct hoofs: the first is absent, the third the longest, the +second and fourth nearly equal, the fifth the shortest and scarcely +reaching the ground in the ordinary standing position. Hind feet +with the typical Perissodactyle arrangement of three toes,—the +middle one being the largest, the two others nearly equal. Nose +and upper lip elongated into a flexible, mobile snout or short proboscis, +near the end of which the nostrils are situated. Eyes rather +small. Ears of moderate size, ovate, erect. Tail very short. Skin +thick and but scantily covered with hair.</p> + +<p>The existing species of Tapir may be grouped into two sections, +the distinctive characters of which are only recognisable in the +skeleton. (A) With a great anterior prolongation of the ossification +of the nasal septum (mesethmoid), extending in the adult far +beyond the nasal bones, and supported and embraced at the base +by ascending plates from the maxillæ (genus <i>Elasmognathus</i>, Gill). +Two species, both from Central America, <i>Tapirus bairdi</i> and <i>T. dowi</i>. +The former is found in Mexico, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, +and Panama; the latter in Guatemala, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica. +(B) With ossification of the septum not extending farther forward +than the nasal bones (<i>Tapirus</i> proper). Three species, <i>T. indicus</i>, +the largest of the genus, from the Malay Peninsula (as far north as +Tavoy and Mergui), Sumatra, and Borneo, distinguished by its +peculiar coloration, the head, neck, fore and hind limbs, being glossy +black, and the intermediate part of the body white; <i>T. americanus</i> +(<i>T. terrestris</i>, Linn.), the common Tapir of the forests and lowlands +of Brazil and Paraguay (<a href="#figure152">Fig. 152</a>); and <i>T. roulini</i>, the Pinchaque +Tapir of the high regions of the Andes. All the American species +are of a nearly uniform dark brown or blackish colour when adult; +but it is a curious circumstance that when young (and in this the +Malay species conforms with the others) they are conspicuously +marked with spots and longitudinal stripes of white or fawn colour +on a darker ground.</p> + +<p>The habits of all the kinds of Tapirs appear to be very similar. +They are solitary, nocturnal, shy, and inoffensive, chiefly frequenting +the depths of shady forests and the neighbourhood of water, to +which they frequently resort for the purpose of bathing, and in +which they often take refuge when pursued. They feed on various +vegetable substances, as shoots of trees and bushes, buds, and +leaves. They are hunted by the natives of the lands in which they +live for the sake of their hides and flesh.</p> + +<p>The singular fact of the existence of so closely allied animals as +the Malayan and the American Tapirs in such distant regions of the +earth, and in no intervening places, is accounted for by what is<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_372"></a>[372]</span> +known of the geological history of the race; for the Tapirs must +once have had a very wide distribution. There is no proof of their +having lived in the Eocene epoch, but in deposits of Miocene and +Pliocene date remains undistinguishable generically from the modern +Tapirs, and described as <i>T. priscus</i>, <i>T. arvernensis</i>, etc., have been +found in France, Germany, and in the Red Crag of Suffolk. Tapirs +appear, however, to have become extinct in Europe before the +Pleistocene period, since none of their bones or teeth have been found +in any of the caverns or alluvial deposits in which those of Elephants, +Rhinoceroses, and Hippopotamuses occur in abundance; but in other +regions their distribution at this age was far wider than at present, +as they are known to have extended eastward to China (<i>T. sinensis</i>, +Owen) and westwards over the greater part of the southern United +States of America, from South Carolina to California. Lund also +distinguished two species or varieties from the caves of Brazil, one +of which appears identical with <i>T. americanus</i>. Thus we have no +difficulty in tracing the common origin in the Miocene Tapirs of +Europe of the now widely separated American and Asiatic species. +It is, moreover, interesting to observe how very slight an amount +of variation has taken place in forms isolated during such an +enormous period of time.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp79" id="figure152" style="max-width: 28.125em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure152.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 152.</span>—The American Tapir (<i>Tapirus americanus</i>).</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_373"></a>[373]</span></p> + +<p>The anatomy of the soft parts of the Tapirs<a id="FNanchor_256" href="#Footnote_256" class="fnanchor">[256]</a> conforms to the +general Perissodactyle type, as exemplified in the Rhinoceros and +the Horse, although on the whole (as might have been expected) +presenting a closer resemblance to the former. <i>T. americanus</i> +differs from <i>T. indicus</i> by the absence, or at any rate the less +development, of the intestinal valvulæ conniventes, the presence +of a moderator band in the heart, the shape of the glans penis, +and the more elongated cæcum, which is sacculated by four distinct +longitudinal fibrous bands. The convolutions of the hemispheres +of the brain of the Tapirs are simpler than in other Perissodactyles, +thus tending to confirm the inferences which may be drawn +from the skeleton and teeth as to the comparatively low or generalised +organisation of these animals.</p> + +<p><i>Palæotapirus.</i>—This name has been applied to an imperfectly +known form from the Upper Eocene Phosphorites of Central France, +which is regarded by Dr. Filhol as referable to this family.</p> + +<h5><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Lophiodontidæ</span>.</h5> + +<p>Molars brachydont and bilophodont, those of the lower jaw with +either straight or imperfectly crescentoid ridges; premolars smaller +and usually simpler than the molars; last lower molar generally +with a third lobe. Outer columns of upper molars conical or +flattened. Digits usually as in the preceding family.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure153" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure153.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 153.</span>—Right side of skull of <i>Hyracotherium leporinum</i>, from the London Clay. ½ natural +size. (After Owen.) 3, Occiput; 7, sagittal crest; 11, frontals; 15, nasals; 21, maxilla; 22, +premaxilla; <i>d</i>, mandibular condyle; <i>a</i>, aperture of facial nerve; <i>p</i> 1-4, premolars; <i>m</i> 1-3, molars.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>This family includes a number of more or less imperfectly +known forms, all of which are extinct and apparently confined to +the Eocene period, and ranging from the size of a Rabbit to that of +a Rhinoceros. Although some of these appear to have died out +without giving rise to more specialised forms, it is probable that this +family contained the ancestral types from which most or all of the +modern Perissodactyles have been derived. Only very brief mention +can be made here of some of the leading genera. <i>Lophiodon</i>, of the +Middle and Upper Eocene of Europe, with the dental formula, +<i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃, includes the largest representatives of the family, +and is generally regarded as a stock which has died out without +giving rise to later forms. The ridges of the lower molars are +straight, and the last of these teeth has a third lobe; while the +second transverse ridge of the last upper premolar is usually incomplete; +the outer columns of the upper molars are flattened, as in +the next genus. <i>Hyrachyus</i>, of the Upper Eocene of the United +States, and probably also occurring in the French Eocenes, is an +allied genus, with four premolars and no third lobe to the last lower +molar; the fourth upper premolar having the two ridges uniting +internally to form a crescent. This genus has been regarded as the +ancestor of the Rhinocerotic <i>Hyracodon</i>. The genus <i>Hyracotherium</i> +was established in 1839 by Owen for a small animal no larger than<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_374"></a>[374]</span> +a Hare, the skull of which was found in the London Clay at Herne +Bay. A more nearly perfect specimen, apparently of the same species, +was afterwards (in 1857) described under the name of <i>Pliolophus vulpiceps</i>, +of which the skull is figured in the accompanying woodcut. +Other forms referable to the same genus have been obtained from +the Wasatch Eocene of the United States, and were described +by Professor Marsh under the name of <i>Eohippus</i>. There were four +premolars, the fourth being unlike the molars, and in the upper jaw +having only one inner cusp. The upper molars are of the general +type of those of <i>Lophiodon</i>, but have conical outer columns, and +the anterior transverse ridge imperfect, while the ridges of the +lower molars are crescentoid. <i>Systemodon</i> differs from <i>Hyracotherium</i> +by the absence of a diastema between the first and second premolars; +it occurs in the Wasatch Lower Eocene of the United States. +In <i>Pachynolophus</i> (<i>Lophiotherium</i>, <i>Orotherium</i>, or <i>Orohippus</i>), which is +common to the Middle and Upper Eocene of Europe and the Bridger +Eocene of North America, the outer columns of the upper molars +are flattened, and in some cases, at least, the last premolar resembles +the molars, that of the upper jaw having two inner cusps.<a id="FNanchor_257" href="#Footnote_257" class="fnanchor">[257]</a> This +genus, indeed, so closely connects <i>Hyracotherium</i> with the genera +<i>Epihippus</i> and <i>Anchilophus</i> as to show that the distinction between +the <i>Lophiodontidæ</i> and <i>Palæotheriidæ</i> is really an arbitrary one. +<i>Epihippus</i>, of the Upper Eocene of the United States, has both the +third and fourth upper premolars as complex in the molars, and +is distinguished from <i>Anchilophus</i> by the lower cusps and more +imperfect transverse ridges of these teeth. The so-called <i>Orohippus +agilis</i> belongs to this genus. <i>Isectolophus</i> is another American Eocene +genus which may be provisionally placed in this family; it is<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_375"></a>[375]</span> +regarded by Professors Scott and Osborn as connecting <i>Systemodon</i> +with the <i>Tapiridæ</i>; the fourth and probably the third upper premolar +approximating in structure to the molars; the upper molars +have conical outer columns. <i>Helaletes</i> is another closely allied +form, with similar premolars, but with the outer columns of the +upper molars flattened.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure154" style="max-width: 28.125em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure154.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 154.</span>—Restoration of <i>Palæotherium</i> (Upper Eocene). After Cuvier.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<h5><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Palæotheriidæ</span>.</h5> + +<figure class="figright illowp90" id="figure155" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure155.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 155.</span>—A half-worn right upper molar of +<i>Palæotherium magnum</i>. (After Owen.) <i>f</i>, <i>f</i>, +External surfaces of outer columns; <i>a</i>, postero-external +column (metacone); <i>b</i>, antero-external +column (paracone); <i>c</i>, postero-internal +column (hypocone); <i>d</i>, antero-internal column +(protocone); <i>i</i>, anterior intermediate column +(protoconule); <i>e</i>, median valley; <i>g</i>, posterior +valley.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>Molars (<a href="#figure155">Fig. 155</a>) brachydont, with the valleys between the +ridges never filled with cement; upper premolars either simpler than +or as complex as the molars; lower molars with crescentoid ridges, +and the last of the series with or without a third lobe. Outer +columns of upper molars flattened. +Orbit (at least usually) confluent +with temporal fossa. Three digits +on each foot. This family includes +extinct genera ranging from +the Middle and Upper Eocene to +the Miocene, and passes so gradually +into the following one that the +maintenance of the two can only +be supported on the ground of +convenience. The typical genus, +<i>Palæotherium</i>, was made known to +science in the early part of the +present century by Cuvier, who +restored the skeleton (<a href="#figure154">Fig. 154</a>) +with a short neck like that of the +Tapirs, although it has been subsequently +found that the neck +was considerably longer. This<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_376"></a>[376]</span> +genus (which may be taken to include <i>Paloplotherium</i>) ranges from +the Middle to the Upper Eocene of Europe, and usually has the full +typical dentition, although the first premolar may disappear. The +last lower molar has a third lobe; and in the typical forms the last +premolar is as complex as the molars, the diastema is short, and the +canines are not large. In other forms, however, the hinder ridge of +the fourth upper premolar may be aborted. The first upper cheek-tooth +is generally a well-developed tooth, which may have a +deciduous predecessor. <i>Anchilophus</i>, of the Upper Eocene of Europe, +and <i>Anchitherium</i>, of the Miocene of Europe and North America, +connect the preceding forms with the <i>Equidæ</i>. In the latter genus +there is the full number of teeth, the last lower molar has almost +completely lost the third lobe of <i>Anchilophus</i>, and the surfaces +of the two outer lobes of the upper molars (<a href="#figure157">Figs. 157, 158</a>) lack +the median vertical ridges of that genus. In the American +species of <i>Anchitherium</i> (which have been described as <i>Mesohippus</i> +and <i>Miohippus</i>) the lateral digits are larger than in the European +Middle Miocene <i>Anchitherium aurelianense</i>; a mere splint represents +the fifth metacarpal, and the meso- and ento-cuneiform of the tarsus +do not unite as they do in the latter.</p> + +<h5><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Equidæ</span>.</h5> + +<p>Molars hypsodont, with the outer columns of the upper ones +flattened, the valleys completely filled with cement, and the enamel +thrown into folds and plications; upper premolars as complex as +molars, which they slightly exceed in size; ridges of lower molars +crescentoid, and complicated by enamel-foldings; no distinct third +lobe to last lower molar; summits of incisors with a central infolding +of enamel. Orbit completely surrounded by bone. Digits +three or one, but in the former case the median one is alone of +functional importance; ulna and fibula incomplete; meso- and ento-cuneiform +of tarsus united.</p> + +<p>Such are the leading characters which serve to distinguish the +existing Horses and their nearest fossil allies from the <i>Palæotheriidæ</i>. +The Horse, as being the best known of the Perissodactyle Ungulates, +is selected for a somewhat detailed description; but before +proceeding to this it will be advisable to take a brief survey +of the relations of the <i>Equidæ</i> to the extinct forms already +noticed, and also of the modifications of the family at present +existing.</p> + +<p>The earliest form which can be certainly included in this line of +descent is the American Lower Eocene genus <i>Phenacodus</i> (noticed +below under the head of the suborder Condylarthra), in which +there were five complete digits to the feet. From this form there +is but a step to <i>Systemodon</i> and <i>Hyracotherium</i>, in which<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_377"></a>[377]</span> the functional +digits of the manus were reduced to four, as in <i>Pachynolophus</i> +(<a href="#figure156">Fig. 156</a>, <i>a</i>), although one species retained a rudiment of the +metacarpal of the pollex.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure156" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure156.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 156.</span>—Successive stages of modification of the feet of extinct forms of Horse-like +animals (chiefly from Marsh), showing gradual reduction of the outer and enlargement of the +middle toe (<span class="allsmcap">III</span>). <i>a</i>, <i>Pachynolophus</i> (Eocene); <i>b</i>, <i>Anchitherium</i> (Early Miocene); <i>c</i>, <i>Anchitherium</i> +(Late Miocene); <i>d</i>, <i>Hipparion</i> (Pliocene); <i>e</i>, <i>Equus</i> (Pleistocene).</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The transition from these animals of the Eocene period to the +Horses of modern times has been accompanied by a gradual increase +in size. The diminutive <i>Hyracotherium</i> of the Lower, and <i>Pachynolophus</i> +of the Middle and Upper Eocene were succeeded in the +Miocene period by the forms to which the name of <i>Anchitherium</i> +has been given, of the size of sheep; these again in Pliocene times +by <i>Hipparion</i> and <i>Protohippus</i>, as large as the modern donkeys; and +it is mainly in the Pleistocene period that <i>Equidæ</i> occur which +approach in size the existing Horse. Important structural modifications +have also taken place, with corresponding changes in the +mode of life of the animal. Thus the neck has become elongated, +the skull altered in form, the teeth greatly modified, and the limbs +have undergone remarkable changes. The last two require to be +described more in detail.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure157" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure157.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 157.</span>—<i>a</i>, Grinding surface of unworn molar tooth of <i>Anchitherium</i>; <i>b</i>, corresponding +surface of unworn molar of young Horse; <i>c</i>, the same tooth after it has been some time in use. +The uncoloured portions are the dentine or ivory, the shaded parts the cement filling the +cavities and surrounding the exterior. The black line separating these two structures is the +enamel or hardest constituent of the tooth.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The teeth in the Eocene forms had, as mentioned above, the +characteristic number of forty-four. This number has been retained +throughout the series, at least theoretically; but one tooth on either +side of each jaw, the anterior premolar, which in all the Eocene +and Miocene species was well developed, persisting through the +lifetime of the animal, is in all modern Horses rudimentary, +functionless, and generally lost at an early period of life, evidently +passing through a stage which must soon lead to its complete disappearance. +The canines have also greatly diminished in size, and +are rarely present in the female sex, so that practically a very large +number of adult Horses of the present day have eight teeth less +than the number possessed by their predecessors. The diastema<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_378"></a>[378]</span> +or interval between the incisor and premolar teeth (of essential +importance in the domesticated Horse to his master, as without it +there would be no room for inserting the special instrument of +subjugation to his commands, the bit) already existed in the +earliest known forms, but has gradually increased in length. The +incisors have undergone in comparatively recent times that curious +change producing the structure more fully described hereafter, +which distinguishes the Horse’s incisors from those of all other +known animals, with the exception of the extinct <i>Macrauchenia</i>. +Lastly, the molars have undergone a remarkable series of modifications, +much resembling in principle those that have taken place +in several other groups of herbivorous animals. Distinctions in +form which existed between the premolars, at least in the anterior +part of the series, and the true molars have gradually disappeared, +the teeth becoming all very uniform in the shape and +structure of their grinding surface. The crowns of all these teeth +in the early forms were very short (see <a href="#figure158">Fig. 158</a>, <i>a</i>); there was a +distinct constriction, or neck, between the crown and roots; and +when the tooth was developing, as soon as the neck once rose +fairly above the alveolar margin, the tooth remained permanently +in this position. The term “brachydont” expresses this condition +of teeth, the mode of growth of which may be illustrated by those +of man. The free surface had two nearly transverse curved ridges, +with valleys between (<a href="#figure157">Fig. 157</a>, <i>a</i>); but the valleys were shallow +and had no deposit of cement filling them, the whole exposed +surface of the unworn tooth being formed of enamel. When the +ridges became worn down the dentine of the interior was exposed, +forming islands surrounded by enamel. With the progress of time +the crowns of the teeth gradually became longer, the valleys deeper, +and the ridges not only more elevated but more curved and complex +in arrangement. To give support to these high ridges and +save them from breaking in use, the valleys or cavities between +them became filled up to the top with cement, and as the crown<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_379"></a>[379]</span> +wore down an admirable grinding surface consisting of patches and +islands of the two softer substances, dentine and cement, separated +by variously reduplicated and contorted lines of intensely hard +enamel, resulted (<a href="#figure157">Fig. 157</a>, <i>c</i>). The crown continued lengthening +until in the modern Horses it has assumed the form called “hypsodont” +(<a href="#figure158">Fig. 158</a>, <i>b</i>). Instead of contracting into a neck, and +forming roots, its sides continue parallel for a considerable depth in +the socket, and as the surface wears away, the whole +tooth slowly pushes up, and maintains the grinding +edge constantly at the same level above the alveolus, +much as in the perpetually growing Rodent’s teeth. +But in existing Horses there is still a limit to the +growth of the molar. After a length is attained +which in normal conditions supplies sufficient grinding +surface for the lifetime of the animal, +a neck and roots are formed, and the +tooth is reduced to the condition of that +of the brachydont ancestor. It is perfectly +clear that this lengthening of the +crown adds greatly to the power of the +teeth as organs of mastication, and enables +the animals in which it has taken +place to find their sustenance among the +comparatively dry and harsh herbage +of the open plains, instead of being +limited to the more succulent vegetable productions of the marshes +and forests in which their predecessors probably dwelt.</p> + +<figure class="figleft illowp62" id="figure158" style="max-width: 15.625em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure158.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 158.</span>—<i>a</i>, Outer view of second +upper molar teeth of <i>Anchitherium</i> +(brachydont form); <i>b</i>, corresponding +tooth of Horse (hypsodont form).</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The modifications of the limbs which took place <i>pari passu</i> with +those of the teeth must have been associated with increased speed, +especially over firm and unyielding ground. Short, stout legs, and +broad feet, with numerous toes, spreading apart from each other +when the weight of the creature is borne on them, are sufficiently +well adapted for plodding deliberately over marshy and yielding +surfaces, and the Tapirs and the Rhinoceroses, which in the +structure of the limbs have altered but little from the primitive +Eocene forms, still haunt the borders of streams and lakes and +the shady depths of the forests, as was probably the habit of +their ancient representatives, while the Horses are all inhabitants of +the open plains, for life in which their whole organisation is in +the most eminent degree adapted. The length and mobility of +the neck, position of the eye and ear, and great development of the +organ of smell, give them ample means of becoming aware of the +approach of enemies, while the length of their limbs, the angles +the different segments form with each other, and especially the +combination of firmness, stability, and lightness in the reduction of +all the toes to a single one, upon which the whole weight of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_380"></a>[380]</span> +body and all the muscular power are concentrated, give them speed +and endurance surpassing that of almost any other animal. When +surprised, however, they are by no means helpless, both fore and +hind feet becoming at need powerful weapons of defence.</p> + +<p>If we were not so habituated to the sight of the Horse as hardly +ever to consider its structure, we should greatly marvel at being +told of a mammal so strangely constructed that it had but a single +toe on each extremity, on the end of the nail of which it walked or +galloped. Such a conformation is without a parallel in the vertebrate +series, and is one of the most remarkable instances of specialisation, +or deviation from the usual type, in accordance with particular +conditions of life. It is clear, both from the structure of the foot +itself, and also by an examination of the intermediate forms, that +this toe corresponds to the middle or third digit of the complete +typical or pentadactyle foot; and there is very strong evidence to +show that by a gradual concentration of all the power of the limb +upon this toe, and the concurrent dwindling away and final disappearance +of all the others, the present condition of the Horse’s +foot has been produced.</p> + +<p><i>Protohippus.</i><a id="FNanchor_258" href="#Footnote_258" class="fnanchor">[258]</a>—In this Lower Pliocene North American genus +(also described as <i>Merychippus</i>) the cheek-teeth resemble those of +the generalised species of <i>Equus</i>, but have shorter crowns; while +the milk-molars approximate to the permanent molars of <i>Anchitherium</i>. +Each foot has three digits.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure159" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure159.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 159.</span>—Three right upper cheek-teeth +of <i>Hipparion</i>. <i>a</i>, Antero-external column; <i>b</i>, +postero-external column; <i>c</i>, postero-internal column, or posterior +pillar; <i>d</i>, antero-internal column, or anterior pillar; <i>f</i>, +posterior intermediate column; <i>i</i>, anterior intermediate column. +(From the <i>Palæontologia Indica</i>.)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Hipparion.</i><a id="FNanchor_259" href="#Footnote_259" class="fnanchor">[259]</a>—Upper cheek-teeth (<a href="#figure159">Fig. 159</a>), with the antero-internal +column, or anterior pillar as it may be conveniently termed +in this family, detached throughout the greater part of its height +from the adjacent column. Either a single or three digits in each foot. +First upper premolar large and persistent. This genus was very +widely distributed in the Pliocene, occurring in Europe, Asia, <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_381"></a>[381]</span>and +North America. In the typical European forms, and also in those +of North America, there were three digits in the feet (<a href="#figure156">Fig. 156</a>, <i>d</i>); +but in the Indian <i>H. antilopinum</i> (separated by Cope as <i>Hippodactylus</i>) +the lateral digits seem to have disappeared. There is +some doubt whether or no <i>Hipparion</i> should occupy a place in the +direct ancestry of the Horse, and Professor Cope suggests that while +in America the intermediate place between <i>Anchitherium</i> and <i>Equus</i> +was held by <i>Protohippus</i>, in Europe the same position was occupied +by <i>Hipparion</i>—a view which involves the dual origin of the Horses +of the New and Old Worlds.</p> + +<p><i>Equus.</i><a id="FNanchor_260" href="#Footnote_260" class="fnanchor">[260]</a>—Upper cheek-teeth with the anterior pillar (except in +a very early stage of wear) joined by a narrow neck to the +adjacent column (<a href="#figure157">Fig. 157</a>, <i>c</i>). Each foot with a single complete +digit, but with remnants of the proximal portions of the second +and fourth metapodials (<a href="#figure156">Fig. 156</a>, <i>e</i>); some extinct forms having +claw-like rudiments of the terminal phalangeals of the lateral digits. +First upper premolar very small or altogether absent in existing +species, but in some fossil species larger and persistent; first +lower premolar only occasionally developed in some fossil forms. +Ears long. Tail long, with long hairs either at the end or +throughout. A callosity on the inner side of the fore limb above +the carpus.</p> + +<p><i>Fossil Species.</i>—In the Pleistocene Horses of South America +described as <i>Hippidium</i>, as well as in the closely allied ones from +North America for which the name <i>Pliohippus</i> has been proposed, +the upper molars are shorter and more curved than in the existing +species, while their anterior pillar is not longer antero-posteriorly +than in <i>Hipparion</i>; the lateral claw-like hoofs persisting. Some of +the European Pliocene species (like <i>E. stenonis</i>) agree with these +species in the form of the grinding surface of the anterior pillar +of the upper molars. In one of the species from the Lower +Pliocene of India (<i>E. sivalensis</i>)—which was a contemporary of +<i>Hipparion</i>—and in all the existing species, the grinding surface of +the pillar in question is greatly elongated in the antero-posterior +direction, as in <a href="#figure157">Fig. 157</a>, <i>c</i>.</p> + +<p>Fossil remains of Horses are found abundantly in deposits of +the most recent geological age in almost every part in America, +from Eschscholtz Bay in the north to Patagonia in the south. In +that continent, however, they became quite extinct, and no Horses, +either wild or domesticated, existed there at the time of the +Spanish conquest, which is the more remarkable as, when introduced +from Europe, the Horses that ran wild proved by their +rapid multiplication in the plains of South America and Texas that +the climate, food, and other circumstances were highly favourable +for their existence. The former great abundance of <i>Equidæ</i> in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_382"></a>[382]</span> +America, their complete extinction, and their perfect acclimatisation +when reintroduced by man, form curious but as yet unsolved +problems in geographical distribution.</p> + +<p><i>Existing Species.</i>—The existing species of the genus are the +following:—</p> + +<p>The Horse, <i>Equus caballus</i>, is distinguished from the others by +the long hairs of the tail being more abundant and growing quite +from the base as well as the end and sides, and also by possessing +a small bare callosity on the inner side of the hind leg, just below +the “hock” or heel joint, in addition to the one on the inner side +of the fore limb above the carpus, common to all the genus. The +mane is also longer and more flowing, and the ears are shorter, +the limbs longer, the hoofs broader, and the head smaller.</p> + +<p>Though the existing Horses are not usually marked in any +definite manner, or only irregularly dappled, or spotted with light +surrounded by a darker ring, many examples are met with showing +a dark median dorsal streak like that found in all the other +members of the genus, and even with dark stripes on the shoulders +and legs indicating “the probability of the descent of all the +existing races from a single dun-coloured, more or less striped, +primitive stock, to which our horses still occasionally revert.”<a id="FNanchor_261" href="#Footnote_261" class="fnanchor">[261]</a></p> + +<p>In Europe wild Horses were extremely abundant in the +Neolithic or polished-stone period. Judging from the quantity of +their remains found associated with those of the men of that time, +the chase of these animals must have been among man’s chief +occupations, and they must have furnished him with one of his +most important food supplies. The characters of the bones +preserved, and certain rude but graphic representations carved on +bones or reindeers’ antlers, enable us to know that these Horses +were rather small in size, and heavy in build, with large heads and +rough shaggy manes and tails, much like, in fact, the present wild +horses of the steppes of the south of Russia. They were +domesticated by the inhabitants of Europe before the dawn of +history, but it is doubtful whether the majority of the animals now +existing on the Continent are derived directly from them, as it is +more probable that they are descendants from Horses imported +through Greece and Italy from Asia, derived from a still earlier +domestication, followed by gradual improvement through long-continued +attention bestowed on their breeding and training. +Horses are now diffused by the agency of man throughout almost +the whole of the inhabited parts of the globe, and the great modifications +they have undergone in consequence of domestication and +selective breeding are well exemplified by comparing such extreme +forms as the Shetland pony, dwarfed by uncongenial climate, <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_383"></a>[383]</span>the +thoroughbred racer, and the London dray-horse. In Australia, +as in America, horses imported by the European settlers have +escaped into the unreclaimed lands, and multiplied to a prodigious +extent, roaming in vast herds over the plains where no hoofed +animal ever trod before.</p> + +<p>A wild Horse from Central Asia, named <i>E. prezevalskii</i>,<a id="FNanchor_262" href="#Footnote_262" class="fnanchor">[262]</a> is +described as having callosities on both limbs and broad hoofs like +<i>E. caballus</i>; but the long hairs of the tail do not begin until about +half way down its length. It also differs from <i>E. caballus</i> in having +a short erect mane and no forelock; neither is there any dorsal +stripe. The ears are of moderate size; the whole body is of a +whitish-gray, paler beneath, and reddish on the head and upper +parts of the limbs. If rightly described this form would appear +to be intermediate between the true Horses and the Asses.</p> + +<p>The second species is the domestic Ass (<i>E. asinus</i>), and the wild +Asses of Africa (<i>E. asinus</i>, var. <i>africanus</i> and var. <i>somalicus</i><a id="FNanchor_263" href="#Footnote_263" class="fnanchor">[263]</a>). The +domestic Ass, which is now nearly as widely diffused and useful +to man as the Horse, was known in Egypt long before the latter, +and is doubtless of African origin. The ears are long, the mane +erect, the tail without long hairs at the base, and there are no +callosities on the hind limbs. There is a dark dorsal stripe, and +another across the shoulders; while the limbs are frequently banded. +Of the wild forms the Nubian race (var. <i>africanus</i>) has distinct +dorsal and shoulder stripes, but the rings on the limbs are often very +indistinct; while in the Somali race the dorsal stripe is indistinct, +and the shoulder stripe wanting, but the rings on the limbs are +very boldly marked. Teeth and bones from a Pleistocene cavern +deposit in Madras have been referred to <i>E. asinus</i>.</p> + +<p>The Asiatic wild Asses, which roam in small herds in the open +plains of Syria, of many parts of Persia, of the north-west of India, +and the highlands of Tartary and Tibet, from the shores of the +Caspian to the frontiers of China, differ from the last in being of a +more rufous or isabelline colour, instead of pure gray, in wanting +the dark streak across the shoulder, and having smaller ears. They +have all a dark-coloured median dorsal stripe. Though it is considered +probable by many zoologists that they form but a single +species<a id="FNanchor_264" href="#Footnote_264" class="fnanchor">[264]</a> (<i>E. hemionus</i>), they present such marked variations in size +and form that they have commonly been divided into three—the +Syrian Wild Ass (<i>E. hemippus</i>), the Onager (<i>E. onager</i>) from Persia, +Baluchistan, the Punjab, Sind, and the desert of Kach, and the +Kiang or Dzeggetai (<i>E. hemionus</i>) of the high table-lands of Tibet, +where it is usually met with at an elevation of 15,000 feet and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_384"></a>[384]</span> +upwards above the sea-level. The last is considerably larger than +either of the others, and differs from them in external appearance, +having more the aspect of the horse. They are all remarkably +swift, having been known to outstrip the fleetest Horse in speed.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp84" id="figure160" style="max-width: 28.125em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure160.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 160.</span>—The Quagga (<i>Equus quagga</i>).</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>Lastly, there are four striped species, all inhabitants of Africa. +These constitute the genus <i>Hippotigris</i> of Hamilton-Smith, but they +are not separable except by their coloration from the true Asses, +and one of them, the Quagga (<i>E. quagga</i>), may be considered as +intermediate. This animal was formerly met with in vast herds on +the great plains of South Africa, between the Cape Colony and the +Vaal River, but now, in common with most of the larger wild +animals of that region, is becoming extremely scarce, owing to the +encroachments of European civilisation, if, indeed, it is not already +extinct. In length of ears and character of tail it more resembles +the Horse than it does the Ass, although it agrees with the latter in +wanting the callosity on the inner side of the hind leg, just below +the hock, characteristic of the Horse. The colour of the head, neck, +and upper parts of the body is reddish-brown, irregularly banded +and marked with dark brown stripes, stronger on the head and +neck and gradually becoming fainter until lost behind the shoulder. +There is a broad dark median dorsal stripe. The under surface of +the body, the legs, and tail are nearly white, without stripes. The +crest is very high, surmounted by a standing mane, banded alternately +brown and white. Though never really domesticated, +Quaggas have occasionally been trained to harness. The accompanying +figure is reduced from a painting made from one of a pair<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_385"></a>[385]</span> +which were driven in Hyde Park in the early part of the present +century. The name is an imitation of the shrill barking neigh of +the animal—“ouag-ga, ouag-ga,” the last syllable very much prolonged. +It must be remembered, however, in reading books of +African travel that the same word is very commonly applied by +hunters to Burchell’s Zebra.</p> + +<p>Of the Zebras proper, the one which was first known to Europeans, +and was formerly considered the most common, is the True Zebra +(<i>E. zebra</i>), sometimes called the Mountain Zebra. It inhabits the +mountainous regions of the Cape Colony; but now, owing to the +advances of civilised man into its somewhat restricted range, it has +become very scarce, and is even, like the Quagga, threatened with +extermination at no distant date. The second species, Burchell’s +Zebra (<i>E. burchelli</i>), still roams in large herds over the plains to the +north of the Orange River, but in yearly diminishing numbers. +Both species are subject to considerable individual variations in +marking, but the following are the principal characters by which +they can be distinguished.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="figure161" style="max-width: 25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure161.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 161.</span>—True or Mountain Zebra (<i>Equus zebra</i>).</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>E. zebra</i> (<a href="#figure161">Fig. 161</a>) is the smaller of the two (about 4 feet high +at the shoulders), and has longer ears, a tail more scantily clothed +with hair, and a shorter mane. The general ground colour is white, +and the stripes are black; the lower part of the face is bright brown. +With the exception of the abdomen and the inside of the thighs, the +whole of the surface is covered with stripes, the legs having narrow<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_386"></a>[386]</span> +transverse bars reaching quite to the hoofs, and the base of the tail +being also barred. The outsides of the ears have a white tip and +a broad black mark occupying the greater part of the surface, but +are white at the base. Perhaps the most constant and obvious +distinction between this species and the next is the arrangement +of the stripes on the hinder part of the back, where there are a +number of short transverse bands passing from the median longitudinal +dorsal stripe towards, and sometimes joining with, the +uppermost of the broad stripes which run obliquely across the +haunch from the flanks towards the root of the tail. There is often +a median longitudinal stripe under the chest.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="figure162" style="max-width: 25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure162.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 162.</span>—Burchell’s Zebra (<i>Equus burchelli</i>).</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>E. burchelli</i> (<a href="#figure162">Fig. 162</a>) is a rather larger and more robust animal, +with smaller ears, a longer mane, and fuller tail. The general +ground colour of the body is pale yellowish-brown, the limbs nearly +white, the stripes dark brown or black. In the typical form they +do not extend on to the limbs or the tail; but there is a great +variation in this respect, even in animals of the same herd, some +being striped quite down to the hoofs (this form has been named +<i>E. chapmani</i>). There is a strongly marked median longitudinal +ventral black stripe, to which the lower ends of the transverse side +stripes are usually united, but the dorsal stripe (also strongly +marked) is completely isolated in its posterior half, and the uppermost +of the broad haunch stripes runs nearly parallel to it. A +much larger proportion of the ears is white than in the other<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_387"></a>[387]</span> +species. In the middle of the wide intervals between the broad +black stripes of the flanks and haunches fainter stripes are generally +seen.</p> + +<p><i>E. grevyi.</i>—Under this name a Zebra has been described which +was sent in 1882 to Paris from the Galla country, lying to the +south of Abyssinia, the most northern locality in which Zebras have +previously been met with. In many of its characters it resembles +<i>E. zebra</i>, but the stripes are much finer and more numerous than in +the typical examples of that species, and it has a strong, black, and +isolated dorsal stripe. Even allowing for the great variations that +are met with in the markings of animals of this group, the aberrant +characters of this individual are quite sufficient to separate it specifically +from the true Zebra of South Africa. Other similar specimens +have been recently brought from the Somali country.</p> + +<p>The flesh of the Zebras is relished by the natives as food, and their +hides are very valuable for leather. Although the many attempts +that have been made to break in and train these animals for riding +or driving have sometimes been rewarded with partial success, they +have never been domesticated in the true sense of the word.</p> + +<p>There are thus at least seven modifications of the Horse type at +present existing, sufficiently distinct to be reckoned as species by +all zoologists, and easily recognised by their external characters. +They are, however, all so closely allied that each will, at least in a +state of domestication or captivity, breed with perfect freedom with +any of the others. Cases of cross breeds are recorded between the +Horse and the Quagga, the Horse and Burchell’s Zebra, the Horse +and the Hemionus or Asiatic wild Ass, the common Ass and the +Zebra, the common Ass and Burchell’s Zebra, the common Ass and +the Hemionus, the Hemionus and the Zebra, and the Hemionus and +Burchell’s Zebra. The two species which are perhaps the farthest +removed in general structure, the Horse and the Ass, produce, as is +well known, hybrids or Mules, which in some qualities useful to +man excel both their progenitors, and in some countries, and +for certain kinds of work, are in greater requisition than either. +Although occasional instances have been recorded of female Mules +breeding with the males of one or other of the pure species, it is +doubtful if any case has occurred of their breeding <i>inter se</i>, although +the opportunities of doing so must have been great, as Mules have +been reared in immense numbers for at least several thousands of +years. We may therefore consider it settled that the different +species of the group are now in that degree of physiological differentiation +which enables them to produce offspring with each other, +but does not permit of the progeny continuing the race, at all events +unless reinforced by the aid of one of the pure forms.</p> + +<p>The several members of the group show mental differences +quite as striking as those exhibited by their external form, and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_388"></a>[388]</span> +more than perhaps might be expected from the similarity of their +cerebral organisation. The patience of the Ass, the high spirit of +the Horse, the obstinacy of the Mule, have long been proverbial. +It is very remarkable that, out of so many species, two only should +have shown any aptitude for domestication, and that these two +should have been from time immemorial the universal and most +useful companions and servants of man, while all the others remain +in their native freedom to this day. It is, however, still a question +whether this really arises from a different mental constitution +causing a natural capacity for entering into relations with man, or +whether it may not be owing to their having been brought gradually +into this condition by long-continued and persevering efforts when +the need of their services was keenly felt. It is quite possible +that one reason why most of the attempts to add new species to +the list of our domestic animals in modern times have ended in +failure is that it does not answer to do so in cases in which existing +species supply all the principal purposes to which the new ones +might be put. It can hardly be expected that Zebras and Quaggas +fresh from their native mountains and plains can be brought into +competition as beasts of burden and draught with Horses and Asses, +whose naturally useful qualities have been augmented by the training +of thousands of generations of progenitors.</p> + +<p>Not unfrequently instances occur of domestic Horses being +produced with a small additional toe with complete hoof, usually on +the inside of the principal toe, and, though far more rarely, three +or more toes may be present. These malformations are often cited +as instances of reversion to the condition of some of the earlier +forms of equine animals previously mentioned. Such explanations, +however plausible they appear at first sight, are nevertheless very +doubtful. All the feet of polydactyle horses which we have +examined bear little resemblance to those of <i>Hipparion</i> or <i>Anchitherium</i>, +but look rather as if due to that tendency to reduplication +of parts which occurs so frequently as a teratological condition, +especially among domestic animals, and, whatever its origin, certainly +cannot in many instances, as the cases of entire limbs superadded, +or of six digits in man, be attributed to reversion.</p> + +<p><i>Anatomy.</i>—The anatomical structure of the Horse has been described +in great detail in several works devoted to the subject, which +will be mentioned in the bibliography, though these have generally +been written from the point of view of the veterinarian rather than +of the comparative anatomist. The limits of the present work will +only admit of the most salient points being indicated, particularly +those in which the Horse differs from the other Ungulata. Unless +otherwise specified, it must be understood that all that is stated +here, although mostly derived from observation upon the Horse, +applies equally well to the other existing members of the group.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp93" id="figure163" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure163.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 163.</span>—Side view of skull of Horse, with the bone removed so as to expose the whole of +the teeth. <i>PMx</i>, Premaxilla; <i>Mx</i>, maxilla; <i>Na</i>, nasal; <i>Ma</i>, malar or jugal; <i>L</i>, lachrymal; <i>Fr</i>, +frontal; <i>Sq</i>, squamosal; <i>Pa</i>, parietal; <i>oc</i>, occipital condyle; <i>pp</i>, paroccipital process; <i>i¹</i>, <i>i²</i>, +and <i>i³</i>³, the three incisors; <i>c</i>, the canine; <i>pm¹</i>, the situation of the rudimentary first premolar, +which has been lost in the lower, but is present in the upper jaw; <i>pm²</i>, <i>pm³</i>, and <i>pm⁴</i>, the +three fully developed premolars; <i>m¹</i>, <i>m²</i>, and <i>m³</i>, the three true molars.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_389"></a>[389]</span></p> + +<p><i>Skeleton.</i>—The skull (<a href="#figure163">Fig. 163</a>) as a whole is greatly elongated, +chiefly in consequence of the immense size of the face as compared +with the hinder or true cranial portion. The basal line of the +cranium from the lower border of the foramen magnum to the +incisor border of the palate is very nearly straight. The orbit, of +nearly circular form, though small in proportion to the size of the +whole skull, is distinctly marked, being completely surrounded by a +strong ring of bone with prominent edges. Behind it, and freely +communicating with it beneath the osseous bridge (the postorbital +process of the frontal) forming the boundary between them, is the +small temporal fossa occupying the whole of the side of the cranium +proper, and in front is the great flattened expanse of the “cheek,” +formed chiefly by the maxilla, giving support to the long row of +cheek-teeth, and having a prominent ridge running forward from +below the orbit for the attachment of the masseter muscle. The +lachrymal occupies a considerable space on the flat surface of the +cheek in front of the orbit, and below it the jugal or malar does +the same. The latter sends a horizontal or slightly ascending +process backwards below the orbit to join the under surface of the +zygomatic process of the squamosal, which is remarkably large, and, +instead of ending as usual behind the orbit, runs forwards to join<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_390"></a>[390]</span> +the greatly developed postorbital process of the frontal, and even +forms part of the posterior and inferior boundary of the orbit, an +arrangement not met with in other mammals. The closure of the +orbit behind distinguishes the skull of the Horse from that of the +Rhinoceros and Tapir, and also from all of the Perissodactyles of +the Eocene period. In front of the cerebral cavity, the great +tubular nasal cavities are provided with well-developed turbinal +bones, and are roofed over by very large nasals, broad behind, and +ending in front in a narrow decurved point. The opening of the +anterior nares is prolonged backwards on each side of the face +between the nasals and the elongated slender premaxillæ. The +latter expand in front, and are curved downwards to form the semicircular +alveolar border supporting the large incisor teeth. The +palate is narrow in the interval between the incisor and cheek-teeth, +in which are situated the large anterior palatine foramina. +Between the cheek-teeth it is broader, and it ends posteriorly in a +rounded excavated border opposite the hinder edge of the penultimate +molar. It is mainly formed by the maxillæ, as the palatines +are very narrow. The pterygoids are delicate slender slips of bone +attached to the hinder border of the palatines, and supported +externally by, and generally ankylosed to, the rough pterygoid +plates of the alisphenoid, with no pterygoid fossa between. They +slope very obliquely forwards, and end in curved, compressed, +hamular processes. There is a distinct alisphenoid canal for the +passage of the internal maxillary or main branch of the external +carotid artery. The base of the cranium is long and narrow; the +alisphenoid is very obliquely perforated by the foramen rotundum, +but the foramen ovale is confluent with the large foramen lacerum +medium behind. The glenoid surface for the articulation of the +mandible is greatly extended transversely, concave from side to +side, convex from before backwards in front, and hollow behind, and +is bounded posteriorly at its inner part by a prominent post-glenoid +process. The squamosal enters considerably into the formation of +the temporal fossa, and, besides sending the zygomatic process forwards, +it sends down behind the meatus auditorius a post-tympanic +process which aids to hold in place the otherwise loose tympano-periotic +bone. Behind this the exoccipital gives off a very long +paroccipital process. The periotic and tympanic are ankylosed +together, but not with the squamosal. The former has a wide but +shallow floccular fossa on its inner side, and sends backwards a +considerable “pars mastoidea,” which appears on the outer surface +of the skull between the post-tympanic process of the squamosal and +the exoccipital. The tympanic forms a tubular meatus auditorius +externus directed outwards and slightly backwards. It is not +dilated into a distinct bulla, but ends in front in a pointed styliform +process; and completely embraces the truncated cylindrical<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_391"></a>[391]</span> tympanohyal, +which is of great size, in correspondence with the large +development of the whole anterior arch of the hyoid. This consists +mainly of a long and compressed stylohyal, expanded at the +upper end, where it sends off a triangular posterior process. The +basihyal is remarkable for the long, median, pointed, compressed +“glossohyal” process, which it sends forward from its anterior +border into the base of the tongue. A similar but less developed +process is found in the Rhinoceros. The mandible is largely +developed, especially the region of the angle, which is expanded +and flattened, giving great surface for the attachment of the +masseter muscle. The condyle is greatly elevated above the +alveolar border; its articular surface is very wide transversely, and +narrow and convex from before backwards. The coronoid process +is slender, straight, and inclined backwards. The horizontal ramus, +long, straight, and compressed, gradually narrows towards the +symphysis, where it expands laterally to form with the ankylosed +opposite ramus the wide, semicircular, shallow alveolar border for +the incisor teeth.</p> + +<p>The vertebral column consists of seven cervical, eighteen dorsal, +six lumbar, five sacral, and fifteen to eighteen caudal vertebræ. +There may be nineteen rib-bearing vertebræ, in which case five +only will be reckoned as belonging to the lumbar series. The +odontoid process of the atlas is wide, flat, and hollowed above, as +in the Ruminants. The bodies of the cervical vertebræ are elongated, +strongly keeled, and markedly opisthocœlous, or concave +behind and convex in front. Their neural laminæ are very broad, +the spines almost obsolete, except in the seventh, and the transverse +processes not largely developed. In the trunk vertebræ the +opisthocœlous character of the centrum gradually diminishes. The +spinous processes of the anterior thoracic region are high and compressed. +To these is attached the powerful elastic ligament, +<i>ligamentum nuchæ</i>, or “paxwax,” which passing forwards in the +middle line of the neck above the neural arches of the cervical vertebræ, +to which it is also connected, is attached to the occiput and +supports the weight of the head. The transverse processes of the +lumbar vertebræ are long, flattened, and project horizontally outwards +or slightly forwards from the arch. The metapophyses are +moderately developed, and there are no anapophyses. The caudal +vertebræ, except those quite at the base, are slender and cylindrical, +without processes and without chevron-bones beneath. The ribs +are eighteen or nineteen in number on each side, flattened, and +united to the sternum by short, stout, tolerably well ossified sternal +ribs. The sternum consists of six pieces; the anterior or presternum +being extremely compressed, and projecting forwards like +the prow of a boat. The segments which follow gradually widen, +and the hinder part of the sternum is broad and flat.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_392"></a>[392]</span></p> + +<p>As in all other Ungulates, there are no clavicles. The scapula +is long and slender; the suprascapular border is rounded, and +slowly and imperfectly ossified. The spine is very slightly developed; +rather above the middle its edge is thickened and somewhat +turned backwards, but it gradually subsides at the lower extremity +without forming any acromial process. The coracoid process is a +prominent rounded nodule. The humerus is stout and rather +short, and has a double bicipital groove. The ulna is quite rudimentary, +being only represented by little more than the olecranon. +The shaft gradually tapers below, and is firmly ankylosed to the +radius. The latter bone is of nearly equal width throughout. The +three bones of the first row of the carpus (the scaphoid, lunar, and +cuneiform) are subequal in size. The second row consists of a very +broad and flat magnum, supporting the great third metacarpal, +having to its radial side the trapezoid, and to its ulnar side the unciform, +which are both small, and articulate distally with the rudimentary +second and fourth metacarpals. The pisiform is large and +prominent, flattened, and curved; articulating partly with the +cuneiform and partly with the lower end of the radius. The large +metacarpal is called in veterinary anatomy “cannon-bone”; the +small lateral metacarpals, which gradually taper towards their +lower extremities, and lie in close contact with the large one, are +called “splint-bones.” The single digit consists of a moderate-sized +proximal (<i>os suffraginis</i>, or large pastern), a very short middle (<i>os +coronæ</i>, or small pastern), and a wide, semilunar, ungual phalanx +(<i>os pedis</i>, or coffin-bone). There is a pair of large nodular sesamoids +behind the metacarpo-phalangeal articulation, and a single large +transversely extended sesamoid behind the joint between the +second and third phalanx, called the “navicular bone.”<a id="FNanchor_265" href="#Footnote_265" class="fnanchor">[265]</a></p> + +<p>The carpal joint, corresponding to the wrist of man, is commonly +called the “knee” of the Horse, the joint between the metacarpal +and the first phalanx the “fetlock,” that between the first and +second phalanges the “pastern,” and that between the second and +third phalanges the “coffin-joint.”</p> + +<p>In the hind limb the femur is marked, as in other Perissodactyles, +by the presence of a “third trochanter,” a flattened process, +curving forwards, arising from the outer side of the bone, about +one-third of the distance from the upper end. The fibula is reduced +to a mere styliform rudiment of the upper end; its lower part being +absent or completely fused with the tibia. The calcaneum has a +long and compressed calcaneal process. The astragalus has a large +flat articular surface in front for the navicular, and a very small one +for the cuboid. The navicular and the external cuneiform bones +are very broad and flat. The cuboid is small, and the internal and +middle cuneiform bones are small and united together. The metapodials<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_393"></a>[393]</span> +and phalanges resemble very closely those of the fore limb, +but the principal metatarsal is more laterally compressed at its +upper end than is the corresponding metacarpal. The joint +between the femur and tibia, corresponding to the knee of man, is +called the “stifle joint”; while that between the tibia and tarsus, +corresponding to the ankle of man, is termed the “hock.” The +bones and joints of the foot have the same names as in the fore +limb. The Horse is eminently “digitigrade,” standing on the extremity +of the single digit of each foot, which is kept habitually in +a position approaching to vertical.</p> + +<p>The muscles<a id="FNanchor_266" href="#Footnote_266" class="fnanchor">[266]</a> of the limbs are modified from those of the ordinary +mammalian type in accordance with the reduced condition of +the bones and +the simple requirements +of +flexion and extension +of the +joints, no such +actions as pronation +and +supination, or +opposition of +digits, being +possible or +needed. The +muscles, therefore, +which perform +these +functions in +other mammals +are absent or +rudimentary.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp88" id="figure164" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure164.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 164.</span>—Section of foot of Horse. 1, Metacarpal bone; 2, first +phalanx (<i>os suffraginis</i>); 3, second phalanx (<i>os coronæ</i>); 4, third or +ungual phalanx (<i>os pedis</i>, or coffin-bone); 5, one of the upper sesamoid +bones; 6, lower sesamoid or “navicular” bone; 7, tendon of anterior +extensor of the phalanges; 8, tendon of superficial flexor (<i>fl. perforatus</i>); +9, tendon of deep flexor (<i>fl. perforans</i>); 10, suspensory ligament of +fetlock; 11, inferior or short sesamoid ligament; 12, derma or skin +of the foot, covered with hair, and continued into 13, the coronary +cushion, 14, the podophyllous or laminar membrane, and 15, the keratogenous +membrane of the sole; 16, plantar cushion; 17, hoof; 18, fatty +cushion of fetlock.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>Below the +carpal and tarsal +joints the +fore and hind +limbs correspond +almost +exactly in structure +as well as function. On the anterior or extensor surface of +the limb a powerful tendon (7 in <a href="#figure164">Fig. 164</a>), that of the anterior +extensor of the phalanges (corresponding to the <i>extensor communis +digitorum</i> of the arm and <i>extensor longus digitorum</i> of the foot of man) +passes down over the metacarpal bone and phalanges, to be inserted<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_394"></a>[394]</span> +mainly into the upper edge of the anterior surface of the last phalanx +or pedal bone. There is also a much smaller second extensor on +the outer side of this in each limb, the lateral extensor of the +phalanges. In the fore leg the tendon of this muscle (which corresponds +with the <i>extensor minimi digiti</i> of man) receives a slip from +that of the principal extensor, and is inserted into the first phalanx. +In the hind leg (where it is the homologue apparently of the +<i>peroneus brevis</i> of man) the tendon becomes blended with that of the +large extensor.</p> + +<p>A very strong ligamentous band behind the metapodium, +arising from near the upper extremity of its posterior surface, +divides into two at its lower end, and each division, being first +connected with one of the paired upper sesamoid bones, passes by +the side of the first phalanx to join the extensor tendon of the +phalanges. This is called in veterinary anatomy the “suspensory +ligament of the sesamoids,” or of the “fetlock” (10 in <a href="#figure164">Fig. 164</a>); but +its attachments and relations, as well as the occasional presence of +muscular fibres in its substance, show that it is the homologue of +the short flexor muscle of other mammals, curiously modified both +in structure and function to suit the requirements of the Horse’s +foot. Behind or superficial to this are placed the two strong tendons +of the long flexor muscles, the most superficial, or <i>flexor perforatus</i> +(8), dividing to allow the other to pass through, and then inserted +into the middle phalanx. The <i>flexor perforans</i> (9) is as usual inserted +into the terminal phalanx. In the fore leg these muscles +correspond with those similarly named in man. In the hind leg, +the perforated tendon is a continuation of that of the plantaris, +passing pulley-wise over the tuberosity of the calcaneum. The +perforating tendon is derived from the muscle corresponding with +the long flexor of man, and the smaller tendon of the oblique flexor +(<i>tibialis posticus</i> of man) is united with it.</p> + +<p>The hoof of the Horse corresponds to the nail or claw of other +mammals, but is so constructed as to form a complete and very +solid case to the expanded termination of the toe, giving a firm +basis of support formed of a nonsensitive substance, which is continually +renewed by the addition of material from within as its +surface wears away by friction against the ground. The terminal +phalanx of the toe is greatly enlarged and modified in form to support +this hoof, and the size of the internal framework of the foot is +further increased by a pair of lateral fibro-cartilaginous masses +attached on each side to the hinder edges of the bone, and by a +fibro-cellular and adipose plantar cushion in the median part. +These structures are all enclosed in the keratogenous membrane or +“subcorneous integument,” a continuation of the ordinary derma of +the limb, but extremely vascular, and having its superficial extent +greatly increased by being developed into papillæ or laminæ. From<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_395"></a>[395]</span> +this the horny material which constitutes the hoof is exuded. A +thickened ring encircling the upper part, called coronary cushion +(13), and the sole (15), are covered with numerous thickly set +papillæ or villi, and take the greatest share in the formation of the +hoof; the intermediate part constituting the front and side of the +foot (14), corresponding with the wall of the hoof, is covered with +parallel, fine longitudinal laminæ, fitting into corresponding depressions +in the inner side of the horny hoof.</p> + +<p>The horny hoof is divided into a wall or crust consisting of the +front and sides, the flattened or concave sole, and the “frog,” a +triangular median prominence, notched posteriorly, with the apex +turned forwards, situated in the hinder part of the sole. It is +formed of pavement epithelial cells, mainly grouped in a concentric +manner around the vascular papillæ of the keratogenous membrane, +so that a section near the base of the hoof, cut transversely to the +long axis of these papillæ, shows a number of small circular or oval +orifices, with cells arranged concentrically round them. The nearer +the surface of the hoof, or farther removed from the seat of growth, +the more indistinct the structure becomes.</p> + +<p>Small round or oval plates of horny epidermis called “chestnuts,” +growing like the hoof from enlarged papillæ of the skin, are +found on the inner face of the fore limb, above the carpal joint, in +all species of <i>Equidæ</i>, and in the Horse (<i>E. caballus</i>) alone similar +formations occur near the upper extremity of the inner face of the +metatarsus. Their use is unknown.</p> + +<p>Behind the joint between the metapodium and the first phalanx +is a prominence formed by the fatty cushion of the fetlock (18 in +<a href="#figure164">Fig. 164</a>). On the middle of this is a small bare patch covered +with thickened epidermis, the <i>ergot</i> or spur, generally concealed +beneath the long hair which grows around it. This is the functionless +vestige of the large callous pad found in this situation in the +Tapir, and in fact in all mammals in which this part reaches the +ground in walking.</p> + +<figure class="figright illowp65" id="figure165" style="max-width: 21.875em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure165.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 165.</span>—Longitudinal and transverse section of upper +incisor of Horse. <i>p</i>, Pulp cavity; <i>d</i>, dentine or ivory; <i>e</i>, +enamel; <i>c</i>, outer layer of cement; <i>c′</i>, inner layer of cement, +lining <i>a</i>, the pit or cavity of the crown of the tooth.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Dentition.</i>—The dentition of the Horse, when all the teeth are +in place, is, as stated before, expressed by the formula <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₃, +<i>m</i> ³⁄₃ = 42. The incisors of each jaw are placed in close contact, +forming a semicircle. The crowns are broad, somewhat awl-shaped, +and of nearly equal size. They have all the great peculiarity, +not found in the teeth of any other living mammal, of an +involution of the external surface of the tooth (see <a href="#figure165">Fig. 165</a>) +forming a deep fossa or pit, the bottom of which becomes partially +filled up with cement. As the tooth wears, the surface, besides +the external enamel layer as in an ordinary simple tooth, shows +in addition a second inner ring of the same hard substance surrounding +the pit, thus of course adding greatly to the efficiency +of the tooth as an organ for biting tough, fibrous substances. This<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_396"></a>[396]</span> +pit, generally filled in the living animal with particles of food, is +conspicuous from its dark colour, and constitutes the “mark” by +which the age of the horse is judged, as in consequence of its +extending only to a certain depth, it becomes obliterated as the +crown wears away, when the tooth assumes the character of an +ordinary incisor, consisting only of a core of dentine surrounded +by the external enamel +layer. It is not quite so +deep in the lower as in +the upper teeth. The +canines are either quite +rudimentary or entirely +absent in the female. In +the male they are compressed, +pointed, and +smaller than the incisors, +from which they are +separated by a slight interval. +The teeth of the +cheek series are all in +contact with each other, +but separated from the +canines by a considerable +toothless space. The +anterior premolars are +quite rudimentary, often, +especially in the lower +jaw, not developed at all, +and generally fall by the +time the animal attains maturity, so that there are but six functional +grinding teeth—three that have predecessors in the milk-dentition, +and hence are considered as premolars, and three true +molars, but otherwise, except the first and last of the series, +not distinguishable in form or structure. These teeth in both +upper and lower jaws are extremely long-crowned or hypsodont +(<a href="#figure158">Fig. 158</a>), successive portions being pushed out as the surface +wears away;—a process which continues until the animal +becomes advanced in age. The enamelled surface is infolded in a +complex manner (a modification of that found in other Perissodactyles, +see <a href="#figure155">Figs. 155</a>, <a href="#figure167">167</a>), the folds extending quite to the base of +the crown, and the interstices being filled and the surface covered +with a considerable mass of cement, which binds together and +strengthens the whole tooth. As the teeth wear, the folded enamel, +being harder than the other constituents—the dentine and cement—forms +projecting ridges on the surface arranged in a definite +pattern, which give it great efficiency as a grinding instrument (see<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_397"></a>[397]</span> +<a href="#figure157">Fig. 157</a>, <i>b</i> and <i>c</i>). The free surfaces of the upper teeth are +quadrate, except the first and last, which are nearly triangular. +The lower teeth are much narrower than the upper.</p> + +<p>The milk dentition consists of <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ⁰⁄₀, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃ = 24,—the canines +and first or rudimentary premolars having apparently no predecessors. +In form and structure they much resemble the +permanent teeth, having the same characteristic enamel-foldings. +Their eruption commences a few days after birth, and is complete +before the end of the first year, the upper teeth usually appearing +somewhat earlier than those of the lower jaw. The first +teeth to appear are the first and second milk-molars (about +five days), then the central incisor (from seven to ten days); this +is followed by the second incisor (at one month), then by the third +molar, and finally by the third incisor. Of the permanent teeth the +first true molar appears a little after the end of the first year, +followed by the second molar before the end of the second year. At +about two and a half years the first premolar replaces its predecessor. +Between two and a half and three years the first incisor appears. +At three years the second and third premolars and the third true +molar have appeared; at from three and a half to four years the +second incisor; at four to four and a half years the canine; and, +finally, at five years the third incisor, completing the permanent +dentition. Up to this period the age of the horse is clearly shown +by the state of the dentition, and for some time longer indications +can be obtained from the wear of the incisor teeth, though this +depends to a certain extent upon the hardness of the food or other +accidental circumstances. As a general rule, the depression caused +by the infolding of the surface of the incisor (the “mark”), is +obliterated in the first or central incisor at six years, in the second +at seven years, and in the third at eight years. In the upper teeth, +as the depressions are deeper, this obliteration does not take place +until about two years later. After this period no certain indications +can be obtained of the age of the horse from the teeth.</p> + +<p><i>Digestive Organs.</i>—The lips are flexible and prehensile. The +membrane that lines them and the cheeks is quite smooth. The +palate is long and narrow; its mucous surface has seventeen pairs +of not very sharply defined oblique ridges, extending as far back as +the last molar tooth, beyond which the velum palati extends for +about 3 inches, having a soft corrugated surface, and ending +posteriorly in an arched border without uvula. This embraces the +base of the epiglottis, and shuts off all communication between +the cavity of the mouth and the nasal passages, respiration +being, under ordinary circumstances, carried on exclusively +through the nostrils. Between the mucous membrane and +the bone of the hard palate is a dense vascular and nervous +plexus. The membrane lining the fauces is soft and corrugated.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_398"></a>[398]</span> +An elongated raised glandular mass, 3 inches long and 1 inch from +above downwards, extending backwards from the root of the tongue +along the side of the fauces, with openings on the surface leading +into crypts with glandular walls, represents the tonsil. The tongue, +corresponding to the general form of the mouth, is long and narrow. +It consists of a compressed intermolar portion with a flat upper +surface, broad behind and becoming narrower in front; and of a +depressed anterior part rather shorter than the former, which +is narrow behind but widens towards the evenly rounded apex. +The dorsal surface generally is very soft and smooth. There are +two large circumvallate papillæ near the base, rather irregular in +form, about a quarter of an inch in diameter and half an inch apart. +The conical papillæ are very small and close set, though longer and +more filamentous on the intermolar portion. There are no fungiform +papillæ on the dorsum, but a few not very conspicuous ones +scattered along the sides of the organ.</p> + +<p>Of the salivary glands the parotid is by far the largest; elongated +in the vertical direction, and narrower in the middle than at either +upper or lower extremity. Its upper extremity embraces the lower +surface of the cartilaginous ear-conch; its lower end reaches the +level of the inferior margin of the mandible, along the posterior +margin of which it is placed. Its duct leaves the inferior anterior +angle, at first descends a little, and runs forward under cover of +the rounded inferior border of the mandibular ramus, then curves +up along the anterior margin of the masseter muscle, becoming +superficial, pierces the buccinator, and enters the mouth by a simple +aperture opposite the middle of the crown of the third premolar +tooth. It is not quite so thick as a goose-quill when distended, and +nearly a foot in length.</p> + +<p>The submaxillary gland is of very similar texture to the last, +but much smaller; it is placed deeper, and lies with its main axis +horizontal. It is elongated and slender, and flattened from within +outwards. Its posterior end rests against the anterior surface of +the transverse process of the atlas, from which it extends forwards +and downwards, slightly curved, to beneath the ramus of the jaw. +The duct which runs along its upper and internal border passes +forwards in the usual course, lying in the inner side of the sublingual +gland, to open on the outer surface of a distinct papilla, situated +on the floor of the mouth, half an inch from the middle line, and +midway between the lower incisor teeth and the attachment of the +frænum linguæ. The sublingual is represented by a mass of glands +lying just beneath the mucous membrane of the floor of the mouth +on the side of the tongue, causing a distinct ridge, extending from +the frænum backwards, and the numerous ducts opening separately +along the summit of the ridge. The buccal glands are arranged +in two rows parallel with the molar teeth. The upper ones<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_399"></a>[399]</span> +are the largest, and are continuous anteriorly with the labial +glands, the ducts of which open on the mucous membrane of the +upper lip.</p> + +<p>The stomach of the Horse is simple in its external form, with +a largely developed right <i>cul de sac</i>, and is a good deal curved +on itself, so that the cardiac and pyloric orifices are brought near +together. The antrum pyloricum is small and not very distinctly +marked off. The interior is divided by the character of the lining +membrane into two very distinct portions, right and left. Over +the latter the dense white smooth epithelial lining of the œsophagus +is continued, terminating abruptly by a raised crenellated border. +Over the right part (rather the larger portion) the mucous membrane +has a grayish-red colour and a velvety appearance, and contains very +numerous peptic glands, which are wanting in the cardiac portion. +The œsophageal orifice is very small, and is guarded by a strong +crescentic or rather horse-shoe-like band of muscular fibres, which is +supposed to be the cause of the difficulty of vomiting in the Horse. +The small intestine is of great length (80 to 90 feet), its mucous +membrane being covered with numerous fine villi. The cæcum is +of conical form, about 2 feet long and nearly a foot in diameter; +its walls are sacculated, especially near the base, having four longitudinal +fibrous bands; and its capacity is about twice that of the +stomach. It lies with its base near the lower part of the abdomen, +and its apex directed towards the thorax. The colon is about one-third +the length of the small intestine, and very capacious in the +greater part of its course. As usual, it may be divided into an +ascending, transverse, and descending portion; but the middle or +transverse portion is folded into a great loop, which descends as low +as the pubis; so that the colon forms altogether four folds, generally +parallel to the long axis of the body. The descending colon is much +narrower than the rest, and not sacculated, and being considerably +longer than the distance it has to traverse, is thrown into numerous +folds.</p> + +<p>The liver (<a href="#figure166">Fig. 166</a>) is tolerably symmetrical in its general +arrangement, being divided nearly equally into segments by a well-marked +umbilical fissure. Each segment is again divided by lateral +fissures, which do not extend quite to the posterior border of the +organ; of the central lobes thus cut off, the right is rather the larger, +and has two fissures in its free border subdividing it into lobules. +The extent of these varies, however, in different individuals, being +not usually so marked as in the figure, which is from a fœtal +specimen. The two lateral lobes are subtriangular in form. The +Spigelian lobe is represented by a flat surface between the portal +fissure and the posterior border, not distinctly marked off from the +left lateral by a fissure of the ductus venosus, as this vessel is buried +deep in the hepatic substance, but the caudate lobe is distinct and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_400"></a>[400]</span> +tongue-shaped, its free apex reaching nearly to the border of the +right lateral lobe. In most works on the anatomy of the Horse this +has been confounded with the Spigelian lobe of man. There is no +gall-bladder (as in +all other Perissodactyles), +and the +biliary duct enters +the duodenum +about 6 inches from +the pylorus. The +pancreas has two +lobes or branches—a +long one passing +to the left and +reaching the spleen, +and a shorter right +lobe. The principal +duct enters the +duodenum with the +bile-duct, and there +is often a second +small duct which +opens separately +near to this.</p> + +<figure class="figright illowp85" id="figure166" style="max-width: 25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure166.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 166.</span>—Under surface of the liver of the Horse. <i>u</i>, Umbilical +fissure; <i>ll</i>, left lateral lobe; <i>lc</i>, left central lobe; <i>rc</i>, right central +lobe; <i>rl</i>, right lateral lobe; <i>s</i>, Spigelian lobe; <i>c</i>, caudate lobe.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Circulatory and Respiratory Organs.</i>—The heart has the form of a +rather elongated and pointed cone. There is one anterior vena cava, +formed by the union of the two jugular and two axillary veins. +The aorta gives off a large branch (the anterior aorta) very near its +origin, from which arise—first, the left axillary, and afterwards the +right axillary and the two carotid arteries.</p> + +<p>Under ordinary circumstances the Horse breathes entirely by +the nasal passages, the communication between the larynx and the +mouth being closed by the velum palati. The nostrils are placed +laterally, near the termination of the muzzle, and are large and +very dilatable, being bordered by cartilages upon which several +muscles act. Immediately within the opening of the nostril, the +respiratory canal sends off on its upper and outer side a diverticulum +or blind pouch (called “false nostril”) of a conical form, and +curved, 2 to 3 inches in depth, lying in the notch formed between +the nasal and premaxillary bones. It is lined by mucous membrane +continuous with that of the nasal passage, but its use is not +apparent. It is longer in the Ass than in the Horse. A similar +structure is found in the Rhinoceros, and in a much more developed +condition in the Tapir. Here may be mentioned the guttural pouches, +large air sacs, diverticula from the Eustachian tubes, and lying +behind the upper part of the pharynx. These are likewise found<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_401"></a>[401]</span> +in other Perissodactyles, but their use is also still not clearly +understood. The larynx has the lateral sacculi well developed, +though entirely concealed within the alæ of the thyroid cartilage. +The trachea divides into two bronchi, one for each lung.</p> + +<p><i>Nervous System.</i>—The brain differs little, except in details of +arrangement of convolutions, from that of other Ungulates. The +cerebral hemispheres are rather elongated and subcylindrical, the +olfactory lobes are large and project freely in front of the hemispheres, +and the greater part of the cerebellum is uncovered. The +eye is provided with a nictitating membrane or third eyelid, at the +base of which the ducts of the Harderian gland open.</p> + +<p><i>Reproductive System.</i>—The testes are situated in a distinct sessile +or slightly pedunculated scrotum, into which they descend from the +sixth to the tenth month after birth. The accessory generative +glands are the two vesiculæ seminales, with the median third vesicle, +or <i>uterus masculinus</i>, lying between them, the single bilobed prostate, +and a pair of globular Cowper’s glands. The penis is large, +cylindrical, with a truncated, expanded, flattened termination. +When in a state of repose it is retracted by a muscle arising from +the sacrum, within the prepuce, a cutaneous fold attached below the +symphysis pubis.</p> + +<p>The uterus is bicornuate. The vagina is often partially divided +by a membraneous septum or hymen. The mammæ (as in other +members of the suborder), are two, inguinally placed. The surface of +the chorion is covered evenly with minute villi, constituting a diffuse +non-deciduate placenta. The period of gestation is eleven months.</p> + +<div class="bibliography"> + +<p><i>Bibliography.</i>—M. S. Arloing, “Organisation du pied chez le cheval,” <i>Ann. +Sci. Nat.</i> 1867, viii. pp. 55-81; H. Burmeister, <i>Los caballos fosiles de la Pampa +Argentina</i>, Buenos Ayres, 1875; Chanveau and Arloing, <i>Traité d’anatomie comparée +des animaux domestiques</i>, Paris, 1871, and English edition by G. Fleming, +1873; E. Cuyer and E. Alix, <i>Le Cheval</i>, 1886; A. Ecker, “Das Europäische Wildpferd +und dessen Beziehungen zum domesticirten Pferd,” <i>Globus</i>, Bd. xxxiv. +Brunswick, 1878; Forsyth-Major, “Beiträge zur Geschichte der fossilen Pferde +besonders Italiens,” <i>Abh. Schw. Pal. Ges.</i> iv. pp. 1-16, pt. iv.; George, “Études +zool. sur les Hémiones et quelques autres espèces chevalines,” <i>Ann. Sci. Nat.</i> +1869, xii. p. 5; E. F. Gurlt, <i>Anatomische Abbildungen der Haussäugethiere</i>, 1824, +and <i>Hand. der vergleich. Anat. der Haussäugethiere</i>, 2 vols. 1822; Huet, “Croisement +des diverses espèces du genre cheval,” <i>Nouv. Archives du Muséum</i>, 2d sér. +tom. ii. p. 46, 1879; Leisering, <i>Atlas der Anatomie des Pferdes</i>, Leipsic, 1861; +J. M’Fadyean, <i>The Anatomy of the Horse</i>, 1884; O. C. Marsh, “Notice of New +Equine Mammals from the Tertiary Formation,” <i>Am. Journ. of Science and Arts</i>, +vol. vii. March 1874; Id. “Fossil Horses in America,” <i>Amer. Naturalist</i>, vol. +viii. May 1874; Id. “Polydactyle Horses,” <i>Am. Journ. of Science and Arts</i>, vol. +xvii. June 1879; Franz Müller, <i>Lehrbuch der Anatomie des Pferdes</i>, Vienna, 1853; +R. Owen, “Equine Remains in Cavern of Bruniquel,” <i>Phil. Trans.</i> vol. clix. +(1870), p. 535; W. Percivall, <i>The Anatomy of the Horse</i>, 1832; G. Stubbs, +<i>Anatomy of the Horse</i>, 1766. F. H. Huth’s <i>Bibliographical Record of Hippology</i> +(1887) contains a list of nearly four thousand works on Horses and Equitation, +published<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_402"></a>[402]</span> in the various languages of the civilised world.</p> + +</div> + +<h5><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Rhinocerotidæ</span>.</h5> + +<p>Although the existing members of this family are readily distinguished +from the other living representatives of the suborder +by the simple crescentoid form assumed by the ridges of the lower +cheek-teeth, yet it is exceedingly difficult to give a definition by +which they can be distinguished from the <i>Lophiodontidæ</i>, from some +members of which they are, indeed, probably derived. The outer +columns of the upper molars (<a href="#figure167">Fig. 167</a>) are, however, so excessively +flattened as to produce +a continuous thick and +nearly straight outer +wall, which is often produced +in advance of +the anterior transverse +ridge; both transverse +ridges being but little +curved, and intimately +connected with the +outer wall. The upper +premolars are in most +cases nearly or quite as +complex as the molars, +and the ridges of the +lower cheek-teeth are +crescentoid. The last +lower molar has no +third lobe. The height +of the crowns of the +cheek-teeth is variable. +The skull is large, with +the orbit confluent with +the temporal fossa. +There are either three +or four digits in the manus, and three in the pes. One or more +dermal horns are attached to the fronto-nasal region of the skull +of existing forms, but these were wanting in some of the fossil +species.</p> + +<figure class="figright illowp64" id="figure167" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure167.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 167.</span>—A partially worn second right upper molar of +<i>Rhinoceros antiquitatis</i>. Letters as in <a href="#figure155">Fig. 155</a> (<a href="#figure155">p. 375</a>), except +<i>k</i>, which indicates a prolongation of the median valley. +(After Owen.)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Rhinoceros.</i><a id="FNanchor_267" href="#Footnote_267" class="fnanchor">[267]</a>—Incisors variable, reduced in number, often quite +rudimentary, and early deciduous. Upper canines absent. Molar +series, consisting of the full number of four premolars and three +molars above and below, all in contact and closely resembling each +other, except the first, which is much smaller than the rest and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_403"></a>[403]</span> +often deciduous; and the last, in which the hinder lobe is partly +aborted, so that the contour of the crown is triangular. Head +large, skull elongated, elevated posteriorly into a transverse occipital +crest. No postorbital processes. Nasal bones large and stout, +co-ossified, and standing out freely above the premaxillæ, from which +they are separated by a deep and wide fissure; the latter small, +generally not meeting in the middle line in front, often quite rudimentary. +Tympanics small, not forming a bulla. Brain cavity very +small for the size of the skull. Vertebræ: C 7, D 19-20, L 3, +S 4, C about 22. Limbs stout, and of moderate length. Three +completely developed toes, with distinct broad rounded hoofs on each +foot (<a href="#figure151">Fig. 151</a>, <a href="#figure151">p. 368</a>), some fossil forms having a fourth in the +manus. Eyes small. Ears of moderate size, oval, erect, prominent, +placed near the occiput. Skin very thick, in many species thrown +into massive folds. Hairy covering scanty. When one horn is +present it is situated over the conjoined nasal bones; when two, the +hinder one is over the frontals. These horns, which are of a more +or less conical form and usually recurved, often grow to a great +length (three or even four feet), and are composed of a solid mass +of hardened epidermic cells growing from a cluster of long dermal +papillæ. The cells formed on each papilla constitute a distinct +horny fibre, like a thick hair, and the whole are cemented together +by an intermediate mass of cells which grow up from the interspaces +between the papillæ. It results from this that the horn has the +appearance of a mass of agglutinated hairs, which, in the newly +growing part at the base, readily fray out on destruction of the +softer intermediate substance; but the fibres differ from true hairs in +growing from a free papilla of the derm, and not within a follicular +involution of the same.</p> + +<figure class="figleft illowp100" id="figure168" style="max-width: 25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure168.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 168.</span>—A partially worn second right upper +molar of (<i>A</i>) <i>Rhinoceros sondaicus</i>, and (<i>B</i>) <i>R. unicornis</i>. +<i>k</i>, Fossette cut off from median valley; <i>m</i>, +crotchet; <i>n</i>, crista, or combining-plate; <i>e</i>, anterior +valley; <i>l</i>, anterior intermediate column. Other +letters as in <a href="#figure155">Fig. 155</a>, <a href="#figure155">p. 375</a>.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The large lower cutting +teeth of the typical Rhinoceroses +have been very generally +regarded as incisors, but +comparison with fossil allied +types, in which three lower incisors +and canines are present, +leaves little doubt but that +they are really canines. The +upper molar teeth present some +amount of specific variation; +thus while one type (<a href="#figure168">Fig. +168</a>, <i>A</i>) has only a simple +“crotchet” projecting from +the posterior transverse ridge +into the median valley, in others (<a href="#figure168">Fig. 168</a>, <i>B</i>) this crotchet joins a +“crista,” or “combing-plate,” projecting from the outer wall to cut<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_404"></a>[404]</span> +off a distinct fossette from the median valley. Occasionally, however +(as in <a href="#figure167">Fig. 167</a>), the crotchet and combing-plate do not completely +join, although the fossette is distinctly indicated. The first upper +premolar may occasionally be preceded by a milk-tooth. The Rhinoceroses +differ from the Horses and agree with the Tapirs in the +direction of the cæcum.</p> + +<p>The living species of <i>Rhinoceros</i> are all animals of large size, but of +little intelligence, generally timid indisposition, though ferocious when +attacked and brought to bay, using the nasal horns as weapons, by +which they strike and toss their assailant. Their sight is dull, but +their hearing and scent are remarkably acute. They feed on herbage, +shrubs, and leaves of trees, and, like so many other large animals +which inhabit hot countries, sleep the greater part of the day, being +most active in the cool of the evening or even during the night. +They are fond of bathing and wallowing in water or mud. None +of the species have been domesticated. Animals of the group have +existed in both the Old and New Worlds since the latter part of +the Eocene period. In America they all became extinct before the +end of the Pliocene period. In the Old World their distribution +has become greatly restricted, and they are no longer found in +Europe and North Asia, but only in Africa and portions of the +Indian and Indo-Malayan region.</p> + +<p><i>Existing Species.</i>—The existing (as well as many of the extinct) +species of Rhinoceroses naturally divide into three groups, which are +regarded by some zoologists as of generic value.</p> + +<p><i>Rhinocerotic, or Typical Group.</i>—The adults with a single large +compressed incisor above on each side, and occasionally a small lateral +one; below, a very small incisor and a very large, procumbent, +pointed canine. Nasal bones pointed in front. A single nasal +horn. Skin very thick, and raised into strong, definitely arranged +ridges or folds.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp96" id="figure169" style="max-width: 28.125em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure169.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 169.</span>—Indian Rhinoceros (<i>Rhinoceros unicornis</i>). This figure, and also figures 170, 172, +are reduced from drawings by J. Wolf, from animals living in the London Zoological Society’s +Gardens.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>There are two well-marked species of one-horned Rhinoceroses. +(1) The Indian Rhinoceros, <i>R. unicornis</i> (<a href="#figure169">Fig. 169</a>) of Linnæus,<a id="FNanchor_268" href="#Footnote_268" class="fnanchor">[268]</a> the +largest and best known, from being the most frequently exhibited +alive in England, is at present only met with in a wild state in the +terai region of Nipal and Bhutan, and in the upper valley of the +Brahmaputra or province of Assam, though it formerly had a wider +range. The first Rhinoceros seen alive in Europe since the time +when these animals, in common with nearly all the large remarkable<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_405"></a>[405]</span> +beasts of both Africa and Asia, were exhibited in the Roman +shows, was of this species. It was sent from India to Emmanuel, +King of Portugal, in 1513; and from a sketch of it, taken in +Lisbon, Albert Dürer composed his celebrated but rather fanciful +engraving, which was reproduced in so many old books on natural +history. Both in this and the following species the post-glenoid +and post-tympanic processes of the squamosal bone of the skull +unite below so as to completely surround the external auditory +meatus. The molar teeth are hypsodont, and have a horizontal +plane of wear; those of the upper jaw (<a href="#figure168">Fig. 168</a>, <i>b</i>) being characterised +by the presence of a combing-plate joining the crotchet, and +the absence of a distinct buttress at the antero-external angle. +The stomach departs from the ordinary Perissodactyle type. The +small intestine is beset over most of its surface with long and fine +villi; and the Spigelian lobe of the liver is well developed. There +is a gland behind the foot. Teeth from the Pleistocene of the +Narbada valley in India apparently indicate the existence of the +Indian Rhinoceros at that epoch. (2) The Javan Rhinoceros (<i>R. +sondaicus</i>, <a href="#figure170">Fig. 170</a>) is a smaller form, readily distinguished by +dental and internal characters, as well as by the different arrangement +of the plications of the skin (as seen in the figures); the horn +in the female appears to be very little developed, if not altogether +absent. This species has a more extensive geographical range, +being found in the Bengal Sunderbans near Calcutta, Burma, the +Malay Peninsula, Java, Sumatra, and probably Borneo. The molar +teeth have shorter crowns than in the preceding species, and wear<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_406"></a>[406]</span> +into ridges; those of the upper jaw (<a href="#figure168">Fig. 168</a>, <i>a</i>) having no combing-plate, +and a strongly marked buttress at the antero-external angle +(not distinctly shown in the figure). The visceral anatomy, according +to Beddard,<a id="FNanchor_269" href="#Footnote_269" class="fnanchor">[269]</a> does not differ materially from that of the next +species. In respect to its dentition and anatomical characters +this species is indeed more nearly allied to the Sumatran than to +the Indian Rhinoceros; and thereby indicates that the division of +the existing Rhinoceroses into separate genera is not advisable.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp84" id="figure170" style="max-width: 28.125em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure170.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 170.</span>—Javan Rhinoceros (<i>Rhinoceros sondaicus</i>).</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Ceratorhine Group.</i>—The adults with a moderate-sized compressed +incisor above, and a laterally placed, pointed, procumbent canine +below, which is sometimes lost in old animals. Nasal bones narrow +and pointed anteriorly. A well-developed nasal, and a small frontal +horn separated by an interval. The skin thrown into folds, but +these not so strongly marked as in the former group. The +smallest living member of the family, the Sumatran Rhinoceros, <i>R. +sumatrensis</i>, Cuvier, now represents this group. Its geographical +range is nearly the same as that of the Javan species, though not +extending into Bengal; but it has been found in Assam, Chittagong, +Burma, the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, and Borneo. So far as +can be determined during the life of the type specimen, it appears +that the hairy form from Chittagong, described as <i>R. lasiotis</i>, is only +a variety of this species.<a id="FNanchor_270" href="#Footnote_270" class="fnanchor">[270]</a> The molar teeth of the Sumatran<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_407"></a>[407]</span> Rhinoceros +are almost indistinguishable from those of the Javan species, +and reference has already been made to the resemblance between +the visceral anatomy of these species.<a id="FNanchor_271" href="#Footnote_271" class="fnanchor">[271]</a> The form of the stomach +is very similar to that of the Horse. The liver (<a href="#figure171">Fig. 171</a>) has a +comparatively large caudate lobe, but is chiefly remarkable for the +peculiar shape of the Spigelian lobe, which mainly consists of a thin +strip of tissue, 8 inches long, ¾ inch wide, and ¼ inch deep. The +small intestine, in place of the villi of <i>R. unicornis</i>, has throughout +the greater part of its length a uniform series of thin and nearly or +quite continuous transverse foldings, like the valvulæ conniventes +of the human small intestine. There is no gland behind the foot. +The post-glenoid and post-tympanic processes of the squamosal do +not unite below the auditory meatus. The presence of a lateral +nasal diverticulum, like that of the Horses and Tapirs, has been +verified only in this species, although it doubtless occurs in the +others.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure171" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure171.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 171.</span>—Posterior aspect of the liver of <i>Rhinoceros sumatrensis</i>. <i>rc</i>, Right central lobe; +<i>rl</i>, right lateral lobe; <i>lc</i>, left central lobe; <i>ll</i>, left lateral lobe; <i>c</i>, caudate lobe; <i>sp</i>, Spigelian +lobe. (From Garrod, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1873, p. 102.)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Atelodine Group.</i>—In the adults the incisors and canines quite +rudimentary or entirely wanting. Nasal bones thick, rounded and +truncated in front. Well-developed anterior and posterior horns in +close contact. Skin without any definite permanent folds.</p> + +<p>The two well-marked<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_408"></a>[408]</span> existing species are peculiar to the African +continent.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="figure172" style="max-width: 25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure172.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 172.</span>—Common African Rhinoceros (<i>Rhinoceros bicornis</i>).</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The common Two-horned Rhinoceros, <i>R. bicornis</i>, is the smaller of +the two, with a pointed prehensile upper lip, and a narrow compressed +deep symphysis of the lower jaw. It ranges through the wooded +and watered districts of Africa, from Abyssinia in the north to the +Cape Colony, but its numbers are yearly diminishing, owing to the +inroads of European civilisation, and especially of English sportsmen. +It feeds exclusively upon leaves and branches of bushes and +small trees, and chiefly frequents the sides of wood-clad rugged +hills. Specimens in which the posterior horn has attained a length +as great as, or greater than, the anterior have been separated under +the name of <i>R. keitloa</i>, but the characters of these appendages are +too variable to found specific distinctions upon. The Common +African Rhinoceros is far more rarely seen in menageries in Europe +than either of the three Oriental species, but one has lived in the +gardens of the London Zoological Society since 1868. The molar +teeth of this species are of the general type of those of <i>R. sondaicus</i>, +having no combing-plate to join the crotchet in those of the upper +jaw. The conch of the ear is much rounded at its extremity, and +edged by a fringe of short hairs; while the nostrils are somewhat +rounded. The eye is placed immediately below the posterior +horn.<a id="FNanchor_272" href="#Footnote_272" class="fnanchor">[272]</a> Both in this and the following species the post-glenoid<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_409"></a>[409]</span> and +post-tympanic processes of the squamosal do not unite below the +auditory meatus. Nothing is known of the anatomy of the soft +parts of either of them.</p> + +<p>Burchell’s or the Square-mouthed Rhinoceros (<i>R. simus</i>), sometimes +called the White Rhinoceros, though the colour (dark slate) is not +materially different from that of the last species, is the largest of +the whole group, and differs from all the others in having a square +truncated upper lip and a wide, shallow, spatulate symphysis to +the lower jaw. In conformity with the structure of the mouth, +this species lives entirely by browsing on grass, and is therefore +more partial to open countries or districts where there are broad +grassy valleys between the tracts of bush. It is only found in +Africa south of the Zambesi, and of late years has become extremely +scarce, owing to the persecutions of sportsmen; indeed, +the time of its complete extinction cannot be far off. No specimen +of this species has ever been brought alive to Europe. Mr. F. C. +Selous<a id="FNanchor_273" href="#Footnote_273" class="fnanchor">[273]</a> gives the following description of its habits from extensive +personal observation:—</p> + +<p>“The square-mouthed rhinoceros is a huge ungainly-looking +beast, with a disproportionately large head, a large male standing +6 feet 6 inches at the shoulder. Like elephants and buffaloes they +lie asleep during the heat of the day, and feed during the night +and in the cool hours of early morning and evening. Their sight +is very bad; but they are quick of hearing, and their scent is very +keen; they are, too, often accompanied by rhinoceros birds, which, +by running about their heads, flapping their wings, and screeching +at the same time, frequently give them notice of the approach of +danger. When disturbed they go off at a swift trot, which soon +leaves all pursuit from a man on foot far behind; but if chased by +a horseman they break into a gallop, which they can keep up for +some distance. However, although they run very swiftly, when +their size and heavy build is considered, they are no match for an +average good horse. They are, as a rule, very easy to shoot on +horseback, as, if one gallops a little in front of and on one side of +them, they will hold their course, and come sailing past, offering +a magnificent broadside shot, while under similar circumstances a +prehensile-lipped rhinoceros will usually swerve away in such a +manner as only to present his hind-quarters for a shot. When +either walking or running, the square-mouthed rhinoceros holds its +head very low, its nose nearly touching the ground. When a small +calf accompanies its mother it always runs in front, and she appears +to guide it by holding the point of her horn upon the little animal’s +rump; and it is perfectly wonderful to note how in all sudden +changes of pace, from a trot to a gallop or <i>vice versâ</i>, the same +position is always exactly maintained. During the autumn and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_410"></a>[410]</span> +winter months (<i>i.e.</i> from March to August) the square-mouthed +rhinoceros is usually very fat; and its meat is then most excellent, +being something like beef, but yet having a peculiar flavour of its +own. The part in greatest favour among hunters is the hump, +which, if cut off whole and roasted just as it is in the skin, in a +hole dug in the ground, would, I think, be difficult to match either +for juiciness or flavour.”</p> + +<p>The molar dentition is of the type obtaining in <i>R. unicornis</i>, so +that in this respect <i>R. simus</i> has the same relation to <i>R. bicornis</i> as +is presented by <i>R. unicornis</i> to <i>R. sondaicus</i>. The ear-conch of the +Square-mouthed Rhinoceros is very large, elongated, and pointed at +its extremity, which bears only a slight tuft of hair; it is much expanded +in the middle, and the lower portion has its edges united +to form a short tube. The nostrils have a long slit-like aperture; +and the eye is situated behind the posterior horn.</p> + +<p><i>Extinct Species.</i>—Using the generic term <i>Rhinoceros</i> in its widest +signification, a very large number of fossil forms may be referred to +it, the earliest of which date from the Upper Eocene (Oligocene) +Phosphorites of Central France. Only a few of the more important +of these types can, however, be even mentioned in this +place.</p> + +<p>In the Pliocene Siwaliks of India <i>R. sivalensis</i> appears to have +been the direct ancestor of <i>R. sondaicus</i>; while <i>R. palæindicus</i> was +probably nearly related to <i>R. unicornis</i>, although the upper molars +had not developed a combing-plate.</p> + +<p><i>R. schleirmacheri</i>, of the Lower Pliocene of Europe, falls into +the Ceratorhine group, although differing from <i>R. sumatrensis</i> by +the union of the post-glenoid and post-tympanic processes of the +squamosal beneath the auditory meatus. The Middle Miocene +<i>R. sansaniensis</i> was a closely allied if not identical form.</p> + +<p>The Atelodine group was very widely spread in past epochs. +Thus the huge <i>R. platyrhinus</i> of the Indian Pliocene, and the equally +large <i>R. antiquitatis</i> of the Pleistocene of Europe, were specialised +forms with a dentition resembling that of <i>R. simus</i>, to which they +were probably allied. An upper molar of <i>R. antiquitatis</i>—the so-called +Tichorine, or Woolly Rhinoceros—is shown in the woodcut +on <a href="#figure167">p. 402</a>. Of this species nearly whole carcases, with the thick +woolly external covering, have been discovered associated with +those of the Mammoth, preserved in the frozen soil of the north of +Siberia. In common with some other extinct species it had a solid +median wall of bone supporting the nasals, from which it is inferred +that the horns were of a size and weight surpassing that of the +modern species. In the Lower Pliocene of Attica <i>R. pachygnathus</i> +appears to have been closely allied to <i>R. bicornis</i>. Several species +such as <i>R. leptorhinus</i> (<a href="#figure173">Fig. 173</a>), <i>R. megarhinus</i>, and <i>R. etruscus</i>, +occur in the European Pleistocene which do not present a marked<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_411"></a>[411]</span> +relationship to any of the living forms. This group is also represented +in the Pleistocene of Southern India by the small <i>R. deccanensis</i> +and <i>R. karnuliensis</i>.</p> + +<p>In the Upper Miocene, or Lower Pliocene, of North America +numerous Rhinoceroses with incisor teeth occur which have no +nasal horn, although in those forms of which the limbs are known +the fore feet resembled those of existing species in having only three +digits. These species have been generically separated as <i>Aphelops</i>, +but so closely do they resemble existing Rhinoceroses that at one +time Professor Cope proposed to refer the hornless female of <i>R. +sondaicus</i> (described by Lesson as <i>R. inermis</i>) to the same genus. +If these American types be included in <i>Rhinoceros</i> there seems no +valid reason for separating the European Lower Pliocene and Miocene +forms described as <i>Aceratherium</i>, at least some of which have +four digits in the manus. This group is represented in the Upper +Eocene Phosphorites of France, and also by a very large species in +the Pliocene of India. Lastly, <i>R. minutus</i>, of the Lower Miocene of +France, and an allied North American species are distinguished by +carrying a pair of very small horns placed transversely across the +nasals, from which feature it has been proposed that they should +be separated genetically as <i>Diceratherium</i>.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure173" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure173.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 173.</span>—Skull of <i>Rhinoceros leptorhinus</i>, from the Pleistocene of Essex. About ⅛ natural size.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Extinct Generic Types.</i>—The Tertiary deposits of different parts +of the world have yielded remains of many extinct forms more or +less closely related to the Rhinoceroses, and some of which should +certainly be included in the same family; although others perhaps +form the types of one or more distinct families. One of the most +remarkable of these extinct types is the huge <i>Elasmotherium</i>, from +the Pleistocene of Siberia, in which the dentition was reduced<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_412"></a>[412]</span> to +two premolars and three molars on either side of each jaw. The +structure of the skeleton is essentially rhinocerotic, the skull having +an ossified nasal septum, and a huge frontal prominence for the +support of a very large horn. The teeth are extremely hypsodont, +with the enamel plicated to a remarkable degree, and unlike those +of <i>Rhinoceros</i>. The genus is evidently a very specialised one.</p> + +<p>The other genera we have to notice are more generalised types. +Of these the North American <i>Hyracodon</i>, with the full typical +number of teeth, and without nasal horn, appears to connect the +Rhinoceroses with the Lophiodont <i>Hyrachyus</i>. The genera <i>Amynodon</i> +and <i>Metamynodon</i> (<a href="#figure174">Fig. 174</a>), from the American Tertiaries, are +forms allied to the Rhinoceroses, with the full number of incisors +and canines, and the hinder lobe of the last upper molar not aborted. +The lower canines are either upright, or less proclivous than in the +Rhinoceroses; in <i>Metamynodon</i> the premolars are reduced to ³⁄₂. +Molar teeth from the Phosphorites of Central France, described +under the name of <i>Cadurcotherium</i>, are constructed on the general +plan of those of the Rhinoceroses, although distinguished by their +extreme narrowness; this type of tooth being very similar to that +found in <i>Homalodontotherium</i> from Tertiary deposits in Patagonia. +The latter has the full number of teeth, without any diastema in +the series. Until we have some knowledge of the skeleton of these +remarkable forms nothing definite can be said as to their serial +position.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure174" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure174.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 174.</span>—Right half of the palatal surface of the cranium of <i>Metamynodon planifrons</i>, from +the Upper Miocene of North America. (After Scott and Osborn.)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<h5><i>Families</i> <span class="smcap">Lambdotheriidæ, Chalicotheriidæ, and +Titanotheriidæ</span>.</h5> + +<p>These families contain a large number of more or less nearly +related extinct types from Tertiary beds of both the Old and New +Worlds, some of which present most remarkable deviations from +the ordinary Ungulate structure. All are characterised by their +brachydont molars, which depart widely from the normal lophodont +type. The upper molars consist of four columns, of which the two<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_413"></a>[413]</span> +external ones are expanded to form an outer wall; the posterior +pair being connected in some cases by an oblique transverse ridge, +while there may be traces of an anterior ridge. The premolars +are simpler.</p> + +<p><i>Lambdotheriidæ.</i>—This family is confined to the Upper Eocene +and Miocene of North America, where it is represented by <i>Lambdotherium</i>, +<i>Palæosyops</i>, and <i>Limnosyops</i>; it presents the normal type +of foot structure, and all the genera except the first have the full +complement of teeth. There were four digits in the manus. The +last lower molar has a third lobe. <i>Limnosyops</i> differs from <i>Palæosyops</i> +in having two inner columns to the last upper molar.</p> + +<figure class="figright illowp100" id="figure175" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure175.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 175.</span>—Anterior and distal aspects of a +phalangeal bone of <i>Chalicotherium sivalense</i>. (From +the <i>Palæontologia Indica</i>.)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Chalicotheriidæ.</i>—The genus <i>Chalicotherium</i>, which is found in the +Tertiaries of Europe, Asia, and North America, differs so remarkably +in the structure of the feet from all other Ungulates that it has +been proposed to regard it as the representative of a distinct order, +Ancylopoda. The molars are, however, almost indistinguishable +from those of the preceding and following families; while the cervical +vertebræ and portions of the limbs are of a Perissodactyle type. +On the other hand, the femur has lost its third trochanter; while +the phalanges are strangely modified, the terminal ones forming +long curved claws, while the others (<a href="#figure175">Fig. 175</a>) have strong ginglymoid +distal articulations. +These phalanges were, indeed, +long regarded as referable to +Edentates, being described in +Europe as <i>Macrotherium</i>, and +in the United States as <i>Morotherium</i> +and <i>Moropus</i>. <i>Ancylotherium</i>, +of the Grecian +Pikermi beds, is founded upon +phalanges which indicate an +allied genus. The Indian +species of <i>Chalicotherium</i> is distinguished +by the loss of the incisors and the upper canine; while +all the species want the first premolar.</p> + +<p><i>Titanotheriidæ.</i>—This exclusively North American family includes +gigantic forms closely allied to the <i>Lambdotheriidæ</i>, but with +the last upper premolar as complex as the molars, and frequently +with large bony protuberances in the nasal region. The best +known genus, <i>Titanotherium</i> (<i>Menodus</i>,<a id="FNanchor_274" href="#Footnote_274" class="fnanchor">[274]</a> <i>Brontotherium</i>, <i>Symborodon</i>, +<i>Allops</i>, etc.), may either have the full complement of teeth, or the +incisors may be reduced to ²⁄₀. The canines and incisors are small, +and there is no diastema when the full dental series is developed. +The skull is very like that of the Rhinoceroses; but has a transverse +pair of large bony prominences on the nasal region, varying<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_414"></a>[414]</span> +considerably in shape and size in the different species, which in the +living animal were probably covered with horny sheaths. The third +trochanter of the femur was aborted. These huge animals—inferior +in size only to the Elephant—appear to have been abundant +in the United States during the Miocene period.</p> + +<h5><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Macraucheniidæ</span>.</h5> + +<p>This extinct South American family is best known by the genus +<i>Macrauchenia</i>, as represented by <i>M. patachonica</i> and <i>M. boliviensis</i>, +which are apparently from Pleistocene formations. They are very +singular and specialised forms, quite out of the line of descent of +any of the existing Perissodactyles, and the steps by which they +are connected with the rest of the group have not yet been +discovered. Of the larger species, <i>M. patachonica</i>, the skeleton is +completely known. It had the full number of forty-four teeth, +forming an almost uninterrupted series. The cervical vertebræ +resemble those of the Camels in the position of the vertebrarterial +canal, but the ends of the centra are flat, and not opisthocœlous as +in the allied forms. In some of the limb characters it resembles +the <i>Equidæ</i>, but in the articulation of the fibula with the calcaneum +it agrees with the Artiodactyles. The structure of the feet is, +however, distinctly Perissodactylate, there being three toes on each. +The teeth approximate to a Rhinocerotine structure; and the incisors +have an infolding of the enamel of their crowns, as in those of the +Horses. The nares open on the top of the skull, and it is probable +that the muzzle was produced into a short proboscis. Several +other South American forms have been referred to this family, +some of which have received distinct generic names, but further +evidence is required before many of them can be accepted. Possibly +<i>Homalodontotherium</i> should be placed here.</p> + +<h5><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Proterotheriidæ</span>.</h5> + +<p><i>Proterotherium.</i>—Here may be noticed certain very remarkable +Perissodactyles from the South American Tertiaries, for which the +name <i>Proterotherium</i> has been proposed. The cheek-teeth are so +like those of <i>Anchitherium</i> that they have been described under +that name. The upper jaw has one pair of canine-like incisors and +no canines, while the lower jaw carries two pairs of incisors. In +the skull the orbits were completely closed, as in the Horses. The +feet were tridactyle, like those of <i>Hipparion</i>, but the tarsus was +constructed on an Artiodactyle type.</p> + +<h3><span class="smcap">Subungulata.</span></h3> + +<p>By far the greater number of the Subungulata are extinct, and +of many of those whose former existence has been revealed, chiefly<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_415"></a>[415]</span> +by the labours of the American palæontologists, our knowledge is +at present necessarily imperfect, though daily extending. It will +only be possible here to give details of some of the more interesting +or best-known forms.</p> + +<p>The characters by which the skeleton of the feet of the Subungulata +are distinguished from those of the Ungulata Vera have +been already mentioned on <a href="#Page_275">p. 275</a>. In addition to these it may +be observed that the feet frequently have five functional digits, +and may be plantigrade; while the upper surface of the astragalus +is generally flattened, instead of presenting the strongly-marked +pulley-like ridges and groove so characteristic of the Ungulata +Vera.</p> + +<h4><i>Suborder</i> <span class="smcap">Hyracoidea</span>.</h4> + +<h5><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Hyracidæ</span>.</h5> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure176" style="max-width: 25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure176.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 176.</span>—<i>Hyrax capensis.</i></p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>This division is constituted to receive a single family of mammals, +the affinities of which have long constituted a puzzle to +zoologists. They were first placed among the Rodents, to which +animals their small size and general appearance and habits give +them much superficial resemblance. Cuvier’s investigations into +their anatomical structure, and especially their dental characters, +led him to place them among the Ungulates, near the genus +<i>Rhinoceros</i>, a position long accepted by many zoologists. Further +knowledge of their organisation and mode of development caused +Milne-Edwards, Huxley, and others to disassociate them from this +connection, and, failing to find any agreement with any other known +forms, to place them in an order entirely apart. Palæontology has +thrown no light upon the affinities<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_416"></a>[416]</span> of this anomalous and isolated +group, as no extinct animals possessing their distinctive characters +have as yet been discovered.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure177" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure177.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 177.</span>—Skull and dentition of <i>Dendrohyrax dorsalis</i>. × ⅔.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The dentition, according to the usual interpretation, consists +only of incisors and molars, the formula in all known species being +<i>i</i> ¹⁄₂, <i>c</i> ⁰⁄₀, <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₄, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃. The upper incisors have persistent pulps, and +are curved longitudinally, forming a semicircle as in Rodents. +They are, however, not flattened from before backwards as in that +order, but prismatic, with an antero-external, an antero-internal, +and a posterior surface, the first two only being covered with +enamel; their apices are consequently not chisel-shaped, but sharp +pointed. They are preceded by functional, rooted milk-teeth. +The outer lower incisors, which should perhaps be regarded rather +as canines, have long tapering roots, but not of persistent +growth. They are straight, procumbent, with awl-shaped, trilobed +crowns. Behind the incisors is a considerable diastema. The +molars and premolars are all contiguous, and formed almost exactly +on the pattern of some of the Perissodactyle Ungulates. The hyoid +arch is unlike that of any known mammal. The dorsal and lumbar +vertebræ are very numerous, 28 to 30, of which 21 or 22 bear +ribs. The tail is extremely short. There are no clavicles. In +the fore foot the three middle toes are subequally developed, +the fifth is present, but smaller, and the hallux is rudimentary, +although, in one species at least, all its normal bones are present. +The ungual phalanges of the four outer digits are small, somewhat +conical, and flattened in form. The carpus has a distinct os +centrale. There is a slight ridge on the femur in the place of a +third trochanter. The fibula is complete, thickest at its upper +end, where it generally ankyloses with the tibia. The articulation +between the tibia and astragalus is more complex than in other +mammals, the end of the malleolus entering into it. The hind +foot is very like that of <i>Rhinoceros</i>, having three well-developed<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_417"></a>[417]</span> +toes. There is no trace of a hallux, and the fifth metatarsal is +represented only by a small nodule. The ungual phalanx of the +inner (or second) digit is deeply cleft, and has a peculiar long +curved claw, the others have short broad nails. The stomach is +formed upon much the same principle as that of the Horse or +Rhinoceros, but is more elongated transversely and divided by a +constriction into two cavities—a large left <i>cul de sac</i>, lined by +a very dense white epithelium and a right pyloric cavity, with a +very thick, soft, vascular lining. The intestinal canal (<a href="#figure178">Fig. 178</a>) +is long, and has an +arrangement perfectly +unique among +mammals, indeed +among vertebrated +animals, for, in addition +to the ordinary +short, but capacious +and sacculated cæcum +(<i>cm</i>) at the commencement +of the +colon, there is, lower +down, an additional +pair of large, conical, +pointed, supplemental +cæca (<i>c</i>). The +liver is much subdivided, +and there is +no gall-bladder. The +brain resembles that +of the typical Ungulates +far more than +the Rodents. The +testes are permanently +abdominal. +The ureters open into +the fundus of the +bladder, as in some +Rodents. The female has six teats, of which four are inguinal +and two axillary; and the placenta is zonary, as in the Elephant +and Carnivora.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp60" id="figure178" style="max-width: 25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure178.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 178.</span>—Diagrammatic view of the alimentary canal of +<i>Hyrax capensis</i>, the intestines being somewhat abbreviated. +<i>d</i>, Duodenum; <i>i</i>, ileum; <i>cm</i>, cæcum; <i>c</i>, supplemental colic cæca; +<i>r</i>, rectum.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>There are two distinct forms of Hyrax, differing both in +structure and habits, which may be accorded generic rank.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_418"></a>[418]</span></p> + +<p><i>Hyrax.</i><a id="FNanchor_275" href="#Footnote_275" class="fnanchor">[275]</a>—Molar teeth having the same pattern as those of +<i>Rhinoceros</i>. Interval between upper incisors less than the width of +the teeth. Lower incisors slightly notched at the cutting edge. +Vertebræ: C 7, D 22, L 8, S 6, C 6. Of this form the earliest +known species, <i>H. capensis</i> (<a href="#figure176">Fig. 176</a>) is the type. There are several +other species, as <i>H. habessinicus</i> and <i>syriacus</i>, from Eastern Africa +and Syria. They inhabit mountainous and rocky regions, and live +on the ground.</p> + +<p><i>Dendrohyrax.</i><a id="FNanchor_276" href="#Footnote_276" class="fnanchor">[276]</a>—Molar teeth having the same pattern as <i>Palæotherium</i> +(except that the third lower molar has but two lobes). +Interval between upper incisors exceeding the width of the teeth. +Lower incisors with very distinctly trilobed crowns. Vertebræ: +C 7, D 21, L 7, S 5, C 10. The members of this section frequent +the trunks and large branches of trees, sleeping in holes. There +are several species, not distinctly defined, from western and south +Africa, as <i>D. arboreus</i> and <i>D. dorsalis</i>. The members of both groups +appear to have a power like that possessed by the Lizards called +Geckos of clinging to vertical surfaces of rocks and trees by the +soles of their feet.</p> + +<p>It should be added that some writers separate three of the +African species usually included in <i>Hyrax</i> (viz. <i>H. bocagei</i>, <i>H. bakeri</i>, +and <i>H. blainvillei</i>) under the designation of <i>Heterohyrax</i>.<a id="FNanchor_277" href="#Footnote_277" class="fnanchor">[277]</a></p> + +<h4><i>Suborder</i> <span class="smcap">Proboscidea</span>.</h4> + +<p>This name has been appropriated to a well-marked group of +animals, presenting some very anomalous characters, allied in many +respects to the typical Ungulata, but belonging neither to the Artiodactyle +nor Perissodactyle type of that order. It has been thought +that they possess some, though certainly not very close, affinities +with the Rodentia, and also with the Sirenia. It is certain, +however, that the two species of Elephant, which are the sole living +representatives of the group, stand quite alone among existing +mammals, differing widely from all others in many points of their +structure. In some respects, as the skull, proboscis, and dentition, +they are highly specialised; but in others, as in the presence of two +anterior venæ cavæ and in the structure of the limbs, they retain +a low or generalised condition. A considerable series of extinct<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_419"></a>[419]</span> +forms, extending back through the Pliocene and Miocene epochs, +show the same type under different modifications, and in still more +generalised outlines; and certain forms from the Eocene of North +America, if their affinities are rightly interpreted, appear to link +the true Proboscidea to some unknown primitive type of Ungulata.</p> + +<p>The following are the principal characters common to existing, +and, by inference, to the extinct, Proboscidea. The nose extended +into a long, muscular, very flexible and prehensile proboscis, at the +end of which the nostrils are situated, and from which the name +given to the group is derived. The teeth consisting of ever-growing +incisors of very great size, but never exceeding one pair in each +jaw, and often present in one jaw only; no canines; large and +transversely ridged molars. No clavicles. Limbs strong, the +upper segment, especially in the hind limb, the longer. Radius +and ulna distinct, the latter articulating extensively with the carpus. +Fibula and tibia distinct. Astragalus very flat on both surfaces. +Manus and pes short, broad, and massive, each with five toes, +though the outer pair may be more or less rudimentary, all encased +in a common integument, though with distinct, broad, short hoofs. +Third digit the largest. Two anterior venæ cavæ entering the +right auricle. Stomach simple. A capacious cæcum. Testes permanently +abdominal. Uterus bicornuate. Placenta non-deciduate +and zonary. Mammæ two, pectoral.</p> + +<p>With regard to the teeth, the incisors,<a id="FNanchor_278" href="#Footnote_278" class="fnanchor">[278]</a> which project largely +out of the mouth, and are commonly called “tusks,” are of an +elongated conical form, and generally curved. They are composed +mainly of solid dentine, the fine elastic quality and large mass of +which renders it invaluable as “ivory” for commerce and the arts. +A peculiarity of the dentine of most Proboscidea is that it shows, in +transverse fractures or sections, striæ proceeding in the arc of a +circle from the centre to the circumference in opposite directions, +and forming by their decussations curvilinear lozenges, as in the +“engine-turning” of the case of a watch. The enamel-covering in +existing species is confined to the extreme apex, and very soon +wears off, but in some extinct species it forms persistent longitudinal +bands of limited breadth. The tusks have small milk-predecessors, +shed at an early age.</p> + +<p>The molar teeth present a remarkable series of modifications, +from the comparatively simple form in <i>Dinotherium</i>, with two<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_420"></a>[420]</span> or +three strongly pronounced transverse ridges and a normal mode of +succession, to the extremely complex structure and anomalous mode +of replacement found in the true Elephants. The intermediate +conditions occur in the various species of <i>Mastodon</i>. In this genus +the enamel-covered transverse ridges of each tooth are generally +more numerous than in <i>Dinotherium</i>, and often complicated by +notches dividing their edge or by accessory columns attached to +them, but in the unworn tooth they stand out freely on the surface +of the crown, with deep valleys between (<a href="#figure179">Fig. 179</a>, I). In the +Elephants the ridges are still further increased in number, and consequently +narrower from before backwards, and are greatly extended +in vertical height, so that, in order to give solidity to what would +otherwise be a laminated or pectinated tooth, it becomes necessary +to envelop and unite the whole in a large mass of cement, which +completely fills up the valleys, and gives a general smooth appearance +to the organ when unworn; but as the wear consequent upon +the masticating process proceeds, the alternate layers of tissue +of different hardness—cement, dentine, and enamel—which are +disclosed upon the surface form a fine and very efficient triturating +instrument. The modification of the tooth of a Mastodon into that<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_421"></a>[421]</span> +of an Elephant is therefore precisely the same in principle as that +of the molar of a Palæotherium into that of a Horse, or of the +corresponding tooth of one of the primitive Artiodactyles into that +of an Ox. The intermediate stages, moreover, even in the present +state of our knowledge, are so numerous that it is not possible to +draw a definite line between the two types of tooth structure (see +<a href="#figure179">Fig. 179</a>, I, II, III, IV).</p> + +<figure class="figleft illowp75" id="figure179" style="max-width: 25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure179.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 179.</span>—Longitudinal sections of the crown of a molar tooth of various Proboscideans, +showing stages in the gradual modification from the simple to the complex form. I, <i>Mastodon +americanus</i>; II, <i>Elephas insignis</i>; III, <i>Elephas africanus</i>; IV, <i>Elephas primigenius</i>. The dentine +is indicated by transverse lines, the cement by a dotted surface, and the enamel is black.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>As regards the mode of succession, that of modern Elephants is, +as before mentioned, very peculiar. During the complete lifetime +of the animal there are but six molar teeth on either side of each +jaw, with occasionally a rudimentary one in front, completing the +typical number of seven. The last three represent the true molars +of ordinary mammals; those in front appear to be milk-molars, +which are never replaced by permanent successors, but the whole series +gradually moves forwards in the jaw, and the teeth become worn +away and their remnants cast out in front, while development of +others proceeds behind. The individual teeth are so large, and the +processes of growth and destruction by wear take place so slowly, +that not more than one, or portions of two, teeth are ever in place +and in use on either side of each jaw at one time, and the whole series +of changes coincides with the usual duration of the animal’s life. +On the other hand, the Dinotherium, the opposite extreme of the +Proboscidean series, has the whole of the molar teeth in place and +use at one time, and the milk-molars are vertically displaced by +premolars in the ordinary fashion. Among Mastodons transitional +forms occur in the mode of succession as well as in structure, many +species showing a vertical displacement of one or more of the milk-molars, +and the same has been observed in one extinct species of +Elephant (<i>E. planifrons</i>) as regards the posterior of these teeth.</p> + +<p>All known Proboscideans are animals of comparatively large +dimensions, and some are the most colossal of land mammals. The +head is of great proportionate size; and, as the brain case increases +but little in bulk during growth, while the exterior wall of the +skull is required to be of great superficial extent to support the +trunk and the huge and ponderous tusks, and to afford space for +the attachment of muscles of sufficient size and strength to wield +the skull thus heavily weighted, an extraordinary development of +air-cells takes place in the cancellous tissue of nearly all the bones +of the cranium (<a href="#figure180">Fig. 180</a>). These cells are not only formed in the +walls of the cranium proper, but are also largely developed in the +nasal bones and upper part of the premaxillæ and maxillæ, the bones +forming the palate and the basicranial axis, and even extend into +the interior of the ossified mesethmoid and vomer. Where two +originally distinct bones come into contact, the cells pass freely +from one to the other, and almost all the sutures become obliterated +in old animals. The intercellular lamellæ in the great mass which<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_422"></a>[422]</span> +surrounds the brain cavity superiorly and laterally mostly radiate +from the inner to the outer table, but in the other bones their +direction is more irregular. Like the similar but less developed +air-cells in the skulls of many other mammals, they all communicate +with the nasal passages, and they are entirely secondary to the +original growth of the bones, their development having scarcely +commenced in the new-born animal, and they gradually enlarge as +the growth of the creature proceeds towards maturity. The nasal +bones are very short, and the anterior narial aperture is situated +high in the face. The zygomatic arch is slender and straight, the +jugal bone being small, and forming only the middle part of the +arch, the anterior part of which (unlike that of typical Ungulates) is +formed only by the maxilla. The maxillo-turbinals are but rudimentary, +the elongated proboscis supplying their place functionally +in warming and clearing from dust the inspired air.</p> + +<figure class="figright illowp96" id="figure180" style="max-width: 28.125em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure180.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 180.</span>—A vertical section of the skull of the African Elephant (<i>Elephas africanus</i>) taken +to the left of the middle line, and including the vomer (<i>Vo</i>) and the mesethmoid (<i>ME</i>). +<i>an</i>, Anterior, and <i>pn</i>, posterior narial aperture. ¹⁄₁₂ natural size. (From Flower’s <i>Osteology of +the Mammalia</i>.)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The neck is very short. The limbs are long and stout, and +remarkable for the great length of the upper segment (especially +the femur) as compared with the distal segment, the manus, and +pes. It is owing to this and the vertical position of the femur that +the knee-joint in the hind leg is placed much lower, and is more +conspicuous externally than in most quadrupedal mammals; and +this having been erroneously compared with the hock-joint or ankle +of typical Ungulates, the popular fallacy that the joints of the +Elephant’s leg bend in a contrary direction to that of other mammals +has arisen. There is no round ligament in the hip-joint, or<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_423"></a>[423]</span> +third trochanter to the femur. The radius and ulna are distinct, +though fixed in a crossed or prone position. The fibula also is +quite distinct from the tibia. The feet are short and broad, the +carpal and tarsal bones being very square, with flattened surfaces +for articulation; the astragalus especially differs from that of typical +Ungulates in its flatness, in the absence of a distinct pulley-like +articular surface at either extremity, and in having no articular +facet for the cuboid. The fibula articulates with the calcaneum, as +in Artiodactyles. Of the five toes present on each extremity (see +<a href="#figure098">Fig. 98</a>), the middle one is somewhat the largest, and the lateral +ones smallest, and generally wanting (especially in the hind foot) +the complete number of phalanges. The ungual phalanges are all +small, irregular in form, and late in ossification. The whole are +encased in a common integument, with a flat, subcircular, truncated +sole, the only external indication of the toes being the broad oval +nails or hoofs arranged in a semicircle around the front edge of the +sole. The hind foot is smaller and narrower than the front. The +liver is small and simple, and there is no gall-bladder. In form +the brain resembles that of the Rodents and other lower orders of +mammals, the cerebellum being entirely behind and uncovered by the +cerebrum, but the hemispheres of the latter are richly convoluted.</p> + +<p>The Proboscidea are exclusively vegetable feeders, living chiefly +on leaves and young branches of forest trees and various kinds of +herbage, which they gather and convey to their mouth by the very +mobile proboscis, an organ which combines in a marvellous manner +strength with dexterity of application, and is a necessary compensation +for the shortness and inflexibility of the neck, as by it many +of the functions of the lips of other animals are performed. By its +means the Elephant is enabled to drink without bending the head +or limbs; the end of the trunk being dipped into the stream or +pool, a forcible inspiration fills the two capacious air-passages in +its interior with water, which, on the tip of the trunk being turned +upwards and inserted into the mouth, is ejected by a blowing action, +and swallowed; or if the animal wishes to refresh and cool its skin, +it can throw the water in a copious stream over any part of its +surface. Elephants can also throw dust and sand over their bodies +by the same means and for the same purpose, and wild animals +have been frequently observed fanning themselves with leafy boughs +held in the trunk. The species are at present limited in their +geographical distribution to the Ethiopian and Oriental regions, but +they formerly had a far more extensive range.</p> + +<h5><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Elephantidæ</span>.</h5> + +<p>Cheek-teeth succeeding one another in an arc of a circle, and +portions of only two, <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_424"></a>[424]</span>or at most three, of the hinder teeth in use +at any one time. Premolars frequently lost, and in any case of no +functional importance.</p> + +<p><i>Elephas.</i><a id="FNanchor_279" href="#Footnote_279" class="fnanchor">[279]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ¹⁄₀, <i>c</i> ⁰⁄₀, <i>dm</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃ = 26. The incisors +variable, but usually of very large size, especially in the male sex, +directed somewhat outwards, and curved upwards, without enamel +except on the apex before it is worn. The molars composed of +numerous flattened enamel-covered plates or ridges of dentine, +projecting from a common many-rooted base, surrounded and united +together by cement, and extending straight across the crown, without +(in most forms) any median division into inner and outer +columns. The number of plates increases from the anterior to the +posterior molar in regular succession, varying in the different species, +but the third and fourth (or the last milk-molar and the first true +molar), and these only, have the same number of ridges, which +always exceeds five. Premolars nearly always wanting. Skull +of adult very high and globular. Mandible ending in front in a +short, deflected, and spout-like symphysis. Vertebræ: C 7, D 19-21, +L 3-4, S 4, C 26-33.</p> + +<p>The existing species of the genus differ so much that they have +been referred by some writers to distinct genera; fossil forms show, +however, such a transition from the one to the other that it is +scarcely possible to regard them even as the representatives of +distinct groups.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure181" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure181.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 181.</span>—Grinding surface of a half-worn lower molar of +the Indian Elephant (<i>Elephas indicus</i>). <i>d</i>, Dentine; <i>e</i>, enamel; <i>c</i>, +cement. (From Owen.)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>In the well-known Indian or Asiatic Elephant (<i>E. indicus</i>) the +average number of plates of the six successive molar teeth is +expressed by the “ridge-formula,” 4, 8, 12, 12, 16, 24. The +plates are compressed from before backwards, the anterior and +posterior surfaces (as seen in the worn grinding face of the tooth, +<a href="#figure181">Fig. 181</a>) being +nearly parallel. +Ears of moderate +size. Upper +margin of the +end of the proboscis +developed +into a +distinct finger-like +process, +much longer +than the lower +margin. Five nails on the fore feet, and four (occasionally five) on +the hind feet.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure182" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure182.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 182.</span>—Grinding surface of a partially worn right upper molar of the African Elephant +(<i>Elephas africanus</i>). Letters as in the preceding figure. The left side of the figure is the front +of the tooth, and the lower side the outer border. (From Owen.)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>This species inhabits in a wild state the forest lands of India, +Burma, the Malay Peninsula, Cochin China, Ceylon, and Sumatra. +The elephants from the last-named islands, presenting some variations<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_425"></a>[425]</span> +from those of the mainland, have been separated under the name of +<i>E. sumatranus</i>, but the distinction has not been satisfactorily established. +The appearance of the Asiatic Elephant is familiar to all. +Though rarely breeding in captivity, it has been domesticated from +the most remote antiquity, and is still extensively used in the East +as a beast of burden. In the wild state it is gregarious, associating +in herds of ten, twenty, or more individuals, and though it may, +under certain circumstances, become dangerous, it is generally +inoffensive and even timid, fond of shade and solitude and the +neighbourhood of water. The height of the male at the shoulder +when full grown is usually from 8 to 10 feet, but occasionally as +much as 11. The female is somewhat smaller.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp85" id="figure183" style="max-width: 25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure183.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 183.</span>—African Elephant (<i>Elephas africanus</i>). From a young specimen in the +London Zoological Gardens.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>In the African Elephant (<i>E. africanus</i>) the molars (<a href="#figure182">Fig. 182</a>) are +of coarse construction, with fewer and larger plates and thicker +enamel. Ridge-formula: 3, 6, 7, 7, 8, 10. The plates not +flattened, but thicker in the middle than at the edges, so that their +worn grinding surfaces are lozenge-shaped. Ears very large. The +upper and lower margins of the end of the trunk forming two +nearly equal prehensile lips. But three hoofs on the hind foot. +This species now inhabits the wooded districts of the whole of +Africa south of the Sahara, except where it has been driven away +by human settlements. Fossil remains of Pleistocene age, undistinguishable +specifically, have been found in Algeria, Spain, and +Sicily. It was trained for war and show by the ancient Carthaginians +and Romans, and recent experience of the species in captivity +in England shows that it is as intelligent as its Asiatic relative, if +not more so, while surpassing it in courage, activity, and obstinacy. +Nevertheless, in modern times, no people in Africa have been +sufficiently civilised or enterprising to care to train it for domestic +purposes. It is hunted chiefly for the sake of the ivory of its +immense tusks, of which it yields the principal source of supply to +the European market, and the desire to obtain which is rapidly +leading to the extermination of the species. In size the male<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_426"></a>[426]</span> +African elephant often surpasses that of Asia, but the female is +usually smaller. The circumference of the fore foot is half the +height at the shoulder, a circumstance which enables the hunters to +judge from the footprints the exact size of the animals of which +they are in pursuit. The African Elephant also differs from its +Indian congener in having tusks in both sexes, whereas in the latter +the male only is so armed. Moreover, the eye is relatively larger, +the forehead more convex, and the colour somewhat darker. +Whereas the Indian Elephant frequents the depths of forests and +seldom leaves their shade during the daytime, the following +account by Sir Samuel Baker indicates different habits in the +African species. This traveller observes: “In Africa, the country +being generally more open than in Ceylon, the Elephant remains +throughout the day either beneath a solitary tree or exposed to +the sun in the vast prairies, where the thick grass attains a height +of from nine to twelve feet. The general food of the African +Elephant consists of the foliage of trees, especially mimosas. Many +of the mimosas are flat-headed, about thirty feet high, and the +richer portion of the foliage confined to the crown. Thus the +Elephant, not being able to reach to so great a height, must overturn +the tree to obtain the coveted food. The destruction caused +by a herd of Elephants in a mimosa forest is extraordinary, and I +have seen trees uprooted of so large a size that I am convinced no +single elephant could have overturned them. I have measured<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_427"></a>[427]</span> +trees four feet six inches in circumference and about thirty feet +high uprooted by elephants. The natives have assured me that +the elephants mutually assist each other, and that several engage +together in the work of overturning a large tree.”</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure184" style="max-width: 43.75em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure184.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 184.</span>—Restored skeleton of the Mammoth (<i>Elephas primigenius</i>). From Tilesius in +<i>Mém. Acad. Imp. Sc. St. Pétersbourg</i>, vol. v. (1815). <i>s</i>, Scapula; <i>h</i>, humerus; <i>r</i>, radius; <i>u</i>, ulna; +<i>c</i>, carpus; <i>rs</i>, ischium; <i>f</i>, femur; <i>t</i>, tibia; <i>fi</i>, fibula; <i>ta</i>, tarsus.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Extinct Species of Elephant.</i>—Abundant remains of Elephants are +found embedded in alluvial gravels, or secreted in the recesses of +caves, into which they have been washed by streams and floods, or +dragged as food by Hyænas and other carnivorous inhabitants of +these subterranean dens. Such remains belonging to the Pleistocene +and Pliocene periods have been found in many parts of Europe, +including the British Isles, in North Africa, throughout the North +American continent from Alaska to Mexico, and extensively distributed +in Asia, where the deposits of the sub-Himalayan Siwalik +Hills, and equivalent deposits in the Punjab, Perim Island,<a id="FNanchor_280" href="#Footnote_280" class="fnanchor">[280]</a> and +Burma, belonging to the earliest Pliocene, are rich in the remains +of Elephants of varied form. These species are chiefly known and +characterised at present by the skulls and teeth; some of the latter +resemble the existing Indian and some the African type, but the +majority are between the two, and make the distinction between +the two existing species as of generic importance quite impracticable. +Others again approach so closely in the breadth and coarseness +of the ridges and paucity of cement to <i>Mastodon</i> as to have +been placed by some zoologists<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_428"></a>[428]</span> in that genus. These form the +subgenus called <i>Stegodon</i> by Falconer, and may be regarded as a +distinct group of the genus.</p> + +<p>Among the best known extinct Elephants is <i>E. primigenius</i>, the +Mammoth,<a id="FNanchor_281" href="#Footnote_281" class="fnanchor">[281]</a> very closely resembling the existing Indian species, and +one of the most recently extinct and extensively distributed of all +the fossil forms. Probably no animal which has not survived to +the historic period has left such abundant and well-preserved evidence +of its former existence. The discovery of immense numbers, +not only, as in the case of most extinct creatures, in the form of +fragmentary bones and teeth, but often as more or less nearly +entire carcases, or “mummies,” as they may be called, with the +flesh, skin, and hair <i>in situ</i>, in the frozen soil of the tundras of +Northern Siberia, has for a long time given great interest to the +species, and been the cause of many legendary stories among the +natives of the lands in which they occur. Among these one of the +most prevailing is that the Mammoth was, or still is, an animal which +passes its life habitually in burrows below the surface of the ground, +and immediately dies if by any chance it comes into the upper air.</p> + +<p>Of the whole group the Mammoth is in many respects, as in the +size and form of the tusks, and especially the characters of the +molar teeth, the farthest removed from the primitive Mastodon-like +type, while its nearest surviving relative, <i>E. indicus</i>, has retained +the slightly more generalised characters of the Mammoth’s contemporaries +of more southern climes, <i>E. columbi</i> of America, and +<i>E. armeniacus</i> of the Old World, if, indeed, it can be specifically +distinguished from them.</p> + +<p>The tusks or upper incisor teeth were doubtless present in both +sexes, but probably of smaller size in the female. In the adult +males they often attained the length of from 9 to 10 feet measured +along the outer curve. Upon leaving the head they were directed +at first downwards and outwards, then upwards and finally inwards +at the tips, and generally with a tendency to a spiral form not seen +in other species of Elephant. Different specimens, however, present +great variations in curve, from nearly straight to an almost complete +circle.</p> + +<p>It is chiefly by the characters of the molar teeth that the +various extinct modifications of the Elephant type are distinguished. +Those of the Mammoth (<a href="#figure185">Fig. 185</a>) differ from the corresponding +organs of allied species in the great breadth of the crown as +compared with the length, the narrowness and close approximation of +the ridges, the thinness of the enamel and its straightness, parallelism,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_429"></a>[429]</span> +and absence of “crimping,” as seen on the worn surface, or in a +horizontal section of the tooth. Dr. Falconer gave the prevailing +“ridge-formula” as 4, 8, 12, 12, 16, 24. Dr. Leith Adams, working +from more abundant materials, has shown, however, that the +number of ridges of each +tooth, especially those at +the posterior end of the +series, is subject to very +great individual variation, +ranging in each tooth of +the series within the following +limits: 3 to 4, 6 +to 9, 9 to 12, 9 to 15, +14 to 16, 18 to 27, excluding +the small plates +called talons at each end +of the tooth. Besides these +variations in the number of ridges or plates of which each tooth is +composed, the thickness of the enamel varies so much as to have +given rise to a distinction between a “thick-plated” and a “thin-plated” +variety—the latter being most prevalent among the specimens +from the Arctic regions, and most distinctively characteristic +of the species. From the specimens with thick enamel plates +the transition to the other species or varieties mentioned above, +including <i>E. indicus</i>, is almost imperceptible.</p> + +<figure class="figright illowp100" id="figure185" style="max-width: 21.875em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure185.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 185.</span>—Grinding surface of upper molar of the +Mammoth (<i>Elephas primigenius</i>). <i>c</i>, Cement; <i>d</i>, dentine; +<i>e</i>, enamel. (From Owen.)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The bones of the skeleton generally more resemble those of the +Indian Elephant than of any other known species, but the skull +differs in the narrower summit, narrower temporal fossæ, and more +prolonged incisive sheaths required to support the roots of the +enormous tusks. Among the external characters by which the +Mammoth was distinguished from either of the existing species of +Elephant was the dense clothing, not only of long coarse outer hair, +but also of close woolly under hair, of a reddish-brown colour, +evidently in adaptation to the colder climate which it inhabited. +This character, for a knowledge of which we are indebted to the +well-preserved remains found in Northern Siberia, is also represented +in the rude but graphic drawings of prehistoric age found in caverns +in the south of France.<a id="FNanchor_282" href="#Footnote_282" class="fnanchor">[282]</a> In size different individuals varied considerably, +but the average height does not appear to have exceeded +that of either of the existing species of Elephant.</p> + +<p>The geographical range of the Mammoth was very extensive. +There is scarcely a county in England in which some of its remains<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_430"></a>[430]</span> +have not been found either in alluvial deposits of gravel or in +caverns, and numbers of its teeth are from time to time dredged +up from the bottom of the sea by the fishermen who ply their +trade in the German Ocean, having been washed out of the water-worn +cliffs of the eastern counties of England. In Scotland and +Ireland its remains are less abundant, but they have been found in +vast numbers at various localities throughout the greater part of +Central Europe (as far south as Santander in Spain and Rome), +Northern Asia, and the northern part of the American continent, +though the exact distribution of the Mammoth in the New World +is still a question of debate. It has not hitherto been met with in +any part of Scandinavia or Finland.</p> + +<p>In point of time, the Mammoth belongs exclusively to the +Pleistocene epoch, and it was undoubtedly contemporaneous with +man in France, and probably elsewhere. There is evidence to show +that it existed in Britain before, during, and after the glacial period.</p> + +<p>As before indicated, it is in the northern part of Siberia that +its remains have been found in the greatest abundance, and in +quite exceptional conditions of preservation. For a very long +period there has been from that region a regular export of +Mammoth ivory in a state fit for commercial purposes, both eastward +to China and westward to Europe. In the middle of the tenth +century an active trade was carried on at Khiva in fossil ivory, +which was fashioned into combs, vases, and other objects, as related +by Abu’l Kásim, an Arab writer of that period. Middendorff +reckoned that the number of tusks which have yearly come into +the market during the last two centuries has been at least a hundred +pairs, and Nordenskiöld, from personal observation, considers this +calculation as probably rather too low than too high. They are +found at all suitable places along the whole line of the shore +between the mouth of the Obi and Behring Straits, and the farther +north the more numerous do they become, the islands of New +Siberia being now one of the most favourite collecting localities. +The soil of Bear Island and of Liachoff Islands is said to consist only +of sand and ice with such quantities of Mammoth bones as almost +to compose its chief substance. The remains are not only found +around the mouths of the great rivers, as would be the case if the +carcases had been washed down from more southern localities in +the interior of the continent, but are imbedded in the frozen soil +in such circumstances as to indicate that the animals had lived not +far from the localities in which they are now found, and they are +exposed either by the melting of the ice in unusually warm +summers or by the washing away of the sea cliffs or river banks +by storms or floods. In this way the bodies of more or less nearly +perfect animals, often standing in the erect position, with the soft +parts and hairy covering entire, have been brought to light.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_431"></a>[431]</span></p> + +<p>References to the principal recorded discoveries of this kind, +and to the numerous speculations to which they have given rise, +both among ignorant peasants and learned academicians, will be +found in Nordenskiöld’s <i>Voyage of the Vega</i> (English translation, +vol. i. 1881, p. 398 <i>sq.</i>) and a series of papers in the <i>Geological +Magazine</i> for 1880 and 1881, by H. H. Howorth, as well as in a +separate work on the Mammoth by the same writer. For the +geographical distribution and anatomical characters, see Falconer’s +<i>Palæontological Memoirs</i>, vol. ii. 1868; Boyd Dawkins, “<i>Elephas +primigenius</i>, its Range in Space and Time,” <i>Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.</i> +xxxv. p. 138 (1879); and Leith Adams, “Monograph of British +Fossil Elephants,” part ii., <i>Palæontographical Society</i> (1879).</p> + +<p><i>E. antiquus</i>, of the European Pleistocene, has a lower ridge-formula +than in the Mammoth, the molars being narrower, and +approximating to those of the African Elephant in structure. +Small allied forms occur in the rock-fissures and caverns of Malta, +and have been described as <i>E. mnaidriensis</i> and <i>E. melitensis</i>; some +of the individuals of the latter not exceeding 3 feet in height. The +European <i>E. meridionalis</i> is a southern form of somewhat earlier +age, very common in the Upper Pliocene of Italy and France, and +also in the so-called Forest-bed of the Norfolk coast. It attained +very large dimensions, its height being estimated at upwards of +15 feet. The ridge-formula is lower than in <i>E. antiquus</i>, the +molars are broad, with the worn enamel-discs generally expanded +in the middle, and the enamel itself is crenulated.</p> + +<p>Elephant remains are very abundant in the Pleistocene and +Pliocene deposits of India, those from the latter beds being the +oldest representatives of the genus. Of these the Pleistocene +<i>E. namadicus</i> appears closely allied to <i>E. antiquus</i>, from which it is +distinguished by a bold ridge across the forehead. Among the Pliocene +forms <i>E. hysudricus</i> may be an ancestral type allied to the Indian +Elephant; while <i>E. planifrons</i> is closely related to <i>E. meridionalis</i>, +although retaining the ancestral feature of developing premolars.</p> + +<p>The Stegodont group is peculiar to the eastern parts of the +Old World, and, as already observed, connects the true Elephants +intimately with the Mastodons. The molars (<a href="#figure179">Fig. 179</a>, II) are +characterised by the lowness of the ridges, while the intervening +valleys may have but little cement, and there may be a more +or less distinct longitudinal groove in the crown dividing each +ridge into an inner and an outer moiety. In species like <i>E. insignis</i> +the ridge-formula is nearly the same as in <i>E. meridionalis</i>, but in +<i>E. clifti</i> some of the molars carry only six ridges, and premolars +were present, so that we thus have such a complete transition to +the next genus that it is very difficult to know where to draw the +line between the two.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_432"></a>[432]</span></p> + +<p><i>Mastodon.</i><a id="FNanchor_283" href="#Footnote_283" class="fnanchor">[283]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ¹⁄₁₋₀, <i>c</i> ⁰⁄₀, <i>dm</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃. Upper incisors +large, as in <i>Elephas</i>, sometimes with longitudinal bands of +enamel, more or less spirally disposed. Lower incisors variable; +when present comparatively small and straight, sometimes persistent, +sometimes early deciduous, and in some species never +present. Grinding surface of molars with transverse ridges, the +summits of which are divided more or less into conical or mammillary +cusps, and often with secondary or additional cusps between +and clustering against the principal ridges; enamel thick; cement +very scanty, never filling up the interspaces between the ridges. +The third, fourth, and fifth cheek-teeth (<i>i.e.</i> the last milk-molar, +and the first and second molars) having the same number of ridges,<a id="FNanchor_284" href="#Footnote_284" class="fnanchor">[284]</a> +which never exceeds five.</p> + +<p>In the upper jaw the incisors, though of large size, were +apparently never so much curved as in some species of Elephant, +and they often have longitudinal bands of enamel, more or less +spirally disposed upon their surface, which are not met with in +Elephants. Lower incisors were present throughout life in some +species, which have the symphysis of the lower jaw greatly elongated +to support them (as in <i>M. angustidens</i>, <i>M. pentilici</i>, and <i>M. +longirostris</i>). In the common North American species (<i>M. americanus</i>) +the mandibular symphysis is short, but it may have a small incisor +on one side. In other species no inferior tusks have been found, +at all events in adult life (see figure of <i>M. arvernensis</i>).</p> + +<p>The molar teeth increase in size from before backwards, but as +many as three of these teeth may be in place in each jaw at one +time. There is in many species a true vertical succession, affecting +either the third, or the third and second, or (in <i>M. productus</i>) the +first, second, and third of the six molariform teeth. These three +are therefore reckoned as milk-molars, and their successors as premolars, +while the last three, which are never changed, correspond +to the true molars of those animals in which the typical dentition +is fully developed. The study of the mode of succession of the +teeth in the different species of Mastodons is particularly interesting, +as it exhibits so many stages of the process by which the very +anomalous dentition of the modern Elephants may have been +derived by gradual modification from the typical heterodont and +diphyodont dentition of the ordinary mammal. It also shows that +the anterior molars of Elephants do not correspond to the premolars<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_433"></a>[433]</span> +of other Ungulates, but to the milk-molars, the early loss of +which in consequence of the peculiar process of horizontal forward-moving +succession does not require, or allow time for, their replacement +by premolars. It must be noted, however, that, in the +Mastodon in some respects the least specialised in tooth-structure, +the <i>M. americanus</i> of North America, no vertical succession of the +molars has yet been observed, although vast numbers of specimens +have been examined.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure186" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure186.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 186.</span>—Restoration of the skeleton of <i>Mastodon arvernensis</i>, from the Pliocene of Europe, +(After Sismonda.)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The Mastodons have fewer ridges on their molar teeth than +the Elephants; the ridges are also less elevated, wider apart, have +a thicker enamel-covering, +and scarcely any +cement filling up the +space between them. +Sometimes (as in <i>M. +americanus</i>) the ridges +are simple transverse +wedge-shaped elevations, +with straight or +concave edges. In +other species the summits +of the ridges are +more or less subdivided into conical cusps, and may have accessory +cusps clustering around them (as in <i>M. americanus</i>, see <a href="#figure187">Fig. 187</a>). +When the apices of these are worn by mastication, their surfaces +present circles of dentine, surrounded by a border of enamel, and +as the attrition proceeds different patterns<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_434"></a>[434]</span> are produced by the +union of the bases of the cusps, a trilobed or trefoil form being +characteristic of some species (<a href="#figure188">Fig. 188</a>).</p> + +<figure class="figleft illowp100" id="figure187" style="max-width: 21.875em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure187.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 187.</span>—Oblique side and crown view of the last upper +molar of <i>Mastodon arvernensis</i>. (From Owens.)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>As already mentioned, certain of the molariform teeth of the +middle of the series in +Mastodons have the +same number of principal +ridges, those in +front of them having +fewer and those behind +a greater number. +These teeth were distinguished +as “intermediate” +molars by +Dr. Falconer, and are +three in number, namely +the last milk-molar +and the first and second +true molars (or the +third, fourth, and fifth of the whole series). The number of ridges +on these intermediate molars is nearly always three or four, and the +tooth in front has usually one fewer and that behind one more, so +that the ridge-formula of most Mastodons can be reduced either to +1, 2, 3, 3, 3, 4, or 2, 3, 4, 4, 4, 5. The former characterises the +section called <i>Trilophodon</i> (of which an intermediate molar is shown +in <a href="#figure188">Fig. 188</a>), and the latter that called <i>Tetralophodon</i> by Dr. Falconer. +These divisions are very useful, as under one or the other all the +present known species of Mastodon can be ranged, but observations +upon a larger number of individuals have shown that the number +of ridges upon the teeth is not quite so constant as implied by the +formulæ given above. Their exact enumeration is even difficult in +many cases, as “talons” or small accessory ridges at the hinder end +of the teeth occur in various stages of development, until they take +on the character of true ridges. Transitional conditions have also +been shown, at least in some of the teeth, between the trilophodont +and the tetralophodont forms, and again between the latter and +what has been called a “pentalophodont” type, which leads on +towards the condition of dental structure characteristic of the true +Elephants.</p> + +<figure class="figright illowp100" id="figure188" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure188.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 188.</span>—Grinding surface of the partially worn last +left lower milk-molar of <i>Mastodon angustidens</i>, from the +Upper Miocene of India. The lower side of the figure is +the outer border of the tooth.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The range of the genus <i>Mastodon</i> in time was from the middle +of the Miocene period to the end of the Pliocene in the Old World, +when it became extinct; but in America several species—especially +the one best known, owing to the abundance of its remains, which +has been variously called <i>M. americanus</i>, <i>M. ohioticus</i>, and <i>M. giganteus</i>—survived +to a late Pleistocene period.</p> + +<p>The range in space will be best indicated by the following list<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_435"></a>[435]</span> +of some of the better known species. (1) Trilophodont series—<i>M. +angustidens</i>,<a id="FNanchor_285" href="#Footnote_285" class="fnanchor">[285]</a> <i>borsoni</i>, <i>pentelici</i>, <i>turiensis</i>, from Europe; <i>M. falconeri</i> +and <i>pandionis</i>, from India; <i>M. americanus</i>, <i>obscurus</i>, and <i>productus</i>, +North America; and <i>M. cordillerum</i> and <i>humboldti</i>, South America. +(2) Tetralophodont series—<i>M. arvernensis</i>, <i>M. longirostris</i>, from +Europe; <i>M. latidens</i>, <i>sivalensis</i>, and <i>perimensis</i>, from India; <i>M. mirificus</i>, +from North America. <i>Mastodon arvernensis</i> and <i>M. longirostris</i>, +together with a trilophodont species, occur in the crag-deposits of +Norfolk and Suffolk.</p> + +<h5><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Dinotheriidæ</span>.</h5> + +<p>An extinct family distinguished from the <i>Elephantidæ</i> by the whole +series of permanent cheek-teeth being in use at the same time.</p> + +<figure class="figleft illowp63" id="figure189" style="max-width: 26.5625em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure189.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 189.</span>—Skull of <i>Dinotherium +giganteum</i>, from the Lower Pliocene +of Eppelsheim, Hessen-Darmstadt. +(After Kaup.) <i>p</i>, 3, 4, premolars; +1, 2, 3, molars.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Dinotherium.</i><a id="FNanchor_286" href="#Footnote_286" class="fnanchor">[286]</a>—Dentition of adult: <i>i</i> ⁰⁄₁, <i>c</i> ⁰⁄₀, <i>p</i> ²⁄₂, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃ = 22; all +present at the +same time, there +being no horizontal +succession, +but the +premolars replacing +milk-teeth +in the ordinary +manner. +The presence or +absence of upper +incisors has not +yet been clearly +ascertained. +Lower incisors +large, conical, descending, and slightly +curved backwards, implanted in a greatly +thickened and deflected beak or prolongation +of the symphysis. In section +they do not show the decussating striæ +characteristic of Mastodons and Elephants. +Crowns of molars carrying strong +transverse, crenulated ridges, with deep +valleys between, much resembling the +lower ones of the Tapirs. Ridge-formula +of the permanent molar series: 2, 2, 3, +2, 2. The three ridges of the first true +molar are constant in both upper and +lower jaws, although it is quite an anomalous character among<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_436"></a>[436]</span> +Proboscideans for this molar to have more ridges than those which +come behind it. The last milk-molar has also three ridges, the +penultimate but two. The cranium is much depressed, with comparatively +little development of air-cells. The remainder of the +skeleton is imperfectly known, but apparently agrees in its general +character with that of the other Proboscideans.</p> + +<p>Remains of <i>Dinotherium giganteum</i>, an animal of elephantine +proportions, strikingly characterised by the pair of huge tusks +descending nearly vertically from the front of the lower jaw, were +first discovered at Eppelsheim, near Darmstadt, and described by +Kaup. They have since been met with in various Lower Pliocene +and higher Miocene formations in the south of Germany, France, +Greece, and Asia Minor. Closely allied forms also occur in the +Lower Pliocene and Upper Miocene of India, but none are known +from America.</p> + +<h4><i>Suborder</i> <span class="smcap">Amblypoda</span>.</h4> + +<p><i>Uintatherium.</i><a id="FNanchor_287" href="#Footnote_287" class="fnanchor">[287]</a>—Among the most remarkable of the comparatively +recent discoveries in the higher Eocene formations of the +western states of North America has been one of a group of +animals of huge size, approaching that of the largest existing +Elephants, presenting a combination of characters quite unlike +those known among other recent or extinct creatures, and of which +there were evidently many species living contemporaneously, but +all of which became extinct before the close of the Eocene period. +To form some idea of their appearance, we must imagine animals +very elephantine in general proportions and in the structure of their +limbs. The feet had five short toes. The tail, as in the Elephants, +was long and slender, but the neck, though still short, was not so +much abbreviated as in the Proboscideans, and there is no evidence +that these animals possessed a trunk. The head differed greatly +from that of the Elephants, being long and narrow, more like that +of a Rhinoceros, and, as in that animal, was elevated behind into a +great occipital crest, and it had developed upon its upper surface +three pairs of conspicuous, laterally diverging protuberances—one +pair in the parietal region, one on the maxillaries in front of the +orbits, and one (much smaller) near the fore part of the elongated +nasal bones. Whether these were merely covered by bosses of +callous skin, as the rounded form and ruggedness of their extremities +would indicate, or whether they formed the bases of attachment for +horns of still greater extent, like those of the Rhinoceros or of the +Cavicorn Ruminants, can only be a matter of conjecture. There +were no upper incisors, but usually three on each side below, of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_437"></a>[437]</span> +comparatively small size, as was also the lower canine. A huge, +compressed, curved, sharp-pointed canine tusk, very similar in form +and position to that of the Musk-Deer, descended from each side +of the upper jaw. These were present in both sexes, but very +much smaller in the female, as was also the flange-like process of +the lower jaw by which they were guarded. Behind these, and +at some distance from them, were on each side above and below +six cheek-teeth, of comparatively small size, placed in continuous +series, each with a pair of oblique ridges conjoined internally and +diverging externally in a V-like manner, and provided with a +stout basal cingulum. The normal dental formula was therefore +<i>i</i> ⁰⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃ = 34; and the dentition had thus already attained +a remarkable degree of specialisation, although the brain was +smaller and more rudimentary in characters than in almost any other +known mammal. In its comparative length and the absence of a +third trochanter the femur of these animals resembles that of the +Proboscidea. The first discovered evidences of the existence of +animals of this group were described by Leidy in 1872, under the +name of <i>Uintatherium</i> (from the Uinta mountains, near which they +were found). Subsequently the names <i>Dinoceras</i>, <i>Tinoceras</i>, <i>Loxolophodon</i>, +etc., have been applied to various members of the group, +but the characters by which they are distinguished do not seem of +sufficient importance to allow of their separation from the type +genus <i>Uintatherium</i>.<a id="FNanchor_288" href="#Footnote_288" class="fnanchor">[288]</a></p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure190" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure190.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 190.</span>—Skeleton of <i>Uintatherium mirabile</i>. ¹⁄₃₀ natural size. (From Marsh, +<i>Am. Journ. Sci.</i> vol. xii. p. 2.)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Coryphodon.</i><a id="FNanchor_289" href="#Footnote_289" class="fnanchor">[289]</a>—Another interesting form referred to this<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_438"></a>[438]</span> suborder +is <i>Coryphodon</i>, which appears to connect the <i>Uintatheriidæ</i> with the +most primitive Perissodactyla. It was first described by Owen in +1846 from a fragment of a jaw from the London Clay. Other +remains were afterwards discovered in France, and lately in great +abundance, indicating many species from the size of a Tapir to that +of a Rhinoceros, in the Lower and Middle Eocenes of New Mexico +and Wyoming in the United States. <i>Coryphodon</i> had forty-four +teeth; the canines of both jaws were large and sharp pointed, +and the molars had strongly pronounced oblique ridges. The +general proportions were those of a Bear, but the tail was of +moderate length, and the feet short and wide. The femur had +a third trochanter; and the cranium was devoid of protuberances. +The genus should be regarded as the type of a distinct family +<i>Coryphodontidæ</i>.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure191" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure191.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 191.</span>—Palatal aspect of the cranium of <i>Coryphodon hamatus</i>, from the Wasatch Eocene of +New Mexico. ²⁄₉ natural size. (After Cope.)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<h4><i>Suborder</i> <span class="smcap">Condylarthra</span>.</h4> + +<p>The term Condylarthra has been proposed by Professor Cope +for a number of generalised and mostly comparatively small Ungulates, +which were probably allied both to the Perissodactyla and +Artiodactyla, but present characters separating them from those +divisions as commonly defined. In the structure of the carpus +and tarsus these forms (which are chiefly known to us from +the Eocene of the United States) come nearer to the Hyracoidea +than to any other existing type. As a rule they have the full +dental formula; the molars are brachydont, generally bunodont, +and in many instances also tritubercular; while the premolars are +always simpler than the molars.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_439"></a>[439]</span></p> + +<p>The humerus is quite peculiar among Ungulates in having an +entepicondylar foramen; the femur has a third trochanter; and +the form and relations of the astragalus are similar to those obtaining +in the Carnivora. The feet are usually furnished with five +functional digits, of which the ungual phalanges are pointed. In +many respects the skeleton of these remarkably generalised Ungulates +approximates so decidedly to a Carnivorous type as to have +led palæontologists to conclude that the Ungulata and Carnivora +are branches of an original common stock.</p> + +<p>In this work space only permits of allusion to a few of the +more important types of this group. <i>Periptychus</i>, which occurs in +the lowest Eocene of New Mexico, is a bunodont type readily distinguished +by the vertical flutings of the premolars, and the small +size of the incisors and canines. It has been suggested that this +genus is closely related to the stock of the bunodont Artiodactyla. +Of greater interest is the genus <i>Phenacodus</i>, which is regarded as the +lowest factor in the series from which the modern Horse has been +evolved, where it holds the position immediately below <i>Hyracotherium</i> +or, <i>Systemodon</i> (see <a href="#Page_374">p. 374</a>). One of the species was about +the size of a Bull-dog, while another might be compared to a small +Leopard. The structure of the cheek-teeth is such as might readily +be modified into that obtaining in <i>Hyracotherium</i>; all the feet had +five fully developed digits, and the tail was long. <i>Meniscotherium</i> +and <i>Hyracodontotherium</i> are more specialised forms of somewhat +later age, with a lophodont dentition: the latter genus being +European.</p> + +<h4><i>Suborder</i> <span class="smcap">Toxodontia</span>.</h4> + +<p>In addition to the <i>Macraucheniidæ</i> and certain other forms +noticed under the head of the Perissodactyla, the Tertiaries of +South America have yielded some very remarkable forms of mammalian +life, the nature and affinities of which have greatly puzzled +all zoologists who have attempted to unravel them.</p> + +<p><i>Nesodon</i> and <i>Toxodon</i>.—Among these <i>Nesodon</i>, from Patagonia, +has the full typical Eutherian number of teeth; the crowns of the +incisors being short, and the molars having a complex rhinocerotic +type of structure somewhat intermediate between <i>Homalodontotherium</i> +(<a href="#Page_412">p. 412</a>) and the following genus <i>Toxodon</i>. The typical +species of <i>Nesodon</i> was about as large as a Sheep, but nothing +more is known of it than the teeth and portions of the skull.</p> + +<p><i>Toxodon</i> is an animal about the size of a Hippopotamus; it was +first discovered by Darwin, and many specimens have since been +found in Pleistocene deposits near Buenos Ayres, and described by +Owen, Gervais, and Burmeister. The teeth consist of large incisors,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_440"></a>[440]</span> +very small lower canines, and strongly curved molars, all with +persistent roots, the formula being apparently <i>i</i> ²⁄₃, <i>c</i> ⁰⁄₁, <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₃, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃ = 38. +The cranial characters exhibit a combination of those found in both +Perissodactyles and Artiodactyles, but the form of the hinder part +of the palate and the absence of an alisphenoid canal belong to the +latter; and the tympanic, firmly fixed in between the squamosal +and the exoccipital, ankylosed to both, and forming the floor of a +long upward-directed meatus auditorius, is so exactly like that of +the Suina that it is difficult to believe it does not indicate some +real affinity to that group. These characters seem to outweigh in +importance those by which some zoologists have linked <i>Toxodon</i> to +the Perissodactyla, and the absence of the third trochanter and the +articulation of the fibula with the calcaneum tell in the same direction. +According to the recent observations of Ameghino the hind +feet were certainly tridactylous, and the front feet probably so. +The earlier allied genera <i>Protoxodon</i> and <i>Adinotherium</i> are definitely +known to have tridactylous front and hind feet, which conform to +the Perissodactylate type, the bones of the proximal and distal +rows of the carpus interlocking. <i>Acrotherium</i>, which has similar +feet, differs from all other Ungulates, and indeed from all Eutherians +except some individuals of the existing carnivorous genus <i>Otocyon</i>, +in having eight cheek-teeth, five of which have been reckoned as +premolars.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="figure192" style="max-width: 25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure192.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 192.</span>—Cranium and Lower Jaw of <i>Typotherium cristatum</i>. ¹⁄₃ natural size. From Gervais.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_441"></a>[441]</span></p> + +<p><i>Typotherium.</i>—<i>Typotherium</i> (<a href="#figure192">Fig. 192</a>), also called <i>Mesotherium</i>, +from the same locality as <i>Toxodon</i>, was an animal rather larger than +a Capybara, and of much the same general appearance. Its skeleton +is completely known, and shows a singular combination of characters, +resembling <i>Toxodon</i> or a generalised Ungulate on the one hand, and +the Rodents, especially the <i>Leporidæ</i>, on the other. In the presence +of clavicles it differs from all known Ungulates, and in having two +pairs of lower incisors from all Rodents. The teeth are <i>i</i> ¹⁄₂, <i>c</i> ⁰⁄₀, <i>p</i> ²⁄₁, +<i>m</i> ³⁄₃ = 24.</p> + +<p>From the Tertiaries of various parts of South America a number +of forms more or less closely allied to <i>Toxodon</i> and <i>Typotherium</i> have +been recently described, but as many of them are very imperfectly +known, and there is much doubt as to their generic position, it will +be unnecessary to refer to them further.</p> + +<p>It will thus be seen that, although our knowledge of many of +these forms is still very limited, we may trace among them a curious +chain of affinities, which would seem to unite the Ungulates on the +one hand with the Rodents on the other; but further materials +are required before we can establish with certainty so important a +relationship, one which, if true, would alter materially some of the +prevailing views upon the classification of mammals.</p> + +<h3><i>Group</i> <span class="smcap">Tillodontia</span>.</h3> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure193" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure193.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 193.</span>—Skull of <i>Tillotherium fodiens</i>. ⅙ natural size. From Marsh.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>Here may be noticed a remarkable group of animals, called by +Marsh, Tillodontia, the remains of which are found abundantly in +the Lower and Middle Eocene beds of North America. They seem +to combine the characters of the Ungulata, Rodentia, and Carnivora. +In the genus <i>Tillotherium</i> of Marsh (probably identical with the previously +described <i>Anchippodus</i> of Leidy) the skull (<a href="#figure193">Fig. 193</a>) resembled +that of the Bears, but the molar teeth were of the Ungulate type,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_442"></a>[442]</span> +while the large incisors were very similar to those of the Rodents. +The dental formula is <i>i</i> ²⁄₂, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁄₄, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃. The first pair of incisors +was very small; the upper molars were tritubercular, while the +lower ones had crescentoid ridges as in <i>Palæotherium</i>. The skeleton +resembled that of the Carnivores, but the scaphoid and lunar bones +were distinct, and there was a third trochanter on the femur. The +feet were plantigrade, and each had five digits, all with long pointed +claws. In the allied genus <i>Stylinodon</i> all the teeth were rootless. +Some forms were as large as a Tapir.</p> + +<p>These, with other more or less closely allied animals, such as +<i>Calamodon</i> and <i>Psittacotherium</i>, constituting a group called Tæniodonta, +are included by Cope in his large order Bunotheria, to which +also the existing Insectivora are referred. The dentition of some +of these forms makes a remarkable approximation towards a Rodent +type, while it has been suggested that there are also signs of remote +Edentate affinities. The constantly increasing knowledge of these +annectant forms adds to the difficulty so often referred to in this +work of establishing anything like a definite classification of the +heterodont mammals. An incisor tooth from the Swiss Eocene +has recently been referred to <i>Calamodon</i>.</p> + +<div class="bibliography"> + +<p><i>Bibliography of Ungulata.</i>—In addition to the works and memoirs mentioned +under the different sections of the order, the following may be referred to:—W. +Kowalevsky, “Monographie des genus Anthracotherium,” <i>Palæontographica</i> +1873; Id. “Sur l’Anchitherium aurelianense et sur l’histoire paléontologique +des Chevaux,” <i>Mém. de l’Acad. Imp. des Sciences de St. Pétersbourg</i>, 1873; Id. +“On the Osteology of the Hyopotamidæ,” <i>Philosophical Transactions</i>, 1873; +L. Rütimeyer, “Versuch einer natürlichen Geschichte des Rindes.” etc., <i>Neue +Denks. der allgem. Schweiz. Gesellsch. für Naturwissenschaften</i>, 1867; Id. “Die +Rinder der Tertiär-Epoche,” <i>Abhand. der Schweiz. Paläont. Gesellsch.</i> 1877 and +1878; Id. “Beiträge zu einer Natürliche Geschichte der Hirsche,” <i>ibid.</i> 1880-1881; +C. J. Forsyth-Major, “Beiträge zur Geschichte der Fossilen Pferde,” <i>ibid.</i> 1880; +M. Schlosser, “Beiträge zur Kenntniss der Stammesgeschichte der Hufthiere +und Versuch einer Systematik der Paar- und Unpaarhufer,” <i>Morph. Jahrb.</i> 1886; +E. D. Cope, “The Perissodactyla,” <i>Amer. Natural.</i> 1887; M. Pavlow, “Études +sur l’histoire paléontologique des Ongulés,” <i>Bull. Soc. Imp. Naturalistes Moscow</i>, +1887-1890. W. B. Scott and H. F. Osborn, “The Mammalia of the Uinta Formation,” +<i>Trans. Amer. Phil. Soc.</i> vol. xvi. (1889).</p> + +</div> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_443"></a>[443]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_X">CHAPTER X<br> +<span class="smaller">THE ORDER RODENTIA</span></h2> + +</div> + +<p>The Rodentia, or Rodents, form a well-defined order, readily distinguished +by their large scalpriform incisors and the absence of any +trace of canines. The existing forms are mostly of comparatively +small size, and are generally of terrestrial habits, although a +few are arboreal or natatorial. The dentition is diphyodont; the +mandible never has more than a single pair of incisors; the premolars +are always below the full number, being very generally ¹⁄₁, or +altogether wanting. The feet are plantigrade or semi-plantigrade, +generally with five digits, and usually unguiculate, although occasionally +of a subungulate type. Clavicles are present as a rule, +although they may be imperfect or rudimentary.</p> + +<p>The upper incisors resemble the lower in growing uninterruptedly +from persistent pulps, and, except in the suborder +Duplicidentata, agree with them in number; the premolars and +molars may be rooted or rootless, with tuberculated or laminated +crowns, and are arranged in an unbroken series. The orbits communicate +freely with the temporal fossæ; the condyle of the +mandible is elongated in the antero-posterior direction, and, through +the absence of a post-glenoid process to the squamosal, admits of a +backward and forward motion of the jaw. The intestine (except +in the <i>Myoxidæ</i>) has a large cæcum; the testes are inguinal or +abdominal; the uterus is two-horned, the cornua either opening +separately into the vagina or uniting to form a corpus uteri; the +placenta is discoidal and deciduate; and the smooth cerebral hemispheres +do not extend backwards so as to cover any part of the +cerebellum.</p> + +<figure class="figleft illowp100" id="figure194" style="max-width: 21.875em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure194.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 194.</span>—Skull of <i>Hystrix cristata</i> (juv.) <i>t</i>, Temporal +muscle; <i>m</i>, masseter; <i>m′</i>, portion of masseter transmitted +through the infraorbital foramen, the superior maxillary +nerve passing outwards between it and the maxillary bone.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The Rodents include by far the greatest number of species, and +have the widest distribution of any of the orders of terrestrial +mammals, being in fact cosmopolitan, although more abundant in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_444"></a>[444]</span> +some parts than in others. The total number of known existing +species exceeds 900. South America may be regarded as their headquarters +at the present day; while in Australia and Madagascar +they are represented only by a few genera. All the Rodents are +exclusively herbivorous, and the whole of them gather their food +by gnawing. They present considerable diversity of habits. Thus +the Squirrels are arboreal, and some of them provided with a parachute +for taking flying leaps from tree to tree; the Hares are +cursorial; the Jerboas agile jumpers; the Mole-Rats fossorial; +while the Beavers and Water-Voles are aquatic. In spite, however, +of this diversity of habits the Rodents present a remarkable +similarity in general structure; so much so, indeed, that the characters +employed for distinguishing the various families and genera +are comparatively trivial, and of slight structural importance. The +skull of the Rodents is characterised by the invariable presence of +the zygomatic arch, of which the middle portion is formed by the +jugal (<a href="#figure007">Fig. 7</a>, <a href="#figure007">p. 37</a>); and, as already mentioned, the orbit communicates +freely with the temporal fossa. There is invariably a long +diastema separating the incisors from the cheek-teeth; and, with +the exception of the Duplicidentata, the glenoid cavity of the squamosal +is elongated antero-posteriorly. Postorbital processes of the +frontals exist only in the Squirrels, Marmots, and Hares; in all +other genera they are rudimentary or altogether absent; the +zygoma never sends upwards a corresponding process; the lachrymal +foramen is always +within the orbital margin; +in many species the infraorbital +foramen is very +large (in some as large as +the orbit), and transmits +part of the great masseter +muscle (<a href="#figure194">Fig. 194</a>, <i>m</i>), by +means of which the jaws +are worked. The zygomatic +arch varies in its +degree of development, +and the position of the +jugal therein is used as a +distinguishing character +for grouping the families; the nasals are, with few exceptions, large, +and extend far forwards; the parietals are moderate, and there is +generally a distinct interparietal. The palate is narrow from before +backwards—this being especially pronounced in the Hares, where it +is reduced to a mere bridge between the premolars; while in other +cases, as in the Mole-Rats (<i>Bathyerginæ</i>), it is extremely narrow +transversely, its width being less than that of one of the molar teeth.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_445"></a>[445]</span> +Auditory bullæ are always present, and generally large; in some +genera, as in the Gerbilles and Jerboas, there are also supplemental +mastoid bullæ forming great hemispherical bony swellings at the back +of the skull (see <a href="#figure007">Fig. 7</a>, <i>Per</i>); and in these genera, and in the true +Hares, the meatus auditorius is tubular and directed upwards and +backwards. The mandible is characterised by the abruptly narrowed +and rounded symphysial part supporting the large incisors, +as well as by the small size of the coronoid process and the great +development of the angular portion.</p> + +<p>The dental formula varies from <i>i</i> ²⁄₁, <i>c</i> ⁰⁄₀, <i>p</i> ³⁄₂, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃ (total 28) +in the Duplicidentata to <i>i</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>c</i> ⁰⁄₀, <i>p</i> ⁰⁄₀, <i>m</i> ²⁄₂ (total 12) in <i>Hydromys</i>, +<i>Xeromys</i>, and one species of <i>Heterocephalus</i>; but in the great +majority of forms it is very constant, <i>i</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>c</i> ⁰⁄₀, <i>p</i> ⁰⁻¹⁄₀₋₁, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃ being +very typical. Only in the Duplicidentata is there a second pair of +upper incisors, which are of very small size, and situated immediately +behind the large normal pair. This group is also peculiar in +that the enamel of the incisors is not confined to their anterior +surfaces, but extends partially on to their sides. It is by reason +of the thick layer of enamel on their anterior surface and its +absence from the posterior surface that the incisors maintain their +sharp chisel-like edge, which is so essentially characteristic of the +order. Both the upper and the lower incisors are regularly curved—the +curvature being somewhat greater in the upper ones—and +since they grew continuously from persistent pulps, it is quite +evident that should any accident, such as the loss of one of them, +or displacement by +fracture of the jaw, +prevent the regulation +of the length +by attrition against +one another, the +unopposed tooth +will gradually +curve upon itself +until a complete +circle or more has +been formed, the +tooth, perhaps, +passing during its growth through some part of the animal’s head. +The molars, as already mentioned, may be rooted or rootless, tuberculated +or laminated; this diversity of structure occurring even +in the same family. When there are more than three cheek-teeth +those in front of the last three have succeeded milk-teeth, +and must therefore be considered premolars. In some species, as +in the Agoutis (<i>Dasyproctidæ</i>), the milk-teeth are long retained, +while in the allied Cavies (<i>Caviidæ</i>) they are shed before birth.</p> + +<figure class="figright illowp100" id="figure195" style="max-width: 25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure195.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 195.</span>—Vertical and longitudinal section through skull of +the Beaver (<i>Castor fiber</i>) showing the cerebral cavity, the greatly +developed turbinal lamellæ, the mode of implantation of the large +incisor, and the curved, rootless molars.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_446"></a>[446]</span></p> + +<p>There are generally nineteen dorso-lumbar vertebræ (thirteen +dorsal and six lumbar), their form varying in the different genera. +In the cursorial and leaping species the lumbar transverse processes +are generally very long, and in the Hares there are large compressed +hypapophyses. The caudal vertebræ exhibit great variety +in structure, being in a rudimentary condition in the Guinea-Pig, +while in the Jumping Hares and prehensile-tailed Porcupines they +are of very large dimensions. The scapula is usually narrow, with +a long acromion; the clavicles may be altogether absent or imperfect, +as in the Porcupines, Cavies, and Hares, but in most species +they are well developed. In all existing forms the humerus has +no entepicondylar foramen, and the radius and ulna are distinct. +In most species the manus has five digits, with phalanges normally +developed; the pollex being rarely rudimentary or absent. The +pelvis has well-developed ischia and pubes, meeting in a long, and +usually bony, symphysis. The femur varies considerably in form, +but generally has a well-defined third trochanter; in the Sciurine +and Hystricine Rodents the tibia and fibula are distinct, but in the +Rats and other Murines, and in the Hares, these bones are united, +often high up; the pes is much more variable than the manus, the +digits varying in number from five, as in the Squirrels and Rats, to +four, as in the Hares, or even three, as in the Capybara, Viscacha, +and Agouti; in the <i>Dipodidæ</i> the metatarsals are greatly elongated, +and in some of the species, as in the Jerboas, they are ankylosed +together.</p> + +<p>The mouth is divided into two cavities communicating by a +constricted orifice, an anterior one containing the large incisors, and +a posterior one in which the molars are placed; the hairy integument +of the face being continued inwards behind the incisors. This +peculiar arrangement evidently prevents substances not intended +for food getting into the mouth, as when the animal is engaged in +gnawing through an obstacle. In the Hares and Pacas the inside +of the cheeks is hairy, and in some species, as in the Pouched Rats +and Hamsters, there are large internal cheek-pouches lined with +the hairy integument, which open near the angles of the mouth +and extend backwards behind the ears. In the New World +Pouched Rats (<i>Geomyidæ</i>) the pouches open externally on the +cheeks. The tongue presents little variability in length, being +always short and compressed, with an obtuse apex never protruded +beyond the incisors. In most species there are three circumvallate +papillæ at the base; and the apical portion is generally covered +with small filiform papillæ, some of which in the Porcupines +(<i>Hystrix</i>) become greatly enlarged, forming toothed spines. The +stomach varies in form from the simple oval sac of the Squirrel to +the complex ruminant-like organ of the Lemming. In the Water-Vole +(<i>Arvicola amphibius</i>) and the Agouti (<i>Dasyprocta aguti<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_447"></a>[447]</span></i>) it is +strongly constricted between the œsophagus and pylorus. In the +common Dormouse the œsophagus immediately before entering the +stomach is much dilated, forming a large egg-shaped sac with +thickened glandular walls; and in some other species, as in +<i>Lophiomys imhausi</i> and in the Beaver, glandular masses are +attached to and open into the +cardiac or pyloric pouches. The +alimentary canal (<a href="#figure196">Fig. 196</a>) of +all Rodents, with the exception +of the Dormice (<i>Myoxidæ</i>), has +a cæcum, which is often of great +length and sacculated, as in the +Hares, Water-Voles, and Porcupines. +In some instances, as in +the Hamster and Water-Vole, +the long colon is spirally twisted +upon itself near its commencement. +The liver is typically +divided in all, but the lobes are +variously subdivided in the +different species (in <i>Capromys</i> +they are divided into minute +lobules); and the gall-bladder, +though present in most, is absent +in a few. In most species the +penis (which is generally provided +with a bone) can be more +or less completely retracted +within the fold of integument surrounding the anus, where it lies +curved backwards upon itself under cover of the integument. It +may, however, be carried forward some distance in front of +the anal orifice, from which in the breeding season, as in the +Voles and Marmots, the prominent testicular mass separates it. +The testes in the rutting season form projections in the groins, +but (except in the Duplicidentata) do not completely leave the +cavity of the abdomen. Prostatic glands and, except in the +Duplicidentata, vesiculæ seminales are present in all. The uterus +may be double, each division opening by a separate aperture into +a common vagina, as in <i>Leporidæ</i>, <i>Sciuridæ</i>, and <i>Hydrochœrus</i>, or +completely two-horned, as in most species. The mammæ vary in +number and position from the single abdominal pair of the Guinea-Pig +to the ten thoracico-abdominal pairs found in some of the +Rats. In the <i>Octodontidæ</i> the mammæ are placed high up on the +sides of the body.</p> + +<figure class="figleft illowp52" id="figure196" style="max-width: 21.875em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure196.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 196.</span>—Alimentary canal of Rat (<i>Mus decumanus</i>), +the greater part of the small intestine +being omitted. <i>o</i>, Œsophagus; <i>d</i>, duodenum; +<i>i</i>, ileum; <i>cm</i>, cæcum; <i>c</i>, colon.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The peculiar odour evolved by many Rodents is due to the +secretions of special glands, which may open either into the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_448"></a>[448]</span> +prepuce, as in <i>Mus</i>, <i>Arvicola</i>, <i>Cricetus</i>, etc., or into the rectum, as in +<i>Arctomys</i> and <i>Aulacodus</i> or into the passage common to both, as in +the Beaver, or again, into pouches opening near the anus, as in the +Hare, Agouti, and Jerboa.</p> + +<p>The integument is generally thin, and the panniculus carnosus +(the sheet of muscle underlying the skin) rarely much developed. +The fur varies exceedingly in character. Thus it may be very +fine and soft, as in the Chinchillas and Hares, in others more +or less replaced by spines on the upper surface, as in the Spiny-Rats +and Porcupines; in several genera, as in <i>Xerus</i>, <i>Acanthomys</i>, +<i>Platacanthomys</i>, <i>Echinothrix</i>, <i>Loncheres</i>, and <i>Echinomys</i>, the spines are +flattened. In the muscular structures the chief peculiarities are +noticeable in the comparatively small size of the temporal muscles, +and in the great double masseters (<a href="#figure194">Fig. 194</a>), which are the principal +agents in gnawing; the digastrics also are remarkable for their +well-defined central tendon, and in many species their anterior bellies +are united between the mandibular rami; the cleidomastoid generally +arises from the basioccipital, and the pectoralis major is connected +with the latissimus dorsi; in the Porcupines and Hares the tendons +of the flexor digitorum longus and flexor hallucis longus are connected +in the foot, while in the Rats and Squirrels they are separate, +and the flexor digitorum longus is generally inserted into the +metatarsal of the hallux.<a id="FNanchor_290" href="#Footnote_290" class="fnanchor">[290]</a></p> + +<p>Rodents are tolerably well represented in a fossil condition from +the period of the Upper Eocene, while if <i>Decticadapis</i>, of the Lower +Eocene of Rheims, is rightly referred to it the order dates from the +oldest Tertiary. All the fossil forms at present known are, however, +essentially true Rodents, and afford no clue as to the relations of +the order with other mammals. The remote affinities of the +Rodents to the Proboscidea, as well as their more marked resemblances +to <i>Typotherium</i>, have been already mentioned. Whether +there is a real genetic affinity (as Professor Cope suggests) with the +Tillodontia cannot be decided with the evidence at present available.</p> + +<h3><i>Suborder</i> <span class="smcap">Simplicidentata</span>.</h3> + +<p>Only one pair of upper incisors, having their enamel confined to +their front surfaces. Incisive foramina moderate and distinct; +fibula not articulating with the calcaneum. Testes abdominal, and +descending periodically only into a temporary sessile scrotum.</p> + +<h4><i>Section</i> <span class="smcap">Sciuromorpha</span>.</h4> + +<p>Zygomatic arch slender, chiefly formed by the jugal, which is<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_449"></a>[449]</span> +not supported by a long maxillary process extending backwards +beneath it; postorbital processes of frontal present or absent; +infraorbital opening small (except in <i>Anomalurus</i>); mandible with +the angular part arising from the inferior surface of the bony +socket of the lower incisor; clavicles well developed; fibula distinct.</p> + +<h5><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Anomaluridæ</span>.</h5> + +<p>Arboreal forms, having their limbs connected by a cutaneous +expansion supported by a cartilaginous process arising from the +olecranon; tail long and hairy, with large imbricated scales on its +inferior surface near the root; sixteen pairs of ribs; no postorbital +processes on the frontals; <i>p</i> ¹⁄₁; molars not tuberculate, with +transverse enamel-folds. Confined to the Ethiopian region.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp67" id="figure197" style="max-width: 28.125em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure197.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 197.</span>—<i>Anomalurus fulgens.</i> From Alston, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1875.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Anomalurus</i>,<a id="FNanchor_291" href="#Footnote_291" class="fnanchor">[291]</a> with several species from West and Central Africa, +alone represents the family. The peculiar caudal scales, which +evidently assist the animal in climbing, and the position of the +cartilaginous support of the parachute, are well shown in <a href="#figure197">Fig. 197</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_450"></a>[450]</span> +All the species but two are from Western Africa; <i>A. orientalis</i> occurs +near Zanzibar, and <i>A. pusillus</i> is from the equatorial regions of that +continent. According to Mr. O. Thomas,<a id="FNanchor_292" href="#Footnote_292" class="fnanchor">[292]</a> the latter “little animal +is most nearly allied to the West-African <i>A. beecrofti</i>, but differs +from that species in its duller and less yellow upper side, in the +entire absence of rufous on its neck and belly, and, as from all the +other described species, in its diminutive size.”</p> + +<h5><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Sciuridæ</span>.</h5> + +<p>Arboreal or terrestrial forms, with cylindrical hairy tails, without +scales, and with +twelve or thirteen +pairs of ribs. Skull +(<a href="#figure198">Figs. 198, 199</a>) with +distinct postorbital +processes; infraorbital +opening +small; palate broad; +<i>p</i> ²⁄₁; first upper premolar +very small or +deciduous; molars +rooted, tubercular.</p> + +<p>Subfamily <b>Sciurinæ</b>.—Incisors +compressed; +form slender; +tail long and +hairy. Cosmopolitan (excluding Australian region).</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure198" style="max-width: 25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure198.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 198.</span>—Lateral view of skull of American Marmot +(<i>Arctomys monax</i>).</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>This subfamily includes the true Squirrels, of which seven +existing genera are usually recognised.</p> + +<p><i>Sciurus.</i><a id="FNanchor_293" href="#Footnote_293" class="fnanchor">[293]</a>—Tail long and bushy; ears generally well developed, +pointed, often tufted; +feet adapted for climbing, +the anterior having +four digits and +a rudimentary pollex, +and the posterior with +five digits, all of which +have long, curved, and +sharp claws. Mammæ, +from four to six. Skull +(<a href="#figure199">Fig. 199</a>) lightly built, +with long postorbital +processes. Penultimate +upper premolar, when +present, minute.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_451"></a>[451]</span></p> +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure199" style="max-width: 25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure199.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 199.</span>—Palatal Aspect of cranium of Squirrel (<i>Sciurus +bicolor</i>). Natural size.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>True Squirrels are found in most of the temperate and tropical +regions of the world, exclusive of Madagascar and the Australian +region. They are, however, most abundant in the Malayan part of +the Oriental region, and attain their largest size and most brilliant +coloration in the tropics. Their size is very variable, so that +whereas <i>S. soricinus</i>, of Borneo, is no larger than a Mouse, <i>S. bicolor</i>, +of the Malayan region, is nearly as large as a Cat. The common +English Squirrel (<i>S. vulgaris</i>) is found over the whole of the Palæarctic +region, reaching in one direction from Ireland to Japan, and in the +other from the north of Italy to Lapland; its remains occur in the +Norfolk “Forest-bed.” In the Malayan region “nearly all the +numerous species are brilliantly marked, and many are ornamented +with variously coloured longitudinal stripes along their bodies. One +of the commonest and best known of the striped species is the little +Indian Palm-Squirrel (<i>S. palmarum</i>), which in large numbers<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_452"></a>[452]</span> runs +about every Indian village. Another Oriental species (<i>S. caniceps</i>) +presents almost the only known instance among mammals of the +temporary assumption during the breeding season of a distinctly +ornamental coat, corresponding to the breeding-plumage of birds. +For the greater part of the year the animal is of a uniform gray +colour; but about December its back becomes a brilliant orange-yellow, +which lasts until about March, when it is again replaced by +gray. The Squirrel shown in <a href="#figure200">Fig. 200</a> is a native of Burma and +Tenasserim, and is closely allied to <i>S. caniceps</i>, but goes through no +seasonal change of colour.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp61" id="figure200" style="max-width: 28.125em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure200.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 200.</span>—Burmese Squirrel (<i>Sciurus pygerythrus</i>). After Anderson.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>“The number of species in the genus is about 75, of which 3 +belong to the Palæarctic, 15 to the Ethiopian, about 40 to the +Oriental, and 16 to the combined Nearctic and Neotropical regions” +(Thomas).</p> + +<p>Fossil species referred to <i>Sciurus</i> are found in the European +Tertiaries down to the Phosphorites of Central France, while others +occur in the White River Miocene of the United States.</p> + +<p><i>Rhithrosciurus.</i><a id="FNanchor_294" href="#Footnote_294" class="fnanchor">[294]</a>—A very striking Squirrel, confined to Borneo, +and as yet only known from three or four examples, has been +separated generically under this name. The general shape of its +skull is very different from that of other Squirrels; but its most +peculiar characteristic is the presence of from seven to ten minute +parallel vertical grooves running down the front face of its incisors; +no other Squirrel having really grooved incisors, and no other +member of the whole order incisive grooves resembling these. +Its premolars number ¹⁄₁, and its molars are simpler and less ridged +than in the other genera. This Squirrel (<i>R. macrotis</i>) is far larger +than the English, with an enormously long bushy tail, long tufted +ears, and black and white bands down its sides.</p> + +<p><i>Xerus.</i><a id="FNanchor_295" href="#Footnote_295" class="fnanchor">[295]</a>—Fur coarse and spiny. Claws long and comparatively +straight. Ear-conchs minute or absent. Skull with the postorbital +processes short and directed backwards, the bony palate prolonged +considerably behind the tooth-row, and the external ridge on the +front face of the anterior zygomatic root more developed, and +continued much farther upwards than in <i>Sciurus</i>. Premolars ²⁄₁; +molars as in <i>Sciurus</i>. Mammæ two. This genus contains four well-marked +species, known as Spiny Squirrels, all natives of Africa. +They are terrestrial in their habits, living in burrows which they +dig for themselves. <i>X. getulus</i>, a striped species of North Africa, +has much the size and appearance of the Indian Palm-Squirrel; +all the others are a little larger than the English Squirrel.</p> + +<p><i>Tamias.</i><a id="FNanchor_296" href="#Footnote_296" class="fnanchor">[296]</a>—All the members of this genus are characterised by +the possession of internal cheek-pouches, and by their style of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_453"></a>[453]</span> coloration; +being ornamented on the back with alternate light and dark +bands. Their skulls are slenderer and lighter than those of the +true Squirrels, from which they differ in several unimportant +details. There is only one functional premolar—the small anterior +one usually found in <i>Sciurus</i> being either absent altogether or quite +small and functionless. There are some four well-defined species, +all found in North America, one (<i>T. asiaticus</i>) extending also through +Siberia into Eastern Europe.<a id="FNanchor_297" href="#Footnote_297" class="fnanchor">[297]</a> They are generally known as Ground-Squirrels, +but in America, where they are among the commonest +and best known of the indigenous Rodents, as “Chipmunks.” The +members of this genus seem to lead into the genus <i>Spermophilus</i>, +so that the division of the <i>Sciuridæ</i> into two subfamilies, although +convenient for classification, is rather artificial.</p> + +<p>Remains of <i>Tamias</i>, probably belonging to existing species, occur +in the Pleistocene deposits of Europe and Nebraska.</p> + +<p><i>Pteromys</i><a id="FNanchor_298" href="#Footnote_298" class="fnanchor">[298]</a> and <i>Sciuropterus</i>.<a id="FNanchor_299" href="#Footnote_299" class="fnanchor">[299]</a>—The + Flying Squirrels, although incapable +of true flight, can yet float through the air for considerable +distances by the aid of an extension of skin connecting their fore +and hind limbs, and forming a sort of parachute. This parachute +is merely a lateral extension of the ordinary skin of the body, +which passes outwards between the limbs and terminates at the +wrists and ankles. In addition to the lateral membrane there is a +narrow and inconspicuous one passing from the cheek along the +front of the shoulder to the front of the wrist, and another—at +least in the larger species—stretching across behind the body from +ankle to ankle and involving the base of the tail. The Flying +Squirrels are divided into three genera. Of those with a normal +dentition <i>Pteromys</i> contains the larger and <i>Sciuropterus</i> the smaller +species. The two differ in certain details of dentition, as well as +in the greater development in the former of the expanded membranes, +especially of the “interfemoral” or posterior membrane, +which in the latter is almost wholly absent. In <i>Pteromys</i> the tail +is cylindrical and comparatively thin, while in <i>Sciuropterus</i> it is +broad, flat, and laterally expanded, and evidently compensates for +the absence of the interfemoral membrane by acting as a supplementary +parachute. In appearance Flying Squirrels resemble the +other forms, although they are even more beautifully coloured. +Their habits, food, etc., are also very similar to those of the +true Squirrels, except that they are more decidedly nocturnal, +and are therefore less often seen by the traveller; their peculiar +shrill cry is, however, well known to all who have camped out in +the regions which they inhabit. Their mode of flight is precisely<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_454"></a>[454]</span> +similar to that of the Flying Phalangers of Australia. Of each of +the two genera there are about thirteen or fourteen species, all +natives of the Oriental region, except that one of <i>Sciuropterus</i> is found +in North America, and another in Siberia and Eastern Europe.</p> + +<p><i>Eupetaurus.</i><a id="FNanchor_300" href="#Footnote_300" class="fnanchor">[300]</a>—Externally as in <i>Pteromys</i>, except that the claws +are less sharp. Skull with a more produced muzzle than in the +latter, more distinct supraorbital notches, longer anterior palatal +foramina, and a shorter bony palate. Cheek-teeth differing from +those of all other <i>Sciuridæ</i> in their hypsodont character. One large +species (<i>E. cinereus</i>), from Gilgit and adjacent districts on the +extreme north-west of Kashmir territory. This fine Flying Squirrel +is chiefly known by one entire specimen and some imperfect skins.</p> + +<p><i>Extinct Genera.</i>—The genera <i>Pseudosciurus</i> and <i>Sciuroides</i>, from +the Upper Eocene of Europe, have the molar teeth more elongated +than in <i>Sciurus</i>. <i>Gymnoptychus</i> with <i>p</i> ¹⁄₁, from the North American +Miocene, approximates in the structure of its molars to <i>Tamias</i>. +<i>Meniscomys</i> (<i>p</i> ²⁄₁), from the latter deposits, together with <i>Sciurodon</i> +of the French Phosphorites, are regarded as Squirrels showing signs +of affinity with the <i>Haplodontidæ</i>.</p> + +<p>Subfamily <b>Arctomyinæ</b>.—Incisors not compressed; typically +the form stout, and the tail comparatively short. This subfamily +comprises burrowing forms which may be collectively known as +Marmots; as already mentioned, they are so intimately connected +with the preceding subfamily that the division into two groups is +purely a matter of convenience. They are confined to the Palæarctic +and Nearctic regions.</p> + +<p><i>Arctomys.</i><a id="FNanchor_301" href="#Footnote_301" class="fnanchor">[301]</a>—External form stout and heavy, ears short, tail +short and hairy, cheek-pouches rudimentary or absent. Fore feet +with four well-developed digits, and a rudimentary pollex provided +with a flat nail. Skull (<a href="#figure198">Fig. 198</a>) large and heavy, with the postorbital +process stout, and at right angles to the axis. Incisors +broad and powerful. First upper premolar nearly as large as the +second. Molar series nearly parallel, scarcely converging behind +at all.</p> + +<p>The various species of true Marmot, which exceed a dozen in +number, are all much alike in general appearance, ranging in size +from about 15 to 25 inches in length, with tails from 3 to 12 inches +long.</p> + +<p>The Alpine Marmot (<a href="#figure201">Fig. 201</a>) is peculiar to Europe, being +found in the Alps, Pyrenees, and Carpathians; its remains occur in +European Pleistocene deposits. <i>A. bobac</i> occurs in Eastern Europe +and Siberia. Several species (<i>e.g.</i> <i>A. monax</i>, <a href="#figure198">Fig. 198</a>) are found +in the Nearctic region, and many in Kashmir and Central Asia. +The long-tailed Red Marmot (<i>A. caudatus</i>) is a fine Himalayan<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_455"></a>[455]</span> +species, which may be seen on the mountain passes to the north of +the valley of Kashmir, as soon as the snow begins to disappear, +sitting at the entrance to its burrow, which is generally beneath a +rhubarb plant.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp78" id="figure201" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure201.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 201.</span>—Alpine Marmot (<i>Arctomys marmotta</i>). After Brehm.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The following account of the habits of the Alpine Marmot is +given by Professor Blasius: “Marmots live high up in the snowy +regions of the mountains, generally preferring exposed cliffs, whence +they may have a clear view of any approaching danger, for which, +while quietly basking in the sun or actively running about in search +of food, a constant watch is kept. When one of them raises the cry +of warning, the loud piercing whistle so well known to travellers +in the Alps, they all instantly take to flight and hide themselves in +holes and crannies among the rocks, often not reappearing at the +entrance of their hiding-places until several hours have elapsed, and +then frequently standing motionless on the look-out for a still longer +period. Their food consists of the roots and leaves of various +Alpine plants, which, like squirrels, they lift to their mouths with +their fore paws. For their winter quarters they make a large +round burrow, with but one entrance, and ending in a sleeping-place +thickly lined with hay. Here often from ten to fifteen Marmots +pass the winter, all lying closely packed together fast asleep until +the spring.”</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_456"></a>[456]</span></p> + +<p><i>Cynomys.</i><a id="FNanchor_302" href="#Footnote_302" class="fnanchor">[302]</a>—Size and form intermediate between <i>Arctomys</i> and +<i>Spermophilus</i>. Ears and tail short. Cheek-pouches shallow. Fore +feet with five claws, that on the pollex as large as that on the fifth +toe. Skull (<a href="#figure202">Fig. 202</a>) heavily built, with the postorbital processes +directed outwards. Dentition (as shown in <a href="#figure202">Fig. 202</a>) remarkably +heavy, the molar teeth +differing from those +of <i>Arctomys</i> and <i>Spermophilus</i> +by having +three instead of two +transverse grooves on +their crowns. First +premolar nearly as +large as the second. +Molar series strongly +convergent behind.</p> + +<p>Two species of +Prairie Marmots, or, +as they are often called, +“Prairie-Dogs,” are +found in North America. They live together in large communities, +inhabiting burrows excavated at short distances apart, and feeding +on the buffalo-grass which covers the plains. The small burrowing +owl (<i>Athene cunicularia</i>) and the rattlesnake are often found inhabiting +their burrows; the former probably availing itself of the +convenience of a ready-made habitation, the latter coming there to +feed on the young Marmots.</p> + +<figure class="figright illowp100" id="figure202" style="max-width: 21.875em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure202.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 202.</span>—Palatal aspect of the cranium of the Prairie Marmot +(<i>Cynomys ludovicianus</i>).</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Spermophilus.</i><a id="FNanchor_303" href="#Footnote_303" class="fnanchor">[303]</a>—Size much smaller than in either of the preceding +genera; form more slender and squirrel-like. Tail very variable, +from 1 to 8 or 9 inches in length. Cheek-pouches always present. +Fore feet with four well-developed toes and a rudimentary pollex, +of which the claw may be either present or absent. Skull more +lightly built than in the other preceding genera, with the postorbital +processes slender and directed backwards. Molar series nearly +parallel, as in <i>Arctomys</i>, but all these teeth much smaller and lighter; +first premolar simply rounded, never more than about one-third of +the size of the second.</p> + +<p>The Pouched Marmots, or Sousliks, have nearly the same distribution +as <i>Tamias</i>, and are represented by a considerable number +of species. They present a far greater range of variation than +is found among the true Marmots, some of them, such as the +European species, being scarcely as large as a common squirrel, +almost entirely without external ears, and with the tail reduced to +a mere stump, barely an inch long, while others are more than +three times this size, with large and often tufted ears, and long<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_457"></a>[457]</span> +bushy squirrel-like tails. Professor Blasius gives the following +details of the habits of the common European Souslik (<i>S. citillus</i>): +“It lives in dry treeless plains, especially on a sandy or clayey soil, +and is never found either in forests or on swampy ground. It +forms burrows, often 6 or 8 feet deep, in which food is stored up +and the winter sleep takes place. Each burrow has but one +entrance, which is closed up when winter approaches,—a second +hole, however, being previously formed from the sleeping-place to +just below the surface of the ground. The second hole is opened +the next year, and used as the ordinary entrance, so that the +number of closed-up holes round a burrow gives an indication of +the length of time that it has been occupied. Sousliks ordinarily +feed on roots, seeds, berries, etc., but occasionally also on animal +food, preying readily on eggs, small birds, and mice, the remains of +these latter being often found in their burrows. They bring forth +in the spring from four to eight young ones, which, if taken early, +may be easily tamed. They are often eaten by the peasants, the +inhabitants of the Russian steppes considering their flesh an +especial delicacy.”</p> + +<p>Remains of <i>Spermophilus</i> are not uncommon in European Tertiary +deposits, some belonging to living and others to extinct species.</p> + +<p><i>Extinct Genera.</i>—<i>Plesispermophilus</i>, from the Upper Eocene Phosphorites +of Central France, appears to be closely allied to the +Sousliks. <i>Plesiarctomys</i> (<i>Sciuravus</i> or <i>Paramys</i>), which is common +to the Middle Tertiaries of Europe and North America, appears to +be a generalised form, showing some resemblance both to <i>Arctomys</i> +and <i>Sciurus</i>, but with tritubercular upper molars and no postorbital +processes to the skull; in the latter respect agreeing with the next +family. In the size of the preorbital vacuity the skull resembles the +Hystricomorpha.</p> + +<h5><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Haplodontidæ</span>.</h5> + +<p>Distinguished from the <i>Sciuridæ</i> by the absence of postorbital +processes to the frontals, the depressed skull, and the rootless cheek-teeth. +Premolars ²⁄₁; the penultimate upper one small.</p> + +<p><i>Haplodon.</i><a id="FNanchor_304" href="#Footnote_304" class="fnanchor">[304]</a>—<i>H. rufus</i> and <i>H. major</i>, of North America, west of +the Rocky Mountains, are the only representatives of the family; +their habits are similar to those of <i>Cynomys</i>.</p> + +<h5><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Castoridæ</span>.</h5> + +<p>Skull massive, without postorbital processes, the angle of the +mandible rounded, and the cheek-teeth rootless, with re-entering +enamel-folds. Premolars ¹⁄₁. Habits natatorial.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_458"></a>[458]</span></p> + +<p><i>Castor.</i><a id="FNanchor_305" href="#Footnote_305" class="fnanchor">[305]</a>—The upper molars are subequal, each with one internal +and two external enamel-folds; the stomach has a large glandular +mass situated to the right of the œsophageal orifice; the anal and +urethro-genital orifices open within a common cloaca; the tail is +broad, horizontally flattened, and naked; and the hind feet are +webbed. One or two species, Palæarctic and Nearctic.</p> + +<p>Zoologists are not yet of accord as to whether the European +and American Beavers should be regarded as distinct species or as +local races; the general concensus of opinion being in favour of +the latter view.</p> + +<p>The European Beaver (<i>C. fiber</i>) was at one time an inhabitant +of the British Isles, having been found, according to Pennant, in +certain Welsh rivers so late as the twelfth century, while subfossil +remains of it occur in the peat-beds of many parts of the country. +In Scandinavia Beavers are still found in the neighbourhood of +Arendal. Isolated pairs are occasionally met with on the banks of +the Rhone, Weser, and Elbe; and a considerable number are kept +in a park belonging to the Emperor of Austria, on the banks of +the Danube. They also occur sparingly in Russia and Poland, +in the streams of the Ural Mountains, and in those which flow +into the Caspian. They live in burrows on the banks of rivers, +like the Water-Rat, and show little of the architectural instinct +so conspicuous in the American form, but this may be owing to +unfavourable external conditions rather than to want of the +faculty; for there is a well-authenticated instance of a colony of +Beavers, on a small stream near Magdeburg, whose habitations +and dam were exactly similar to those found in America.</p> + +<p>The American Beaver (<i>C. canadensis</i>) extends over that part of +the American continent included between the Arctic circle and +the tropic of Cancer; owing, however, to the gradual spread of +population over part of this area, and still more to the enormous +quantity of skins that, towards the end of last and the beginning +of the present century, were exported to Europe, numbering about +200,000 annually, this species is in imminent danger of extirpation. +It is distinguished from the European Beaver by the shorter and +somewhat wider nasals.</p> + +<p>Remains of extinct species of <i>Castor</i> occur in the Pliocene of +Europe, and in the North American Miocene; the one from the +last-mentioned deposits being of small size, and separated by some +writers as <i>Eucastor</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Extinct Genera.</i>—A very large Beaver known as <i>Trogontherium</i> +(<i>Diobroticus</i>), and distinguished by the nature of the enamel-folds of +the molars, occurs in the Upper Pliocene and Pleistocene of Europe. +<i>Chalicomys</i> (<i>Steneofiber</i>) is a considerably smaller form from the +Miocene of Europe and the United States, distinguished from all<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_459"></a>[459]</span> +existing Rodents by the presence of an entepicondylar foramen in +the humerus. <i>Palæocastor</i>, of the North American Miocene, is allied.</p> + +<h4><i>Section</i> <span class="smcap">Myomorpha</span>.</h4> + +<figure class="figright illowp87" id="figure203" style="max-width: 21.875em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure203.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 203.</span>—Side view of skull of <i>Fiber zibethicus</i>, natural size.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>Skull (<a href="#figure203">Fig. 203</a>), with slender zygomatic arch, in which the +jugal seldom extends +far forwards, being +usually supported by +the long zygomatic +process of the maxilla; +no postorbital process; +infraorbital vacuity +variable; angle of +mandible, except in +the <i>Bathyerginæ</i>, rising +from the inferior surface +of the incisive +alveolus. Clavicles +well developed, except +in <i>Lophiomys</i>. Tibia +and fibula united.</p> + +<h5><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Myoxidæ</span>.</h5> + +<p>Small arboreal forms, with long hairy tails, large eyes and ears, +and short fore limbs. No cæcum in the intestine. Skull with +narrow frontals, a high and narrow infraorbital vacuity of moderate +size, and a long and slender coronoid process to the mandible. +Premolars ¹⁄₁; molars rooted, with transverse enamel-folds.</p> + +<p>The Dormice form a natural family allied to the Squirrels in +form and habits, and confined to the Palæarctic and Ethiopian +regions. The absence of the cæcum distinguishes them from all +other members of the order. They are usually divided into the +following five genera, but some of these are of very doubtful value, +and it might be preferable to retain <i>Muscardinus</i> and include all +the others in <i>Myoxus</i>.<a id="FNanchor_306" href="#Footnote_306" class="fnanchor">[306]</a></p> + +<p><i>Myoxus.</i><a id="FNanchor_307" href="#Footnote_307" class="fnanchor">[307]</a>—Represented by the European <i>M. glis</i>, and characterised +by the bushy distichous tail, simple stomach, and the large +size and complex enamel-folds of the molars, which have flat crowns.</p> + +<p><i>Eliomys.</i><a id="FNanchor_308" href="#Footnote_308" class="fnanchor">[308]</a>—Tail tufted and distichous; stomach simple; and +the molars small, with concave crowns and indistinct enamel-folds. +Some seven species, Ethiopian and Palæarctic.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_460"></a>[460]</span></p> + +<p><i>Graphiurus.</i><a id="FNanchor_309" href="#Footnote_309" class="fnanchor">[309]</a>—Tail short, cylindrical, and tufted at the end; +molars very small, with the enamel-folds almost absent. Some +three Ethiopian species.</p> + +<p><i>Claviglis.</i><a id="FNanchor_310" href="#Footnote_310" class="fnanchor">[310]</a>—Represented by one West African species, said to be +distinguished from all other forms by the shorter tail, which is +more distinctly pencilled. The right to generic distinction is, however, +very problematical.</p> + +<p><i>Muscardinus.</i><a id="FNanchor_311" href="#Footnote_311" class="fnanchor">[311]</a>—Includes the Common Dormouse (<i>M. avellanarius</i>) +of Europe, distinguished by the cylindrical bushy tail, and thickened +glandular walls of the cardiac extremity of the œsophagus; the +molars have flat crowns, with complex enamel folds.</p> + +<p><i>Fossil Dormice.</i>—Using the generic term <i>Myoxus</i> in a more +extended sense than the above, it has existed in Europe from the +date of the Upper Eocene. A species nearly as large as a Guinea-Pig, +with very complex molars, is common in the Pleistocene of +Malta.</p> + +<h5><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Lophiomyidæ</span>.</h5> + +<figure class="figleft illowp90" id="figure204" style="max-width: 28.125em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure204.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 204.</span>—<i>Lophiomys imhausi</i>. From Milne-Edwards.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The genus <i>Lophiomys</i>,<a id="FNanchor_312" href="#Footnote_312" class="fnanchor">[312]</a> represented only by <i>L. imhausi</i> (<a href="#figure204">Fig. +204</a>) of North-East Africa, differs from the typical <i>Muridæ</i> in +having the temporal fossæ roofed over by a thin plate of bone, +rudimentary clavicles, and an opposable hallux. On these grounds<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_461"></a>[461]</span> +it has been made the type of a family, but since all the features +are Murine—the dentition being that of a typical Cricetine—it +appears doubtful whether that distinction is justifiable. The hair +forms a crest along on the back, and is of a peculiar structure. +The habits of this Rodent are arboreal.</p> + +<h5><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Muridæ</span>.</h5> + +<p>Skull (<a href="#figure203">Fig. 203</a>) with contracted frontals; a short and slender +jugal, generally reduced to a splint between the zygomatic processes +of the maxilla and squamosal; the lower root of the former +process more or less flattened into a perpendicular plate; typically, +the infraorbital vacuity tall, and wide above and narrow below. +Lower incisors compressed; no premolars;<a id="FNanchor_313" href="#Footnote_313" class="fnanchor">[313]</a> molars rooted, or rootless, +tuberculate, or with angular enamel-folds. Pollex rudimental; +tail generally nearly naked and scaly. Habits various, but mostly +terrestrial.</p> + +<p>This large and cosmopolitan family, which includes more than +a third of the existing Rodents, is represented by about forty +genera.</p> + +<p>Subfamily <b>Hydromyinæ</b>.—Molars ²⁄₂ in number, rooted, and +divided into transverse lobes. Represented by two Australasian +genera.</p> + +<p><i>Hydromys.</i><a id="FNanchor_314" href="#Footnote_314" class="fnanchor">[314]</a>—External form modified for an aquatic life. Tip +of muzzle extensively haired, so that the nostrils can be closed. +Skull with the infraorbital vacuity crescentic, scarcely narrowed +below, and its external wall without the perpendicular zygomatic +plate characteristic of most of the family; incisive foramina very +small.</p> + +<p>Two species, with habits like those of the Water Voles, are +known from Australia, Tasmania, and New Guinea. In the +typical <i>H. chrysogaster</i> the colour of the back is black, with an +admixture of golden-coloured hairs; the belly being of a dark +golden hue.<a id="FNanchor_315" href="#Footnote_315" class="fnanchor">[315]</a></p> + +<p><i>Xeromys.</i><a id="FNanchor_316" href="#Footnote_316" class="fnanchor">[316]</a>—External form Murine. Tip of muzzle as in <i>Mus</i>, +not as in <i>Hydromys</i>. Toes unwebbed. Tail scaly, very finely +haired. Skull as in <i>Mus</i>, with the exception of the rounding of the +supraorbital edges. Teeth as in <i>Hydromys</i>.</p> + +<p>Represented by <i>X. myoides</i>, of Queensland; a species about +twice the size of the Common Mouse. This genus serves to connect +<i>Hydromys</i> with the other Murines, although it is difficult to +say to which group it comes nearest.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_462"></a>[462]</span></p> + +<p>Subfamily <b>Platacanthomyinæ</b>.—Molars rooted, with transverse +laminæ. Flattened spines mingled with the hair; tail thickly +haired. Represented by one genus.</p> + +<p><i>Platacanthomys.</i><a id="FNanchor_317" href="#Footnote_317" class="fnanchor">[317]</a>—The one representative of this genus is <i>P. +lasiurus</i>, found in the clefts of rocks and hollow trees in Southern +India at elevations of about 3000 feet. This elegant little animal +closely resembles a Dormouse; the tail and body having a length +of 6 inches.</p> + +<p>Subfamily <b>Gerbillinæ</b>.—Incisors narrow; molars with transverse +laminæ (<a href="#figure205">Fig. 205</a>). Auditory bullæ very large in most cases. +Hind limbs elongated. Tail usually long and hairy. Ranges over +the Palæarctic, Oriental, and Ethiopian regions.</p> + +<p><i>Gerbillus.</i><a id="FNanchor_318" href="#Footnote_318" class="fnanchor">[318]</a>—Upper incisors grooved; first molar with three +laminæ, second with two, and third with one. +There are some sixty species, with a range +coextensive with that of the family. The +Gerbils, with their large and bright eyes and +long tufted tails, are very graceful creatures, +inhabiting sandy plains, where they form extensive +burrows. Remains of existing species +are found in cavern-deposits in Madras (<a href="#figure205">Fig. +205</a>).</p> + +<figure class="figright illowp75" id="figure205" style="max-width: 9.375em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure205.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 205.</span>—The left ramus +of the mandible of <i>Gerbillus +indicus</i>, with an enlarged +view of the molars, from a +cavern deposit in Madras. +(From the <i>Palæontologia +Indica</i>.)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Pachyuromys.</i><a id="FNanchor_319" href="#Footnote_319" class="fnanchor">[319]</a>—The African genus <i>Pachyuromys</i> +is distinguished by the very large size +of the auditory bulla, as well as by the short +and fleshy tail, which is club-shaped. The +incisors are narrow and faintly grooved.</p> + +<p><i>Mystromys</i>,<a id="FNanchor_320" href="#Footnote_320" class="fnanchor">[320]</a> <i>Otomys</i>,<a id="FNanchor_321" href="#Footnote_321" class="fnanchor">[321]</a> + and <i>Dasymys</i>.<a id="FNanchor_322" href="#Footnote_322" class="fnanchor">[322]</a>—These genera, also from +South Africa, differ from <i>Gerbillus</i> in the form of the molars, and +are represented by a few species.</p> + +<p><i>Malacomys.</i><a id="FNanchor_323" href="#Footnote_323" class="fnanchor">[323]</a>—The one known species of this genus is from the +Gaboon, and is in some respect intermediate between the true +Gerbils and the Rats. Thus the dentition and feet are those of the +former, but the long scaly tail resembles that of the latter.</p> + +<p>Subfamily <b>Phlœomyinæ</b>.<a id="FNanchor_324" href="#Footnote_324" class="fnanchor">[324]</a>—This subfamily is represented only +by <i>Phlœomys</i><a id="FNanchor_325" href="#Footnote_325" class="fnanchor">[325]</a> <i>cumingi</i>, of the Philippine Islands,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_463"></a>[463]</span> + in which the incisors +are very broad, the molars are divided into transverse laminæ, and +the claws are large. The muzzle is blunt; the ears are hairy +externally; the tail is moderate, and thickly haired; and the +auditory bullæ are very small. The first upper molar has three, +and the others two laminæ.</p> + +<p>Subfamily <b>Dendromyinæ</b>.—Incisors convex in front; molars ³⁄₃, +rooted and tuberculated. Ears hairy; claws long. Confined to +the Ethiopian region.</p> + +<p><i>Dendromys.</i><a id="FNanchor_326" href="#Footnote_326" class="fnanchor">[326]</a>—A small Rodent, with the habits of a Dormouse, +characterised by its grooved incisors, slender form, and long, scaly +tail, which is sparsely haired. Two other Murines described as +<i>Steatomys</i><a id="FNanchor_327" href="#Footnote_327" class="fnanchor">[327]</a> and <i>Lophuromys</i><a id="FNanchor_328" href="#Footnote_328" class="fnanchor">[328]</a> + are referred to this subfamily. The +first is of plump form, with a rather short and thickly haired +tail, and grooved incisors. The latter resembles <i>Steatomys</i> in form, +but has fine flattened bristles instead of fur, and plain incisors.</p> + +<p>Subfamily <b>Cricetinæ</b>.—Molars ²⁄₃, tuberculate and rooted, with +the tubercles of the upper ones arranged in two longitudinal rows +(<a href="#figure206">Fig. 206</a>, <i>B</i>). This subfamily has an almost +cosmopolitan distribution, and appears to include +the most generalised members of the family, from +which the more specialised <i>Murinæ</i> have been +evolved.</p> + +<p><i>Cricetus.</i><a id="FNanchor_329" href="#Footnote_329" class="fnanchor">[329]</a>—According to the arrangement proposed +by Mr. O. Thomas<a id="FNanchor_330" href="#Footnote_330" class="fnanchor">[330]</a> this genus is taken to +include both the Hamsters of the Old World +(<i>Cricetus</i> proper) and the white-footed or Vesper +Mice (<i>Hesperomys</i>) of the New. Cheek-pouches +are frequently present, and may be very large. +The first molar (<a href="#figure206">Fig. 206</a>, <i>B</i>) generally has six +tubercles. The tail may be very short.</p> + +<figure class="figleft illowp50" id="figure206" style="max-width: 9.375em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure206.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 206.</span>—Left upper +molars of <i>Mus</i> (<i>A</i>) and +<i>Cricetus</i> (<i>B</i>).</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>This large and unwieldy genus may be divided into a number of +groups or subgenera. The typical group includes the Hamsters of +the Old World, characterised by the large size of their cheek-pouches, +the walls of which are connected with muscles arising from the +lumbar vertebræ. The tail is remarkable for its shortness. The +best-known species is <i>C. frumentarius</i>, inhabiting Europe and Northern +Asia. The American forms, which range over the whole of that +continent, comprise a number of subgenera, of which the following +are the most important. <i>Rhipidomys</i>, including Dormouse-like +forms with long tails and a dentition like that of the typical +group; <i>Oryzomys</i>, represented by Murine species; <i>Calomys</i>,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_464"></a>[464]</span> with +short tail and Hamster-like body; <i>Vesperimus</i>, with only five tubercles +on the first molar; <i>Onychomys</i>, in which the tail is extremely +short and Hamster-like, and the form is Arvicoline; <i>Scapteromys</i>, of +Murine form with a long and hairy tail; <i>Phyllotis</i>, with a shorter +tail; <i>Habrothrix</i>, an Arvicoline group, with a short and thinly haired +tail; and <i>Oxymycterus</i>, distinguished from the preceding by having +a nail instead of a claw on the pollex. With regard to the distribution +of these forms Mr. Thomas<a id="FNanchor_331" href="#Footnote_331" class="fnanchor">[331]</a> remarks that in South +America as we proceed southwards there is a general tendency “to +a disappearance of the tropical and northern Mouse- and Dormouse-like +subgenera <i>Rhipidomys</i>, <i>Vesperimus</i>, and <i>Oryzomys</i>, with the +appearance and increase of the Vole- and Hamster-like <i>Habrothrix</i> +and <i>Calomys</i>—a change that is curiously paralleled in the Old World +by the gradual supercession of <i>Mus</i> and <i>Myoxus</i> in favour of <i>Arvicola</i> +and <i>Cricetus</i> as we go northwards from tropical to temperate and +arctic regions.” One species has spines in the fur.</p> + +<p>Remains of <i>Cricetus</i> are abundant in the Pleistocene cavern-deposits +of Brazil, where a number of the forms are referable to +existing species; the genus is also represented in the Miocene of +North America and Europe, the species from the former area having +been described as <i>Eomys</i>, and those from the latter as <i>Cricetodon</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Holochilus</i><a id="FNanchor_332" href="#Footnote_332" class="fnanchor">[332]</a> (<i>Nectomys</i>).—The Rats of this genus are allied to +the American forms of <i>Cricetus</i>, but have the third upper molars +proportionately larger and the skull more stoutly built. This +genus is confined to Brazil, and contains about six species, some of +which are the largest indigenous Rats of America. Two species are +aquatic in their habits, and have short webs between the toes of +their hind feet.</p> + +<p><i>Sigmodon</i><a id="FNanchor_333" href="#Footnote_333" class="fnanchor">[333]</a> differs from <i>Cricetus</i> in the pattern of the molar +teeth. It contains one species only, the Rice-Rat, <i>S. hispidus</i>, +ranging from the United States to Ecuador.</p> + +<p><i>Rhithrodon</i>,<a id="FNanchor_334" href="#Footnote_334" class="fnanchor">[334]</a> and <i>Ochetodon</i>.<a id="FNanchor_335" href="#Footnote_335" class="fnanchor">[335]</a>—These + are more or less like +<i>Cricetus</i>, but with grooved upper incisors. The first, is a South-American +genus, and contains five Rat-like species, one from +Venezuela, another from Peru, and the other three from Patagonia. +The second consists of three North American mice, of about the +size and proportions of the English Wood-Mouse (<i>Mus sylvaticus</i>).</p> + +<p><i>Neotoma.</i><a id="FNanchor_336" href="#Footnote_336" class="fnanchor">[336]</a>—A peculiar North American genus, in which the +teeth simulate the prismatic appearance of those of the <i>Arvicolinæ</i>. +There are four species known as Wood-Rats, all of about the size +of <i>Mus decumanus<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_465"></a>[465]</span></i>; one of them (<i>N. cinerea</i>) having a tail almost as +bushy as a Squirrel’s while the other three have ordinary scaly +Rat-like tails.</p> + +<p>Fossil remains of <i>Neotoma</i> from cavern-deposits in Pennsylvania +are not improbably referable to the existing Florida Rat (<i>N. +floridana</i>). <i>Paciculus</i>, from the Miocene of the United States, is +regarded as an allied extinct genus with enamel-folds to the molars.</p> + +<p><i>Hypogeomys.</i><a id="FNanchor_337" href="#Footnote_337" class="fnanchor">[337]</a>—This and the following genera are confined +to Madagascar, where they are the sole representatives of the +Rodentia. <i>Hypogeomys</i> is a very peculiar form of large size, with +long ears, feet, and tail. There is only one species, <i>H. antimena</i>, a +fawn-coloured Rat about 9 inches long.</p> + +<p><i>Nesomys.</i><a id="FNanchor_338" href="#Footnote_338" class="fnanchor">[338]</a>—Contains two species of long-haired Rats, more or +less rufous in colour, about the size of the Brown Rat.</p> + +<p><i>Brachytarsomys.</i><a id="FNanchor_339" href="#Footnote_339" class="fnanchor">[339]</a>—Represented only by <i>B. albicauda</i>, a pretty +velvety-haired fawn-coloured Rat, with short feet and a long tail.</p> + +<p><i>Hallomys.</i><a id="FNanchor_340" href="#Footnote_340" class="fnanchor">[340]</a>—The only species (<i>H. audeberti</i>) is very like a +<i>Nesomys</i>, but has much longer hind feet.</p> + +<p><i>Eliurus.</i><a id="FNanchor_341" href="#Footnote_341" class="fnanchor">[341]</a>—Represented by one small Dormouse-like species, +characterised by its nearly naked and short ears, and long tail, of +which the proximal third is scaly, and the remainder covered +with long hair. The pollex is rudimental, but the hallux well +developed.</p> + +<p>Subfamily <b>Arvicolinæ</b>.—Molars usually imperfectly rooted or +rootless, and composed of two longitudinal rows of triangular +prisms placed alternately +(<a href="#figure207">Fig. 207</a>). Tail moderate +or short. Common to the +Palæarctic and Nearctic +regions.</p> + +<figure class="figright illowp95" id="figure207" style="max-width: 21.875em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure207.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 207.</span>—Upper (<i>A</i>) and lower (<i>B</i>) molars of the +Water-Vole (<i>Arvicola amphibius</i>).</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The Voles, as the members +of this group are commonly +termed, are so closely connected +with the Cricetines +that they may be regarded +merely as a branch of that +subfamily which has attained +a peculiarly specialised type +of molar dentition. The +Voles are externally distinguished, +as a rule, from true Rats and Mice by their more +clumsy and heavy build and <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_466"></a>[466]</span>less graceful movements; by the small +size of their eyes, the bluntness of the muzzle, the small ears, and +the shorter limbs and tail.</p> + +<p><i>Phenacomys.</i><a id="FNanchor_342" href="#Footnote_342" class="fnanchor">[342]</a>—A North American genus distinguished by its +rooted molars, and thus connecting the typical forms with +Cricetines like <i>Neotoma</i>. Several species have been described by +Dr. C. H. Merriam.</p> + +<p><i>Arvicola.</i><a id="FNanchor_343" href="#Footnote_343" class="fnanchor">[343]</a>—The type genus <i>Arvicola</i> has rootless molars, and +naked soles to the feet. It includes over forty species inhabiting +Europe, North America, and Asia, a few species entering into the +northern limits of the Oriental region in India. Three species of +the genus are found in the British Isles, of which the following +account is given by Mr. O. Thomas:—</p> + +<p>The common Water-Vole (<i>A. amphibius</i>) is as large as the Brown +Rat. Its fur is long, soft, and thick, of a uniform grizzled brown +all over, except when, as is not uncommon, it is wholly black. The +tail is about half the length of its head and body, and the hind feet +are unusually long and powerful, although not webbed, and have +five rounded pads on their lower surfaces. Its molar teeth (see +<a href="#figure207">Fig. 207</a>) present the following number of prismatic spaces:—in +the upper jaw the first, or anterior, has 5, the second 4, and the +third 4, of which the last is very irregular in shape, and is +sometimes itself divided into two, making 5 in all; in the lower +jaw the first has 7 spaces, of which the 3 anterior are generally not +fully separated from one another, the second has 5, and the third +3. These numbers for the different teeth are taken as the +characters of the subgenus <i>Paludicola</i> of Dr. Blasius, by whom this +method of subdividing the genus was first introduced. The Water-Vole +is one of the commonest English mammals, and is perhaps the +most often actually seen of all, owing to its diurnal habits. It +frequents rivers and streams, burrowing deeply into their banks, +and in this way often causing considerable damage. Its food +consists almost wholly of water-weeds, rushes, and other vegetable +substances, but, like so many other Rodents, it will also occasionally +eat animal food, in the shape of insects, mice, or young birds. +The female during the warm season of the year has three or four +litters, each of from two to seven young. The range of the +Water-Vole extends over the whole of Europe and North Asia, +from England to China, but it is not found in Ireland. The common +Field-Vole, or short-tailed Field-Mouse (<i>A. agrestis</i>), representing +the subgenus <i>Agricola</i>, is about the size of a House-Mouse, but +with a short stumpy body, and a tail only about one third the +length of the head and body combined. Its hind feet have six +pads on their inferior surfaces. The colour is dull grizzled brown<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_467"></a>[467]</span> +above, and grayish-white below. Its molar teeth have respectively +5, 5, and 6 prismatic spaces above, and 9, 5, and 3 below. The +Field-Vole is one of the commonest of our smaller mammals, and +frequents fields, woods, and gardens in enormous numbers, often +doing very considerable damage in the latter, owing to its fondness +for garden produce of all kinds. It is spread over the whole of +Great Britain from the Hebrides southwards. Abroad its range +extends from Finland to North Italy and from France and Spain +to Russia. The Bank-Vole (<i>A. glareolus</i>) resembles in size and +general appearance the common Field-Vole, but may be distinguished +by its more or less rusty or rufous-coloured back, its +larger ears, and the relatively longer tail, which attains to about +half the length of the head and body. Its molar teeth present +characters so different from those of all other Voles as to have +caused it to be regarded as belonging to an entirely distinct genus, +for which the name of <i>Evotomys</i> has been used. Their chief +distinction lies in the fact that, unlike those of all other Voles, +their pulp-cavities close up in adult life, and they form distinct +roots, more resembling those of the ordinary Rats and Mice. +The enamel-spaces of these teeth number respectively 5, 4, and +5 above, and 7, 3, and 3 below. The habits of this species are +in every way similar to those of the Field-Vole. Its range in +Great Britain extends northwards to Morayshire, beyond which it +has not yet been observed. It is also found all along the north +temperate zone from France to China, and is replaced in North +America by a closely allied animal known as <i>A. gapperi</i>. It is +probable, however, that both <i>A. gapperi</i> and <i>A. glareolus</i> are only +southern climatic offshoots of a still more northern species, the +<i>A. rutilus</i> of Northern Europe, Siberia, and Arctic America.</p> + +<p>Fossil remains of <i>Arvicola</i> are common in European Pleistocene +deposits, and they have also been obtained from the Upper +Pliocene of the Norwich Crag.</p> + +<p><i>Synaptomys.</i><a id="FNanchor_344" href="#Footnote_344" class="fnanchor">[344]</a>—Represented by one North American species, +having grooved upper incisors, skull and molars like those of +<i>Myodes</i>, with the external characters of <i>Arvicola</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Myodes.</i><a id="FNanchor_345" href="#Footnote_345" class="fnanchor">[345]</a>—Distinguished from <i>Arvicola</i> by the more clumsy +build, convex obtuse head, extremely short and Rabbit-like tail, +short ears, small feet, the soles of which are furred, elongated claws, +and thick fur, as well as by the breadth and massiveness of the +skull, in which the zygomatic arch has a laminar expansion and +the palate a peculiar contour; while the root of the lower incisor +does not extend behind the last molar, the upper incisors are +bevelled, and not grooved, and the molars have a characteristic +pattern, which cannot be well explained without a figure.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp66" id="figure208" style="max-width: 25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure208.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 208.</span>—The Lemming (<i>Myodes lemmus</i>).</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_468"></a>[468]</span></p> + +<p>The Lemmings, as the members of the genus are commonly +called, are represented by the Norwegian Lemming (<i>M. lemmus</i>, <a href="#figure208">Fig. +208</a>), and the North American <i>M. obensis</i>. Different individuals of +the Norwegian Lemming vary considerably both in size and colour, +but its usual length is about 5 inches, and its soft fur yellowish +brown, marked with spots of dark brown and black. It has a +short, rounded head, obtuse muzzle, small bead-like eyes, and short +rounded ears, nearly concealed by the fur. The tail is very short. +The feet are small, each with five claws, those of the fore feet +strongest, and fitted for scratching and digging. The usual dwelling +place of the Lemmings is in the highlands or fells of the great +central mountain chain of Norway and Sweden, from the southern +branches of the Langfjeldene in Christiansand-stift to the North +Cape and the Varangerfjord. South of the Arctic circle they are, +under ordinary circumstances, exclusively confined to the plateaus +covered with dwarf birch and juniper above the conifer region, +though in Tromsö-amt and in Finmarken they occur in all suitable +localities down to the level of the sea. The nest is formed under a +tussock of grass or a stone, constructed of short dry straws, and +usually lined with hair. The number of young in each nest is<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_469"></a>[469]</span> +generally five, sometimes only three, but occasionally seven or eight, +and at least two broods are produced annually. Their food is +entirely vegetable, especially grass-roots and stalks, shoots of the +dwarf birch, reindeer-lichens, and mosses, in search of which they +form, in winter, long galleries through the turf or under the snow. +They are restless, courageous, and pugnacious little animals. When +suddenly disturbed, instead of trying to escape they will sit upright, +with their back against a stone or other coign of vantage, hissing +and showing fight in a very determined manner (<a href="#figure208">Fig. 208</a>).</p> + +<p>The circumstance which has given more popular interest to the +Lemming than to a host of other species of the same order of +animals is that certain districts of the cultivated lands of Norway +and Sweden, where in ordinary circumstances they are quite unknown, +are occasionally and at very uncertain intervals, varying +from five to twenty or more years, literally overrun by an army of +these little creatures, which steadily and slowly advance, always in +the same direction, and regardless of all obstacles, swimming across +streams and even lakes of several miles in breadth, and committing +considerable devastation on their line of march by the quantity of +food they consume. In their turn they are pursued and harassed +by crowds of beasts and birds of prey, as bears, wolves, foxes, dogs, +wild cats, stoats, weasels, eagles, hawks, and owls, and never spared +by man; even the domestic animals not usually predaceous, as +cattle, goats, and reindeer, are said to join in the destruction, +stamping them to the ground with their feet, and even eating their +bodies. Numbers also die from diseases apparently produced from +overcrowding. None ever return by the course by which they +came, and the onward march of the survivors never ceases until they +reach the sea, into which they plunge, and swimming onwards in +the same direction as before perish in the waves. These extraordinary +and sudden appearances of vast bodies of Lemmings, and +their singular habit of persistently pursuing the same onward course +of migration, have given rise to various speculations, from the +ancient belief of the Norwegian peasants, shared in by Olaus +Magnus, that they fall down from the clouds, to the almost equally +untenable hypothesis, ingeniously maintained by the late Mr. W. +D. Crotch, that they are acting in these migrations in obedience to +an instinct inherited from vastly ancient times, and are still seeking +the congenial home in a supposed submerged Atlantis, to which +their ancestors of the Miocene period were wont to resort when +driven from their ordinary dwelling-places by crowding or scarcity +of food. The principal really ascertained facts regarding these +migrations seem to be as follows. When any combination of circumstances +has occasioned an increase in the numbers of the +Lemmings in their ordinary dwelling-places, impelled by the restless +or migratory instinct possessed in a less developed degree by<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_470"></a>[470]</span> +so many of their congeners, a movement takes place at the edge of +the elevated plateau, and a migration towards the lower-lying land +begins. The whole body moves forward slowly, always advancing +in the same general direction in which they originally started, but +following more or less the course of the great valleys. They only +travel by night; and, staying in congenial places for considerable +periods, with unaccustomed abundance of provender, notwithstanding +all the destructive influences to which they are exposed, +they multiply excessively during their journey, having families still +more numerous and more frequently than in their usual homes. +The progress may last from one to three years, according to the +route taken, and the distance to be traversed until the sea-coast +is reached, which in a country so surrounded by water as the +Scandinavian peninsula must be the ultimate goal of such a journey. +This may be either the Atlantic or the Gulf of Bothnia, according +as the migration has commenced from the west or the east side of +the central elevated plateau. Those that finally perish in the sea, +committing what appears to be a voluntary suicide, are only acting +under the same blind impulse which has led them previously to +cross smaller pieces of water with safety.</p> + +<p><i>Cuniculus.</i><a id="FNanchor_346" href="#Footnote_346" class="fnanchor">[346]</a>—Cranial and incisive characters those of <i>Myodes</i>, +in the main, but the molars more of an Arvicoline type, the first +upper one differing from that of all other members of the family in +having seven prisms. Externally of the general shape of <i>Myodes</i>, +but distinguished by the absence of external ears, the shortness and +dense furring of the feet, the obsolete pollex with rudimentary +nail, and the great length of the two middle claws of the manus. +Represented by one species, the Banded Lemming (<i>C. torquatus</i>), of +the Arctic region.</p> + +<p>Remains of both <i>C. torquatus</i> and <i>Myodes lemmus</i> occur in British +Pleistocene deposits.</p> + +<p><i>Fiber.</i><a id="FNanchor_347" href="#Footnote_347" class="fnanchor">[347]</a>—Closely allied to <i>Arvicola</i>, both externally and in cranial +and dental characters, but with the tail nearly as long as the body +(apart from the head), compressed, nearly naked, and reticulate. +Feet incompletely webbed, and the whole body adapted for a +thoroughly aquatic life.</p> + +<p>The Musk-Rat or Musquash (<i>F. zibethicus</i>, <a href="#figure209">Fig. 209</a>) is the only +representative of this genus, and the largest member of the subfamily, +the head and body being about 12 inches in length. It is +rather a heavily built animal, with a broad head, no distinct neck, +and short limbs; the eyes are small, and the ears project very little +beyond the fur. The fore limbs have four toes and a rudimentary +thumb, all with claws; the hind limbs are larger, with five distinct +toes, united by short webs at their bases. The tail is laterally<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_471"></a>[471]</span> +compressed, nearly naked, and scaly. The hair much resembles +that of a beaver, but is shorter; it consists of a thick soft under-fur +interspersed with longer stiff, glistening hairs, which overlie and +conceal the former on the upper surface and sides of the body. +The general colour is dark umber-brown, almost black on the back +and gray below. The tail and naked parts of the feet are black. +The musky odour from which it derives its name is due to the +secretion of a large gland situated in the inguinal region, and present +in both sexes.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp84" id="figure209" style="max-width: 28.125em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure209.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 209.</span>—The Musk-Rat (<i>Fiber zibethicus</i>.)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The Musk-Rat is peculiar to America, being extensively distributed +in suitable localities in the northern part of the continent, +extending from the Atlantic to the Pacific, and from the Rio Grande +to the barren grounds bordering the Arctic Seas. It is aquatic in +its habits, living on the shores of lakes and rivers, swimming and +diving with great facility, feeding on the roots, stems, and leaves of +water-plants, or on fruits and vegetables which grow near the +margin of the streams it inhabits. Musk-Rats are most active at +night, spending the greater part of the day concealed in their +burrows dug out of the bank, consisting of a chamber with numerous +passages, all of which open under the surface of the water. For +winter quarters they build more elaborate houses of conical or +dome-like form, composed of sedges, grasses, and similar materials +plastered together with mud. As their fur is an important article +of commerce, large numbers are annually killed, being either trapped +or speared at the mouths of their holes.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_472"></a>[472]</span></p> + +<p>The skull of the Musk-Rat is shown in <a href="#figure203">Fig. 203</a> (<a href="#figure203">p. 459</a>); its +structure is essentially Arvicoline, but the squamosals are greatly +expanded, with a corresponding reduction of the parietal and interparietal, +and the interorbital constriction of the frontals attains its +greatest development. Fossil remains of <i>Fiber</i> occur in the North +American Pleistocene.</p> + +<p><i>Neofiber.</i><a id="FNanchor_348" href="#Footnote_348" class="fnanchor">[348]</a>—This genus, while agreeing with <i>Fiber</i> in the characters +of the skull and teeth, differs by the cylindrical tail, and the normal +form of the feet, in which the toes are not bent laterally at an angle +with the sole. The single species <i>N. alleni</i>, commonly known as +the Round-tailed Musk-Rat, is found in Florida, and is much less +completely aquatic in its habits than <i>Fiber</i>. Its colour is brown +above, and silvery-white mixed with rufous below, the sides of the +body gradually shading from brown to rufous, the forehead and +the tip of the nose are black, while the tail is rufous mingled with +black.</p> + +<p>Subfamily <b>Siphneinæ</b>.—Includes two genera of Mole-like +Rodents with an <i>Arvicoline</i> dentition, but with the body thoroughly +adapted for a subterranean life, the limbs and tail being very short, +and the external ears rudimentary. Both are Palæarctic.</p> + +<p><i>Ellobius.</i><a id="FNanchor_349" href="#Footnote_349" class="fnanchor">[349]</a>—The Russian <i>E. talpinus</i>, the typical representative +of the genus, has short claws, and comes nearest to the <i>Arvicolinæ</i>. +<i>E. fuscocapillus</i> is from Afghanistan.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp96" id="figure210" style="max-width: 28.125em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure210.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 210.</span>—<i>Siphneus armandi.</i> (From Milne-Edwards.)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Siphneus.</i><a id="FNanchor_350" href="#Footnote_350" class="fnanchor">[350]</a>—This genus (<a href="#figure210">Fig. 210</a>) includes species inhabiting<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_473"></a>[473]</span> +Northern and Central Asia, and is characterised by the great length +of the claws of the manus. Remains of an existing species occur +in the Pleistocene of the Altai, while an extinct one has been +described from the Pliocene of North China.</p> + +<p>Subfamily <b>Deomyinæ</b>.—Represented only by the under-mentioned +genus, in which the bituberculate anterior and tricuspidate +middle ridge of the first upper molar presents a condition +intermediate between that obtaining in the <i>Cricetinæ</i> and that of +the <i>Murinæ</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Deomys.</i><a id="FNanchor_351" href="#Footnote_351" class="fnanchor">[351]</a>—Externally as in <i>Mus</i>. Pollex with a narrow nail; +hind feet elongate. Infraorbital vacuity of skull triangular, not +narrowed below. Upper incisors with a pair of minute grooves. +First upper molar with seven distinct tubercles, of which three are +placed on the middle ridge, and two on each of the others. One +species, <i>D. ferrugineus</i>, from the Lower Congo, an animal about the +size of the Common Mouse.</p> + +<p>Subfamily <b>Murinæ</b>.—Molars rooted and tuberculated; those +of the upper jaw with three longitudinal rows of tubercles (<a href="#figure206">Fig. +206</a>, <i>A</i>).</p> + +<p>This group includes the true Rats and Mice, and may be +regarded as more +specialised than +the <i>Cricetinæ</i>. +All the members +of the group +closely resemble +one another, and +are light and +active, with large +ears, bright eyes, +and long and +scaly tails. Their +coloration, in +conformity with +the fossorial and +nocturnal habits +of most of the +forms, is sombre, +and their movements +are remarkably +agile +and graceful.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp70" id="figure211" style="max-width: 25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure211.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 211.</span>—The Australian Brown-footed Rat (<i>Mus fuscipes</i>). +After Gould.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Mus.</i><a id="FNanchor_352" href="#Footnote_352" class="fnanchor">[352]</a>—Incisors +narrow, without<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_474"></a>[474]</span> +grooves. Structure of molars as in <a href="#figure206">Fig. 206</a>, <i>A</i> (<a href="#figure206">p. 463</a>). Incisive +foramina of skull long; coronoid process of mandible well developed. +Ears and eyes large; muzzle naked at the extremity. Fur soft, in +some cases intermingled with spines. Pollex with a short nail in +place of a claw. No cheek-pouches. Tail long, nearly naked, +with rings of overlapping scales. Vertebræ: C 7, D 13, L 6, S 4, +C 26-32.</p> + +<p>This genus is the largest in the whole mammalian class, comprising +not less than 130 species, ranging over the whole of +the Old World, with the noteworthy exception of Madagascar. +On the whole, the species are more numerous in tropical than +in temperate regions, and very few occur in cold countries. +Many of the species living in warm climates have flattened spines +mingled with the fur; these spines being shed in winter, when a +warmer covering is necessary, and replaced by hair. Five species +occur in England, which are briefly noticed below; and it may be +observed that none of the species are much larger than <i>M. decumanus</i> +or smaller than <i>M. minutus</i>. As a rule the habits of the species +are similar to those of the English forms, but a few are arboreal, +while others again, like the one represented in <a href="#figure211">Fig. 211</a>, are +aquatic. The earliest known representatives of the genus (excluding +<i>Acanthomys gaudryi</i> of the Lower Pliocene Pikermi beds of Attica) +occur in the Pleistocene of Europe.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp65" id="figure212" style="max-width: 21.875em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure212.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 212.</span>—<i>A</i>, Head of Brown Rat (<i>M. decumanus</i>). +<i>B</i>, Head of Black Rat (<i>Mus rattus</i>).</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The Brown or Norway Rat (<i>M. decumanus</i>) is a heavily built +animal, growing to 8 or 9 +inches in length, with a +bluff rounded head, small +ears (<a href="#figure212">Fig. 212</a>, <i>A</i>), and a +comparatively short tail, +which is always shorter +than the head and body +combined, and generally +not longer than the body +alone. The colour is a +uniform grayish-brown +above and white below, +the ears, feet, and tail being +flesh coloured. Black +varieties, which are often +mistaken for true Black +Rats, are by no means rare, +but the differences in size +and proportions form a +ready means of distinguishing +the two. The Brown +Rat is believed to be a native of Western China, where a race<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_475"></a>[475]</span> +(<i>M. humiliatus</i>) has been discovered so like it as to be practically +indistinguishable. Both this, and the next species agree in their +predaceous habits, omnivorous diet, and great fecundity. They +bear four or five times in the year from four to ten blind and +naked young, which are in their turn able to breed at an age of +about six months; the time of gestation being about twenty +days.</p> + +<p>The Black Rat (<i>M. rattus</i>) is a smaller and more lightly built +species, generally not more than 7 inches in length, with a slender +head (<a href="#figure212">Fig. 212</a>, <i>B</i>), large ears, and a thin tail of about 8 or 9 +inches in length. The colour is usually a glossy bluish-black, somewhat +lighter below; but in the tropical variety described as <i>M. +alexandrinus</i> the general colour is gray or rufous, and the belly +white. The disposition of the Black Rat is milder than that of +<i>M. decumanus</i>, and the white and pied rats kept as pets mostly belong +to this species. In many localities where it was formerly abundant +it has been entirely superseded by <i>M. decumanus</i>, but it is said that +in some parts of Germany it has been lately reasserting itself.</p> + +<p><i>M. musculus</i>, the Common House-Mouse, is, like the Brown Rat, +originally a native of Asia, whence it has spread to all the inhabited +parts of the globe. Its habits and appearance are too well known +to need any description.</p> + +<p><i>M. sylvaticus</i>, the Wood or Long-tailed Field-Mouse, is very +common in many parts of England, often taking to barns and outhouses +for shelter during the winter. It is of about the same size +and proportions as <i>M. musculus</i>, but of a bright reddish-gray colour, +with a pure white belly.</p> + +<p><i>M. minutus</i>, the Harvest-Mouse, is the smallest of the European +Mice, seldom exceeding 2½ or 3 inches in length. It is of a +yellowish-red colour, with comparatively short ears and tail. It +lives entirely away from human habitations, generally dwelling in +grass or corn-fields, where it builds a globular nest of dried grass of +the size of a cricket-ball, in which the young are nurtured.</p> + +<p><i>Nesocia.</i><a id="FNanchor_353" href="#Footnote_353" class="fnanchor">[353]</a>—General characters those of <i>Mus</i>, but the incisors +and molars very much wider, and the tubercles of the latter more +connected by transverse ridges, thus producing a laminated type +of structure.</p> + +<p>This genus has been placed by some writers in a distinct subfamily +with <i>Phlœomys</i>, but Mr. O. Thomas regards it as so closely +allied to <i>Mus</i> that even its generic separation may be open to +question. It comprises several species, mostly spread over Southern +Asia, ranging from Palestine to Formosa, and from Kashmir to +Ceylon, but <i>N. scullyi</i> is found in Turkestan. The great Indian +Bandicoot-Rat (<i>N. bandicota</i>) is the largest representative of the +subfamily, often exceeding a foot in length. <i>N. bengalensis</i> is<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_476"></a>[476]</span> +remarkable for possessing no less than eighteen mammæ. Fossil +remains of <i>Nesocia</i> occur in the Pleistocene of Madras and in the +Pliocene of Northern India; those from the first-named deposits +being referable to existing species.</p> + +<p><i>Golunda.</i><a id="FNanchor_354" href="#Footnote_354" class="fnanchor">[354]</a>—Like <i>Mus</i>, but with a distinct groove down the front +of the upper incisors. There are only three species, one from +Western India, one from West Africa, and the other from Eastern +Africa.</p> + +<p><i>Uromys.</i><a id="FNanchor_355" href="#Footnote_355" class="fnanchor">[355]</a>—Differs from <i>Mus</i> in having the scales of the tail not +overlapping, but set edge to edge, so as to form a sort of mosaic +work. There are about six species of <i>Uromys</i>, spread over the +northern part of the Australian region from the Aru Islands to +Queensland.</p> + +<p><i>Chiruromys.</i><a id="FNanchor_356" href="#Footnote_356" class="fnanchor">[356]</a>—Externally like <i>Mus</i>, but with the terminal +portion of the tail without scales above, quite naked, transversely +wrinkled, and prehensile. Scales of remainder of tail more or less +pentagonal, and arranged in oblique diagonal series. Supraorbital +vacuity of skull without projecting plate in external wall. Incisive +foramina short and narrow; auditory bulla small. Upper +molars very complex, with the tubercles (of which there are eleven +in the first tooth) low, and distinctly arranged in transverse rows. +Known only by <i>C. forbesi</i>, from mountains in New Guinea, which +must be regarded as a specialised form very similar in outward +appearance to <i>Uromys cervinipes</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Hapalotis.</i><a id="FNanchor_357" href="#Footnote_357" class="fnanchor">[357]</a>—Hind limbs elongated. Incisive foramina very +large. No coronoid process to the mandible. This genus is confined +to Australia, where there are about fifteen species known. +They are pretty little animals, with long ears and tail, and in many +respects resemble the Jerboas, whose place they seem to take in +the sandy Australian deserts. Remains of <i>H. albipes</i> occur in the +Pleistocene of New South Wales.</p> + +<p><i>Mastacomys.</i><a id="FNanchor_358" href="#Footnote_358" class="fnanchor">[358]</a>—Like <i>Mus</i>, but with the molars remarkably +broadened, and with only four mammæ. The single species of the +genus is as yet only known from Tasmania, though it has been +found fossil in New South Wales; it is somewhat similar in size +and general appearance to the English Water-Vole, but has much +longer and softer fur.</p> + +<p><i>Acanthomys.</i><a id="FNanchor_359" href="#Footnote_359" class="fnanchor">[359]</a>—Fur almost entirely composed of flattened spines. +Teeth and skull as in <i>Mus</i>, but the coronoid process of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_477"></a>[477]</span> mandible +very small. There are six species of Spiny-Mice known, all of +about the size of the Common Mouse. They are found in Syria, +Palestine, and Eastern Africa as far south as Mozambique. <i>A. +dimidiatus</i> presents the appearance of a little Hedgehog when its +spines are erected; it inhabits the stony deserts of Arabia Petræa +and Palestine, and feeds on bulbs. A fossil Mouse (<i>A. gaudryi</i>) +referred to this genus occurs in the Lower Pliocene of Attica.</p> + +<p><i>Echinothrix.</i><a id="FNanchor_360" href="#Footnote_360" class="fnanchor">[360]</a>—A very remarkable rat with an extremely elongated +muzzle, all the bones of the face being much produced. The +incisors are faintly grooved. The only species is <i>E. leucura</i>, an +animal of about the size of the Brown Rat, with its fur thickly +mixed with spines. It is found in Celebes.</p> + +<p><i>Typhlomys.</i><a id="FNanchor_361" href="#Footnote_361" class="fnanchor">[361]</a>—This genus is represented by a single species from +China, which resembles a House-Mouse in size and general appearance, +but has smaller ears, while the eyes are so reduced in size as +to be totally concealed by the long eyelashes.</p> + +<p><i>Cricetomys</i><a id="FNanchor_362" href="#Footnote_362" class="fnanchor">[362]</a> and <i>Saccostomus</i>.<a id="FNanchor_363" href="#Footnote_363" class="fnanchor">[363]</a>—These + two African genera have +been—from the presence of cheek-pouches—usually placed in the +neighbourhood of <i>Cricetus</i>, but their molars are of the Murine type. +<i>Cricetomys</i> is said to have grooved upper incisors, and is represented +only by <i>C. gambianus</i>. There are two species of <i>Saccostomus</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Pithechirus.</i>—A small Rodent from Sumatra and Java described +under this name is a true Mouse, having nothing to do with +<i>Chiropodomys</i>, to which it has been compared.</p> + +<h5><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Spalacidæ</span>.</h5> + +<p>Mole-like forms, with very small or rudimentary eyes and ear-conchs, +large claws, and short or rudimentary tail. Form cylindrical. +Incisors large; premolars present or absent; molars rooted, +with re-entering enamel-folds; palate narrow.</p> + +<p>Subfamily <b>Spalacinæ</b>.—Angular part of the mandible arising +from the lower edge of the socket of the lower incisor. No premolars.</p> + +<p><i>Spalax.</i><a id="FNanchor_364" href="#Footnote_364" class="fnanchor">[364]</a>—Represented by the great Mole-Rat (<i>S. typhlus</i>) of +South-Eastern Europe, in which the eyes are completely covered by +the skin.</p> + +<p><i>Rhizomys.</i><a id="FNanchor_365" href="#Footnote_365" class="fnanchor">[365]</a>—Eyes uncovered, although very minute; small +naked ear-conchs; and a short partially hairy tail. Includes +several species from<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_478"></a>[478]</span> Northern India, Tibet, China, Burma, Malaya, +and Eastern Africa. A fossil species occurs in the Pliocene Siwaliks +of Northern India.</p> + +<p>Subfamily <b>Bathyerginæ</b>.—Angular part of the mandible arising +from the side of the socket of the lower incisor. Premolars absent +or present. Confined to the Ethiopian region.</p> + +<p><i>Bathyergus.</i><a id="FNanchor_366" href="#Footnote_366" class="fnanchor">[366]</a>—Upper incisors strongly grooved; <i>p</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; no +ear-conchs; very powerful claws. One species (<i>B. maritimus</i>), from +South Africa, attaining a length of about 10 inches.</p> + +<p><i>Georychus</i><a id="FNanchor_367" href="#Footnote_367" class="fnanchor">[367]</a> and <i>Myoscalops</i>.<a id="FNanchor_368" href="#Footnote_368" class="fnanchor">[368]</a>—Upper + incisors without grooves. +<i>Georychus</i>, with some half dozen species, generally has <i>p</i> ¹⁄₁; <i>Myoscalops</i>, +with one species, usually has <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, and the second toe of the +foot is the longest. In <i>Georychus</i> the premolar may be wanting, +and some examples of <i>Myoscalops</i> have only two teeth of this +series.</p> + +<p><i>Heterocephalus.</i><a id="FNanchor_369" href="#Footnote_369" class="fnanchor">[369]</a>—Small and nearly naked forms, with small +head, small eyes, no ear-conchs, moderately long tail, and powerful +fore feet provided with a pair of large pads; <i>p</i> ⁰⁄₀, <i>m</i> ²⁻³⁄₂₋₃. Two +species. These very remarkable little Rodents are regarded by +Mr. O. Thomas as very closely allied to <i>Georychus</i>, but specialised, +and, so to speak, somewhat degraded for a purely subterranean life, +for which their hairless body is peculiarly adapted. They are +found in Somali-land, where they burrow in the sandy soil.</p> + +<h5><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Geomyidæ</span>.<a id="FNanchor_370" href="#Footnote_370" class="fnanchor">[370]</a></h5> + +<p>Terrestrial or fossorial forms, with large cheek-pouches opening +on the cheeks outside the mouth. Squamosal much expanded, +and the jugal extending forwards to the lachrymal. <i>P</i> ¹⁄₁; molars +rooted or rootless, with transverse laminæ. Nearctic and Neotropical +regions.</p> + +<p>Subfamily <b>Geomyinæ</b>.—Incisors broad; mastoid not appearing on +the top of the skull; eyes small; ear-conch rudimentary; limbs +short, subequal. Habits fossorial.</p> + +<p><i>Geomys.</i><a id="FNanchor_371" href="#Footnote_371" class="fnanchor">[371]</a>—Upper incisors deeply grooved. The common North +American Pouched-Rat or “Pocket-Gopher” (<i>G. bursarius</i>) inhabits +the plains of the Mississippi and lives in burrows. Several other +species are recognised from the Southern United States, Mexico, +and Central America. The genus is represented in the Pleistocene +and Pliocene of the United States.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_479"></a>[479]</span></p> + +<p><i>Thomomys.</i><a id="FNanchor_372" href="#Footnote_372" class="fnanchor">[372]</a>—Upper incisors plain. Represented by two species, +with numerous varieties found all over Canada and North America +west of the Rocky Mountains. Remains referred to an existing +species occur in the Pliocene of Oregon. <i>Entoptychus</i>, from the +Miocene of the United States, is an allied genus, with broad incisors +and rootless molars.</p> + +<p>Subfamily <b>Heteromyinæ</b>.—Incisors narrow; mastoid appearing +largely on the top of the skull; eyes and ears moderate or large; +hind limbs and tail elongated. Habits terrestrial.</p> + +<p><i>Dipodomys.</i><a id="FNanchor_373" href="#Footnote_373" class="fnanchor">[373]</a>—This genus is characterised by the rootless molars. +It is best known by <i>D. phillipsi</i>, the Kangaroo-Rat of the desert +regions east of the Rocky Mountains, having habits like those of +the Jerboas. The typical forms have four toes in the pes; but in +others, which it has been proposed to separate as <i>Dipodops</i>, there +are five: <i>D. ordi</i> and <i>D. agilis</i> belong to the latter group.</p> + +<p><i>Perognathus</i><a id="FNanchor_374" href="#Footnote_374" class="fnanchor">[374]</a> and <i>Heteromys</i>.<a id="FNanchor_375" href="#Footnote_375" class="fnanchor">[375]</a>—In + both these genera, which are +represented by species of very small size, the molars are rooted; +the latter being distinguished by the presence of flattened spines +mingled with the fur, and having species ranging into South +America. According to Dr. C. H. Merriam the forms described as +<i>Cricetodipus</i> are not separable from <i>Perognathus</i>; while Dr. Coues +considers that <i>Saccomys</i> was founded upon a species of <i>Heteromys</i>. +<i>Pleurolichus</i>, from the Miocene of the United States, is regarded as +an extinct genus allied to <i>Heteromys</i>.</p> + +<h5><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Dipodidæ</span>.</h5> + +<p>Terrestrial forms usually with four upper cheek-teeth, and typically +with the following characters. Incisors compressed; molars +with transverse enamel-folds; infraorbital vacuity of skull (<a href="#figure007">Fig. 7</a>, +p. 37) large and rounded; jugal ascending in front to the lachrymal; +and the mastoid part of the auditory bulla usually very large.</p> + +<p>Subfamily <b>Sminthinæ</b>.—Molars rooted; <i>p</i> ¹⁄₀, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃. Skull with +the infraorbital vacuity widest below, and the incisive palatal +foramina long. Limbs short. Palæarctic.</p> + +<p><i>Sminthus.</i><a id="FNanchor_376" href="#Footnote_376" class="fnanchor">[376]</a>—Represented by the Rat-like <i>S. vagans</i> from Northern +Europe and Asia, in which the ears are rather long and pointed, the +tail is covered with short hairs and nearly as long as the body, +while the molars present a somewhat complicated pattern. This +genus has generally<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_480"></a>[480]</span> been regarded as an aberrant member of the +<i>Muridæ</i>, but was transferred in 1887 to the present family by +Dr. H. Winge.</p> + +<p>Subfamily <b>Zapodinæ</b>.—Molars rooted; <i>p</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; cervical vertebræ +free; hind limbs elongated; metatarsals separate; hind feet +with five digits. Nearctic region.</p> + +<p><i>Zapus.</i><a id="FNanchor_377" href="#Footnote_377" class="fnanchor">[377]</a>—The American Jumping-Mouse (<i>Z. hudsonianus</i>) extends +over almost the whole North-American continent from Labrador +to Mexico.</p> + +<p>Subfamily <b>Dipodinæ</b>.—Molars rooted; <i>p</i> ⁰⁻¹⁄₀₋₁, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; cervical +vertebræ more or less ankylosed; hind limbs elongated; metatarsals +united; hind feet with only three functional digits. Palæarctic +and Ethiopian regions.</p> + +<p>This subfamily includes the true Jerboas, and contains three +genera: <i>Dipus</i><a id="FNanchor_378" href="#Footnote_378" class="fnanchor">[378]</a> with three toes, and <i>Alactaga</i><a id="FNanchor_379" href="#Footnote_379" class="fnanchor">[379]</a> + and <i>Platycercomys</i><a id="FNanchor_380" href="#Footnote_380" class="fnanchor">[380]</a> +with five, the outer two not reaching to the ground. The latter is +distinguished by the absence of premolars, and comprises many +species extending from Siberia to Nubia.</p> + +<p>Remains of the existing <i>Alactaga decumana</i><a id="FNanchor_381" href="#Footnote_381" class="fnanchor">[381]</a> occur in the Pleistocene +of Germany, and those of <i>Zapus hudsonianus</i> in the corresponding +strata of the United States. <i>Platycercomys</i> has been recorded from +the Pleistocene of Northern Asia.</p> + +<p>Subfamily <b>Pedetinæ</b>.—Molars rootless; cervical vertebræ free; +hind limbs elongated; metatarsals separate; hind feet with four +digits. Vertebræ: C 7, D 12, L 7, S 3, C 30. Ethiopian region.</p> + +<p><i>Pedetes</i>,<a id="FNanchor_382" href="#Footnote_382" class="fnanchor">[382]</a> the Cape Jumping-Hare (<i>P. caffer</i>), by far the largest +species of the family, extends from Mozambique and Angola to the +Cape of Good Hope.</p> + +<h4><i>Section</i> <span class="smcap">Hystricomorpha</span>.</h4> + +<p>Skull (<a href="#figure213">Fig. 213</a>) with a stout zygomatic arch; jugal not supported +below by a continuation of the maxillary zygomatic process; +infraorbital vacuity large; mandible with the angular part arising +from the outer side of the bony socket of the lower incisor. +Clavicles perfect or imperfect; fibula distinct. One premolar in +each jaw.</p> + +<h5><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Octodontidæ</span>.</h5> + +<p>Clavicles complete. Skull with long incisive foramina extending +into the maxillæ; and usually an inferior angle to the jugal. +Molars with external and internal enamel-folds; <i>p</i> ¹⁄₁, except <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_481"></a>[481]</span>in +<i>Ctenodactylus</i>. Mammæ placed high up on the sides of the body. +Confined to the Ethiopian and Neotropical regions, with the exception +of one species of <i>Echinomys</i> which ranges into Central America. +Habits mostly terrestrial, but occasionally fossorial or natatorial.</p> + +<p>Subfamily <b>Ctenodactylinæ</b>.—Molars semi-rooted; jugal as in +<i>Dipodidæ</i>; the two inner toes of the hind feet with a horny comb +and rigid bristles. Ethiopian region.</p> + +<p><i>Ctenodactylus.</i><a id="FNanchor_383" href="#Footnote_383" class="fnanchor">[383]</a>—Represented only by <i>C. gundi</i> from North +Africa, on the borders of the Sahara. Has no premolars; each foot +has four digits; the hind limbs are rather longer than the fore; the +ears small; and the tail reduced to a stump. This animal is about +the size of the Water-Vole, and dwells on rocky ground, its habits +being diurnal. The peculiar comb-like inner toes are employed for +dressing the fur.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp96" id="figure213" style="max-width: 28.125em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure213.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 213.</span>—Skull of <i>Hydrochœrus capybara</i> (reduced).</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Pectinator.</i><a id="FNanchor_384" href="#Footnote_384" class="fnanchor">[384]</a>—Closely allied to the preceding, but with a minute +premolar in each jaw; and a moderately long and bushy tail. One +species (<i>P. spekei</i>), from Somali-land.</p> + +<p>Subfamily <b>Octodontinæ</b>.—Molars semi-rooted or rootless, with +simple enamel-folds; fur soft. There are some six existing genera, +including Rat-like species, all of which are South American, except +<i>Petromys</i>, which is Ethiopian.</p> + +<p><i>Octodon.</i><a id="FNanchor_385" href="#Footnote_385" class="fnanchor">[385]</a>—Upper and lower molars alike; ears moderate; tail +of medium length and tufted. Vertebræ: C 7, D 12, L 7, S 4, C<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_482"></a>[482]</span> +25. Typically represented by <i>C. cumingi</i> of Chili and Peru, with +other species from Chili and Bolivia. They live in large communities.</p> + +<p><i>Habrocoma.</i><a id="FNanchor_386" href="#Footnote_386" class="fnanchor">[386]</a>—Lower molars more complex than the upper; +ears large; and fur extremely soft. Two Bolivian species.</p> + +<p><i>Schizodon.</i><a id="FNanchor_387" href="#Footnote_387" class="fnanchor">[387]</a>—One species, inhabiting elevated spots in the +Southern Andes, and characterised by the enamel-folds of the upper +molars meeting in the middle line. The external characters are +much the same as in <i>Ctenomys</i>, but the ears are larger and the claws +shorter.</p> + +<p><i>Ctenomys.</i><a id="FNanchor_388" href="#Footnote_388" class="fnanchor">[388]</a>—Incisors broad; molars rootless, with kidney-shaped +crowns; last molar small and cylindrical; eyes and ears very +small; claws larger than the toes. Some four species. Fossil +remains are common in the Pleistocene of Buenos Ayres and the +cavern-deposits of Brazil. Habits fossorial.</p> + +<p><i>Spalacopus.</i><a id="FNanchor_389" href="#Footnote_389" class="fnanchor">[389]</a>—Represented by two Chilian species, distinguished +from the preceding genus by the rudimentary ears. These rodents +store up magazines of food in their burrows.</p> + +<p><i>Petromys.</i><a id="FNanchor_390" href="#Footnote_390" class="fnanchor">[390]</a>—The South African <i>P. typicus</i> is closely allied to +<i>Spalacopus</i>, but differs by its harsh fur, the shortness of the pollex, +and the somewhat bushy tail. The teeth are semi-rooted, with +single inner and outer enamel-folds, nearly meeting in the middle.</p> + +<p>Subfamily <b>Echinomyinæ</b>.—Molars semi-rooted or rootless, with +deep and curved enamel-folds; fur more or less harsh, frequently +mixed with spines; tail generally long. One Ethiopian genus, and +the remaining nine or so Neotropical. Many of the species are +of large size, some being arboreal and others aquatic.</p> + +<p><i>Myopotamus.</i><a id="FNanchor_391" href="#Footnote_391" class="fnanchor">[391]</a>—Incisors very large; molars with two internal +and two external enamel-folds in the upper, and three internal and +one external in the lower jaw, last molar the largest; ears moderate; +tail about two-thirds the length of the head and body, scaly, +and sparsely haired; hind feet webbed; five digits. Vertebræ: +C 7, D 13, L 6, S 4, C 25. The well-known Coypu (<i>M. coypu</i>), the +only existing representative of this genus, is one of the largest +living members of the order, and attains a length of about 2 feet. +It is common in South America, living in burrows near water, and +feeding on aquatic plants. Fossil remains of the genus occur in the +caverns of Brazil, as well as in the Tertiaries of Argentina.</p> + +<p><i>Capromys.</i><a id="FNanchor_392" href="#Footnote_392" class="fnanchor">[392]</a>—This genus comprises arboreal forms from the West +Indies allied to the Coypu, but, according to Dr. G. E. Dobson,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_483"></a>[483]</span> +showing signs of affinity with the <i>Hystricidæ</i>. The incisors are +smaller than in the Coypu, and the upper molars have one internal +and two external enamel-folds; the ears are comparatively small; +the tail usually of considerable length, and the general form somewhat +Rat-like. The typical <i>C. pilorides</i> is somewhat smaller than +the Coypu, and is confined to Cuba; it is remarkable for the +subdivision of the lobes of the liver into a number of lobules. +<i>C. brachyurus</i> and <i>C. prehensilis</i> are also confined to Cuba. In +Jamaica the genus is represented by <i>C. melanurus</i>, which is somewhat +smaller than a Rabbit, and has no secondary lobulation of the liver.<a id="FNanchor_393" href="#Footnote_393" class="fnanchor">[393]</a></p> + +<p><i>Aulacodus.</i><a id="FNanchor_394" href="#Footnote_394" class="fnanchor">[394]</a>—Upper incisors with three deep grooves; molars +as in <i>Capromys</i>. Fur very harsh; tail moderate, sparsely haired; +manus with rudimentary pollex, and small fifth digit; pes with no +hallux, and rudimental fifth digit. One species (<i>A. swinderianus</i>), +from Western and Southern Africa, which attains a length of nearly +2 feet, and dwells in burrows.</p> + +<p><i>Plagiodon.</i><a id="FNanchor_395" href="#Footnote_395" class="fnanchor">[395]</a>—Allied to <i>Capromys</i>, but with the enamel-folds of +the molars very complex, and forming a kind of zig-zag pattern in +those of the upper jaw. Represented only by <i>P. ædium</i> of Hayti +and Jamaica.</p> + +<p><i>Loncheres</i><a id="FNanchor_396" href="#Footnote_396" class="fnanchor">[396]</a> and <i>Echinomys</i>.<a id="FNanchor_397" href="#Footnote_397" class="fnanchor">[397]</a>—These + genera include small South +American species, in most of which flattened lanceolate spikes are +mingled with the fur. The majority of the species occur in Guiana +and Brazil, but one species of <i>Echinomys</i> has been recorded from +Central America. Fossil remains of both genera occur in the +cavern-deposits of Brazil.</p> + +<p><i>Mesomys.</i><a id="FNanchor_398" href="#Footnote_398" class="fnanchor">[398]</a>—This genus resembles <i>Loncheres</i> externally, but the +pollex has a short curved claw, and there are no spines in the fur.</p> + +<p><i>Dactylomys.</i><a id="FNanchor_399" href="#Footnote_399" class="fnanchor">[399]</a>—A Brazilian genus presenting the following distinctive +features. Ears short; tail long and scaly; pollex minute; +third and fourth digits of manus elongated, with short convex nails. +Incisors flat; molars divided into two lobes, each of which has +a single enamel-fold. Represented by two species, <i>D. typus</i> and +<i>D. amblyonyx</i>, both of which seem to be rare and but little known. +In the elongation of some of the digits <i>Dactylomys</i> recalls <i>Chiromys</i> +among the Primates.</p> + +<p><i>Cercomys.</i><a id="FNanchor_400" href="#Footnote_400" class="fnanchor">[400]</a>—This South<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_484"></a>[484]</span> American genus is usually placed near +<i>Carterodon</i>, from which it is readily distinguished by the pointed +muzzle and the plain incisors.</p> + +<p><i>Carterodon.</i><a id="FNanchor_401" href="#Footnote_401" class="fnanchor">[401]</a>—This genus, which was originally described upon +the evidence of skulls from the Brazil caves, but subsequently found +living, is readily distinguished by the broad and grooved incisors. +The upper molars have one inner and two outer enamel-folds; +those of the lower jaw being the reverse of this.</p> + +<p><i>Fossil Forms.</i>—Remains of the existing genus <i>Loncheres</i> occur in +the Brazilian cave-deposits, which also yield the extinct <i>Dicolpomys</i>. +A large number of fossil <i>Octodontidæ</i> from the Tertiaries of South +America have been described under many generic names, but it +will be sufficient to mention that <i>Phloramys</i> and <i>Pithanotomys</i> are +considered to be allied to <i>Ctenomys</i>; while <i>Morenia</i>, <i>Orthomys</i>, and +<i>Trilodon</i> show affinity to <i>Myopotamus</i>. <i>Pellegrinia</i>, from the Pleistocene +of Sicily, may be allied both to <i>Ctenodactylus</i> and <i>Octodon</i>.</p> + +<h5><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Theridomyidæ</span>.</h5> + +<p>This extinct family, which is represented in the Tertiaries of +Europe and the United States, comprises several genera of comparatively +small Rodents, which are regarded by Dr. Schlosser as +nearly related to the <i>Octodontidæ</i>, although connected by <i>Archæomys</i> +with the <i>Chinchillidæ</i>. The dental formula is the same as in the +<i>Octodontidæ</i>. In the typical genus <i>Theridomys</i>, from the Lower +Miocene and Upper Eocene of Europe, the molars are rooted, and +have three or four re-entering enamel-folds, which form isolated +discs on the worn crowns. <i>Syllophodus</i>, from the Miocene of the +United States, is closely allied. <i>Protechinomys</i> and <i>Trechomys</i> are +genera from the Phosphorites of Central France with rooted molars; +while in <i>Archæomys</i> of the same deposits the molars are rootless, +with the enamel-folds dividing their crowns into laminæ, as in the +Chinchillas.</p> + +<h5><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Hystricidæ</span>.</h5> + +<p>Build stout. Limbs subequal. A number of long and stout +spines in the integument. Facial portion of skull short and broad, +and the jugal without an inferior angle. Molars with external and +internal enamel-folds; completely or partly rooted.</p> + +<p>Subfamily <b>Synetherinæ</b>.—Molars rooted; clavicles complete; +upper lip not cleft; soles tuberculated; pollex absent; four mammæ; +tail generally prehensile; spines mixed with long hairs. This group +is confined to America, all the forms except one being arboreal, +and their habits less strictly nocturnal than in the next subfamily. +There are three genera.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_485"></a>[485]</span></p> + +<p><i>Erethizon.</i><a id="FNanchor_402" href="#Footnote_402" class="fnanchor">[402]</a>—Represented by the common Canadian Porcupine +(<i>E. dorsatus</i>), a stout heavily-built animal, with long hairs almost +or quite hiding the spines; four anterior and five posterior toes; +and a short stumpy tail. It is a native of the greater part of +Canada and the United States where there is any remnant of the +original forest left. Remains of <i>Erethizon</i> occur in cavern-deposits +in Pennsylvania.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp63" id="figure214" style="max-width: 25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure214.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 214.</span>—The Tree Porcupine (<i>Synetheres prehensilis</i>).</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Synetheres.</i><a id="FNanchor_403" href="#Footnote_403" class="fnanchor">[403]</a>—This genus contains some eight or ten species, +known as Tree Porcupines (<a href="#figure214">Fig. 214</a>), found throughout the tropical +parts of South America, and one of them extending northwards into +Mexico. They are of a lighter build than the Ground Porcupines, +are covered with short, close, many-coloured spines, often mixed with +hairs, and their tails are always prehensile. Their hind feet have +only four toes, owing to the suppression of the hallux; but they +have a peculiar fleshy pad on the inner side of the foot, between +which and the toes boughs and other objects can be firmly grasped +as with<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_486"></a>[486]</span> a hand. Vertebræ: C 7, D 17, L 5, S 3, C 36. An extinct +species of this genus has been described from the cavern-deposits of +Brazil.</p> + +<p><i>Chætomys.</i><a id="FNanchor_404" href="#Footnote_404" class="fnanchor">[404]</a>—Distinguished by the shape of its skull and the +greater complexity of its teeth. It contains only one species +(<i>C. subspinosus</i>), a native of the hottest parts of Brazil.</p> + +<p>Subfamily <b>Hystricinæ</b>.—Molars semi-rooted; clavicles incomplete; +soles smooth; a rudimentary pollex: six mammæ; tail not +prehensile. Now confined to the Old World, where they occur in +Southern Europe, Africa, India, and the Malay Archipelago as +far eastwards as Borneo. Habits terrestrial and nocturnal. Three +genera.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp90" id="figure215" style="max-width: 28.125em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure215.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 215.</span>—The Common Porcupine (<i>Hystrix cristata</i>).</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Hystrix.</i><a id="FNanchor_405" href="#Footnote_405" class="fnanchor">[405]</a>—This genus is readily characterised by the inflated +skull, in which the nasal chamber is often considerably larger than +the brain-case, and by the short tail, tipped with numerous slender +stalked open quills, which make a loud rattling noise when the +animal moves. Vertebræ: C 7, D 15, L 4, S 4, C 12. The best-known +member is the Common Porcupine (<i>H. cristata</i>, <a href="#figure215">Fig. 215</a>), +which occurs throughout Southern Europe and North and West +Africa, but is replaced in South Africa by <i>H. africæ-australis</i>, and +in India by the Hairy-nosed Porcupine (<i>H. leucura</i>).</p> + +<p>The following account of the habits of the last-named species +is from Dr. Jerdon: “<i>Hystrix leucura</i> is found over a great part of +India, from the lower ranges of the Himalayas to the extreme south, +but does not occur in lower Bengal, where it is replaced by <i>H.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_487"></a>[487]</span> +bengalensis</i>. It forms extensive burrows, often in societies, in the +sides of hills, banks of rivers and nullas, and very often in the +dams of tanks, and in old mud walls, etc. In some parts of +the country they are very destructive to various crops, potatoes, +carrots, and other vegetables. They never issue forth till after +dark, but now and then one will be found returning to his lair in +daylight. Dogs take up the scent of the Porcupine very keenly, +and on the Nilghiris I have killed many by the aid of dogs, tracking +them to their dens. They charge backwards at their foes, erecting +their spines at the same time, and dogs generally get seriously injured +by their strong spines, which are sometimes driven deeply +into the assailant. The Porcupine is not bad eating,—the meat, +which is white, tasting something between pork and veal.”</p> + +<p>Besides these three large crested species of <i>Hystrix</i>, there are +four or five smaller species without nuchal crests occurring in +North-East India and in the Malay region, from Nipal to Borneo.</p> + +<p>Fossil species of <i>Hystrix</i> occur in the Pleistocene and Pliocene +of India, and in Europe from the Upper Pliocene to the Middle +Miocene, being perhaps also represented in the French Phosphorites. +Remains from the Pliocene and Miocene of the United States have +been referred to this genus, and if rightly determined are of especial +interest from a distributional point of view.</p> + +<p><i>Atherura.</i><a id="FNanchor_406" href="#Footnote_406" class="fnanchor">[406]</a>—The Brush-tailed Porcupines are much smaller +animals than the last, characterised by their long tails tipped with +bundles of peculiar flattened spines. Of the three species two are +found in the Malay region and one in West Africa. A fossil +species occurs in the cavern-deposits of Madras.</p> + +<p><i>Trichys.</i><a id="FNanchor_407" href="#Footnote_407" class="fnanchor">[407]</a>—This genus contains but one Bornean species (<i>T. +guentheri</i>), externally very like an <i>Atherura</i>, but differing from the +members of that genus in many important cranial characters.</p> + +<h5><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Chinchillidæ</span>.</h5> + +<p>Terrestrial forms, with elongated hind limbs, bushy tails, very +soft fur, and complete clavicles. Jugal without an inferior angle, +and extending forwards to the lachrymal; palate contracted in front +and deeply emarginate behind; incisors short, and the molars +divided by continuous enamel-folds into transverse laminæ. Neotropical +region. This family includes only three existing species, +divided into as many genera.</p> + +<p><i>Chinchilla.</i><a id="FNanchor_408" href="#Footnote_408" class="fnanchor">[408]</a>—In this genus the fore feet have five and the hind +four digits, the tail is long and bushy, and the auditory bullæ are +enormous, appearing on the top of the skull. The one species<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_488"></a>[488]</span> +(<i>C. lanigera</i>) is restricted to the alpine zones of the Andes from the +north of Peru to the south of Chili. It is a Squirrel-like Rodent, +about 10 inches in length, the tail somewhat exceeding 5 inches, +and the ears very large. Its fur is greatly valued on account of +its extreme softness and delicate gray colour.</p> + +<p><i>Lagidium</i><a id="FNanchor_409" href="#Footnote_409" class="fnanchor">[409]</a> and <i>Lagostomus</i>.<a id="FNanchor_410" href="#Footnote_410" class="fnanchor">[410]</a>—<i>Lagidium</i> + has four digits in both +fore and hind feet, and <i>Lagostomus</i> three only in the hind feet, +and the auditory bullæ are much smaller than in the preceding +genus. <i>Lagidium</i> has the same distribution as <i>Chinchilla</i>; while +<i>Lagostomus</i>, as represented by the Viscacha (<i>L. trichodactylus</i>), is +found in the Pampas from the Uruguay River to the Rio Negro. +The Viscachas live in burrows, generally in large numbers, and are +nocturnal in their habits. Remains referable to the existing species, +as well as others which appear to belong to extinct forms, occur in +the Pleistocene deposits of South America.</p> + +<p><i>Extinct Genera.</i>—Several Rodents from the South American +Tertiaries more or less closely allied to <i>Lagostomus</i> have been +described by Dr. Ameghino under the names of <i>Prolagostomus</i>, +<i>Pliolagostomus</i>, etc. The huge <i>Megamys</i> (<i>Potamarchus</i>), from the +infra-Pampean deposits of Parana and Patagonia, is referred to this +family, and has dimensions approximating to those of an Ox. +Other fossil genera have received the names of <i>Epiblema</i> and <i>Tetrastylus</i>.</p> + +<h5><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Castoroididæ</span>.</h5> + +<p><i>Castoroides.</i><a id="FNanchor_411" href="#Footnote_411" class="fnanchor">[411]</a>—The large Beaver-like Rodent with the dimensions +of a Bear from the Pleistocene of the United States described +under this name is regarded by Dr. Coues as the type of a family. +Its dentition is nearest to that of <i>Chinchilla</i> and <i>Hydrochœrus</i>, but +some of the cranial characters are like those of the <i>Castoridæ</i>. The +genera <i>Amblyrhiza</i> and <i>Loxomylus</i>, from the Pleistocene of the +Antilles, appear to be allied types.</p> + +<h5><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Dasyproctidæ</span>.</h5> + +<p>Terrestrial forms with subequal limbs, hoof-like claws, short or +obsolete tail, and rudimentary clavicles. Mandibular masseteric +ridge obsolete; palate broad; incisors long; molars semi-rooted, +with external and internal enamel-folds. Neotropical region.</p> + +<p><i>Dasyprocta.</i><a id="FNanchor_412" href="#Footnote_412" class="fnanchor">[412]</a>—Includes several slender-limbed species, with three +hind toes, commonly called Agoutis, inhabiting Central and South +America, one<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_489"></a>[489]</span> (<i>D. cristata</i>) extending into the West-Indian Islands. +Numerous fossil remains of this genus occur in the cavern-deposits +of Brazil.</p> + +<p><i>Cælogenys.</i><a id="FNanchor_413" href="#Footnote_413" class="fnanchor">[413]</a>—This genus is readily characterised by the presence +of five hind toes, and the extraordinary development of its zygomatic +arches, which are enormously expanded vertically, forming +great convex bony capsules on the sides of the face, enclosing +on each side a large cavity lined with mucous membrane, and +communicating by a small opening with the mouth. The Paca +(<i>C. paca</i>) is about 2 feet long, and, like the species of <i>Dasyprocta</i>, lives +generally in the forests or along the banks of rivers. This species +appears to date from the epoch of the Pleistocene deposits of the +Brazilian caves. A smaller species from Ecuador, living at elevations +of from 6000 to 10,000 feet, has been described as +<i>C. taczanowskii</i>.</p> + +<h5><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Dinomyidæ</span>.</h5> + +<p>Distinguished from the <i>Dasyproctidæ</i> by the cleft upper lip, +rather long and bushy tail, the presence of four digits in both fore +and hind feet, and the complete clavicles. The manubrium is +broad; the optic foramina are confluent; the incisors broad; and +the molars rootless, with enamel-folds dividing them into transverse +laminæ.</p> + +<p><i>Dinomys.</i><a id="FNanchor_414" href="#Footnote_414" class="fnanchor">[414]</a>—The sole representative of this family is the Rodent +known as <i>D. branicki</i>, of which hitherto only a single specimen has +been obtained. This was captured in Peru, where it was found at +daybreak walking about a courtyard; the inhabitants of the district +were previously unacquainted with the species, from which +its extreme rarity may be inferred. Externally it resembles much +the Paca, having similar S-like nostrils; but in the laminated +molars, and many features of the skeleton, it differs from all the +other Rodents with hoof-like nails. It is regarded by its describer, +the late Professor Peters, as a connecting link between the +<i>Octodontidæ</i>, <i>Chinchillidæ</i>, <i>Dasyproctidæ</i>, and <i>Caviidæ</i>.</p> + +<h5><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Caviidæ</span>.</h5> + +<p>Terrestrial or natatorial forms, with short incisors, strong mandibular +masseteric ridges, long and curved paroccipitals, and palate +contracted in front. Fore feet with four digits, hind feet with +three. Clavicles imperfect. Molars divided by enamel-folds into +transverse laminæ; milk-teeth shed before birth. Other characters +as in <i>Dasyproctidæ</i>. Neotropical region.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_490"></a>[490]</span></p> + +<p><i>Cavia.</i><a id="FNanchor_415" href="#Footnote_415" class="fnanchor">[415]</a>—Limbs and ears short, subequal; tail none. Vertebræ: +C 7, D 13, L 6, S 4, C 7. This genus includes several species widely +distributed throughout South America, extending even to the Straits +of Magellan. The Restless Cavy (<i>C. porcellus</i>), which is found +throughout Uruguay and Brazil, has been very generally regarded +as the ancestral form of the domesticated Guinea-Pig. It is about +10 inches long, and weighs a little over a pound; its fur is long +and of a nearly uniform grayish-brown colour. This species is +rarely found in dry sandy localities, preferring marshes covered +with aquatic plants, among which it lies concealed, feeding in the +early morning and after sunset in the evening; but when the soil +is dry it forms burrows. It lives in societies of from six to eighteen +individuals, breeding but once a year, with one, or at most only two, +young at a birth. The Guinea-Pig (probably a misnomer of Guiana-Pig) +is larger than <i>C. porcellus</i>, and is regarded by Dr. Nehring as +descended from another species, <i>C. cutleri</i>. It is white in colour, +with irregular patches of reddish-brown and black. The Bolivian +Cavy (<i>C. boliviensis</i>), found throughout the higher regions of Bolivia, +usually at an elevation of 10,000 or 12,000 feet, is exceedingly +shy, and lives in burrows, which in some districts are so numerous +as to have completely undermined the soil. The Rock-Cavy +(<i>C. rupestris</i>), distinguished by its short, blunt nails, is found in rocky +situations throughout Brazil, and is much sought after for its flesh. +The Southern Cavy (<i>C. australis</i>), common along the coast of Patagonia, +forms deep burrows, with several outlets, in sandy declivities. +Remains of existing species of <i>Cavia</i> are found in the cavern-deposits +of Lagoa Santa, Brazil.</p> + +<p><i>Dolichotis.</i><a id="FNanchor_416" href="#Footnote_416" class="fnanchor">[416]</a>—Characterised by the great length of the ears and +the short tail. The palate is so much contracted in front that the +premolars of opposite sides touch by their antero-internal edges. +Vertebræ: C 7, D 12, L 8, S 3, C 10.</p> + +<p>The Patagonian Cavy (<i>D. patachonica</i>)—the only living representative +of the genus—is rather larger than a Hare, which it +somewhat resembles in external appearance. It inhabits the dry +sterile districts of Patagonia and La Plata, disappearing wherever +the country becomes more humid. This animal burrows in the +earth, although in districts where the Viscacha is found it is said +to avail itself of the works of the latter. Unlike other cavies, its +eyes are protected from the glare of the sun by prominent eyelashes. +The body is covered with a long dense fur of a rusty colour. Two +young are produced at a birth. Three species of <i>Dolichotis</i> have +been described from the Brazilian cave-deposits, one of which is +probably not really separable from the existing form.</p> + +<p><i>Hydrochœrus.</i><a id="FNanchor_417" href="#Footnote_417" class="fnanchor">[417]</a>—A large aquatic form with all <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_491"></a>[491]</span>the feet fully +webbed; the skull (<a href="#figure213">Fig. 213</a>, <a href="#figure213">p. 481</a>) large, with enormous paroccipital +processes; and the molars very complex, the third upper +one having some twelve transverse laminæ. Upper incisors grooved. +Vertebræ: C 7, D 14, L 6, S 3, C 8.</p> + +<p>The Capybara (<i>H. capybara</i>) is the largest existing Rodent, and the +only living representative of the genus. It is a bulky and stoutly +built animal, and attains a length of about 4 feet. The body is +covered with long and coarse hair, reddish-brown above and brownish-yellow +beneath. Capybaras are found over the whole of the +eastern part of South America, and to the westward range into +Bolivia and Peru. They frequent the borders of rivers and lakes, +concealing themselves among reeds and other water plants. Remains +of <i>Hydrochœrus</i> are found in the cavern-deposits of Brazil, which are +probably referable to the existing species; one extinct species from +the Pleistocene of Buenos Ayres is estimated to have attained a +length of 5 feet, while <i>H. magnus</i> of the same deposits was of still +larger dimensions. The genus is also represented in the Pleistocene +of South Carolina and the infra-Pampean beds of Parana.</p> + +<p><i>Extinct Genera.</i>—A number of South American fossil Rodents +have been referred to extinct genera of <i>Caviidæ</i>. Thus <i>Plexochœrus</i>, +from the Tertiary of Argentina, differs from <i>Hydrochœrus</i> in having only +nine laminæ in the last upper molar; <i>Cardiomys</i>, <i>Cardiatherium</i>, etc., +from the infra-Pampeans are also stated to be allied to <i>Hydrochœrus</i>, +while <i>Contracavia</i>, of the same deposits, is related to <i>Cavia</i>, but of +larger size. <i>Microcavia</i>, again, from the Pleistocene of Argentina, is +regarded as connecting <i>Cavia</i> with <i>Dolichotis</i>. The Tertiary European +genera <i>Issiodoromys</i> and <i>Nesocerodon</i> are apparently referable to the +present family.</p> + +<h3><i>Suborder</i> <span class="smcap">Duplicidentata</span>.</h3> + +<p>Two pairs of incisors in the upper jaw (the second very small, +and placed directly behind the large first pair), the enamel of which +extends round to their posterior surfaces. At birth there are +three pairs of these incisors, but the outer one on each side is soon +lost. Incisive foramina large; and usually confluent; bony palate +very narrow from before backwards; no true alisphenoid canal; +fibula ankylosed to the tibia, and articulating with the calcaneum. +Testes permanently external. This suborder includes the Picas, +Hares, and Rabbits, all of which are strictly terrestrial.</p> + +<h4><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Lagomyidæ</span>.</h4> + +<p>Complete clavicles, subequal limbs, no external tail, and short +ears. Skull depressed, frontals contracted and without postorbital +processes; <i>p</i> ¹⁄₁ or ²⁄₂; molars rootless, with transverse enamel-folds. +Palæarctic and Nearctic.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_492"></a>[492]</span></p> + +<p><i>Lagomys.</i><a id="FNanchor_418" href="#Footnote_418" class="fnanchor">[418]</a>—Represented by about a dozen species of small +Guinea-Pig-like animals, inhabiting chiefly the mountainous parts of +Northern Asia (from 11,000 to 14,000 feet), one species only being +known from South-East Europe, and another from the Rocky +Mountains.</p> + +<p>The Picas, or Tailless Hares, live in holes among the rocks of +their native mountains, and are agile and shy little creatures. +The genus is well represented through the upper and middle +Tertiaries. It has been proposed to separate those fossil forms +with <i>p</i> ²⁄₁ as <i>Myolagus</i>, and those with <i>p</i> ¹⁄₁ as <i>Titanomys</i>, but this +seems scarcely advisable.</p> + +<h4><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Leporidæ</span>.</h4> + +<p>Imperfect clavicles, elongated hind limbs, short recurved tail, +and long ears. Skull +(<a href="#figure216">Fig. 216</a>) compressed, +frontals +with large wing-shaped +postorbital +processes <i>p</i> ³⁄₂; molars +as in the <i>Lagomyidæ</i>. +Cosmopolitan (except +Australasia). +Vertebræ: C 7, D +12, L 7, S 4, C 13-15.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp85" id="figure216" style="max-width: 25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure216.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 216.</span>—Skull of Hare (<i>Lepus timidus</i>).</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Lepus.</i><a id="FNanchor_419" href="#Footnote_419" class="fnanchor">[419]</a>—The +single genus <i>Lepus</i> +includes about +twenty species, all +of which resemble +one another in +general external characters. In all the fore limbs have five and +the hind only four digits, and the soles of the feet are densely +clothed with hairs similar to those covering the legs; the inner +surface of the cheeks is also hairy. Although the family has such +a wide distribution, the greater number of the species are restricted +to the Palæarctic and Nearctic regions, only a single species (<i>L. +brasiliensis</i>) extending into South America, where it has existed +since the date of the Pleistocene deposits of the Brazilian caves.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_493"></a>[493]</span></p> + +<p>The Common Hare (<i>L. timidus</i><a id="FNanchor_420" href="#Footnote_420" class="fnanchor">[420]</a>) may be taken as a typical +example of the genus, and is characterised by the great length of +the ears and hind limbs. It is found in all parts of Europe except +the north of Russia, the Scandinavian peninsula, and Ireland. Its +fur is usually of +a tawny gray +colour above and +white beneath, +with the upper +surface of the +short tail and the +tips of the ears +black. The colour +of the fur +differs, however, +considerably in +different latitudes +and at different +seasons of +the year; showing +a tendency +to become white +during winter in northern countries, while assuming a reddish-yellow +hue in the more genial climate of southern Europe. The +Hare is a nocturnal animal, remaining during the day on its “form,” +as the slight depression is called which it makes in the open field, +usually among grass.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp92" id="figure217" style="max-width: 25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure217.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 217.</span>—The Common Hare (<i>Lepus timidus</i>).</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The Mountain Hare (<i>L. variabilis</i>) is found throughout the +northern part of +the Palæarctic +region, ranging +from Ireland in +the west to Japan +in the east, and +also occurring in +several of the +more southerly +mountain ranges, +such as the +Pyrenees, the +Alps, and the +Caucasus. It is +smaller than the +common species, +with a smaller +and more rounded<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_494"></a>[494]</span> +head, and shorter ears, tail, and hind limbs. In cold climates the +colour of the whole animal changes in the winter to a pure white +(as in <a href="#figure218">Fig. 218</a>), with the exception of the tips of the ears, which +remain black. In Ireland no winter change of colour takes place.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp95" id="figure218" style="max-width: 21.875em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure218.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 218.</span>—The Mountain Hare (<i>Lepus variabilis</i>).</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The Rabbit (<i>L. cuniculus</i>), speaking of the wild race only, is +distinguished from the Hare externally by its smaller size, shorter +ears and feet, the absence or reduction of the black patch at +the tip of the ears so characteristic of the Hare, and by its grayer +colour. The skull is smaller and lighter, with a slenderer muzzle +and a longer and narrower palate. Besides these characters, however, +the Rabbit is sharply separated from the Hare by the fact that +it brings forth its young naked, blind, and helpless; to compensate +for this, it digs a deep burrow in the earth in which they are born +and reared, while the young of the Hare are born fully clothed with +fur, and able to take care of themselves in the “form” in which they +are born. The weight of the Rabbit is from 2½ to 3 lbs., although +individuals perfectly wild have been recorded up to more than 5 lbs. +Its general habits are too well known to need a detailed description +here. It breeds from four to eight times a year, bringing forth +each time from three to eight young. Its period of gestation is +about thirty days, and it begins to breed when six months old. +It attains to an age of about seven or eight years.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp85" id="figure219" style="max-width: 25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure219.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 219.</span>—The Rabbit (<i>Lepus cuniculus</i>).</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The geographical distribution of the Rabbit presents many most +interesting peculiarities. It is believed to be originally a native of +the western half of the Mediterranean basin only, and still abounds<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_495"></a>[495]</span> +in Spain, Sardinia, Southern Italy, Sicily, Greece, Tunis, and Algeria; +and many of the Islands adjoining these countries are quite overrun +with it. Thence it has spread, partly by man’s agency, northwards +throughout temperate Western Europe, increasing rapidly wherever +it gains a footing; and this extension is still going on, as is shown +by the case of Scotland, in which sixty years ago Rabbits were little +known, while they are now found in all suitable localities up to the +extreme north. It has also gained admittance into Ireland, and +now abounds there as much as in England. Out of Europe the +same extension of range has been going on. In New Zealand and +Australia Rabbits, introduced either for profit or sport, have increased +to such an extent as to form one of the most serious pests that the +farmers have to contend against, as the climate and soil seem to +suit them perfectly, and their natural enemies are too few and +too lowly organised to keep their numbers within reasonable bounds. +In other cases Rabbits introduced into islands have become or +remained more or less distinct from their parent stock; thus the +Rabbits both of the Falkland Islands and of Jamaica still show traces +of their descent from domesticated varieties, and have never reverted +to the ordinary brownish-gray type. And again, as was pointed +out by Mr. Darwin,<a id="FNanchor_421" href="#Footnote_421" class="fnanchor">[421]</a> the Rabbits in the island of Porto Santo, near +Madeira, whose ancestors were introduced from Spain in 1418 or +1419, have formed quite a distinct diminutive race, barely half the +bulk or weight of English Rabbits, and differing in certain slight +details of colour and habits.</p> + +<div class="bibliography"> + +<p><i>Bibliography of Rodentia.</i>—G. R. Waterhouse, “Observations of the Rodentia,” +<i>Mag. Nat. Hist.</i> iii. (1839); Id. <i>Ann. Nat. Hist.</i> viii. and x. (1839-42); Id. +“On the Geographical Distribution of the Rodentia,” <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1839, pp. +162-174; Id. <i>Natural History of the Mammalia</i>, vol. ii. “Rodentia” (1848); +Gervais, <i>Dic. Univ. d’Hist. Nat.</i> xi. p. 202 (1848); Brandt, “Untersuchungen +über die craniologischen Entwickelungsstufen und Classification der Nager der +Jetzwelt,” <i>Mém. de l’Acad. Impér. de St. Pétersbourg</i> (1855); Lilljeborg, +<i>Systematisk Œfversight af de Gnagnde Däggdjuren</i>, Upsala, 1866; Alston, “On +the Classification of the Order <i>Glires</i>,” <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1876, pp. 61-98; Trouessart, +“Catal. de Rongeurs, Vivants et Fossiles,” <i>Bullet. Soc. d’Études Scient. d’Angers</i>, +1880-1881; Coues and Allen, “Monographs of North American Rodentia,” <i>United +States Geol. Surv. of Territories</i>, vol. xi. (1877); Winge, “Rodentia pa Lagos +Santa, Brazil.” <i>Mus. Lund.</i> vol. iii. (1887); various papers by Peters in <i>Monatsber. +Ak. Berlin</i>, and by Alston, Anderson, Blanford, Dobson, Milne-Edwards, +Thomas, and others, in <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i>, <i>Journ. Asiat. Soc. Beng.</i>, <i>Ann. Mag. +Nat. Hist.</i>, etc.</p> + +</div> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_496"></a>[496]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XI">CHAPTER XI<br> +<span class="smaller">THE ORDER CARNIVORA</span></h2> + +</div> + +<p>Though the existing Carnivora as at present restricted<a id="FNanchor_422" href="#Footnote_422" class="fnanchor">[422]</a> form a +very natural and well-defined order among the Mammalia, it is +difficult to find any important common diagnostic characters by +which they can be absolutely separated; so that, as in the case of +so many other natural groups, it is by the possession of a combination +of various characters that they must be distinguished. Thus +they are all unguiculate, and never have less than four well-developed +toes on each foot, with nails more or less pointed, rarely rudimentary +or absent. The pollex and hallux are never opposable to the other +digits. They are regularly diphyodont and heterodont, and their +teeth are always rooted.<a id="FNanchor_423" href="#Footnote_423" class="fnanchor">[423]</a> Their dentition consists of small pointed +incisors, usually three in number, on either side of each jaw, of +which the first is always the smallest and the third the largest, the +difference being most marked in the upper jaw; strong conical, +pointed, recurved canines; cheek-teeth variable, but generally, +especially in the anterior part of the series, more or less compressed, +pointed, and trenchant; if the crowns are flat and tuberculated +they are never complex or divided into lobes by deep inflexions of +enamel. The condyle of the lower jaw is a transversely placed +half-cylinder working in a deep glenoid fossa of corresponding +form. The brain varies much in relative size and form, but the +hemispheres are never destitute of well-marked convolutions (<a href="#figure023">Fig. +23</a>, <a href="#figure023">p. 71</a>). The stomach (<a href="#figure234">Fig. 234</a>) is always simple and pyriform. +The cæcum is either absent or short and simple (<a href="#figure235">Fig. 235</a>), and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_497"></a>[497]</span> +the colon is not sacculated, or greatly wider than the small intestine. +Vesiculæ seminales are never present. Cowper’s glands are present +in some, absent in other groups. The uterus is bicornuate. The +mammæ are abdominal, and very variable in number. The +placenta is deciduate, and almost always zonary. The clavicle +is often entirely absent, and when present is never complete. The +humerus often has an entepicondylar foramen. The radius and +ulna are distinct. The scaphoid and lunar bones are united into +one, and there is never a distinct os centrale in the adult. The +fibula is always a distinct slender bone.</p> + +<p>Several of these characters are, however, not applicable to all +the members of the extinct group of Carnivores for which the +name Creodonta has been proposed, as will be noticed in the +sequel.</p> + +<p>The large majority of the species composing this order subsist +chiefly upon some variety of animal food, though many are +omnivorous, and some few chiefly, though not entirely, vegetable +eaters. The more typical forms live altogether on recently killed +warm-blooded animals, and their whole organisation is thoroughly +adapted to a predaceous mode of life. In conformity with this +manner of obtaining their subsistence they are generally bold and +savage in disposition, though some species are capable of being +domesticated, and when placed under favourable circumstances for +the development of such qualities exhibit a very high degree of +intelligence and fidelity. The existing representatives of the order +are naturally divided into two suborders, the members of the one +being the more typical, and mainly terrestrial in their mode of life; +while those of the other are aberrant, having the whole of their +organisation specially modified for living habitually in water. +These are called respectively the True, or Fissiped, and the Pinniped +Carnivora.</p> + +<h3><i>Suborder</i> <span class="smcap">Carnivora Vera</span>.</h3> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure220" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure220.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 220.</span>—Left upper carnassial teeth of Carnivora. I, <i>Felis</i>; II, <i>Canis</i>; III, <i>Ursus</i>. +1, Anterior, 2, middle (paracone), and 3, posterior (metacone) cusp of blade; 4, inner tubercle +(protocone) supported on distinct root; 5, inner cusp posterior in position, and without +distinct root, characteristic of the <i>Ursidæ</i>.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>Generally adapted for terrestrial progression and mode of life, +though some may be partially aquatic in their habits. The fore +limbs never have the first digit, or the hind limbs the first and fifth +digits, longer than the others. Incisors ³⁄₃ on each side, with very +rare exceptions. Cerebral hemispheres more or less elongated; +always with three or four gyri on the outer surface forming arches +above each other, the lowest surrounding the Sylvian fissure. The +molar series of teeth have not the uniform characters of those of +the Pinnipedia. There is always one tooth in each jaw which +is specially modified, and to which the name of “sectorial” or +“carnassial” tooth has been applied. The teeth in front of this are +more or less sharp pointed and compressed; while those behind<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_498"></a>[498]</span> it are +broad and tuberculated. The characters of the carnassial teeth +deserve special attention, as, though fundamentally the same +throughout the suborder, they are greatly modified in different +genera. The upper carnassial is the most posterior of the teeth +which have predecessors, and is therefore reckoned as the last +premolar (<i>p</i> ⁴⁄ of the typical dentition). It consists essentially of a +more or less compressed blade supported on two roots and an inner +tubercle supported by a distinct root (see <a href="#figure220">Fig. 220</a>). The blade +when fully developed has three cusps or lobes (1, 2, and 3), but the +anterior is always small, and often absent. The middle lobe is +conical, high, and pointed; the posterior lobe has a compressed +straight knife-like edge. The inner tubercle (4) varies very much +in extent, but is generally placed near the anterior end of the +blade, though sometimes it is median in position. In the <i>Ursidæ</i> +alone both the inner tubercle and root are wanting, and there is +often a small internal and posterior cusp (5) without root. In this +aberrant family also the carnassial is relatively to the other teeth +much smaller than in the rest of the Carnivora. The lower +carnassial (see <a href="#figure221">Fig. 221</a>) is the most anterior of the teeth without +predecessors in the milk-series; it is therefore reckoned the first +true molar (<i>m</i> ¹⁄). It has two roots supporting a crown, consisting +when fully developed of a compressed bilobed blade (1 and 2), a +heel, or talon (4), and an inner cusp (3). The lobes of the blade, +of which the hinder (2) is the larger, are separated by a notch, +generally prolonged into a linear fissure. In the most specialised<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_499"></a>[499]</span> +Carnivora, as the <i>Felidæ</i> (I), the blade alone is developed, both +talon and inner cusp being absent or rudimentary. In others, as +<i>Meles</i> (V) and <i>Ursus</i> (VI), the heel is greatly developed, broad, and +tuberculated. The blade in these cases is generally placed obliquely, +its flat or convex (outer) side looking forwards, so that the two +lobes are almost side by side, instead of anterior and posterior. +The inner cusp (3) is generally conical, pointed, and placed to the +inner side of the hinder lobe of the blade. The special characters +of these teeth are more disguised in the Sea Otter (<i>Latax</i>) than +in any other form, but even in it they can be traced.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp78" id="figure221" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure221.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 221.</span>—Left lower carnassial teeth of Carnivora. I, <i>Felis</i>; II, <i>Canis</i>; III, <i>Herpestes</i>; +IV, <i>Lutra</i>; V, <i>Meles</i>; VI, <i>Ursus</i>. 1, Anterior lobe (paraconid) of blade; 2, posterior (protoconid) +lobe of blade; 3, inner cusp (metaconid); 4, talon (hypoconid). It will be seen that the +relative size of the two roots varies according to the development of the portion of the crown +they have respectively to support.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The homology of the various parts of the Carnivorous carnassial +with the primitive tritubercular type (<a href="#Page_30">p. 30</a>) is indicated in the +figures. It may be observed, however, that the anterior lobe of the +three-lobed upper carnassial is an element added on to the more +primitive two-lobed type. When the talon of the lower carnassial, +as in <i>Canis</i>, consists of a large outer and small inner cusp, the latter +(not seen in the figure) is the entoconid.</p> + +<p>The toes are nearly always armed with large, strong, curved, +and tolerably sharp claws, ensheathing the ungual phalanges, and +held more firmly in their places by broad laminæ of bone reflected<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_500"></a>[500]</span> +over their attached ends from the bases of the phalanges. In some +forms, most notably the <i>Felidæ</i>, these claws are retractile; that is to +say, the ungual phalanx, with the claw attached, folds back in +the fore foot into a sheath by the outer or ulnar side of the middle +phalanx of the digit, being retained in this position when the +animal is at rest by a strong elastic ligament. In the hind foot the +ungual phalanx is retracted on to the top, and not the side of the +middle phalanx. By the action of the deep flexor muscles, the +ungual phalanges are straightened out, the claws protruded from +their sheath, and the soft “velvety” paw becomes suddenly converted +into a most formidable weapon of offence. The habitual +retraction of the claws preserves their points from wear in ordinary +progression.</p> + +<p>The skeleton of the Lion represented in <a href="#figure015">Fig. 15</a> (<a href="#figure015">p. 45</a>) illustrates +the digitigrade mode of progression of the <i>Felidæ</i>, as well +as the essential characters of the bony framework of a typical +Carnivore.</p> + +<p>The Fissipedal Carnivora were divided by Cuvier into two +groups, according to the position of the feet in walking,—the +Plantigrada, or those that place the whole of the soles to the +ground, and the Digitigrada, or those that walk only on the toes; +and the difference between these groups was considered of equal +importance to that which separated the Pinnigrada or Seals from +both of them. The distinction is, however, quite an artificial one, +since every intermediate condition exists between the extreme +typical plantigrade gait of the Bears and the truly digitigrade walk +of the Cats and Dogs; in fact, the greater number of the Carnivora +belong to neither one form nor the other, but may be called +“subplantigrade”; often when at rest applying the whole of the +sole to the ground, but keeping the heel raised to a greater or less +extent when walking.</p> + +<p>An amended classification of the existing forms is into three +distinct sections, of which the Cats, the Dogs, and the Bears may be +respectively taken as representatives, and which are hence called +Æluroidea, Cynoidea, and Arctoidea. This division is founded +mainly on characters exhibited by the base of the skull, but is +corroborated by the structure of other parts.<a id="FNanchor_424" href="#Footnote_424" class="fnanchor">[424]</a> The presence or +absence of a bridge of bone, covering the external carotid artery in +a part of its course by the side of the alisphenoid bone, and enclosing +the “alisphenoid canal” (see <a href="#figure008">Fig. 8</a>, <a href="#figure008">p. 38</a>), a character to which the +late Mr. H. N. Turner first drew attention, might seem unimportant<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_501"></a>[501]</span> +at first sight, but it is curiously constant in certain groups, which +we have other reasons, derived often from a combination of less +easily definable characters, to regard as natural. It is therefore +generally mentioned in the following family definitions.</p> + +<p>It must, however, be stated that while the arrangement is a +convenient one as regards the existing Carnivores, it will not hold +good when the fossil forms are included. Thus there is ample +evidence to show that the Dogs and Bears were formerly so intimately +connected that in a palæontological classification the <i>Canidæ</i> +cannot be satisfactorily separated from the <i>Ursidæ</i>; while in another +direction the <i>Canidæ</i> were closely allied to the ancestral <i>Viverridæ</i>. +The most important objection against this classification is, however, +the apparent intimate connection exhibited by fossil forms between +the <i>Viverridæ</i> and the <i>Mustelidæ</i>, which, so far as the present evidence +goes, tends to show that the latter are derived from the +former. If this be eventually fully proved, it would seem to +indicate that the Arctoidea are not a natural group; and that the +resemblances between the <i>Ursidæ</i> and <i>Mustelidæ</i> have been independently +acquired, in the course of the descent of the one family from +a Canoid, and of the other from a Viverroid stock.</p> + +<h4><i>Section</i> <span class="smcap">Æluroidea</span>.</h4> + +<figure class="figright illowp52" id="figure222" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure222.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 222.</span>—Left side of the palatal aspect of +the cranium and mandible of the Suricate (<i>Suricata +tetradactyla</i>). <i>c</i>, Carotid foramen; <i>f</i>, fissure +in floor of auditory meatus. From Mivart, +<i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1882, p. 184.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The Æluroidea or Cat-like Carnivores include the <i>Felidæ</i>, +<i>Viverridæ</i>, <i>Proteleidæ</i>, and <i>Hyænidæ</i>. +The existing representatives of +this section present the following +common features. Auditory bulla +(<a href="#figure222">Fig. 222</a>) much dilated, rounded +smooth, thin-walled, and (except +in the <i>Hyænidæ</i>) divided into two +chambers, by a septum. Bony +auditory meatus short. Paroccipital +process applied to, and +spread over the hinder part of +the bulla (<a href="#figure222">Fig. 222</a>). Mastoid +process never very salient, and +often obsolete. Carotid canal +(<a href="#figure008">Fig. 8</a>, <a href="#figure008">p. 38</a>, <i>car</i>) small, sometimes +very inconspicuous. Condyloid +and glenoid foramina concealed +or wanting. Cæcum small, +rarely absent. Os penis generally +small and irregular (large in +<i>Cryptoprocta</i>). Cowper’s glands +present; prostate distinctly lobed.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_502"></a>[502]</span> +Some details of the anatomy of +the soft parts will be found under the head of <i>Genetta</i>.</p> + +<h5><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Felidæ</span>.</h5> + +<p>In all the forms, both recent and fossil, which can be included +in this family the canines are strongly developed, there are never +more than one upper and two lower molars, and the three lower +incisors are placed in the same horizontal line. With one exception, +the humerus has an entepicondylar foramen.</p> + +<p>The following characters are common to all the existing +members. True molars reduced to one above and below, that of +the upper jaw very small and transversely extended. Only two +inferior premolars. Upper carnassial with three lobes to the +blade; lower without talon or inner cusp. Auditory bulla not externally +constricted. No alisphenoid canal. Carotid canal very +minute. Digits 5-4. Dorsal vertebræ 13.</p> + +<figure class="figleft illowp92" id="figure223" style="max-width: 25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure223.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 223.</span>—Front view of skull of Lion (<i>Felis leo</i>).</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Felis.</i><a id="FNanchor_425" href="#Footnote_425" class="fnanchor">[425]</a>—The whole structure of the animals of this genus exhibits +the Carnivorous type in its fullest perfection. Dentition: +<i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁄₂, <i>m</i> ¹⁄₁; total 30. A distinctly cusped inner tubercle +to the upper carnassial. +Claws completely +retractile. +The upper anterior +premolar (<i>p.</i> 2), always +small, and may +be absent without +any other modification +in the dental +or other structures. +Such a variation +should not therefore +be considered as +of generic importance. +Incisors very +small. Canines +large, strong, slightly +recurved, with trenchant edges and sharp points, and placed wide +apart (<a href="#figure223">Fig. 223</a>). Premolars compressed and sharp pointed. The +most posterior in the upper jaw (the carnassial), a very large tooth, +consisting of a subcompressed blade, divided into three unequal +lobes supported by two roots, with a very small inner tubercle +placed near the front end of the tooth and supported by a distinct +root (<a href="#figure220">Fig. 220</a>). The upper true molar a very small tubercular +tooth placed more or less transversely at the inner side of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_503"></a>[503]</span> +hinder end of the last. In the lower jaw the true molar (carnassial) +reduced to the blade alone, which is very large, trenchant, and +much compressed, divided into two subequal lobes. Occasionally +it has a rudimentary talon, but never an inner cusp. The skull +is generally short and rounded, though proportionally more elongated +in the larger forms. The facial portion is especially short +and broad, and the zygomatic arches are very wide and strong. +The auditory bullæ are large, rounded, and smooth. Vertebræ: +C 7, D 13, L 7, S 3, C 13-29. Clavicles better developed +than in other Carnivora, but not articulating with either the +scapulæ or sternum. Limbs digitigrade. Anterior feet with +five toes, the third and fourth nearly equal and longest, the +second slightly and the fifth considerably shorter; the pollex +still shorter, not reaching as far as the metacarpo-phalangeal +articulation of the second. Hind feet with only four toes. The +third and fourth the longest, the second and fifth somewhat shorter +and nearly equal; the hallux represented only by the rudimentary +metatarsal bone. The claws all very large, strongly curved, compressed, +very sharp, and exhibiting the retractile condition in the +highest degree. The tail varies greatly in length, being in some a +mere stump, in others nearly as long as the body. Ears of moderate +size, more or less triangular and pointed. Eyes rather large. Iris +very mobile, and with a pupillary aperture which contracts under +the influence of light in some species to a narrow vertical slit, in +others to an oval, and in some to a circular aperture. Tongue +thickly covered with sharp-pointed, recurved horny papillæ. Cæcum +small and simple.</p> + +<p>As in structure so in habits, the Cats may be considered the +most specialised of all the Carnivora. All the known members of +the genus feed, in the natural state, almost exclusively on warm-blooded +animals which they have themselves killed. One Indian +species (<i>F. viverrina</i>) preys on fish and even (it is said) on freshwater +molluscs. Unlike the Dogs, they never associate in packs, and +rarely hunt their prey in open ground, but from some place of concealment +wait until the unsuspecting victim comes within reach, or +with noiseless and stealthy tread, crouching close to the ground for +concealment, approach near enough to make the fatal spring. In +this manner they frequently attack and kill animals considerably +exceeding their own size. They are mostly nocturnal, and the +greater number, especially the smaller species, more or less arboreal. +None are aquatic, and all take to the water with reluctance, though +some may habitually haunt the banks of rivers or pools, because +they more easily obtain their prey in such situations.</p> + +<p>The numerous species of the genus are very widely diffused over +the greater part of the habitable world, though most abundant in +the warm latitudes of both hemispheres. No species are,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_504"></a>[504]</span> however, +found in the Australian region, or in Madagascar. Although the Old-World +and New-World Cats (except perhaps the Northern Lynx) +are all specifically distinct, no common structural character has been +pointed out by which the former can be separated from the latter. +On the contrary, most of the minor groups into which the genus +has been divided have representatives in both hemispheres.</p> + +<p>Notwithstanding the considerable diversity in external appearance +and size between different members of this extensive genus, +the structural differences are but slight, and so variously combined +in different species that the numerous attempts hitherto made to +subdivide it are all unsatisfactory and artificial. The principal +differences are to be found in the form of the cranium, especially +of the nasal and adjoining bones, the completeness of the bony orbit +posteriorly, the development of the first upper premolar and of the +inner tubercle of the upper carnassial, the length of the tail, the form +of the pupil, and the condition and coloration of the fur, especially +the presence or absence of tufts or pencils of hair on the external +ears. Writing in 1881 Professor Mivart<a id="FNanchor_426" href="#Footnote_426" class="fnanchor">[426]</a> gave the number of +existing species of <i>Felis</i> as 48, but by Mr. Blanford’s reduction of +the number of Indian species<a id="FNanchor_427" href="#Footnote_427" class="fnanchor">[427]</a> the list may now be diminished to +some 41. The following account is chiefly devoted to some of the +more important and better known species.</p> + +<p>A. <i>Old World Species.</i>—The Lion (<i>F. leo</i>, <a href="#figure224">Fig. 224</a>) has been +well known to man from the earliest historic times. Its geographical +habitat made it familiar to all the races among whom human +civilisation took its origin, and its strongly marked physical and +moral characteristics have rendered it proverbial, perhaps to an +exaggerated degree, and have in all ages afforded favourite types +for poetry, art, and heraldry. The literature of the ancient Hebrews +abounds in allusions to the Lion; and the almost incredible numbers +that are stated to have been provided for exhibition and destruction +in the Roman amphitheatres (as many as six hundred on a single +occasion by Pompey, for example) show how abundant these +animals must have been within accessible distance of the capital of +the world.</p> + +<p>The geographical range of the Lion was once far more extensive +than at present, even within the historic period covering the whole +of Africa, the south of Asia, including Syria, Arabia, Asia Minor, +Persia, and the greater part of Northern and Central India, and also +the south-eastern portion of Europe, as shown by the well-known +story told by Herodotus of the attacks by Lions on the Camels which +carried the baggage of the army of Xerxes on its march through +the country of the Pæonians in Macedonia. The very circumstantial +account of that historian shows that the animal in his time<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_505"></a>[505]</span> +ranged through the country south of the Balkans, through Roumania +to the west of the River Carasu, and through Thessaly as far +south as the Gulf of Lepanto and the Isthmus of Corinth, having +as its western boundary the River Potamo and the Pindus mountains. +The whole of the evidence relating to the existence of Lions in +Europe, and to their retreat from that continent shortly before the +commencement of the Christian era, has been collected in the article +on “<i>Felis spelæa</i>” in Boyd Dawkins and Sandford’s <i>British Pleistocene +Mammalia</i> (1868). Fossil remains attest a still wider range, as +it is shown in the same work that there is absolutely no osteological +or dental character by which the well-known Cave Lion (<i>F. +spelæa</i>), so abundantly found in cave-deposits of the Pleistocene age +in Western Europe, can be distinguished from the existing <i>F. leo</i>.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp66" id="figure224" style="max-width: 25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure224.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 224.</span>—Lion and Lioness, after a drawing by Wolf in Elliot’s Monograph of the <i>Felidæ</i>.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>At the present day the Lion is found in localities suitable to its +habits, and where not exterminated (as it probably was in Europe) +by the encroachments of man, throughout Africa from Algeria to +the Cape Colony, and in Mesopotamia, Persia, and some parts of +the north-west of India. According to Blanford,<a id="FNanchor_428" href="#Footnote_428" class="fnanchor">[428]</a> Lions are still +very numerous in the reedy swamps bordering the Tigris<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_506"></a>[506]</span> and +Euphrates, and also occur on the west flanks of the Zagros mountains +and the oak-clad ranges near Shiraz, to which they are +attracted by the immense herds of swine which feed on the acorns. +The Lion nowhere exists in the table-land of Persia, nor is it found +in Baluchistan. In India, where it is verging on extinction, it +appears now to be confined to parts of Kattywar and Rajputana, +though within the present century its range extended through the +north-west part of India, from Bahawalpur and Sind to at +least the Jumna (about Delhi), southward as far as Khandesh, and +in Central India through the Saugor and Narbada territories, +Bundelkund, and as far east as Palamau. It was extirpated in +Harriana about 1824. One was killed at Rhyli, in the Dumaoh +district, Saugor and Narbada territories, so late as in the cold +season of 1847-48; and one was shot in 1810 near Kot-Deji, Sind.<a id="FNanchor_429" href="#Footnote_429" class="fnanchor">[429]</a></p> + +<p>The great variations in external characters which different Lions +present, especially in the colour and the amount of mane, has given +rise to the idea that there are several species, or at all events distinct +varieties peculiar to different localities. It was at one time +supposed, on the authority of Captain Walter Smee,<a id="FNanchor_430" href="#Footnote_430" class="fnanchor">[430]</a> that the Lion +of Gujerat differed essentially from that of Africa in the absence of +a mane, but subsequent evidence has not supported this view, which +was probably founded upon young specimens having been mistaken +for adults. Lions from that district as well as from Babylonia, +which have lived in the gardens of the London Zoological Society, +have had as fully developed manes as any other of the species. +Mr. F. C. Selous<a id="FNanchor_431" href="#Footnote_431" class="fnanchor">[431]</a> has shown that in South Africa the so-called +Black-maned Lion and others with yellow scanty manes are found, +not only in the same locality, but even among individuals of the +same parentage.</p> + +<p>The Lion belongs to a well-defined group, containing the largest +members of the genus, and differing from the others in the well-marked +character that the anterior cornu of the hyoid arch is but +little ossified, so that this arch is connected with the cranium by a +long ligament, instead of by a continuous chain of bones, and by +the less important one that the pupil of the eye, when contracted, +is a circular hole, instead of a vertical slit as in the cat. The Lion +agrees with the Tiger and the Leopard in these respects, but differs +from them in its uniform style of colouring, and from all the other +<i>Felidæ</i> in the arrangement of its hairy covering; thus the hair of the +top of the head, chin, and neck, as far back as the shoulder, is not +only very much longer, but also differently disposed from the hair +elsewhere, being erect or directed forwards, and so constituting the +characteristic ornament called the mane. There is also a tuft of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_507"></a>[507]</span> +elongated hairs at the end of the tail, one upon each elbow, and +in most lions a copious fringe along the middle line of the under +surface of the body, wanting, however, in some examples.<a id="FNanchor_432" href="#Footnote_432" class="fnanchor">[432]</a> It must, +however, be observed that these characters are peculiar to the adults +of the male sex only, and that young lions show indications of +the darker stripes and mottlings so characteristic of the greater +number of the members of the genus.</p> + +<p>The usual colour of the adult is yellowish-brown, but it may +vary from a deep red or chestnut brown to an almost silver gray. +The mane, as well as the long hair of the other parts of the body, +sometimes scarcely differs from the general colour, but it is usually +darker and not unfrequently nearly black. The mane begins to +grow when the animal is about three years old, and is fully developed +at five or six.</p> + +<p>In size the Lion is only equalled or exceeded by the Tiger +among the existing <i>Felidæ</i>; though both species present great +variations, the largest specimens of the latter appear to surpass the +largest Lions. A full-sized South African Lion, according to Selous, +measures slightly less than 10 feet from nose to tip of tail, following +the curves of the body. Harris gives 10 feet 6 inches, of which +the tail occupies 3 feet. The Lioness is about a foot less. The +tongue, like that of the other species of the genus, is long and flat, +and remarkable for the development of the papillæ of the anterior +part of the dorsal surface, which (except near the edge) are modified +so as to resemble long, compressed, recurved, horny spines or claws; +these, near the middle line, attaining the length of one-fifth of an +inch. They give the part of the tongue on which they occur the +appearance and feel of a coarse rasp, and serve the purpose of such +an instrument in cleaning the flesh from the bones of the animals +on which the Lions feed.</p> + +<p>The habits of the Lion in a state of nature are fairly well known +from the united observations of numerous travellers and sportsmen +who have explored those districts of the African continent in which +it is still common. It lives chiefly in sandy plains and rocky places +interspersed with dense thorn-thickets, or frequents the low bushes +and tall rank grass and reeds that grow along the sides of streams +and near the springs where it lies in wait for the larger herbivorous +animals on which it feeds. Although it is occasionally seen abroad +during the day, especially in wild and desolate regions, where it is +subject to but little molestation, the night is, as in the case of so +many other predaceous animals,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_508"></a>[508]</span> the period of its greatest activity. +It is then that its characteristic roar is chiefly heard, as thus graphically +described by Gordon Cumming:—</p> + +<p>“One of the most striking things connected with the Lion is +his voice, which is extremely grand and peculiarly striking. It +consists at times of a low, deep moaning, repeated five or six times, +ending in faintly audible sighs; at other times he startles the forest +with loud, deep-toned, solemn roars, repeated in quick succession, +each increasing in loudness to the third or fourth, when his voice +dies away in five or six low muffled sounds very much resembling +distant thunder. At times, and not unfrequently, a troop may be +heard roaring in concert, one assuming the lead, and two, three, or +four more regularly taking up their parts, like persons singing a +catch. Like our Scottish stags at the rutting season, they roar +loudest in cold frosty nights; but on no occasions are their voices +to be heard in such perfection, or so intensely powerful, as when +two or three troops of strange Lions approach a fountain to drink +at the same time. When this occurs, every member of each troop +sounds a bold roar of defiance at the opposite parties; and when +one roars, all roar together, and each seems to vie with his comrades +in the intensity and power of his voice. The power and grandeur +of these nocturnal concerts are inconceivably striking and pleasing to +the hunter’s ear.”</p> + +<p>“The usual pace of a Lion,” C. J. Andersson<a id="FNanchor_433" href="#Footnote_433" class="fnanchor">[433]</a> says, “is a walk, +and, though apparently rather slow, yet, from the great length of +his body, he is able to get over a good deal of ground in a short +time. Occasionally he trots, when his speed is not inconsiderable. +His gallop—or rather succession of bounds—is, for a short distance, +very fast—nearly or quite equal to that of a horse. Indeed, unless +the steed has somewhat the start when the beast charges, it will be +puzzled to escape. Many instances are on record of horsemen who +have incautiously approached too near to the Lion, prior to firing, +who have been pulled down by him before they could get out of +harm’s way. Happily, however, the beast soon tires of the exertion +of galloping, and unless his first rush succeeds he, for the most part, +soon halts and beats a retreat.” “The Lion, as with other members +of the feline family,” the same writer tells us, “seldom attacks his +prey openly, unless compelled by extreme hunger. For the most part +he steals upon it in the manner of a cat, or ambushes himself near +to the water or a pathway frequented by game. At such times he +lies crouched upon his belly in a thicket until the animal approaches +sufficiently near, when, with one prodigious bound, he pounces upon +it. In most cases he is successful, but should his intended victim +escape, as at times happens, from his having miscalculated the +distance, he may make a second or even a third bound, which, +however, usually prove fruitless, or he returns disconcerted <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_509"></a>[509]</span>to his +hiding-place, there to wait for another opportunity.” His food consists +of all the larger herbivorous animals of the country in which +he resides—buffaloes, antelopes, zebras, giraffes, or even young +elephants or rhinoceroses, though the adults of these latter he dare +not attack. In cultivated districts the cattle, sheep, and even human +inhabitants are never safe from his nocturnal ravages. He appears, +however, as a general rule, only to kill when hungry or attacked, +and not for the mere pleasure of killing, as with some other carnivorous +animals. Moreover, he by no means limits himself to +animals of his own killing, but, according to Selous, often prefers +eating game that has been killed by man, even when not very fresh, +to taking the trouble to catch an animal himself. All books of +African travel and sport abound with stories, many of which are +apparently well authenticated, of the lion’s prodigious strength, as, +exemplified by his being able to drag off a whole ox in his mouth +to a long distance, even leaping fences and dykes with it.</p> + +<p>The Lion appears to be monogamous, a single male and female +continuing attached to each other irrespectively of the pairing +season. At all events the Lion remains with the Lioness while the +cubs are young and helpless, and assists in providing her and them +with food, and in educating them in the art of providing for themselves. +The number of cubs at a birth is from two to four, usually +three. They are said to remain with their parents till they are +about three years old. The following account by an eye-witness +gives a good idea of Lion family life<a id="FNanchor_434" href="#Footnote_434" class="fnanchor">[434]</a>:—</p> + +<p>“I once had the pleasure of, unobserved myself, watching a +lion family feeding. I was encamped on the Black Umfolosi in +Zululand, and towards evening, walking out, about half a mile +from camp, I saw a herd of zebra galloping across me, and when +they were nearly 200 yards off, I saw a yellow body flash towards +the leader, and saw him fall beneath the lion’s weight. There +was a tall tree about 60 yards from the place, and anxious to see +what went on, I stalked up to it, while the lion was still too much +occupied to look about him, and climbed up. He had by this time +quite killed the beautifully striped animal, but instead of proceeding +to eat it, he got up and roared vigorously, until there was an +answer, and in a few minutes a lioness, accompanied by four +whelps, came trotting up from the same direction as the zebra, +which no doubt she had been to drive towards her husband. +They formed a fine picture as they all stood round the carcase, +the whelps tearing it and biting it, but unable to get through the +tough skin. Then the lion lay down, and the lioness driving her +offspring before her did the same four or five yards off, upon which +he got up, and, commencing to eat, had soon finished a hind leg,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_510"></a>[510]</span> +retiring a few yards on one side as soon as he had done so. The +lioness came up next and tore the carcase to shreds, bolting huge +mouthfuls, but not objecting to the whelps eating us much as they +could find. There was a good deal of snarling and quarrelling +among these young lions, and occasionally a stand-up fight for a +minute, but their mother did not take any notice of them, except +to give them a smart blow with her paw if they got in her way.... +There was now little left of the zebra but a few bones, which +hundreds of vultures were circling round waiting to pick, while +almost an equal number hopped awkwardly about on the ground +within 50 or 60 yards of it, and the whole lion family walked +quietly away, the lioness leading, and the lion, often turning his +head to see that they were not followed, bringing up the rear.”</p> + +<p>Though not strictly gregarious, Lions appear to be sociable +towards their own species, and often are found in small troops, +sometimes consisting of a pair of old Lions, with their nearly full-grown +cubs, but occasionally of adults of the same sex; and there +seems to be good evidence that several Lions will associate together +for the purpose of hunting upon a preconcerted plan. As might +be supposed, their natural ferocity and powerful armature are +sometimes turned upon one another; combats, often mortal, occur +among male Lions under the influence of jealousy; and Andersson +relates an instance of a quarrel between a hungry Lion and Lioness +over the carcase of an Antelope which they had just killed, and +which did not seem sufficient for the appetite of both, ending in +the Lion not only killing, but even devouring his mate. Old Lions, +whose teeth have become injured with constant wear, often become +“man-eaters,” finding their easiest means of obtaining a subsistence +in lurking in the neighbourhood of villages, and dashing into the +tents at night and carrying off one of the sleeping inmates. Lions +differ from most of the smaller <i>Felidæ</i> in never climbing trees; +indeed, as mentioned before, they are rarely found in forests.</p> + +<p>With regard to the character of the Lion, those who have had +opportunities of observing it in its native haunts differ greatly. +The exaggerated accounts of early writers as to its courage, +nobility, and magnanimity have led to a reaction, which causes +some modern authors to speak of it in language quite the reverse, +and to accuse it of positive cowardice and all kinds of meanness. +Livingstone goes so far as to say, “Nothing that I ever learned of +the lion could lead me to attribute to it either the ferocious or +noble character ascribed to it elsewhere,” and he adds that its roar +is not distinguishable from that of the ostrich. Of course these +different estimates depend to a great extent upon the particular +standard of the writer, and also upon the circumstance that +Lions, like other animals, undoubtedly show considerable individual +differences in character, and behave differently under varying circumstances.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_511"></a>[511]</span> +They are certainly not so reckless as to be entirely +devoid of the instinct of self-preservation, and if one, perhaps +satiated with a good meal the night before, unexpectedly disturbed +in the daytime, will occasionally retreat when confronted, even by +an unarmed man, that is scarcely a reason for assigning cowardice +as one of the characteristics of the species. The latest authority, +Selous, while never denying the daring courage of the Lion when +hungry or provoked, and vindicating the awe-inspiring character of +the roar of several Lions in unison, when heard at close quarters, +as the grandest sound in nature, says with regard to its outward +aspect:—</p> + +<p>“It has always appeared to me that the word ‘majestic’ is +singularly inapplicable to the lion in its wild state, as when seen +by daylight he always has a stealthy furtive look that entirely +does away with the idea of majesty. To look majestic a lion +should hold his head high. This he seldom does. When walking +he holds it low, lower than the line of his back, and it is only +when he first becomes aware of the presence of man that he sometimes +raises his head and takes a look at the intruder, usually +lowering it immediately, and trotting away with a growl. When +at bay, standing with open mouth and glaring eyes, holding his +head low between his shoulders, and keeping up a continuous low +growling, twitching his tail the while from side to side, no animal +can look more unpleasant than a lion; but there is then nothing +majestic or noble in his appearance.”</p> + +<p>Notwithstanding this evidently truthful description of the +animal when seen under what may be called unfavourable circumstances, +no one with an eye for beauty can contemplate the form +of a fine specimen of a Lion, at all events in a state of repose, even +though in the confinement of a menagerie, without being impressed +with the feeling that it is a grand and noble-looking animal.</p> + +<p>The Tiger (<i>F. tigris</i>) is so closely related to the Lion that it is +chiefly by external characters that the two species are distinguished. +There are, however, slight distinctions in the proportionate size of +the lower teeth, the general form of the cranium, and the relative +length of the nasal bones and ascending processes of the maxillaries +by which the skull of the Lion and Tiger can be easily discriminated +by the practised observer.</p> + +<p>Although examples of both species present considerable variations +in size, and reliance cannot always be placed upon alleged +dimensions, especially when taken from skins stripped from the +body, it seems well ascertained that the length of the largest-sized +Bengal Tiger may exceed that of any Lion. According to Mr. W. +T. Blanford,<a id="FNanchor_435" href="#Footnote_435" class="fnanchor">[435]</a> adult males measure from 5½ to 6½ feet from the +nose to the root of the tail; the tail itself measuring some 3 feet<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_512"></a>[512]</span> +in length. Measured along the curves of the head and back to the +tip of the tail, males usually give a length of from 9 to 10 feet, +but some specimens reach to 12 feet. The female is somewhat +smaller, and has a lighter and narrower head. The Tiger has no +mane, but in old males the hair of the cheeks is rather long and +spreading. The ground colour of the upper and outer parts of the +head, body, limbs, and tail is a bright rufous fawn, and these parts +are beautifully marked with transverse stripes of a dark, almost +black colour. The markings vary much in different individuals, +and even on the two sides of the same individual. The under +parts of the body, the inside of the limbs, the cheeks, and a large +spot over each eye are nearly white. The Tigers which inhabit +hotter regions, as Bengal and the south Asiatic islands, have shorter +and smoother hair, and are more richly coloured and distinctly +striped than those of Northern China and Siberia, in which the fur +is longer, softer, and lighter coloured.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp79" id="figure225" style="max-width: 28.125em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure225.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 225.</span>—The Tiger (<i>Felis tigris</i>).</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The Tiger is exclusively Asiatic, but has a very wide range in +that continent, having been found in almost all suitable localities +south of a line drawn from the river Euphrates, passing along the +southern shores of the Caspian and Sea of Aral by Lake Baikal to +the Sea of Okhotsk. Its most northern range is the territory +of the Amur, its most southern the islands of Sumatra, Java, and +Bali. Westward it reaches to Turkish Georgia and eastward to<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_513"></a>[513]</span> +the island of Saghalin. It is absent, however, from the great +elevated plateau of Central Asia, nor does it inhabit Ceylon, +Borneo, or the other islands of the Indo-Malayan Archipelago, +except those above mentioned. Its absence from Ceylon leads +Mr. Blanford to conclude that the Tiger has only recently migrated +into Southern India.</p> + +<p>The principal food of the Tiger in India is cattle, deer, wild hog, +and pea-fowl, and occasionally human beings. The regular “man-eater” +is generally an old Tiger whose vigour is passed, and whose +teeth are worn and defective; it takes up its abode in the neighbourhood +of a village, the population of which it finds an easier +prey than the larger or wilder animals named above. Though +chiefly affecting grassy plains or swamps, it is also found in forests, +and seems to be fond of haunting the neighbourhood of old ruins. +As a rule, Tigers do not climb trees; but when pressed by fear, as +during an inundation, they have been known to do so. They take +to the water readily and are good swimmers. The Tigers of the +Sundarbans (Ganges delta) continually swim from one island to the +other to change their hunting-grounds for deer. The following +extract on the habits of the Tiger is taken from Sir J. Fayrer’s +<i>Royal Tiger of Bengal</i> (1875):—</p> + +<p>“The tigress gives birth to from two to five, even six cubs; +but three is a frequent number. She is a most affectionate and +attached mother, and generally guards and trains her young with +the most watchful solicitude. They remain with her until nearly +full grown, or about the second year, when they are able to kill for +themselves and begin life on their own account. Whilst they +remain with her she is peculiarly vicious and aggressive, defending +them with the greatest courage and energy, and when robbed of +them is terrible in her rage; but she has been known to desert +them when pressed, and even to eat them when starved. As soon +as they begin to require other food than her milk, she kills for +them, teaching them to do so for themselves by practising on small +animals, such as deer and young calves or pigs. At these times +she is wanton and extravagant in her cruelty, killing apparently +for the gratification of her ferocious and bloodthirsty nature, and +perhaps to excite and instruct the young ones, and it is not until +they are thoroughly capable of killing their own food that she +separates from them. The young tigers are far more destructive +than the old. They will kill three or four cows at a time, whilst +the older and more experienced rarely kill more than one, and this +at intervals of from three or four days to a week. For this purpose +the tiger will leave its retreat in the dense jungle, proceed to +the neighbourhood of a village or gowrie, where cattle feed, and +during the night will steal on and strike down a bullock, drag it +into a secluded place, and then remain near the ‘marrie,’ or<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_514"></a>[514]</span> +‘kill,’ for several days, until it has eaten it, when it will proceed +in search of a further supply, and, having found good hunting +ground in the vicinity of a village or gowrie, continue its ravages, +destroying one or two cows or buffaloes a week. It is very fond of +the ordinary domestic cattle, which in the plains of India are +generally weak, half-starved, under-sized creatures. One of these +is easily struck down and carried or dragged off. The smaller +buffaloes are also easily disposed of; but the buffalo bulls, and +especially the wild ones, are formidable antagonists, and have +often been known to beat the Tiger off, and even to wound him +seriously.”</p> + +<p>In many districts of India the number of Tigers has been very +considerably diminished of late years. In some other countries +they appear, however, to be on the increase; thus according to +one of the administration reports of Java laid before the Dutch +Chambers, portions of that island are being depopulated through +Tigers. In 1882 the population of a village in the south-west of +the Bantam province was removed and transferred to an island off +the coast in consequence of the trouble caused to the people by +Tigers. These animals have now become an intolerable pest in +parts of the same province. The total population is about 600,000, +and, in 1887, sixty-one were killed by Tigers, and in consequence +of the dread existing among the people, it has been proposed to +deport the inhabitants of the villages most threatened to other +parts of the country where Tigers are not so common, and where +they can pursue their agricultural occupations with a greater +degree of security. At present they fear to go anywhere near +the borders of the forest. The people seem disinclined, or they +lack the means and courage, to attack and destroy their enemy, +although considerable rewards are offered by Government for the +destruction of beasts of prey. In 1888 the reward for killing a +Royal Tiger was raised to two hundred florins. It appears also that +the immunity of the Tiger is in part due to superstition, for it is +considered wrong to kill one unless he attacks first or otherwise +does injury.</p> + +<p>The Leopard (<i>F. pardus</i>, <a href="#figure226">Fig. 226</a>), although belonging to the +same restricted group as the two preceding species, is distinguished +from both by its inferior size, and its coloration. The animal +now commonly known as the Leopard was called Pard (πάρδος and +πάρδαλις) or Panther (πάνθηρ) by the ancients. Leopard (<i>leo-pardus</i>) +is a later term, originally applied, it is believed, to the Cheeta or +Hunting Leopard, upon the supposition that it was a creature +intermediate between the Lion and the true Pard. If so it has +been completely transferred to the more common species, and +though in this sense a perfectly unnecessary and unmeaning term, +has gradually superseded those by which this was originally known.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_515"></a>[515]</span> +Pard, so commonly used by Elizabethan authors, is now nearly +obsolete in the English language, and Panther has either become +synonymous with Leopard, or is used vaguely for any similar large +feline animal, even the Puma of America.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp67" id="figure226" style="max-width: 28.125em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure226.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 226.</span>—The Leopard (<i>Felis pardus</i>).</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>Owing to their extensive geographical range, and the great +variations, both in size, form, and coloration to which Leopards are +subject, zoologists have scarcely decided whether all the forms +popularly referred to this animal should be regarded as specifically +alike, or whether they should constitute several distinct species, +but the prevailing opinion is in favour of the former view. The +attempts to separate a larger and more robust variety, under the +name of Panther, from a smaller and more graceful form, to which +the term Leopard might properly be restricted, have failed, owing +to the existence of intermediate conditions which cannot be assigned +definitely to either one or the other form.<a id="FNanchor_436" href="#Footnote_436" class="fnanchor">[436]</a> The most marked +anatomical difference yet noted in different varieties of leopard is +in the length of the tail as compared with that of the body, even +the number of the caudal vertebræ showing variation, though within +what limits, and whether correlated with other characters, has not<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_516"></a>[516]</span> +yet been clearly ascertained. The fur of those specimens which +inhabit the most northern confines of its range of distribution, as +North China, is longer and softer, and the markings are consequently +less distinct than on those from more congenial climates, +and the well-marked variation thus produced has given rise to the +idea of specific distinction.</p> + +<p>The size of different individuals, as before said, varies greatly, +the head and body usually measuring from 3½ to 4½ feet in length, +and the tail from 2½ to 3 feet, but specimens have been met with +which fall short of or exceed these limits. The ground colour of +the fur varies from a pale fawn to a rufous buff, graduating into a +pure white on the under parts and inside of the limbs. This is +spotted over with dark brown or black; the spots on the back and +sides being arranged in rosettes or broken rings, which vary greatly +in size and distinctness in different individuals, but are without the +central spot seen in those of the Jaguar. The spots on the under +parts and limbs are simple and blacker than those on the other parts +of the body. The bases of the ears behind are black, the tips buff. +The upper side of the tail is buff, spotted with broken rings like +the back, its under surface white with simple spots. The hair of +the cubs is longer than that of the adults, its ground colour less +bright, and its spots less distinct. Perfectly black Leopards, which, +however, in certain lights show the characteristic markings on the +fur, are not uncommon. These appear to be examples of melanism, +occurring as individual variations, sometimes in one cub out of a +litter of which the rest are normally coloured, and therefore not +indicating a distinct race, much less a species. These are met +with chiefly in Southern Asia. We are not aware of any recorded +case from Africa, though there seems no reason why they should +not occur.</p> + +<p>In habits the Leopard resembles the other large Cat-like animals, +yielding to none in the ferocity and bloodthirstiness of its disposition. +It is exceedingly quick and active in its movements, but +seizes its prey by waiting in ambush or stealthily approaching to +within springing distance, when it suddenly rushes upon it and +tears it to the ground with its powerful claws and teeth. It preys +upon almost any animal it can overcome, such as antelopes, deer, +sheep, goats, monkeys, peafowls, and is said to have a special liking +for dogs. It not unfrequently attacks human beings in India, +chiefly children and old women, but instances have been known of +a Leopard becoming a regular “man-eater.” When favourable +opportunities occur, it often kills many more victims than it can +devour at once, apparently to gratify its propensity for killing, or +only for the sake of their fresh blood. It generally inhabits woody +districts, and can climb high trees with facility if necessary for its +safety when hunted, but usually lives on or near the ground, among +rocks, bushes, and roots and low branches of large trees.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_517"></a>[517]</span></p> + +<p>The present geographical range of the Leopard is very extensive, +as it is met with in various suitable localities, where not too much +interfered with by human cultivation, throughout the greater part +of Africa from Algeria to the Cape Colony, and through the whole +of the South of Asia from Palestine to China, including all India +south of the Himalaya, and the islands of Ceylon, Java, Sumatra, +and Borneo. Fossil bones and teeth, indistinguishable from those +of existing Leopards, have been found in cave-deposits of Pleistocene +age in Spain, France, Germany, and England. The evidence +of the former existence of the Leopard in England is described at +length by Boyd Dawkins and Sanford in their <i>British Pleistocene +Mammalia</i>.<a id="FNanchor_437" href="#Footnote_437" class="fnanchor">[437]</a></p> + +<p>The Ounce, or Snow Leopard (<i>F. uncia</i>), inhabits the highlands +of Central Asia, from the lofty mountains of Tibet to the southern +parts of Siberia, at altitudes of from 9000 to 18,000 feet above the +sea. It is about the size of the common Leopard, but lighter in +colour, with longer fur, less distinct spots, and a long thick tail. +Its skull differs in shape from that of all the other <i>Felidæ</i>; the +facial portion being very broad, the nasal bones especially being +wide and depressed, and the zygomatic arches very strong and +deep. The Clouded Tiger (<i>F. nebulosa</i><a id="FNanchor_438" href="#Footnote_438" class="fnanchor">[438]</a>) is a beautifully marked +species, with elongated head +and body, long tail, and rather +short limbs. The canine teeth +are proportionally longer than +in any existing member of +the genus. It is thoroughly +arboreal, and is found in the +forests of South-East Asia and +the islands of Sumatra, Java, +Borneo, and Formosa. +<i>F. serval</i>, the Serval, from +South Africa, is yellow with +black spots, and has a short +tail and large ears. Numerous +smaller species called Tiger +Cats and Wild Cats, of which +the Oriental <i>F. marmorata</i> +(<a href="#figure227">Fig. 227</a>) is a good example, +are found throughout the +warmer parts of Asia and +Africa. The Wild Cat of Europe, <i>F. catus</i>, still inhabits the +mountainous and wooded parts of Great Britain.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp64" id="figure227" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure227.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 227.</span>—The Marbled Cat (<i>Felis marmorata</i>). +From Blanford, <i>Mammalia of British India</i>, p. 74, +after Elliot.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_518"></a>[518]</span></p> + +<p>The Caffre Cat (<i>F. caffra</i><a id="FNanchor_439" href="#Footnote_439" class="fnanchor">[439]</a>), of Africa and Southern Asia, was the +species held in veneration by the ancient Egyptians, and immense +numbers of its mummified remains have recently been found in +Egypt, whence they have been imported in large quantities to this +country for manure. This species is generally regarded as the +main ancestral stock from which the European Domestic Cat has +been derived; one of the arguments in support of this opinion being +that the whole of the sole of the hind foot of <i>F. caffra</i> is black, and +that the same feature obtains in the darker varieties of the Domestic +Cat; while in <i>F. catus</i> there are only spots of black upon this +portion of the limb. Remains of the Caffre Cat occur in the +Pleistocene cave-deposits at Gibraltar. The Indian <i>F. rubiginosa</i> is +the smallest species of Cat.</p> + +<p>The Caracal or Persian Lynx (<i>F. caracal</i>) is an animal about +the size of a fox, of slender build, with a moderately long tail, +reaching down to the heels. It is of a uniform vinous or bright +fulvous brown colour above, and is paler, sometimes almost white, +beneath. It is quite or almost entirely unspotted. The tail has a +black tip, and the ears are black externally, long, upright, pointed, +and surmounted by a pencil of fine black hairs. It inhabits Central +and North-West India, Persia, Arabia, Syria, and the greater part +of Africa.</p> + +<p>The true Lynxes comprise various species or varieties found +in the northern and temperate regions of both the Old and New +World, all larger than the true Wild Cats, with long limbs, short +stumpy tail, ears tufted at the tip, and pupil of the eye linear when +contracted. Their fur is generally long and soft, varying, however, +according to season and locality, and always longish upon the +cheeks. Their colour is always light brown or gray, and generally +more or less spotted with a darker shade. The naked pads of the +feet are more or less covered by the hair that grows between them. +The skull and skeleton do not differ markedly from those of the +other cats, but the small anterior upper premolar tooth found in +many other species is usually wanting; and the lower carnassial has a +rudimental talon. Their habits are exactly those of the other Wild +Cats, and they are exceeded by none in the untameable savageness +of their disposition. They capture their prey in the same manner, +either lying in wait, or noiselessly stealing within reach, and then +making a sudden rush or spring upon it. Their food consists of +any mammals or birds which they can overpower. In inhabited +countries they commit extensive ravages upon sheep, lambs, and +poultry. Lynxes generally frequent rocky places and forests, being +active climbers, and passing much of their time among the branches +of the trees. Their skins are of considerable commercial value.</p> + +<p>Zoologists are by no means agreed at present as to the specific +distinctions, if any really exist, between the various modifications<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_519"></a>[519]</span> +of this group. As many as eight species are sometimes recognised, +four belonging to the Old and four to the New World. The former +are <i>F. lynx</i>, of Scandinavia, Russia, Northern Asia, and till lately +the forest regions of Central Europe; though not an inhabitant of +Britain during the historic period, its remains have been found in +cave-deposits of Pleistocene age; <i>F. cervaria</i>, Siberia; <i>F. pardina</i>, +Turkey, Greece, Sicily, Sardinia, and Spain; and <i>F. isabellina</i>, Tibet. +The American varieties are <i>F. canadensis</i>, the most northern species, +and <i>F. rufa</i>, the American Wild Cat or Bay Lynx, extensively distributed +from the Atlantic to the Pacific throughout nearly the +whole latitude of the United States, but replaced in Texas and +southern California by <i>F. maculata</i>, and in northern Oregon and +Washington territory by <i>F. fasciata</i>.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="figure228" style="max-width: 25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure228.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 228.</span>—European Lynx (<i>Felis lynx</i>). From a drawing by Wolf in Elliot’s +<i>Monograph of the Felidæ</i>.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>In both cases, as might be supposed, specimens obtained from +the more southern climates are shorter in their fur, more brightly +coloured, and more distinctly spotted than those from colder regions. +When only a few individuals of each most markedly different form +are examined the distinctions are sufficiently evident. The occurrence, +however, of transitional or intermediate forms makes it +extremely difficult to draw the line between the different varieties +or species, or to assign definite characters by which they can be +separated. Wherefore it is best at present to accept the so-called<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_520"></a>[520]</span> +species as only provisional, and wait until more abundant materials, +with fuller knowledge of the localities from which they are derived, +and of the variations due to age, sex, season, and climate, have +been more carefully studied. We shall then probably come to the +conclusion that all or nearly all the existing forms of northern +Lynxes, whether American or Eurasian, belong to what may fairly +be called a species, which is becoming by degrees differentiated into +several more or less strongly marked local varieties. Mr. W. T. +Blanford has indeed shown that the Tibetan Lynx (<i>F. isabellina</i>) +is inseparable from <i>F. lynx</i>; the specimens from Gilgit being intermediate +in colour between the typical forms of the two races. +On the other hand, from the evidence of cranial characters, Professor +Mivart is disposed to regard <i>F. pardina</i> as a valid species.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp84" id="figure229" style="max-width: 28.125em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure229.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 229.</span>—The Puma (<i>Felis concolor</i>).</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>B. <i>New World Species.</i>—The Puma or Couguar (<i>F. concolor</i>, <a href="#figure229">Fig. +229</a>), commonly called “Panther” in the United States, is about +the size of a Leopard, but of an uniform brown colour. It usually +measures from nose to root of tail about 40 inches, the tail being +rather more than half that length. The head is rather small compared +with that of other Cats and has no mane. The ears are large +and rounded. The tail is cylindrical, with some bushy elongation +of the hairs near the end, but not forming a distinct tuft as in the +Lion. The general colour of all the upper parts and sides of the +adult is a tawny yellowish-brown, sometimes having a gray or +silvery shade, but in some individuals dark or inclining to red.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_521"></a>[521]</span> +The lower parts of the body, inner surface of the limbs, the +throat, chin, and upper lip are dirty white; the outside of the ears, +particularly at their base, and a patch on each side of the muzzle +black; the end of the tail dusky. The young are, when born, +spotted with dusky brown and the tail ringed; these markings +gradually fading, and quite disappearing before the animal becomes +full-grown.</p> + +<p>The Puma has an exceedingly wide range of geographical +distribution, extending over a hundred degrees of latitude, from +Canada in the north to Patagonia in the south, and was formerly +pretty generally diffused in suitable localities from the Atlantic to +the Pacific Ocean, but the advances of civilisation have in recent +years considerably curtailed the extent of the districts which it +inhabits. In Central America it is still common in the dense forests +which clothe the mountain ranges as high as 8000 or 9000 feet +above the sea-level, where the hideous sound of its howling is +said to be almost continuously heard at night during the breeding +season. Though an expert climber, it is by no means confined to +wooded districts, being frequently found in scrub and reeds along +the banks of rivers, and even in the open pampas and prairies. Its +habits much resemble those of the rest of the group to which it +belongs; and, like the Leopard, when it happens to come within +reach of an abundant and easy prey, as the sheep or calves of an +outlying farming station, it kills far more than it can eat, either +for the sake of the blood only or to gratify its propensity for +destruction. It rarely attacks man, and, when pursued, escapes if +possible by ascending lofty trees. Several instances have occurred +of Pumas becoming tame in captivity. Edmund Kean, the celebrated +actor, had one which followed him about like a dog. When +caressed they express their pleasure by purring like a domestic +cat.</p> + +<p><i>F. onca</i>, the Jaguar, is a larger and more powerful animal than +the last, and more resembles the Leopard in its colours. It also is +found in both North and South America, but with less extensive +range, reaching northwards only as far as Texas, and southwards +nearly to Patagonia. It climbs as well as the Puma, and preys to +a great extent upon monkeys. Several allied smaller elegantly +spotted forms inhabiting the intratropical regions of America are +commonly included under the name of Ocelot or Tiger Cat, though +zoologists are still undecided whether under this designation several +distinct species have not been confused, or whether all the Ocelots +are to be referred to a single species (<i>F. pardalis</i>) showing great +individual or racial variation. Their fur has always a tawny yellow +or reddish-gray ground colour, and is marked with black spots, +aggregated in streaks and blotches, or in elongated rings enclosing +an area which is rather darker than the general ground colour.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_522"></a>[522]</span> +They range through the wooded parts of tropical America, from +Arkansas in the north as far south as Paraguay, and in their habits +resemble the other smaller members of the Cat tribe, being ready +climbers and exceedingly bloodthirsty.</p> + +<p><i>F. yaguarundi</i>, rather larger than the Domestic Cat, with an +elongated head and body, and of a uniform brownish-gray colour, +ranges from Matamoras to Paraguay. <i>F. eyra</i> is a small Cat, very +Musteline in form, having an elongated head, body, and tail, and +short limbs, and is also of a uniform light reddish-brown colour. +It is a native of South America and Mexico. <i>F. pajeros</i> is the +Pampas Cat. The American Lynxes have been already noticed +with those of the Old World.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp84" id="figure230" style="max-width: 28.125em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure230.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 230.</span>—The Ocelot (<i>Felis pardalis</i>).</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>C. <i>Fossil Species.</i>—It has been already incidentally mentioned +that several of the existing species of <i>Felis</i>, such as the Lion, +Leopard and Caffre Cat, are met with in a fossil condition in the +European Pleistocene deposits, and it may be added that the Pardine +Lynx has left its remains in the cavern-deposits of Gibraltar. The +caves of Brazil have yielded remains of the Jaguar and Ocelot; +while the Puma is found in the Pleistocene of the United States. +Existing species now inhabiting India are met with in cavern-deposits +in Madras. In the Pliocene Siwaliks of Northern India +the huge extinct <i>F. cristata</i> shows characters connecting it both +with the Tiger and the Jaguar; and the same deposit also contains<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_523"></a>[523]</span> +the remains of a small species of the size of <i>F. bengalensis</i>. In +Europe numerous species occur in the Upper and Lower Pliocene, +some of which were as large as a Leopard. <i>F. atrox</i> and <i>F. augusta</i>, +of the Pliocene of the United States, were of the dimensions of the +Lion.</p> + +<p><i>Cynælurus.</i><a id="FNanchor_440" href="#Footnote_440" class="fnanchor">[440]</a>—The Cheeta or Hunting Leopard (<i>C. jubatus</i>) is distinguished +from the other <i>Felidæ</i> by the inner tubercle of the upper +carnassial, though supported by a distinct root, having no salient +cusp upon it; by the tubercular molar being more in a line with +the other teeth; and by the claws being smaller, less curved, and +less completely retractile, owing to the feebler development of the +elastic ligaments. The skull is short and high, with the frontal +region broad and elevated in consequence of the large development +of the frontal air-sinuses. The head is small and round, the body +light, the limbs and tail long. Its colour is pale yellowish-brown +with small black spots. The Cheeta is less savage and more +easily tamed than most of the Cats. In Asia it has been trained +for the chase of the Antelope. It has rather an extensive geographical +range from the Cape of Good Hope, throughout Africa +and the south-western parts of Asia, as far as Southern India.</p> + +<p><i>Extinct Genera.</i>—A number of forms are gradually becoming +known, especially through the researches of American palæontologists, +which, though evidently animals of the same general type, +and therefore to be placed in or near the family <i>Felidæ</i>, depart so +much in various details of structure that they must be referred to +different genera. As one of the points in which <i>Felis</i> manifests its +specialisation is the reduction of the number of the molar series of +teeth, with concomitant shortening of the jaws, it might be +supposed that in the earlier and perhaps ancestral forms these +teeth would be more numerous and approach more nearly to the +primitive or typical number of the heterodont mammals, viz. seven +on each side. This is actually the case. Similarly we find that +many of these forms exhibit a less specialised structure of the teeth +themselves, as is shown by the absence of the anterior lobe of the +upper carnassial, and the retention of the hind talon in the corresponding +lower tooth. Again, some of them have an alisphenoid +canal in the skull; while the femur may have a third trochanter, +and the claws be very imperfectly retractile.</p> + +<p>An extremely generalised form is the small <i>Proælurus</i>, from the +Upper Eocene and Lower Miocene, with <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₄, <i>m</i> ¹⁄₂, an alisphenoid +canal, and a third trochanter to the femur. <i>Dinictis</i>, of the North +American Miocene, is a larger allied form, with <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ¹⁄₂; the upper +carnassial having no anterior lobe, and the ungual phalanges being +devoid of bony sheaths. The characters of the base of the skull, +and the form and relations of the astragalus, differ very considerably<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_524"></a>[524]</span> +from <i>Felis</i>. <i>Pseudælurus</i>, from the French Miocene, is another +very generalised Feline, in which there may be either three or four +premolars, and the lower carnassial may retain its inner cusp. +<i>Ælurictis</i>, of the French Phosphorites, with <i>p</i> ³⁄₃₋₄, <i>m</i> ¹⁄₁₋₂, together +with several American Miocene genera, such as <i>Nimravus</i> (<i>p</i> ³⁄₂, +<i>m</i> ¹⁄₂), <i>Archælurus</i> (<i>p</i> ³⁄₃₋₄, <i>m</i> ¹⁄₂), <i>Pogonodon</i> (<i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ¹⁄₁), and <i>Hoplophoneus</i> +(<i>p</i> ²⁻³⁄₂, <i>m</i> ¹⁄₁), approach more closely to the modern Cats, +although many or all of them retain the alisphenoid canal, and have +not yet developed the anterior lobe to the upper carnassial, or lost +the talon to the lower one. <i>Hoplophoneus</i> has a descending flange +to the mandible; and its scapholunar bone has a line indicating its +dual origin; while the femur still retains the third trochanter, +of which all traces are lost in the modern Cats.</p> + +<p>On the other hand, some of the extinct <i>Felidæ</i> show a most +remarkable tendency towards a specialisation not occurring in any +of the surviving members of the family, viz. an enormous development +of the upper canines, with which is usually associated an +expansion downwards and flattening of the anterior part of the +ramus of the lower jaw, on the outer side of which the canine lies, +when the mouth is closed. In <i>Machærodus næogeus</i>, the Sabre-toothed +Tiger, from the caves of Brazil and also from Pleistocene +deposits near Buenos Ayres, an animal about the size of a Tiger, +these teeth are 7 inches in length, greatly compressed, and finely +serrated on the trenchant anterior edges. Similar serrations are +seen on a much fainter scale in the unworn teeth of modern Tigers. +Many modifications of this commonly-called “machærodont” type +have been met with both in the Old and New World. In <i>M. +cultridens</i>, of the Upper Pliocene of Italy and France, the upper +canine is long and narrow, with smooth cutting edges; the smaller +form described as <i>M. meganthereon</i> being apparently the female +of this species. <i>M. crenatidens</i>, of the same deposits, is distinguished +by the shorter and broader upper canine, in which both edges are +strongly serrated; the same feature occurring in the closely allied +or identical <i>M. latidens</i> of the English cavern-deposits. The Italian +Pliocene form described as <i>M. nestianus</i> has serrations only on the +hinder edge of the upper canine, and the third lower premolar +is separated by a long interval from the fourth. <i>M. necator</i>, +of the Pleistocene of South America, is remarkable as being the +only member of the family in which the humerus has no entepicondylar +foramen. A very remarkable form, <i>Eusmilus</i>, from the +Upper Eocene Phosphorites of Central France, differs from all other +known Felines in having only two pairs of incisors in the lower jaw, +and a small canine separated by a very long diastema from the +cheek-teeth, which consist only of one premolar and one sectorial +true molar. The lower jaw is enormously expanded towards the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_525"></a>[525]</span> +symphysis to protect the large upper canines. This animal then, +although of Eocene age, appears to form the culminating development +of the sabre-toothed or machærodont dentition, the most +specially carnivorous type of structure known.</p> + +<p>Other species of <i>Machærodus</i> are found in the Pliocene deposits +of Europe and Asia. The accompanying +woodcut exhibits the last two upper teeth +of the Indian <i>M. sivalensis</i>, from which it will +be seen that the inner tubercle of the carnassial +is much reduced in size, while the molar is +very minute.</p> + +<h5><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Viverridæ</span>.</h5> + +<figure class="figright illowp60" id="figure231" style="max-width: 12.5em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure231.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 231.</span>—Oral surface +of the left upper carnassial +and molar of <i>Machærodus +sivalensis</i>.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>Premolars ³⁄₃ or ⁴⁄₄. Molars ¹⁄₁ or ²⁄₂. Upper +carnassial usually without an anterior lobe, and +the lower one with a well-developed talon; +second lower incisor (as in all the following +families) raised above the level of the first and +third. Auditory bulla externally constricted, and divided by a +septum. An alisphenoid canal (with very rare exceptions). Carotid +canal distinct as a groove on the side of the bulla. Humerus +usually with an entepicondylar foramen. Digits usually 5-5, but +sometimes the pollex or hallux or both may be wanting. Dorsal +vertebræ 13 or 14. Limited in distribution to the Old World.</p> + +<p>The subfamily <b>Cryptoproctinæ</b> contains the single genus <i>Cryptoprocta</i>.<a id="FNanchor_441" href="#Footnote_441" class="fnanchor">[441]</a> +Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₄, <i>m</i> ¹⁄₁; total 36. The teeth +generally closely resemble those of the <i>Felidæ</i>. The first premolar +of both jaws is very minute and early deciduous. The upper +carnassial has a very small inner tubercle, quite at the anterior part +of the tooth. The true molar is very small and placed transversely. +The lower carnassial has a large trenchant bilobed blade, and a +very minute talon, but no inner cusp. Skull generally like that of +<i>Felis</i>, but proportionately longer and narrower. Orbit widely open +behind. Vertebræ: C 7, D 13, L 7, S 3, C 29. Body elongated. +Limbs moderate in size. Feet subplantigrade; five well-developed +toes on each, with sharp, compressed, retractile claws. Ears +moderate. Tail long and cylindrical.</p> + +<p>The only known species, <i>C. ferox</i>, the “Foussa” of the Malagasy, +is peculiar to Madagascar, being the largest carnivorous animal in +the island. It is about twice the size of the common Cat (5 feet +from nose to end of tail), with short close fur of nearly uniform +pale brown. Little is as yet known of its habits, except that it is +nocturnal, frequently attacks and carries off goats, and especially +kids, and shows great ferocity when wounded, on which account it +is much dreaded by the natives.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_526"></a>[526]</span></p> + +<p>The remaining numerous specific and generic modifications found +in the existing animals belonging to this family seem to arrange +themselves mainly into two tolerably distinct groups, distinguishable +by the characters of the auditory bulla and neighbouring parts +of the base of the skull, and by the structure of the feet. The one +form has the genus <i>Viverra</i> or Civet Cats for its most typical representative, +and the other <i>Herpestes</i> or the Ichneumons.</p> + +<p>Subfamily <b>Viverrinæ</b>.—Auditory bulla oval, or rather conical, +broad and truncated and not everted behind, narrow in front and +more or less compressed at the sides. The outer or anterior +chamber very small and flat. The meatus with scarcely any +inferior lip, its orifice being close to the tympanic ring. Paroccipital +process triangular, its apex projecting slightly beyond the +bulla. Claws strongly curved and more or less retractile. Perineal +scent-glands generally present.</p> + +<p>This subfamily includes both Ethiopian and Oriental forms, but +the former are the more numerous.</p> + +<p>The typical section, which includes five genera, has the following +characters. Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₄, <i>m</i> ²⁄₂ (¹⁄₂ in <i>Prionodon</i>); +total 40. Skull elongated; facial portion small and compressed. +Orbits well-defined but incomplete behind. Teeth always sectorial, +never very small. Vertebræ: C 7, D 13, L 7 (or D 14, L 6), +S 3, C 22-30. Body elongated and compressed. Head pointed in +front; ears rather small. Extremities short. Feet small and +rounded. Toes short, five on each foot. First toe both on fore +and hind feet much shorter than the others. Palms and soles +covered with hair, except the pads of the feet and toes, and in +some species a narrow central line on the under side of the sole, +extending backwards nearly to the heel. Tail moderate or long; +usually marked with dark and light rings. A pair of large glandular +follicles situated on the perineum (in both sexes), and secreting in +most species an oily substance of a peculiarly penetrating odour.</p> + +<p>The numerous species of this section form a large series, the +two extremes of which differ considerably, but the several genera +into which they may be divided blend so into one another that it is +difficult to differentiate them sharply.</p> + +<p>All the animals of this section are, for their size, extremely +active, fierce, and rapacious. They feed chiefly on small mammals +and birds.</p> + +<p><i>Viverra.</i><a id="FNanchor_442" href="#Footnote_442" class="fnanchor">[442]</a>—This includes the largest species. The teeth (<a href="#figure232">Fig. +232</a>) are stouter and less compressed than in the other genera; the +second upper molar being especially larger. The auditory bulla smaller +and more pointed in front. Body shorter and stouter; limbs +longer; tail shorter, tapering. Under side of tarsus completely<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_527"></a>[527]</span> +covered with hair. Claws longer and less retractile. Fur rather +long and loose, and in the middle line of the neck and back usually +elongated so as to form a sort of crest or mane; neck with a black +gorget. Pupil circular when contracted. Perineal glands greatly +developed. These characters apply especially to <i>V. civetta</i>, the +African Civet, or “Civet-Cat” as it is commonly called, an animal +rather larger than a common Fox, and an inhabitant of intratropical +Africa. <i>V. zibetha</i>, the Indian Civet, of about equal size, +inhabits Bengal, China, the Malay Peninsula, and adjoining islands. +<i>V. tangalunga</i>, from Java, Sumatra, Borneo, and the Philippines, +and <i>V. megaspila</i>, from Burma, are smaller but nearly allied +animals; the latter being more distinctly spotted than either of the +others. From these species and the next the civet of commerce, +once so much admired as a perfume in England, and still largely +used in the East, is obtained. The animals are kept in cages, and +the odoriferous secretion collected from the interior of the perineal +follicles with a spoon or spatula.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure232" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure232.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 232.</span>—The left upper dentition of the Indian Civet (<i>Viverra zibetha</i>). From the +<i>Palæontologia Indica</i>.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The Rasse or Lesser Indian Civet (<i>V. malaccensis</i>) may be regarded +as the representative of a distinct group of <i>Viverra</i>, although +often referred to a separate genus (<i>Viverricula</i>). The size of this +animal is smaller than in the typical group, the build is slighter, the +muzzle finer, the claws sharper and more curved, and there is no +erectile mane along the back. Generally there is an alisphenoid +canal in the skull; and the anterior chamber of the auditory bulla is +much more inflated than the hinder one, so that the apparent length +of the whole bulla is increased. This species is found over the +greater part of India, and extends to the Malay Peninsula and +Southern China.</p> + +<p>Large species of <i>Viverra</i> occur in the Pleistocene and Pliocene of +India, and also in the Pliocene of France, which approximate in +some characters of the dentition to the extinct genus <i>Ictitherium</i>, +mentioned at the end of the family. Species of this genus have +also been described from the Miocene and Upper Eocene of Europe. +The Lower Miocene <i>V. antiqua</i> has an alisphenoid canal, and all the +other cranial characters of the typical forms.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_528"></a>[528]</span></p> + +<p><i>Fossa.</i><a id="FNanchor_443" href="#Footnote_443" class="fnanchor">[443]</a>—The Fossa of Madagascar comes so close to the Rasse +that its right to generic distinction seems doubtful. There is, +however, no scent-pouch. The limbs are slender; and there are +two small bare spots on the sole of the hind foot, above the +plantar pads. There is no dark line along the back; the throat +gorget of <i>Viverra</i> is absent; and in the tail the spots only tend to +form rings, which are not complete. The skull has an alisphenoid +canal, and a large bulla as in the typical group of <i>Viverra</i>.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp84" id="figure233" style="max-width: 28.125em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure233.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 233.</span>—The Common Genet (<i>Genetta vulgaris</i>).</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Genetta.</i><a id="FNanchor_444" href="#Footnote_444" class="fnanchor">[444]</a>—The Genettes are smaller animals, with more elongated +and slender bodies, and shorter limbs than the Civets. Skull +elongated and narrow. Auditory bulla large, elongated, rounded +at both ends. Teeth compressed and sharp pointed. The inner +side of the third upper premolar has a tubercle not present in the +previous genus, and the talon of the lower carnassial is larger. +Pupil contracting to a linear aperture. Tail long, slender. Fur short +and soft, spotted or cloudy. Under side of the tarso-metatarsus +with a narrow longitudinal bald streak. No pouch for storing the +secretion of the scent-gland. <i>G. vulgaris</i>, the common Genet +(<a href="#figure233">Fig. 233</a>), is found in France south of the river Loire, Spain, +South-Western Asia, and Africa from Barbary to the Cape. +<i>G. felina</i>, <i>senegalensis</i>, <i>tigrina</i>, and <i>pardalis</i> are other named species, +all African in habitat.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure234" style="max-width: 25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure234.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 234.</span>—Stomach of Genet cut open. <i>œ</i>, Œsophagus; <i>pv</i>, +pyloric valve; <i>x</i>, sudden bend where the internal folds are interrupted. +(From Mivart, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1882, p. 505.)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<figure class="figright illowp75" id="figure235" style="max-width: 15.625em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure235.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 235.</span>—Cæcum of Genet. (After Mivart, +<i>loc. cit.</i> p. 508.)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_529"></a>[529]</span></p> + +<p>A few details (taken from Professor Mivart’s memoirs on the +Æluroidea) of the anatomy of the soft parts of the Genet may be +given as illustration of these parts in the Carnivora generally, and +of this family and genus in particular. The salivary glands are +shown in <a href="#figure019">Fig. 19</a> (<a href="#figure019">p. 56</a>), and these conform to the general type +prevalent in the +Æluroidea. Thus +there is a distinct +zygomatic gland; +the parotid with +its (Steno’s) duct +is well developed; +and there is a +small submaxillary +gland. The +stomach (<a href="#figure234">Fig. +234</a>), while conforming +to the +simple type characteristic +of the +Carnivora, is +much larger than +in the Cat; it is characterised by the presence of some strongly +marked internal folds near the pyloric extremity, which stop suddenly +at a point where the stomach makes an abrupt constriction +and flexure. Beyond this point there are three other longitudinal +folds; and the pyloric valve is +small. The allied genera present +modifications from this form of +stomach. The cæcum (<a href="#figure235">Fig. +235</a>) is short, thick, and +pointed. The liver (<a href="#figure236">Fig. 236</a>) +much resembles that of the +Cat, but differs in that the left +lateral lobe is undivided, although +having a small groove +on its posterior or abdominal +aspect, while the cystic fissure +is less deep, and situated more +to the right. The caudate lobe +is relatively longer, has a deep +concavity, and runs uninterruptedly +into the Spigelian; +the latter being relatively somewhat larger than in the Cat, +with a deep groove dividing the proximal third from the distal<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_530"></a>[530]</span> +two-thirds. In <i>Viverra</i> the right lateral and right central lobes +are nearly equal in size. The variations in the form of the liver +of the allied genera are detailed in Professor Mivart’s memoir. +The brain of the Genet is shown in <a href="#figure023">Fig. 23</a> (<a href="#figure023">p. 71</a>); the small +depression <i>d</i> placed on the superior lateral gyrus appears to be +the sole representative of the distinct crucial sulcus which distinguishes +the brains of the <i>Felidæ</i> from those of all other members +of the Æluroidea.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure236" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure236.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 236.</span>—Abdominal aspect of the liver of the Genet. <i>c</i>, Caudal lobe; <i>gb</i>, gall-bladder; <i>ha</i>, +hepatic artery; <i>hd</i>, hepatic duct; <i>LC</i>, left central lobe; <i>LL</i>, left lateral lobe; <i>pv</i>, portal vein; +<i>RC</i>, right central lobe; <i>RL</i>, right lateral lobe; <i>Sp</i>, Spigelian lobe; <i>vc</i>, vena cava. (From +Mivart, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1882, p. 510.)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<figure class="figright illowp54" id="figure237" style="max-width: 12.5em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure237.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 237.</span>—Cæcum of <i>Prionodon</i>. +(From Mivart, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1882, +p. 508.)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Prionodon.</i><a id="FNanchor_445" href="#Footnote_445" class="fnanchor">[445]</a>—This and the following genus comprise the beautiful +Linsangs (<a href="#figure238">Fig. 238</a>), which are distinguished +from the preceding genera +by the loss of the second upper molar, +which is, however, very small in some +of the Genets. In the present genus the +ground colour is whitish or yellowish +with brown or black markings, which +may either form broad continuous patches +across the hinder part of the body, or +may be broken up into spots. The tail +is very long, the limbs comparatively +short, and the fur very short and close. +The pollex and hallux are well developed; +the claws are almost completely retractile; +and the tarsus and metatarsus are completely +haired. The pupil is round. The +cæcum (<a href="#figure237">Fig. 237</a>) is remarkably small.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_531"></a>[531]</span> +This genus is exclusively Oriental, and +comprises <i>P. gracilis</i> from Borneo, Java, and (?) Sumatra, <i>P. pardicolor</i> +from Nipal, and <i>P. maculosus</i> from Tenasserim; the head and +body of the latter measuring from 18 to 20 inches in length. +Speaking of <i>P. pardicolor</i>, Mr. Hodgson observes that it is “equally +at home on trees and on the ground; it dwells and breeds in the +hollows of decayed trees. It is not gregarious at all, and preys +chiefly upon small birds, which it is wont to pounce upon from the +cover of the grass. The times of breeding are said to be February +and August, and the litter to consist of two young, there being two +litters each year.”</p> + +<p><i>Poiana.</i><a id="FNanchor_446" href="#Footnote_446" class="fnanchor">[446]</a>—This African genus, represented solely by one species, +<i>P. poënsis</i> (<a href="#figure238">Fig. 238</a>), from Fernando Po, is very closely allied to +the preceding, but the spots are smaller, and show no tendency to +run into transverse bands or stripes, except in the region of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_532"></a>[532]</span> +head and shoulder; while the sole of the foot has a narrow bald +band running up towards the tarsus, as in <i>Genetta</i>. The length +of the head and body is 38 inches, and that of the tail about 40 +inches. It is probable that this animal should really be regarded +as a slightly aberrant species of the genus <i>Prionodon</i>.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp78" id="figure238" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure238.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 238.</span>—The African Linsang (<i>Poiana poënsis</i>). From Mivart, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1882, p. 160.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The five following genera differ in several important respects +from all the preceding, and collectively constitute the <i>Paradoxurine</i> +section of Professor Mivart. With the exception of one African form, +they are mainly Oriental. In this section the auditory bulla is +frequently in two portions, the posterior moiety in one case being +unossified, and it is always much narrowed in front (<a href="#figure239">Fig. 239</a>). +The palate (as in the figure) may be much produced behind the +molars; and the teeth are often but slightly sectorial, and may be +very small. The long tail is in most cases not ringed.</p> + +<p><i>Paradoxurus.</i><a id="FNanchor_447" href="#Footnote_447" class="fnanchor">[447]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₄, <i>m</i> ²⁄₂; total 40. The +blunt and rounded form of the cusps of the hinder premolar +and the molar teeth distinguishes this genus from most of the +members of the family. Vertebræ: C 7, D 13, L 7, S 3, C 29-36. +Head pointed in front. Ears small, rounded. Body long. Limbs +moderate. Palms and soles almost entirely naked, and joining the +foot-pads without the intervention of any hairy space. Claws completely +retractile. Pupil vertical. Tail long, non-prehensile; in +the Indian species without rings. The Paradoxures or Palm-Civets +are less strictly carnivorous than the other members of the family. +They are mostly about the size of the common Cat, or rather larger, +and are partly arboreal in their habits. The species are rather +numerous, and present considerable variations in the details of the +form and size of their molar teeth; in only a few does the bony +palate extend behind the molars. They are restricted geographically +to Southern Asia and the Indo-Malayan archipelago. The best +known species<a id="FNanchor_448" href="#Footnote_448" class="fnanchor">[448]</a> are <i>P. niger</i>, <i>P. hermaphroditus</i>, <i>P. jerdoni</i>, <i>P. aureus</i>, +<i>P. grayi</i> from India and Burma, <i>P. philippinensis</i> of the Philippines, +<i>P. larvatus</i> of Southern China and Formosa, <i>P. leucomystax</i> +of the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, and Borneo, and <i>P. musschenbroeki</i> +of Celebes. The name <i>Paradoxurus</i> was applied from the mistaken +notion that the tail was prehensile. Mr. Blanford<a id="FNanchor_449" href="#Footnote_449" class="fnanchor">[449]</a> gives the +following account of the habits of <i>P. niger</i>: “The common Palm-Civet, +Tree-Cat, or Toddy-Cat, is a familiar animal in most parts of +India, though, being thoroughly nocturnal in its habits, it is but +rarely seen in the daytime. It is arboreal, passing the day generally +in trees, either coiled up in the branches, or in a hole in +the trunk, and in places where cocoa-nut palms are common it +frequently selects one of them for a residence. Mango groves<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_533"></a>[533]</span> +are also a favourite resort. It not unfrequently takes up its +abode in the thatched roofs of houses; Jerdon found a large colony +established in the rafters of his own house in Tellicheri. It even +occurs in large towns; I have known of one being caught in the +middle of Calcutta.”</p> + +<figure class="figleft illowp43" id="figure239" style="max-width: 21.875em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure239.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 239.</span>—Palatal aspect of the left side of the cranium +and mandible of <i>Arctogale leucotis</i>. <i>a</i>, Anterior opening of +alisphenoid canal; <i>o</i>, foramen ovale; <i>c</i>, carotid canal ¹⁄₁. +(From Mivart, <i>Proc. Zool Soc.</i> 1882, p. 165.)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Arctogale.</i><a id="FNanchor_450" href="#Footnote_450" class="fnanchor">[450]</a>—This genus—represented only by <i>A. trivirgata</i> of +Java, and <i>A. leucotis</i> of Burma, Tenasserim, Sumatra, Java, etc.—is +chiefly distinguished from <i>Paradoxurus</i> by the extremely small +size of the cheek-teeth +(<a href="#figure239">Fig. 239</a>), which are +often not in contact +with one another; the +upper carnassial being +almost triangular in +shape. Palate frequently +convex longitudinally +between the +carnassials, and greatly +produced behind the +last molar, with a very +narrow bony aperture +of the posterior nares. +The soles of the feet +are still more naked +than in <i>Paradoxurus</i>; +and the pollex and +hallux are more divergent. +In <i>A. leucotis</i> the +length of the head and +body is 26·5 inches, and +the tail 27 inches. In +many specimens the +three dorsal stripes are +much less distinctly +marked than in others, +and tend to break up +into spots; while the +general coloration is +considerably lighter.</p> + +<p><i>Hemigale</i>,<a id="FNanchor_451" href="#Footnote_451" class="fnanchor">[451]</a> another +modification of the +Paradoxure type, contains one species, <i>H. hardwickei</i>, from Borneo +and Malacca, an elegant-looking animal, smaller and more slender +than the Paradoxures, of light gray colour, with transverse<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_534"></a>[534]</span> broad +dark bands across the back and loins; the proximal portion of the +tail being ringed. The tarsus is hairy. The general cranial +characters are those of <i>Paradoxurus</i>, but the auditory bulla is +ankylosed into a single piece.</p> + +<p><i>Arctictis.</i><a id="FNanchor_452" href="#Footnote_452" class="fnanchor">[452]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₄, <i>m</i> ²⁄₂; total 40. The posterior +upper molar and the first lower premolar very often absent. +Cheek-teeth generally small and rounded, with a distinct interval +between them, but formed generally on the same pattern as +<i>Paradoxurus</i>. Vertebræ: C 7, D 14, L 5, S 3, C 34. Body +elongated. Head broad behind, with a small pointed face. +Whiskers long and numerous. Ears small, rounded, but clothed +with a pencil of long hairs. Eyes small. Limbs short. Soles and +palms broad, entirely naked. Tail very long and prehensile; +thickly covered with long hair. Fur long and harsh. Cæcum +extremely small. But one species is known, <i>A. binturong</i>, the +Binturong, an inhabitant of Southern Asia from Nipal through the +Malay Peninsula to the islands of Sumatra and Java. Although +structurally agreeing closely with the Paradoxures, its tufted ears, +long, coarse, and dark hair, and prehensile tail give it a very +different external appearance. It may be regarded as a very +aberrant Paradoxure, connected, so far as dental characters are +concerned, with <i>Paradoxurus</i> by means of <i>Arctogale</i>. The bony +palate also extends considerably behind the last molar, as in the +latter. The Binturong is slow and cautious in its movements, +chiefly if not entirely arboreal, and appears to feed on vegetable as +well as animal substances.</p> + +<p><i>Nandinia</i><a id="FNanchor_453" href="#Footnote_453" class="fnanchor">[453]</a> contains one species, <i>N. binotata</i>, a somewhat +aberrant Paradoxure, from West Africa. It is rather smaller than +the true Paradoxures, with smaller and more pointed molar teeth, +and no cæcum. The wall of the hinder chamber of the auditory +bulla remains through life unossified.</p> + +<p>The dentition appears to be of a more decidedly carnivorous +type than in the other members of the section.</p> + +<p><i>Cynogale.</i><a id="FNanchor_454" href="#Footnote_454" class="fnanchor">[454]</a>—This remarkable genus is regarded by Professor +Mivart as representing a third section of the <i>Viverrinæ</i>; it contains +one species, <i>C. bennetti</i> (described by S. Müller under the name of +<i>Potamophilus barbatus</i>), from Borneo, Sumatra, and the Malay +Peninsula. This is a curious Otter-like modification of the +Viverrine type, having semiaquatic habits, both swimming in the +water and climbing trees, living upon fish, crustacea, small +mammals, birds, and fruit. The number and general arrangement +of its teeth are as in <i>Paradoxurus</i>, but the premolars are <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_535"></a>[535]</span>peculiarly +elongated, compressed, pointed and recurved, somewhat as in the +Seals, though the molars are tuberculated. The head is elongated, +the muzzle broad and depressed. Whiskers very long and +abundant. Ears small and rounded. Toes short and slightly +webbed at the base. Tail short, cylindrical, covered with short +hair. Fur very dense and soft, of a dark brown colour, mixed +with black and gray. Humerus without entepicondylar foramen.</p> + +<p>Subfamily <b>Herpestinæ</b>.—Auditory bulla very prominent, and +somewhat pear-shaped, the posterior chamber being large, rounded, +and generally with its greatest prominence to the outer side. The +anterior chamber considerably dilated, and produced into a short +inferior wall to the auditory meatus, in which is a depression or +vacuity just below the centre of the opening of the meatus. +Sometimes this vacuity is continued into the meatus, forming a +narrow fissure. The paroccipital process does not project beyond +the bulla, but is spread out and lost (in adult animals) on its +posterior surface. Toes straight; claws lengthened, exserted, +non-retractile. No perineal glands. The dentition is always of +a markedly sectorial type; and the orbit may be surrounded by +bone. Very generally the anus opens into a sac-like depression. +The majority of the genera are Ethiopian; the type genus alone +extending into the Oriental and Palæarctic regions.</p> + +<p><i>Herpestes.</i><a id="FNanchor_455" href="#Footnote_455" class="fnanchor">[455]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₄, sometimes ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ²⁄₂; total +40 or 36. Teeth of molar series generally with strongly developed, +sharply-pointed cusps. Skull elongated, constricted behind the +orbits. Face short and compressed. Frontal region broad and +arched. Postorbital processes of frontal and jugal bones well +developed, generally meeting so as to complete the circle of the +orbit behind. Vertebræ: C 7, D 13, L 7, S 3, C 21-26. Head +pointed in front. Ears short and rounded. Body very long and +slender. Extremities short. Five toes on each foot, the first, +especially that on the hind foot, very short. Toes free, or but +slightly palmated. Palms generally naked. Distal portion of +soles naked, under surface of tarsus and metatarsus usually +clothed with hair, but considerable specific variation in this respect. +Tail long or moderate, generally thick at the base, and sometimes +covered with more or less elongated hair. The longer hairs +covering the body and tail almost always annulated. This genus +contains a very large number of animals commonly called +Ichneumons, or in India Mungooses, varying in size from that of a +large Cat down to a Weasel. They are widely distributed over +the African continent and the southern parts of Asia, especially +India and the Indo-Malayan archipelago, one species occurring also +in Spain. They are mostly terrestrial in their habits, feeding on +small mammals and birds, reptiles, especially snakes, eggs of birds<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_536"></a>[536]</span> +and reptiles, and also insects. Some species are partially +domesticated, being used to keep houses clear of rats, mice, and +snakes. <i>H. ichneumon</i> was a sacred animal to the ancient +Egyptians. They vary considerably in appearance, some, as <i>H. +galera</i> and <i>H. urva</i> (<a href="#figure240">Fig. 240</a>), are larger and heavier, with stouter +body, longer limbs, and stronger teeth. The common Indian +Mungoose (<i>H. mungo</i>) is considerably smaller than the Egyptian +form; its fur is of a pale gray colour, the hairs being largely +white ringed, while the cheeks and throat are more or less reddish. +Like the Egyptian species, it is frequently domesticated, and put +to a similar use. It is especially serviceable in India as a serpent-killer, +destroying not only the eggs and young of these creatures, +but attacking without hesitation and killing the most venomous +adult snakes. The fact that it invariably survives those encounters +has led to the belief that it either enjoys immunity from +the effects of snake-poison, or that after being bitten it has +recourse, as the natives maintain, to the root of a plant as an +antidote. Neither of these suppositions has stood the test of +scientific examination, for it has been found that when actually +bitten it falls a victim to the poison as rapidly as other mammals, +while there is no trustworthy evidence of its seeking a vegetable +antidote. The truth seems to be that the Mungoose, by its +exceeding agility and quickness of eye, avoids the fangs of the +snake while fixing its own teeth in the back of the reptile’s neck. +One large species, believed to be from Africa, recently described as +<i>H. grandis</i>, is remarkable for the extreme complexity of the cusps +on the molars, and also for the absence of an entepicondylar +foramen to the humerus; the latter feature also occurring in the +allied <i>H. albicaudatus</i>. The Oriental <i>H. urva</i> (<a href="#figure246">Fig. 246</a>) is stated to +be somewhat aquatic in habits, and to feed on frogs and crabs.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_537"></a>[537]</span></p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure240" style="max-width: 28.125em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure240.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 240.</span>—The Crab-eating Mungoose (<i>Herpestes urva</i>). From Blanford, <i>Mammalia of +British India</i>, p. 130.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>Remains of the small <i>H. nipalensis</i> occur in the cavern-deposits +of Madras. Viverroids from the Miocene and Upper Eocene of +Europe, which agree with <i>Herpestes</i> in the presence of an inner +tubercle to the third upper premolar and of a hinder cusp to the +fourth lower premolar, have been referred to the existing genus. +The species which have been separated generically under the three +following names are very closely allied to <i>Herpestes</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Helogale</i>,<a id="FNanchor_456" href="#Footnote_456" class="fnanchor">[456]</a> premolars ³⁄₃, without diastema between first and +second; soles of feet completely naked. Contains two small +South-African species, <i>H. parvula</i> and <i>H. undulata</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Bdeogale</i><a id="FNanchor_457" href="#Footnote_457" class="fnanchor">[457]</a> contains also two small Ichneumon-like animals, <i>B. +crassicauda</i> and <i>puisa</i>, differing from <i>Herpestes</i> proper in having only +four toes on each foot, both pollex and hallux being absent. The +orbit is nearly complete, the tail of moderate length and rather +bushy.</p> + +<p><i>Cynictis.</i><a id="FNanchor_458" href="#Footnote_458" class="fnanchor">[458]</a>—Pollex present, but hallux absent. Skull shorter +and broader than in <i>Herpestes</i>, rather contracted +behind the orbits, which are large +and complete behind. Face short. Anterior +chamber of the auditory bulla very +large. Front claws elongated. <i>C. penicillata</i>, +from South Africa. The cæcum +(<a href="#figure241">Fig. 241</a>) of this genus is longer than in +any other member of the family.</p> + +<p>All the foregoing Herpestines have +the nose short, with its under surface +flat, bald, and with a median longitudinal +groove. The remaining forms have the +nose more or less produced, with its under +side convex, and a space between the +nostrils and the upper lip covered with +close adpressed hairs, and without any +median groove.</p> + +<figure class="figright illowp50" id="figure241" style="max-width: 12.5em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure241.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 241.</span>—Cæcum of <i>Cynictis +penicillata</i>. (From Mivart, <i>Proc. +Zool. Soc.</i> 1882, p. 508.)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Rhinogale.</i><a id="FNanchor_459" href="#Footnote_459" class="fnanchor">[459]</a>—Toes 5-5. Claws of fore +feet short, compressed, acute. Under surface +of tarsus hairy. Palate flat. Founded on a single specimen +from East Africa, <i>R. melleri</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Crossarchus.</i><a id="FNanchor_460" href="#Footnote_460" class="fnanchor">[460]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ²⁄₂; total 36. Snout +elongated. Toes 5-5. Claws on fore feet long and curved.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_538"></a>[538]</span> +Hallux very short. Under surface of tarsus naked. Tail shorter +than the body, tapering. Palate flat. Fur harsh. Species: <i>C. +obscurus</i>, the Kusimanse, a small burrowing animal from West +Africa, of uniform dark brown colour; <i>C. fasciatus</i>; <i>C. zebra</i>; and +<i>C. gambianus</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Suricata.</i><a id="FNanchor_461" href="#Footnote_461" class="fnanchor">[461]</a>—A more distinct genus than any of the above. The +dental formula as in the last, but the teeth of the cheek-series +remarkably short in the antero-posterior direction, corresponding +with the shortness of the skull generally (<a href="#figure222">Fig. 222</a>). Orbits +complete behind. Vertebræ: C 7, D 15, L 6, S 3, C 20. Though +the head is short and broad, the nose is pointed and rather +produced and movable. Ears very short. Body shorter and +limbs longer than in <i>Herpestes</i>. Toes 4-4, the pollex and hallux +being absent. Claws on fore feet very long and narrow, arched, +pointed, and subequal. Hind feet with much shorter claws, soles +hairy. Tail rather shorter than the body. One species only is +known, the Suricate, <i>S. tetradactyla</i>, a small gray-brown animal, +with dark transverse stripes on the hinder part of the back, from +South Africa. The cæcum is short.</p> + +<figure class="figright illowp50" id="figure242" style="max-width: 12.5em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure242.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 242.</span>—Cæcum of <i>Galidea +elegans</i>. (From Mivart, <i>Proc. +Zool. Soc.</i> 1882, p. 508.)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Galidictis</i>,<a id="FNanchor_462" href="#Footnote_462" class="fnanchor">[462]</a> <i>Galidea</i>,<a id="FNanchor_463" href="#Footnote_463" class="fnanchor">[463]</a> + and <i>Hemigalidea</i><a id="FNanchor_464" href="#Footnote_464" class="fnanchor">[464]</a> are names of three slight +generic modifications of the Viverrine type, +allied to the <i>Herpestinæ</i>, but placed by +Mivart in a distinct subfamily, <i>Galidictiinæ</i>. +They are all characterised by the absence +of the alisphenoid canal in the skull, as +well as of the entepicondylar foramen to +the humerus; and are inhabitants of Madagascar. +The best known, <i>Galidea elegans</i>, +is a lively Squirrel-like little animal with +soft fur and a long bushy tail, which climbs +and jumps with agility. It is of a chestnut-brown +colour, the tail being annulated with +darker brown. The cæcum (<a href="#figure242">Fig. 242</a>) is +remarkable for its comparative length and +pointed termination. <i>Hemigalidea</i> is distinguished +by the absence of rings on the +tail. <i>Galidictis vittata</i> and <i>striata</i> chiefly +differ from the Ichneumons in their coloration, +being gray with parallel longitudinal +stripes of dark brown.</p> + +<p><i>Eupleres</i><a id="FNanchor_465" href="#Footnote_465" class="fnanchor">[465]</a> is another form, also from Madagascar, which has<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_539"></a>[539]</span> +been placed in a subfamily apart. It differs remarkably from all +the other <i>Viverridæ</i> in the weak development of the jaws and the +small size of the teeth (<a href="#figure243">Fig. 243</a>), in consequence of which it was, +when first discovered, placed in the order Insectivora. Dentition: +<i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₄, <i>m</i> ²⁄₂; total 40. Vertebræ: C 7, D 13, L 7, S 3, C 20. +No alisphenoid +canal; an entepicondylar +foramen +to the humerus. +But one +species is known, +<i>E. goudoti</i>.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure243" style="max-width: 25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure243.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 243.</span>—Skull of <i>Eupleres goudoti</i>. ⅘ natural size. +Mus. Roy. Coll. Surgeons.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Extinct Genera.</i>—The +Tertiaries +of the Old +World have +yielded several genera allied to the existing Viverroids, some of +which show decided signs of affinity with other families. Of these +the Lower Miocene <i>Amphictis</i> appears to be nearly related to <i>Viverra</i>, +but is distinguished by the form of the second lower molar, which is +longer and has two distinct roots. <i>Palæoprionodon</i>, of the French +Phosphorites, has a dentition very like that of <i>Prionodon</i>, the molars +being reduced to ¹⁄₂; the skull has an alisphenoid canal and the +general basal characters of the <i>Viverridæ</i>, but resembles the <i>Mustelidæ</i> +in the presence of a glenoid foramen and in the position of the +condylar foramen. In <i>Stenoplesictis</i>, of the same deposits, the dental +formula is <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₄, <i>m</i> ²⁄₂; and although the skull has a complete +septum in the bulla, yet some of the cranial and dental features approximate +so decidedly towards those of the extinct <i>Mustelidæ</i>, as to +lead some authorities to refer the genus to that family. The most +probable explanation of this resemblance is that the Musteloids +have originated from generalised Viverroids allied to <i>Stenoplesictis</i>. +The Lower Pliocene <i>Ictitherium</i> differs from all other Viverroids in +the presence of three distinct lobes to the upper carnassial, and +thereby connects the other members of the family so closely with +the <i>Hyænidæ</i> that it is practically impossible to draw up a definition +which will distinguish the two families.</p> + +<p>The North American Eocene genera <i>Miacis</i> and <i>Didymictis</i> are +generally regarded as representing a separate family—<i>Miacidæ</i>—with +affinities both to the <i>Viverridæ</i> and <i>Canidæ</i>.</p> + +<h5><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Proteleidæ</span>.</h5> + +<p>Skull with no alisphenoid canal; and the auditory bulla divided +into two distinct chambers. Dorsal vertebræ 15. Molars ¹⁄₁. Premolar +and molar teeth very small and simple in character.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_540"></a>[540]</span></p> + +<p><i>Proteles.</i><a id="FNanchor_466" href="#Footnote_466" class="fnanchor">[466]</a>—This genus contains but a single species, <i>P. cristatus</i>, +the Aard-Wolf or Earth-Wolf of the Dutch colonists of the Cape, an +animal nearly allied to the Hyænas, but remarkably modified in its +dentition, the molar teeth being very small, placed far apart, and +almost rudimentary +in character +(<a href="#figure244">Fig. 244</a>). +The canines are +long and rather +slender. The +dental formula is +<i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> and <i>m</i> ⁴⁄₃₋₄; total 30 or +32. Vertebræ: +C 7, D 15, L 5, +S 2, C 24. The +fore feet with +five toes; the pollex though short, with a distinct claw. The +hind feet with four subequal toes. Claws all strong, blunt, subcompressed, +and non-retractile. The general external appearance is +very like that of a small Striped Hyæna, but the muzzle is more +pointed and the ears larger. It has a copious mane of long hair, +capable of being erected when the animal is excited, along the +middle line of the neck and back. It is a native of South Africa, +and is a burrowing nocturnal animal, feeding on decomposing +animal substances, larvæ, and termites. Observations upon specimens +in captivity indicate that it has neither inclination nor power +to attack or feed upon living vertebrated animals.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure244" style="max-width: 25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure244.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 244.</span>—Skull and Dentition of the Aard-Wolf (<i>Proteles cristatus</i>). +½ natural size.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>Some writers regard <i>Proteles</i> as representing a subfamily of the +<i>Hyænidæ</i>.<a id="FNanchor_467" href="#Footnote_467" class="fnanchor">[467]</a></p> + +<h5><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Hyænidæ</span>.</h5> + +<p>Skull with no alisphenoid canal; and the auditory bulla not +divided by a septum into two chambers. Dorsal vertebræ 15. +Molars usually ¹⁄₁, but in some fossil forms ¹⁄₂, or ²⁄₂, the second lower +molar being very small; upper carnassial with three distinct +lobes; lower carnassial with a large blade and small talon. No +entepicondylar foramen to the humerus. This family is confined +to the Old World, where it is now represented by a single genus, +which, although evidently nearly related to the <i>Viverridæ</i>, is +sufficiently distinct to be regarded as not referable to that family. +The extinct <i>Ictitherium</i>, however, as already mentioned, connects the +more generalised members of the <i>Hyænidæ</i> very closely with the +<i>Viverridæ</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_541"></a>[541]</span></p> + +<p><i>Hyæna.</i><a id="FNanchor_468" href="#Footnote_468" class="fnanchor">[468]</a>—Dentition in existing forms usually <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₃, <i>m</i> +¹⁄₁; total 34. Teeth, especially canines and premolars, very large, +strong, and conical. Upper carnassial (<a href="#figure245">Fig. 245</a>) with a very large, +distinctly trilobed blade and a moderately developed inner tubercle +placed at the anterior +extremity of the blade. +Molar very small, and +placed transversely close +to the hinder edge of the +last, as in the <i>Felidæ</i>. +Lower carnassial consisting +of little more than +the bilobed blade. Zygomatic +arches of cranium +very wide and strong. +Sagittal crest high, giving +attachment to very powerful +biting muscles. Orbits incomplete behind. Vertebræ: C 7, +D 15, L 5, S 4, C 19. Limbs rather long, especially the anterior +pair, digitigrade, four subequal toes on each, with stout non-retractile +claws. Pollex and hallux only represented by rudimentary +metacarpal and metatarsal bones. Tail rather short. A +large post-anal median glandular pouch, into which the largely +developed anal scent glands pour their secretion.</p> + +<figure class="figleft illowp100" id="figure245" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure245.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 245.</span>—Outer (<i>A</i>) and palatal (<i>B</i>) aspects of the right +upper carnassial tooth of the Striped Hyæna (<i>Hyæna +striata</i>). From the <i>Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.</i></p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The three existing species of Hyæna are divisible into two +sections, to which some zoologists assign generic rank, but fossil +forms show such a transition between these two types as to render +any such division impracticable.</p> + +<p>The typical or <i>Euhyænine</i> group presents the following distinctive +features. Upper molar moderately developed and three-rooted. +An inner cusp and hind talon more or less developed on +the lower molar. Ears large, pointed. Hair long, forming a mane +on the back and shoulders. <i>H. striata</i>, the Striped Hyæna (<a href="#figure246">Fig. 246</a>) +of Northern Africa and Southern Asia. <i>H. brunnea</i>, of South Africa, +in some respects intermediate between this and the next group.</p> + +<p>The Striped Hyæna is dirty gray in colour, with narrow transverse +tawny or blackish stripes on the body and legs; the length of +the head and body is 3½ feet, and that of the tail, with its hair, +1½ feet. It occurs throughout peninsular India, where it is most +common in open hilly districts, and in North Africa. Mr. Blanford<a id="FNanchor_469" href="#Footnote_469" class="fnanchor">[469]</a> +gives the following account of its habits: “It is a nocturnal animal, +and although an occasional individual may be met with returning to +its den in the early morning, its rambles are usually commenced after +sunset and ended before sunrise. During the night it roams far and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_542"></a>[542]</span> +wide, and no tracks of wild animals are more common in the countries +where it is found than its unmistakable footprints, very like a dog’s +in shape, but with the marks of the hind feet conspicuously smaller +than those of the fore feet. Unlike the Spotted Hyæna, the Striped +species appears to be solitary in its habits, and it is rare to meet +with more than two together. The principal food of the Hyæna +consists of the carcases of animals that have died of disease or been +killed by beasts of prey, and very often it carries off portions of +the body to its den. I once shot one that was carrying away the +hind leg of a Nilghai. The powerful jaws and large teeth are +admirably adapted for crushing bones, which are consumed by +Hyænas, after the flesh has been picked off by vultures and jackals. +Occasionally sheep or goats, and more often dogs, are carried off by +Hyænas, and the latter at all events are often taken alive to the +animal’s den.” The Striped Hyæna is essentially a cowardly animal, +and one that is much more silent than <i>H. crocuta</i>. Remains of <i>H. +striata</i> are found in the cavern-deposits of the south of France, and +also in the Upper Pliocene of the Val d’Arno in Tuscany, and in +the English Red Crag.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure246" style="max-width: 25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure246.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 246.</span>—The Striped Hyæna (<i>Hyæna striata</i>).</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The <i>Crocutine</i> group presents the following characters. Upper +molar extremely small, two- or one-rooted, often deciduous. +Lower molar without trace of inner cusp, and with an extremely +small talon. Ears moderate, rounded. Hair not elongated to form +a mane. <i>H. crocuta</i>, the Spotted Hyæna (<a href="#figure247">Fig. 247</a>), from Africa +south of the Sahara. In dental characters as well as in its<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_543"></a>[543]</span> +visceral anatomy, especially as regards the reproductive organs of +the female,<a id="FNanchor_470" href="#Footnote_470" class="fnanchor">[470]</a> this species may be considered as by far the more +specialised form. The Spotted Hyæna is a larger and bolder animal +than the Striped species, hunting in packs, and uttering very +frequently its unearthly cry. The coloration consists of dark brown +spots on a yellowish ground. It was formerly very common at the +Cape. Remains of a large race of this species are exceedingly common +in the cavern-deposits of Europe, where they were first described under +the name of <i>Hyæna spelæa</i>; teeth have also been met with in the +Norfolk Forest-bed, and in cavern-deposits in Madras—the latter +locality being exceedingly interesting from a distributional point of +view.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp92" id="figure247" style="max-width: 25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure247.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 247.</span>—The Spotted Hyæna (<i>Hyæna crocuta</i>).</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>In addition to the remains of existing species, to which reference +has been already made, there were numerous extinct forms of +<i>Hyæna</i> in the upper Tertiaries of Europe, from the horizon of the +Lower Pliocene Pikermi beds of Greece upwards. In the Crocutine +group <i>H. colvini</i> of the Pliocene of India (<a href="#figure248">Fig. 248</a>), and <i>H. robusta</i> of +that of Italy, appear to have been ancestral forms allied to <i>H. crocuta</i>; +the former being distinguished by the loss of the first upper premolar. +<i>H. eximia</i>, of the Pikermi beds, is a more generalised form, +in which the first lower premolar (lost in existing forms) is retained. +In the typical group, <i>H. arvernensis</i> and <i>H. perrieri</i>, of the Upper +Pliocene of the Continent, approximate to <i>H. brunnea</i>; although <i>H.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_544"></a>[544]</span> +perrieri</i> makes a farther step towards the Crocutine group by the +loss of the inner cusp in the lower carnassial. The extinct <i>Hyænictine</i> +group, as represented by the Indian <i>H. sivalensis</i> and the +Grecian <i>H. græca</i>, connects <i>H. striata</i> with <i>Palhyæna</i>. Both are +characterised by the presence of a small second lower molar behind +the carnassial; while <i>H. græca</i> also has four lower premolars. Still +more generalised is the <i>Lychyænine</i> group; comprising <i>H. macrostoma</i> +of India and <i>H. chæretis</i> of the Pikermi beds; in these forms the +muzzle was longer, and the premolars much more compressed than +in the existing species, thus making a very decided approach to the +<i>Viverridæ</i>. There were four lower premolars; the lower carnassial +had an inner cusp, and it is probable that there was a second lower +molar; while the first upper molar was placed partially behind the +carnassial. The Lower Pliocene <i>Palhyæna hipparionum</i>, in which +the dental formula is <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₄, <i>m</i> ²⁄₂, is a smaller form with long +jaws and compressed premolars which approaches so closely to the +Viverroid genus <i>Ictitherium</i> as to show pretty clearly how the +Hyænas have been gradually modified from that stock.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure248" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure248.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 248.</span>—Outer view of part of the right ramus of the mandible of <i>Hyæna colvini</i>, showing +the third and fourth premolars and the carnassial. (From the <i>Palæontologia Indica</i>.)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<h4><i>Section</i> <span class="smcap">Cynoidea</span>.</h4> + +<h5><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Canidæ</span>.</h5> + +<p>This section contains the single family of the <i>Canidæ</i>, or Dog-like +animals, which appear to hold an intermediate position between +the other two sections, retaining also many of the more generalised +characters of the ancient members of the order. The structure of +the auditory bulla and adjacent parts of the bones of the skull is +intermediate between that of the Æluroid and Arctoid forms. In<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_545"></a>[545]</span> +the number and arrangement of the teeth they more nearly approach +the primitive heterodont type than any other existing Carnivora. +A cæcum is always present, sometimes short and simple, but when +long it is folded upon itself in a characteristic manner.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure249" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure249.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 249.</span>—Right lateral aspect of the skull of the Dog (<i>Canis familiaris</i>).</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The characters of the base of the cranium are shown in <a href="#figure008">Fig. 8</a> +(<a href="#figure008">p. 38</a>), where it will be seen that the auditory bulla is inflated, +although it has only a rudimental internal septum; the paroccipital +process, although in contact with the bulla, is +prominent, and there is a large glenoid foramen. +In all the existing forms the humerus has lost the +entepicondylar foramen; the crowns of the upper +molars are triangular in shape (<a href="#figure251">Fig. 251</a>), and the +blade of the upper carnassial consists of two lobes.</p> + +<figure class="figright illowp25" id="figure250" style="max-width: 9.375em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure250.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 250.</span>—Cæcum +of the Arctic +Fox (<i>Canis lagopus</i>). +<i>i</i>, Ileum; <i>c</i>, +colon. In the natural +position the +colon is uppermost.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>In the alimentary canal the cæcum (<a href="#figure250">Fig. 250</a>) is +extremely characteristic. It is a simple appendage +of nearly uniform width (about equal to that of the +ileum) attached to the side of the canal, just beyond +the ileo-cæcal valve, and with a rounded termination. +In a Dog of average size it is 5 or 6 inches long if +uncoiled, but it is normally folded by its mesenteric +attachments backwards and forwards several times +on itself by the side of the ileum, after the manner +shown in the figure.</p> + +<p>The existing Dogs form a very compact group, +with numerous species closely resembling each other +in essential characters, though differing considerably +externally. The most marked differences are slight +variations in the number of the true molar teeth, +which exceed the usual number in the Cape Long-eared +Fox (<i>Otocyon</i>), and fall short of it in some other +less aberrant forms to which the names of <i>Icticyon</i> +and <i>Cyon</i> have been given, and a diminution in the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_546"></a>[546]</span> +number of toes in the Cape Hunting Dog (<i>Lycaon</i>), +which has 4-4, instead of 5-4 as in the remainder of the family. +After taking these away, there remain a great number of animals +called Dogs, Wolves, Jackals, and Foxes, varying from one another +only in the characters of the tail, ears, fur, form of the pupil, and +some trifling peculiarities of skull and teeth, upon which some +authors have divided them into many genera. These divisions are, +however, extremely difficult, if not impossible, to define, on account +of the numerous gradual transitions from one form to the other.</p> + +<figure class="figleft illowp100" id="figure251" style="max-width: 25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure251.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 251.</span>—The last four left upper teeth of an extinct Wolf +(<i>Canis cautleyi</i>). From the <i>Palæontologia Indica</i>.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Canis.</i><a id="FNanchor_471" href="#Footnote_471" class="fnanchor">[471]</a>—It appears on the whole convenient to retain all the +species, with the exception of <i>Otocyon</i>, <i>Icticyon</i>, and <i>Lycaon</i>, in the +old genus <i>Canis</i>, the most prominent characters of which are the +following. Teeth, usually <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₄, <i>m</i> ²⁄₃; total 42. The +absence of the last +upper molar (<i>m</i> ³⁄), +alone distinguishes this +from the generalised +dentition of heterodonts, +and this tooth +is occasionally present +in one species (<i>C. cancrivorus</i>). +In certain +Asiatic species (<i>C. primævus</i> +and its allies), +which on this account +have been separated to form the genus <i>Cyon</i> of Hodgson, the last +lower molar ⁄<i>m₃</i> appears to be constantly absent. The milk-dentition +is <i>di</i> ³⁄₃, <i>dc</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>dm</i> ³⁄₃; total 28,—the first permanent premolar +having no predecessor. The teeth of both permanent and +milk or temporary series are figured on <a href="#figure003">p. 26</a>, <a href="#figure003">Fig. 3</a>, from the +outer aspect, while the woodcut <a href="#figure251">251</a> shows the palatal aspect of the +hinder upper teeth. The upper carnassial (<i>p</i> ⁴⁄) consists of a stout +blade, of which the anterior lobe is almost obsolete, the middle lobe +large, conical, and pointed backwards, and the posterior lobe in the +form of a compressed ridge; the inner tubercle is very small, and +placed quite at the fore part of the tooth. The first molar is more +than half the antero-posterior length of the carnassial, and considerably +wider than it is long; its crown consists of two prominent +conical cusps, of which the anterior is the larger, and a low broad +inward prolongation, supporting two more or less distinct cusps and +a raised inner border. The second molar resembles the first in +general form, but is considerably smaller. The lower carnassial +⁄<i>m₁</i> is a very large tooth, with a strong compressed bilobed blade, +the hinder lobe being considerably the larger and more pointed, a<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_547"></a>[547]</span> +small but distinct inner cusp placed at the hinder margin of the +posterior lobe of the blade, and a broad, low, tuberculated talon, +or heel, occupying about one-third of the whole length of the tooth. +The second molar is less than half the length of the first, with a +pair of cusps placed side by side anteriorly, and a less distinct +posterior pair. The third is an extremely small and simple tooth, +with a subcircular tuberculated crown and single root.</p> + +<p>The cranium (<a href="#figure249">Fig. 249</a>) is more or less elongated, the facial +portion tapering forwards and compressed. The jaws are elongated, +and the zygomata moderately strong. The postorbital processes of +the frontal short, leaving the orbit widely open posteriorly. Vertebræ: +C 7, D 13, L 7, S 3, C 17-22. Clavicles present, but very +rudimentary. Limbs of moderate proportions, digitigrade. Feet +short; five toes on the fore foot, the pollex much shorter than the +others, and not reaching to the ground. Four toes on the hind +foot, the hallux being represented by a rudiment of the metatarsal.<a id="FNanchor_472" href="#Footnote_472" class="fnanchor">[472]</a> +All the toes are provided with exserted, non-retractile, slightly +curved, and blunt claws, which, being exposed, become worn at the +tips. Tail moderate, or rather long, generally somewhat bushy. +The pupil of the eye, when contracted, is in some species round, in +others elliptical and vertical.</p> + +<p>This extensive genus may be considered as truly cosmopolitan. +One or more species occur in every part of the American continent +from Greenland to Patagonia and the Falkland Isles; and similarly, +in the Old World, Europe, Africa, and Asia, with most of the large +islands adjacent, and even Australia, have their wild Dogs, though +in the last case they may belong to a feral race, introduced originally +by man. They are generally sociable animals, hunting their +prey in packs. Many species burrow in the ground; none habitually +climb trees. Though mostly carnivorous, feeding chiefly on +animals they have chased and killed themselves, many, especially +among the smaller species, eat garbage, carrion, insects, and also +fruit, berries, and other vegetable substances. The species are +very numerous, and, as in most other large genera, very ill-defined, +few zoologists agreeing as to which of the many slightly different +modifications should be considered as local varieties and which true +species. Perhaps the best cranial character by which the different +members of the genus can be distinguished is that pointed out by +Burmeister, viz. that in the animals generally called Dogs, Wolves, +and Jackals the postorbital process of the frontal bone is regularly +smooth and convex above, with its extremity bent downwards, +whereas in Foxes this process is hollowed above, with its outer<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_548"></a>[548]</span> +margin (particularly of the anterior border) somewhat raised. This +modification coincides in the main with that upon which Professor +Huxley<a id="FNanchor_473" href="#Footnote_473" class="fnanchor">[473]</a> has based his division of the group into two parallel series, +the Thooids or Lupine forms and Alopecoids or Vulpine forms, +which he characterises by the presence of frontal air-sinuses in the +former, which not only affect the external contour but to a still greater +degree the shape of the anterior part of the cranial cavity, and the +absence of such sinuses in the latter. The pupil of the eye when +contracted is round in most members of the first group, and vertically +elliptical in the others, but more observations are required +before this character can be absolutely relied upon. The form and +length of the tail is often used for the purposes of classification, +but its characters do not coincide with those of the cranium, since +many of the South American <i>Canidæ</i> have the long bushy tails of +Foxes and the skulls of Wolves. Taking into account various +combinations of these and other minor characters, the species may +be arranged in the following groups, which some authors have +considered as of generic importance.</p> + +<p>A. <i>Thooid or Lupine Series.</i>—The typical group, or <i>Canis</i> proper, +contains the largest members of the genus, the true Wolves of the +northern parts of both Old and New Worlds (<i>C. lupus</i>, etc.), the +Jackals of Southern Asia and Africa (<i>C. aureus</i>, <i>mesomelas</i>, etc.), and +the various breeds of the domestic Dog (<i>C. familiaris</i>). The true +Wolves are (excluding some varieties of the domestic Dog) the +largest members of the genus, and have a wide geographical range, +extending over nearly the whole of Europe and Asia, and North +America from Greenland to Mexico, but they are not found in +South America or Africa, being replaced in both of these continents +by various species of Jackals and Foxes. As might be expected +from this extensive range, and the varied character of the climatic +conditions of the countries they inhabit, they present great diversities +of size, length and thickness of fur, and coloration, although +resembling each other in all important structural characters. These +differences have given rise to a supposed multiplicity of species, +expressed by the names of <i>C. lupus</i>, <i>C. lycaon</i> (Central Europe), +<i>C. laniger</i> and <i>C. niger</i> (Tibet), <i>C. pallipes</i> (India), <i>C. occidentalis</i>, +<i>C. nubilis</i>, <i>C. mexicanus</i>, etc., of North America, but it is very doubtful +whether some of these ought to be distinguished as other than +local varieties. Mr. W. T. Blanford, in his recent work on the +mammals of India, regards the two forms from Tibet mentioned +above as inseparable from <i>C. lupus</i>. In North America there is +a very distinct smaller species, called the Coyote or Prairie Wolf +(<i>C. latrans</i>); and perhaps the Japanese Wolf (<i>C. hodophylax</i>) may also +be distinct, although, except for its smaller size and shorter legs,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_549"></a>[549]</span> it +is scarcely distinguishable from the common species. Though +generally distributed throughout the Indian peninsula, the Indian +Wolf (<i>C. pallipes</i>), which is rather smaller and slighter than <i>C. lupus</i>, +is not found in Ceylon, nor in Burma and Siam. The ordinary +colour of the Common Wolf is a yellowish or fulvous gray, but +specimens have been met with almost pure white and others entirely +black. In northern countries the fur is longer and thicker, and the +animal generally larger and more powerful than in the southern portion +of its range; this being especially the case with the Tibetan +races. The habits of the Wolf are similar everywhere, and it is still, +and has been from time immemorial, especially known to man in all +the countries it inhabits as the devastator of his flocks of sheep. They +do not catch their prey by lying in ambush, or stealing up close to +it and making a sudden spring as the Cat tribe do, but by fairly +running it down in open chase, which their speed and remarkable +endurance enable them to do; and usually, except during summer, +when the young families of cubs are being separately provided for +by their parents, they assemble in troops or packs, and by their +combined and persevering efforts are able to overpower and kill +even such great animals as the American Bison. It is singular that +such closely allied species as the Domestic Dog and the Arctic Fox +are among the favourite prey of Wolves, and, as is well known, +children and even full-grown people are not unfrequently the +objects of their attack when pressed by hunger. Notwithstanding +the proverbial ferocity of the Wolf in a wild state, many instances +are recorded of animals taken when quite young becoming perfectly +tame and attached to the person who has brought them up, when +they exhibit many of the ways of a Dog. They can, however, +rarely be trusted by strangers.</p> + +<p>The history of the Wolf in the British Isles and its gradual +extirpation has been thoroughly investigated by Mr. J. E. Harting +in his work on <i>Extinct British Animals</i>, from which the following +account is abridged: To judge by the osteological remains which +the researches of geologists have brought to light, there was perhaps +scarcely a county in England or Wales in which, at one time +or another, wolves did not abound, while in Scotland and Ireland +they must have been still more numerous. The fossil remains +which have been discovered in Britain are not larger than, nor in +any way to be distinguished from, those of European wolves of the +present day. Wolf-hunting was a favourite pursuit of the ancient +Britons as well as of the Anglo-Saxons. In Athelstan’s reign these +animals abounded to such an extent in Yorkshire that a retreat was +built by one Acehorn, at Flixton, near Filey, wherein travellers +might seek refuge if attacked by them. As is well known, great +efforts were made by King Edgar to reduce the number of wolves +in the country, but, notwithstanding the annual tribute of 300<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_550"></a>[550]</span> +skins paid to him during several years by the king of Wales, he +was not altogether so successful as has been commonly imagined. +In the reign of Henry III the number of wolves in some parts of +the country was sufficient to induce the king to make grants of land +to various individuals upon the express condition of their taking +measures to destroy these animals wherever they could be found. +In Edward II’s time the king’s forest of the Peak, in Derbyshire, +is especially mentioned as infested with wolves, and it was not +until the reign of Henry VII (1485-1509) that wolves appear to +have become finally extinct in England. This, however, is rather +a matter of inference from the cessation of all mention of them in +local records than from any definite evidence of their extirpation. +Their last retreat was probably in the desolate wolds of Yorkshire. +In Scotland, as might be supposed from the nature of the country, +the wolf maintained its hold for a much longer period. There is a +well-known story of the last of the race being killed by Sir Ewen +Cameron of Lochiel in 1680, but there is evidence of wolves having +survived in Sutherlandshire and other parts into the following +century (perhaps as late as 1743), though the date of their final +extinction cannot be accurately fixed. In Ireland, in Cromwell’s +time, wolves were particularly troublesome, and said to be increasing +in numbers, so that special measures were taken for their +destruction, such as the offering of large rewards for their heads, +and the prohibition (in 1652) of the exportation of “wolf-dogs,” the +large dogs used for hunting the wolves. The active measures +taken then and later reduced their numbers greatly, so that +towards the end of the century they became scarce, but, as in the +case of the sister island, the date of their final disappearance cannot +now be ascertained. It has been placed, upon the evidence of +somewhat doubtful traditions, as late as 1766.</p> + +<p>Remains of <i>C. lupus</i> are common in the European Pleistocene; +while the Indian Pliocene <i>C. cautleyi</i>, of which the upper teeth +are shown in <a href="#figure251">Fig. 251</a>, was probably the ancestor of <i>C. pallipes</i>. +<i>C. neschersensis</i>, of the Upper Pliocene of France, was a smaller +extinct Wolf. A lower jaw from the French Pleistocene, described +under the name of <i>Lycorus</i>, has only three premolars, but evidently +belongs to the Wolf.</p> + +<p>The Jackals are smaller than the Wolves, with the bushy tail +about one-third the length of the head and body, and the carnassials +relatively shorter as compared with the tubercular molars. +The Common Jackal (<i>C. aureus</i>, <a href="#figure252">Fig. 252</a>) has a very wide distribution, +ranging from South-Eastern Europe through South-Western +Asia to India and Burma, and also occurring in Northern Africa; +being replaced in the Ethiopian region by closely allied species. +Remains indistinguishable from <i>C. aureus</i> occur in the Pliocene +Siwaliks of Northern India. Jackals hunt at<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_551"></a>[551]</span> night in packs, +uttering the piercing cries so well known to all who have resided +in countries where these animals are found.</p> + +<p>The origin of the Domestic Dog, with its numerous breeds, +has been the subject of much controversy. Some naturalists +believe it to be a distinct species, descended from one that no +longer exists in a wild state; others have sought to find its progenitors +in some one of the wild or feral races, either of true Dogs, +Wolves, or Jackals; while others again believe that it is derived +from the mingling of two or more wild species or races. It +was probably the earliest animal domesticated by man, and few if +any other species have undergone such an extraordinary amount of +variation in size, form, and proportion of limbs, ears, and tail—variations +which have been perpetuated and increased by careful +selective breeding. The Dingo or Australian Dog is met with wild, +and also as the domestic companion of the aboriginal people. Dogs +were also in the possession of the natives of New Zealand and other +islands of the Pacific, where no placental mammals exist naturally, +on their discovery by Europeans in the last century.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="figure252" style="max-width: 28.125em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure252.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 252.</span>—The Jackal (<i>Canis aureus</i>).</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The second group includes the wild Dogs of the south-east of +Asia, described as <i>Cyon</i>, and distinguished by slight modifications +as <i>C. rutilans</i>, <i>C. dukhunensis</i>, and <i>C. javanicus</i>, and differing from +the above in wanting the small last lower tubercular molar. This +difference reduces the number of the teeth to the same as in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_552"></a>[552]</span> +<i>Viverra</i>, and is precisely paralleled by some of the species of the +extinct genus <i>Cynodictis</i> mentioned below. The muzzle is shorter +than in other species, and the facial profile is slightly convex +instead of concave. The mammæ are also 12 or 14 instead of the +normal 10; while there is long hair between the foot-pads. Wild +Dogs inhabit not only the whole of the Oriental region, but extend +into Central Asia as far north as the Altai and Amurland (<i>C. alpinus</i>). +<i>C. dukhunensis</i> ranges from the forest regions of peninsular India to +Gilgit and Western Tibet, where it must inhabit open country. In +their general form, and more especially the shortness of the legs, +these animals come nearer to the Jackals than to the Wolves. They +hunt their prey in packs. Remains of species of this group occur +in the cavern-deposits of the Continent, and have been described +under the name of <i>C. europæus</i>.</p> + +<p>A group for which the name <i>Lycalopex</i> has been proposed comprises +certain South American <i>Canidæ</i>, distinguished from <i>Canis</i> +proper by their longer tails and Fox-like aspect:—<i>C. cancrivorus</i>, +<i>C. brasiliensis</i>, <i>C. melampus</i>, <i>C. vetulus</i>, <i>C. fulvicaudus</i>, <i>C. azaræ</i>, <i>C. +magellanicus</i>, <i>C. griseus</i>. The last three have been further separated +(under the name of <i>Pseudalopex</i>) on account of slight differences in +the relative size of the molar teeth, and of their pupil being elliptical +when contracted. <i>Nyctereutes</i> (one species, <i>C. procyonides</i>, from +Japan and North-East Asia) has no claims to generic distinction but +such as are founded upon its long loose fur, short ears, and short +bushy tail, which give it some superficial resemblance to a Raccoon.</p> + +<p>B. <i>Alopecoid or Vulpine Series.</i>—The <i>Vulpine</i> group (<i>Vulpes</i>) +includes the true Foxes, of which there are numerous varieties and +species, spread over North America, Eurasia, and Africa, which +have been described under the names of <i>C. vulpes</i> (<i>Vulpes alopex</i>), +the common Fox of Europe; <i>C. niloticus</i>, <i>adustus</i>, and <i>variegatus</i>, +Africa; <i>C. flavescens</i>, <i>montanus</i>, <i>bengalensis</i>, <i>japonicus</i>, <i>corsac</i>, Asia; +<i>C. fulvus</i>, <i>macrurus</i>, <i>velox</i>, North America. Mr. Blanford<a id="FNanchor_474" href="#Footnote_474" class="fnanchor">[474]</a> concludes, +however, that the Asiatic <i>C. flavescens</i> and <i>C. montanus</i>, and +very probably the North American Cross-Fox (<i>C. fulvus</i>) are merely +local races of <i>C. vulpes</i>, distinguished by certain peculiarities of +coloration. The English Fox measures about 2 feet in length +exclusive of the tail, which is about a foot long. Its fur is of a +reddish-brown colour above, and more or less white beneath; the +back of the ears and the fore part of the limbs are black, and the +tip of its bushy tail is white. Its long, sharp muzzle, erect pointed +ears, and sharp eye, give it the well-known appearance of sagacity +and cunning. The Fox is a solitary animal, inhabiting a burrow, +which it either excavates for itself, or obtains by ejecting the +badger or the rabbit. So averse, indeed, is the Fox to dig for +itself, that when foiled in its attempts to dispossess the badger, <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_553"></a>[553]</span>it +has been known to take up its quarters with the latter, and it can be +induced to make its home in artificial burrows constructed of stone +and earth for the purpose of facilitating the operation of digging +out the cubs. The Fox also occurs in woods, and even in the open +country without burrows, lying in its “cover” by day and stealing +forth at night in search of its prey. Remains of the Common +Fox occur not unfrequently in the Pleistocene deposits of Europe. +The Indian <i>C. bengalensis</i> is a very much smaller and well-marked +species.</p> + +<p>The tail of the above forms is clothed with soft fur and long +hair, uniformly mixed; from them Baird distinguishes, under the +name of <i>Urocyon</i>, other species which have a concealed erect mane +of stiff hairs along the upper line of the tail. These have also a +shorter muzzle and a wide space between the temporal crests; they +are <i>C. virginianus</i> and <i>C. littoralis</i>, both from North America. The +Arctic Fox (<i>C. lagopus</i>, genus <i>Leucocyon</i>, Gray) has the tail very full +and bushy and the soles of the feet densely furred below. Its +colour changes according to season from bluish-gray to pure white.</p> + +<p>Certain small elegant African Foxes (<i>C. zerda</i>, <i>famelicus</i>, and +<i>chama</i>), with very large ears and corresponding large auditory +bullæ, have been separated under the name of <i>Fennecus</i>, and are +commonly known as Fennecs.</p> + +<p>The earliest undoubted occurrence of the genus <i>Canis</i> seems to +be in the Upper Miocene of Switzerland, where it is represented +by the Fox-like <i>C. œningensis</i>. In the Upper Pliocene of France +<i>C. megamastoides</i> is said to be allied to the Foxes and Jackals, but +with some signs of affinity to the extinct <i>Cynodictis</i>. In the Pliocene +Siwaliks of India there occurs <i>C. curvipalatus</i>, of the size of a small +Fox, which appears to have certain resemblances to <i>Otocyon</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Lycaon.</i><a id="FNanchor_475" href="#Footnote_475" class="fnanchor">[475]</a>—This genus resembles in most of its characters the +Dogs of the Lupine series, but the teeth are rather more massive +and rounded, the skull is shorter and broader, and there are but +four toes on each limb, as in <i>Hyæna</i>. The one species, <i>L. pictus</i>, the +Cape Hunting Dog (<a href="#figure253">Fig. 253</a>) from South and East Africa, is very +distinct externally from all the other <i>Canidæ</i>. It is nearly as large +as a Mastiff, with large, broadly ovate erect ears, and singularly +coloured, being not only variable in different individuals, but unsymmetrically +marked with large spots of white, yellow, and black. +It presents some curious superficial resemblances to <i>Hyæna crocuta</i>, +perhaps a case of mimetic analogy. It hunts its prey in large +packs. A lower jaw from a cave-deposit in Glamorganshire, which +agrees with that of the existing form in the presence of an anterior +cusp to the last lower premolar, has been made the type of a distinct +species (<i>L. anglicus</i>).</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_554"></a>[554]</span></p> + +<p><i>Icticyon.</i><a id="FNanchor_476" href="#Footnote_476" class="fnanchor">[476]</a>—The Bush-Dog (<i>I. venaticus</i>), from Guiana and Brazil, +is a species about the size of a Fox, with close hair, and short legs +and tail, distinguished from all other Dogs by the reduction of the +molar teeth to ¹⁄₂, and their comparatively small size. The lower +carnassial is also characterised by the loss of the inner cusp of the +blade, and the secant form of its hind talon; both these features +indicating a specialised type. Remains of the Bush-Dog are found +in the Pleistocene cavern-deposits of Brazil, and were originally +described under the name of <i>Speothos</i>.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp79" id="figure253" style="max-width: 28.125em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure253.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 253.</span>—The Cape Hunting Dog (<i>Lycaon pictus</i>).</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Otocyon.</i><a id="FNanchor_477" href="#Footnote_477" class="fnanchor">[477]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₄, <i>m</i> ³⁻⁴⁄₄; total 46 or 48. +The molar teeth are thus in excess of any other living heterodont +mammal. They have the same general characters as in <i>Canis</i>, +with very pointed cusps. The lower carnassial shows little of its +typical characters, having five cusps on the surface; these can, +however, be identified as the inner cusp, the two greatly reduced +and obliquely placed lobes of the blade, and two cusps on the talon. +The skull generally resembles that of the smaller Foxes, particularly +the Fennecs. The auditory bullæ are very large. The hinder +edge of the mandible has a very peculiar form, owing to the +great development of an expanded, compressed, and somewhat +inverted subangular process. Vertebræ: C 7, D 13, L 7, S 3, C 22. +Ears very large. Limbs rather long. Toes 5-4. One species, +<i>O. megalotis</i>, from South Africa, rather smaller than a common Fox.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_555"></a>[555]</span></p> + +<p>Professor Huxley looks upon this as the least differentiated or +most primitive existing form of the family, regarding the presence +of the four molar teeth as a survival of a condition of the dentition +exhibited by the common ancestors of the existing <i>Canidæ</i> and the +existing carnivorous Marsupials. There is, however, at present no +palæontological proof of this, as none of the numerous fossil forms +of <i>Canidæ</i> yet discovered have more than the normal number of molars.</p> + +<p><i>Extinct Genera.</i>—A large number of fossil Carnivora have been +described from various Tertiary deposits which are more or less +closely allied to the existing <i>Canidæ</i>, although, as already mentioned, +connecting the latter so closely on the one hand with the +<i>Viverridæ</i> and on the other hand with the <i>Ursidæ</i>, that it is almost, +if not quite impossible to say where one family begins and the other +ends. A few only of the more important of these annectant types +will be mentioned here. <i>Temnocyon</i>, of the Miocene of the United +States, is a true Dog, which agrees with <i>Icticyon</i> in having a secant +hind talon to the lower carnassial, but preserves a generalised character +in having an entepicondylar foramen to the humerus. An +extremely interesting form is <i>Cynodictis</i>, of the Middle Tertiaries +of Europe and the United States, which (as now restricted by +Dr. Schlosser) includes a number of species mostly not larger than +Foxes. The dental formula is generally the same as in <i>Canis</i>, but +(as in that genus) the last lower molar may be absent. The teeth +are very like those of <i>Viverridæ</i>, the lower carnassial never being +greatly elongated antero-posteriorly, and its inner cusp being situated +immediately on the inner side of the hinder lobe of the blade, +instead of somewhat behind it, as is the case in most Dogs. In +the skull the auditory bulla is inflated, but is said to have no +distinct septum; while the humerus invariably has an entepicondylar +foramen. It is suggested that <i>Cynodictis</i> is not far removed from +the ancestral type of many of the Viverroids and Canoids, and may +itself have been derived from the under-mentioned genus <i>Amphicyon</i>. +M. Boule considers, indeed, that from the resemblance of the Pliocene +<i>Canis megamastoides</i> (<a href="#Page_553">p. 553</a>) to <i>Cynodictis</i> we ought to regard +the Foxes and Jackals as the descendants of <i>Cynodictis</i>, while the +Wolves have been derived directly from <i>Amphicyon</i>. The last +named genus, which includes some species as large as a Bear, is +found in the Upper Eocene and Lower Miocene of Europe, and is +represented in the Miocene of the United States by the allied +<i>Daphœnus</i>. It is characterised by the presence of three upper +molars—thus bringing up the dental formula to the full Eutherian +number; by the five digits on all the feet, which were plantigrade; +and by the presence of a third trochanter to the femur and an +entepicondylar foramen to the humerus. The teeth are essentially +those of a dog, and the base of the skull is also dog-like, although<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_556"></a>[556]</span> +it is highly probable that the auditory bulla had no trace of a +septum. According, however, to Dr. Filhol<a id="FNanchor_478" href="#Footnote_478" class="fnanchor">[478]</a> the minute foramina +described by Professor Cope<a id="FNanchor_479" href="#Footnote_479" class="fnanchor">[479]</a> in the postparietal and mastoid which +occur in <i>Ursus</i>, but are said to be absent in <i>Canis</i>, are present in +<i>Amphicyon</i>. So far, however, as we can see, the presence or absence +of those foramina cannot be regarded as diagnostic of <i>Ursus</i> and +<i>Canis</i>, although they are generally more strongly developed in +the former. <i>Amphicyon</i> may, indeed, be considered as a very +generalised Dog, with affinities to the Bears in the structure of +its limbs. <i>Dinocyon</i> is a still larger form, +from the Middle Miocene of France, +which, so far as its teeth are concerned, +connects <i>Amphicyon</i> with the Ursoid +genus <i>Hyænarctus</i> so closely as to render +it absolutely impossible to indicate any +characters of family importance by which +they can be distinguished. The upper +carnassial of <i>Dinocyon</i> is unknown. For +other genera, see <a href="#Page_562">p. 562</a>.</p> + +<h4><i>Section</i> <span class="smcap">Arctoidea</span>.</h4> + +<figure class="figright illowp31" id="figure254" style="max-width: 15.625em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure254.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 254.</span>—Right half of the palatal +aspect of the cranium of the Raccoon +(<i>Procyon lotor</i>). Letters as in <a href="#figure008">Fig. 8</a>, +p. 38. (From the <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> +1869, p. 10.)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>This section includes a considerable +number of forms which agree in the +essential characteristics of the structures +of the base of the cranium and +reproductive organs, and in the absence +of a cæcum to the intestinal canal. +They have no Cowper’s glands, but +there is a rudimentary prostate and a +large cylindrical penial bone; while all +the members of the group have five +completely developed toes on each foot. +Considerable diversity is found in the +characters of the base of the skull in +the various forms, but the following +features are common to all. The cavity +of the auditory bulla is simple, and has +no trace of a dividing septum; the +inferior lip of the auditory meatus +(<i>am</i>, <a href="#figure254">Fig. 254</a>) is considerably prolonged; +the paroccipital process (<i>p</i>) of +the exoccipital is more or less triangular, directed backwards, +outwards, and downwards, and standing quite apart from the +bulla; the mastoid process (<i>m</i>) of the periotic is always widely<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_557"></a>[557]</span> +separated from the paroccipital, and generally very prominent; +the carotid foramen (<i>car</i>) is large, and placed on the inner margin +of the bulla, usually near the middle, but occasionally more +posteriorly; the condyloid foramen is distinct and exposed, and +never sunk into a common opening with the foramen lacerum +posticum; and the glenoid foramen is always present, and usually +conspicuous. The alisphenoid canal is absent except in <i>Ursus</i>, +<i>Melursus</i>, and <i>Ælurus</i>.</p> + +<p>It has been already observed (<a href="#Page_501">p. 501</a>) that the evidence of fossil +forms, so far as it goes, is not in favour of the Arctoidea being a +natural group; so that its retention must be regarded as a somewhat +provisional measure, largely based on its convenience. The +group may be divided into the three families, <i>Ursidæ</i>, <i>Procyonidæ</i>, +and <i>Mustelidæ</i>.<a id="FNanchor_480" href="#Footnote_480" class="fnanchor">[480]</a></p> + +<h5><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Ursidæ</span>.</h5> + +<p>In existing forms the true molars ²⁄₃, with broad, flat tuberculated +crowns. Typically the three anterior premolars of both +jaws rudimentary and often deciduous. Fourth upper premolar +(carnassial) with no third or inner root. An alisphenoid canal +(except in <i>Æluropus</i>). Skull with the auditory bulla depressed, and +scarcely at all inflated. Feet plantigrade. No entepicondylar +foramen to the humerus. Kidneys conglomerate. Geographical +distribution extensive.</p> + +<p><i>Ursus.</i><a id="FNanchor_481" href="#Footnote_481" class="fnanchor">[481]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₄, <i>m</i> ²⁄₃; total 42. The three +anterior premolars above and below one-rooted, rudimentary, and +frequently wanting. Usually the first (placed close to the canine) +is present, and after a considerable interval the third, which is +situated close to the other teeth of the molar series. The second +is very rarely present in the adult state. The fourth (upper carnassial) +differs essentially from the corresponding tooth of other +Carnivores in wanting the inner tubercle supported by a distinct root. +Its sectorial characters are very slightly marked, and it is much +smaller than the first molar. The crowns of both the true molars +are longer than broad, with flattened, tuberculated, grinding surfaces. +The second has a large backward prolongation or heel. The lower +carnassial has a small and indistinct blade and greatly developed +tubercular heel. The second molar is of about the same length, +but with a broader and more flattened tubercular crown. The +third is smaller. The milk-teeth are comparatively small, and shed +at an early age. Skull more or less elongated. Orbits small and +incomplete behind. Palate prolonged considerably behind the last +molar tooth. Vertebræ: C 7, D 14, L 6, S 5, C 8-10. Body<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_558"></a>[558]</span> +heavy. Feet broad, completely plantigrade; the five toes on each +foot all well developed, and armed with long compressed and +moderately curved non-retractile claws. Palms and soles naked. +Tail very short. Ears moderate, erect, rounded, hairy. Fur +generally long, soft, and shaggy.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp92" id="figure255" style="max-width: 25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure255.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 255.</span>—Head of the Brown Bear (<i>Ursus arctos</i>). From Sclater, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1867, p. 817.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The Bears are all animals of considerable bulk, and include +among them the largest members of the order. Though the species +are not numerous, they are widely spread over the earth’s surface +(but absent from the Ethiopian and Australian regions, and only +represented by one species in the Neotropical region), and differ +much among themselves in their food and manner of life. They +are mostly omnivorous or vegetable feeders, and even the Polar +Bear, usually purely carnivorous or piscivorous, devours grass with +avidity in summer. The various species maybe arranged in the +following groups:—</p> + +<p><i>Thalassarctine Group.</i>—Head comparatively small, molar teeth +small and narrow. Soles more covered with hair than in the others. +This group is represented only by the well-known Polar or White +Bear (<i>U. maritimus</i>) of the Arctic regions, which is one of the few +mammals which are completely white at all seasons of the year.</p> + +<p>The typical, or <i>Ursine</i>, group includes a number of species, of +which the Common Brown Bear (<i>U. arctos</i>) is the best known +example. This species is an exceedingly variable one, and has a +very wide range in the Palæarctic region; the Syrian form described<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_559"></a>[559]</span> +as <i>U. syriacus</i>, as well as the Hairy-eared Bear (<i>U. piscator</i>, <a href="#figure255">Fig. +255</a>) of North-Eastern Asia, and the Snow-Bear (<i>U. isabellinus</i>) of +Kashmir and Nipal, not being specifically separable. The Brown +Bear hibernates in cold regions, and in the Himalaya keeps to +comparatively high regions, emerging from its winter lair in March, +April, or May, according to the season and elevation, to feed on +the numerous bulbous plants which abound in the regions it inhabits. +Both the Syrian and Himalayan varieties are generally of lighter +colour and smaller size than the typical European form. Bears +were at one time found in the British Isles, from which, however, +they have been long since exterminated. They are still found +in the Pyrenees, and are comparatively abundant in parts of +Norway, Hungary, and Russia. In the Kashmir Himalaya they +were very abundant in some districts a few years ago, one of the +present writers having in 1874 seen no less than seven examples +at one time from the top of a mountain ridge; of late years their +numbers have, however, been greatly diminished. The Brown +Bear, although with strong powers of smelling, is very slow of +sight and hearing, and in the Himalaya it is easy to approach so +near that they may be shot with a smooth-bore gun. The Grizzly +Bear (<i>U. horribilis</i>) of North America is so closely allied to the +Brown Bear that some writers think it should only rank as a very +well-marked local variety. The Black Bears of the Himalaya (<i>U. +torquatus</i>), Japan (<i>U. japonicus</i>), and North America (<i>U. americanus</i>) +belong to this group. The Himalayan species ranges from Persia +to Assam, and thence to China and Formosa. In the greater part +of this area it is essentially a forest animal, and may be found in +autumn in the forests of the Kashmir valley feeding upon chestnuts +and other fruits. It is also exceedingly fond of maize, mulberries, +and walnuts; and a few years ago it was no very uncommon +sight to see three or even five of these bears up a single mulberry +or walnut tree in Kashmir. The Spectacled Bear (<i>U. ornatus</i>) of +the Peruvian Andes is another member of this group.</p> + +<p>The <i>Helarctine</i> group is represented only by the Malay Bear or +Sun Bear (<i>U. malayanus</i>), in which the head is short and broad; the +molar teeth are comparatively broad (but the length still exceeding +the breadth), the tongue is very long and extensile, and the fur +short and smooth. This small species inhabits the Malay Peninsula, +Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Tenasserim, Arakan, Chittagong, and the +Garo hills of India; it inhabits forest districts, and is an expert +climber.</p> + +<p>The earliest known occurrence of the genus is in the Lower +Pliocene of the Indian Siwalik Hills; where it is represented by +<i>U. theobaldi</i>, which was probably the ancestor of the existing +<i>Melursus</i>. The genus is represented in the Upper Pliocene of +Europe by the small <i>U. etruscus</i>; and in the Pleistocene <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_560"></a>[560]</span>by the existing +<i>U. arctos</i>, as well as by the great extinct Cave-Bear (<i>U. spelæus</i>), +distinguished by the complexity of the crowns of the molars and +the total loss of the three anterior premolars in the adult condition. +Remains of Bears are also found in cavern-deposits in the north +of Africa. The small <i>U. namadicus</i>, from the Pleistocene of the +Narbada valley, India, may have been allied to <i>U. malayanus</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Melursus.</i><a id="FNanchor_482" href="#Footnote_482" class="fnanchor">[482]</a>—This differs from the true Bears in the first upper +incisor being absent or shed at a very early age, in the very small +size of the other teeth, in the very large extensile lips, the deep +concavity of the palate, and other minor characters. The one +species, <i>M. labiatus</i>, the well-known Sloth-Bear of India, feeds chiefly +on black ants, termites, beetles, fruit, honey, etc. This species +inhabits peninsular India, from near the Himalaya to Cape Comorin +and Ceylon, and its remains are found in the cavern-deposits of +Madras. The black hair is very long and coarse; there is a light +horse-shoe-shaped mark on the chest (as in <i>Ursus torquatus</i>), and the +extremity of the muzzle is of an ashy gray.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp84" id="figure256" style="max-width: 28.125em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure256.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 256.</span>—<i>Æluropus melanoleucus.</i> (From Milne-Edwards.)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Æluropus.</i><a id="FNanchor_483" href="#Footnote_483" class="fnanchor">[483]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₃, <i>m</i> ²⁄₃; total 40. Premolars +large, increasing in size from first to last, and two-rooted except the +first. First upper molar with quadrate crown, broader than long; +second larger than the first. Cranium with zygomatic arches and +sagittal crest immensely developed, and ascending ramus of mandible<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_561"></a>[561]</span> +very high, giving greater spaces for attachments of temporal muscle +than in any other existing member of the order. Facial portion +short. Bony palate not extending behind the last molar tooth. +No alisphenoid canal. Feet bear-like, but soles more hairy, and +perhaps less completely plantigrade. Fur long and thick. Tail +very short. One extremely rare species, <i>A. melanoleucus</i> (<a href="#figure256">Fig. +256</a>), discovered by Père David in 1869, in the most inaccessible +mountains of Moupin in Eastern Tibet. Said to feed principally +on roots, bamboos, and other vegetables. It is of the size of +a small Brown Bear, of a white colour, with ears, spots round +the eyes, shoulders and limbs black. In the large size and +complex crowns of the upper premolars this genus differs very +markedly from the true Bears. The fourth upper premolar (carnassial) +makes no approach to the markedly sectorial type presented +by the corresponding tooth of <i>Hyænarctus</i>, its structure being, on +the whole, more like that of <i>Ælurus</i>.</p> + +<figure class="figright illowp64" id="figure257" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure257.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 257.</span>—Palate of <i>Arctotherium bonariense</i>, Pleistocene, +South America—¼ natural size. (From the <i>Palæontologia +Indica</i>.)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Extinct Genera.</i>—The genus <i>Arctotherium</i> includes some very +large Bear-like animals from the Pleistocene of South America +and California, in which +the dentition departs +less widely from a normal +carnivorous type +than in the true Bears. +Thus the upper carnassial +(<a href="#figure257">Fig. 257</a>) is +relatively larger than +in <i>Ursus</i>; while the +crowns of the upper +molars are broader and +shorter. The humerus +is said to have an +entepicondylar foramen. +<i>Hyænarctus</i>, of +the Miocene and Pliocene +of Europe and +Southern Asia, has the +crowns of the upper +molars either square or +triangular; the upper +carnassial having three +distinct lobes to the +blade, while the lower +carnassial is practically indistinguishable from that of the Dog-like +<i>Dinocyon</i> (<a href="#Page_556">p. 556</a>). The proximal extremity of the ulna differs +from that of <i>Ursus</i> in having a long olecranon, and thereby resembles +the corresponding bone of the Dogs. Indeed all the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_562"></a>[562]</span> +characters at present available tend to show a complete passage +from the Tertiary Dog-like animals, through <i>Dinocyon</i>, <i>Hyænarctus</i>, +and <i>Arctotherium</i>, to the true Bears. Most of the species of <i>Hyænarctus</i> +were of very large dimensions, but smaller forms occur in the +Miocene. <i>Cephalogale</i>, of the Continental Tertiaries, is a genus +represented by several species of medium size showing evident +signs of affinity with <i>Hyænarctus</i>. The upper molars have subtriangular +crowns, while the carnassial is short, and has two comparatively +low lobes. Here also may be mentioned several other +genera, apparently more or less closely allied to the present group, +some of which are regarded by Dr. Schlosser as showing marked +signs of affinity to the <i>Procyonidæ</i>. Among these are <i>Simocyon</i> from +the Pliocene of Europe, with <i>p</i> ²⁄₂₋₄, <i>m</i> ²⁄₂; and <i>Enhydrocyon</i> of the +North American Miocene, with <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ²⁄₂, a secant talon to the +lower carnassial, and a very short skull. The Miocene <i>Ælurodon</i> +comprises several large North American forms, having a trilobed +upper carnassial like that of <i>Hyænarctus</i>, and a dental formula +similar to that of the latter and <i>Canis Prohyæna</i> is founded upon +a much-worn jaw of <i>Ælurodon</i>. <i>Hyænocyon</i>, of the Miocene of the +United States, with <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ¹⁄₂, appears to be an allied form, also +having a trilobed upper carnassial.</p> + +<h5><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Procyonidæ</span>.</h5> + +<p>True molars ²⁄₂, tuberculated or multicuspid; upper carnassial +short and broad. Alisphenoid canal absent, except in <i>Ælurus</i>. +Feet plantigrade. Tail generally annulated. In some cases an +entepicondylar foramen to the humerus. Typically American, but +with the outlying Oriental genus <i>Ælurus</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Ælurus.</i><a id="FNanchor_484" href="#Footnote_484" class="fnanchor">[484]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁄₄, <i>m</i> ²⁄₂; total 38. First lower +premolar very minute and deciduous. Molars (<a href="#figure259">Fig. 259</a>) remarkable +for their great transverse breadth and the numerous cusps of +their crowns. Vertebræ: C 7, D 14, L 6, S 3, C 18. Skull (<a href="#figure259">Fig. +259</a>) high and compressed, very convex, with the facial portion short, +the palate convex antero-posteriorly, and the ascending ramus of +mandible extremely high. Head round. Face short and broad. +Ears large, erect, pointed. Limbs stout, with large sharp semiretractile +claws. Tail nearly as long as body, cylindrical, annulated, +and clothed with long hairs. Fur long and thick. One existing +species, <i>Æ. fulgens</i>, the Panda (<a href="#figure258">Fig. 258</a>), an animal rather larger +than a Cat, found in the South-East Himalaya, at heights of from +7,000 to 12,000 feet above the sea, among rocks and trees, and +chiefly feeding on fruits and other vegetable substances. Its fur +is of a remarkably rich reddish-brown colour, darker below.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_563"></a>[563]</span></p> + +<p>The genus <i>Ælurus</i> has been made the type of a distinct family, +but its relationship to the Raccoons is regarded by Mr. W. T. +Blanford<a id="FNanchor_485" href="#Footnote_485" class="fnanchor">[485]</a> as sufficiently close to admit of its being included in the +same family. According to this zoölogist the Panda often sleeps +coiled up like a Cat, with the bushy tail over its head, but at other +times resting on its legs with the head tucked under the chest and +between the fore legs, after a manner said to be common with the +Raccoons. Although by no means strictly nocturnal, these animals +sleep much during the day, and roam out in search of food in +the morning and evening. The young are born in a very helpless +condition, and remain for a long period concealed in the holes of +trees or rocks.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp93" id="figure258" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure258.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 258.</span>—The Panda (<i>Ælurus fulgens</i>). The dark nasal stripe shown in this figure is generally +absent. (From Sclater, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1869, p. 408.)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>Fossil remains of a species of <i>Ælurus</i> (<i>Æ. anglicus</i>) have been +obtained from the English Pliocene Crag deposits which indicate an +animal of about one and half times the size of <i>Æ. fulgens</i>. The first +evidence of this fossil species was afforded by part of the mandible +with the last molar in place, and the subsequent discovery of an +entire first upper molar renders full confirmation of the generic +determination. This distribution of <i>Ælurus</i> is very important, as +showing how its area may have once approximated to that of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_564"></a>[564]</span> +ancestors of the American representatives of the family. It is +probable that the genus existed in India during the Siwalik period.</p> + +<p>The whole of the under-mentioned genera are American, and are +characterised by the absence of an alisphenoid canal in the skull.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp56" id="figure259" style="max-width: 28.125em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure259.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 259.</span>—Lateral view of skull and right half of palate of <i>Ælurus fulgens</i>. (From Blanford, +<i>Mammalia of British India</i>, p. 190.)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Procyon.</i><a id="FNanchor_486" href="#Footnote_486" class="fnanchor">[486]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₄, <i>m</i> ²⁄₂; total 40. The molar +teeth broad and tuberculated (<a href="#figure259">Fig. 259</a>). The upper carnassial +with three cusps along the outer margin, and a very broad bicuspid +inner tubercle, giving an almost quadrate form to the crown. First +molar with a large tuberculated crown, rather broader than long; +second considerably smaller, with transversely oblong crown. +Lower carnassial with an extremely small and ill-defined blade, +placed transversely in front, and a large inner cusp and hind talon. +Second molar as long as the first, but narrower behind, with<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_565"></a>[565]</span> five +obtuse cusps. Vertebræ: C 7, D 14, L 6, S 3, C 16-20. Body +stout. Head broad behind, but with a pointed muzzle. Limbs +plantigrade, but in walking the entire sole is not applied to the +ground as it is when the animal is standing. Toes, especially of +the fore foot, very free, and capable of being spread wide apart. +Claws compressed, curved, pointed, and non-retractile. Tail moderately +long, cylindrical, thickly covered with hair, annulated, non-prehensile. +Fur long, thick, and soft. The well-known Raccoon<a id="FNanchor_487" href="#Footnote_487" class="fnanchor">[487]</a> +(<i>Procyon lotor</i>, <a href="#figure260">Fig. 260</a>) of North America is the type of this genus. +It is a clumsy thickly-built animal about the size of a Badger, with +a coat of long coarse grayish-brown hairs, short ears, and a bushy +black and white ringed tail. Its range extends over the whole of +the United States, and stretches on the west northwards to Alaska +and southwards into Central America, where it attains its maximum +size. The following notes on the habits of the Raccoon are taken +from Dr. C. H. Merriam’s <i>Mammals of the Adirondack Region</i>:—</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp85" id="figure260" style="max-width: 25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure260.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 260.</span>—The Raccoon (<i>Procyon lotor</i>).</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>“Raccoons are omnivorous beasts, and feed upon mice, small +birds, birds’ eggs, turtles and their eggs, frogs, fish, crayfish, +molluscs, insects, nuts, fruits, maize, and sometimes poultry. Excepting +the bats and flying squirrels, they are the most strictly +nocturnal of all our mammals, and yet I have several times seen<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_566"></a>[566]</span> +them abroad on cloudy days. They haunt the banks of ponds +and streams, and find much of their food in these places, such as +crayfish, mussels, and fish, although they are unable to dive and +pursue the latter under water, like the otter and mink. They are +good swimmers, and do not hesitate to cross rivers that lie in their +path.... The Raccoon hibernates during the severest part of the +winter, retiring to its nest rather early, and appearing again in +February or March, according to the earliness or lateness of the +season. It makes its home high up in the hollow of some large +tree, preferring a dead limb to the trunk itself. It does little in +the way of constructing a nest, and from four to six young are +commonly born at a time, generally early in April in this region. +The young remain with the mother about a year.”</p> + +<p>The South-American <i>P. cancrivorus</i>, the Crab-eating Raccoon, is +very similar to <i>P. lotor</i>, but differs by its much shorter fur, larger +size, proportionally more powerful teeth, and other minor characters. +It extends over the whole of South America, as far south as the Rio +Negro, and is very common in all suitable localities. Its habits are +similar to those of the North-American species. Fossil remains of +<i>Procyon</i> have been described from the Pleistocene deposits of the +United States.</p> + +<p><i>Bassaris.</i><a id="FNanchor_488" href="#Footnote_488" class="fnanchor">[488]</a>—A form closely allied to <i>Procyon</i>, but of more slender +and elegant proportions, with a sharper nose, longer tail, and more +digitigrade feet, and with teeth otherwise like, but smaller, and +more sharply denticulated. It was formerly, but erroneously, placed +among the <i>Viverridæ</i>. Two species:—<i>B. astuta</i>, from the southern +parts of the United States and Mexico, and <i>B. sumichrasti</i>, from +Central America.</p> + +<p><i>Bassaricyon.</i><a id="FNanchor_489" href="#Footnote_489" class="fnanchor">[489]</a>—This name has been given to a distinct modification +of the Procyonine type of which at present only two examples +are known, one from Costa Rica and the other from Ecuador, which, +appearing to be different species, have been named <i>B. gabbi</i> and +<i>B. alleni</i>. They much resemble the Kinkajou (<i>Cercoleptes</i>) in external +appearance, but the skull and teeth are more like those of <i>Procyon</i> +and <i>Nasua</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Nasua.</i><a id="FNanchor_490" href="#Footnote_490" class="fnanchor">[490]</a>—Dentition as in <i>Procyon</i>, but the upper canines are +larger and more strongly compressed, and the molars smaller. The +facial portion of the skull is more elongated and narrow. Vertebræ: +C 7, D 14, L 6, S 3, C 22-23. Body elongated and rather +compressed. Nose prolonged into a somewhat upturned, obliquely +truncated, mobile snout. Tail long, non-prehensile, tapering, annulated. +These animals, commonly called Coatis or Coati-Mundis, +live in small troops of eight to twenty, are chiefly arboreal, and feed<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_567"></a>[567]</span> +on fruits, young birds, eggs, insects, etc. Recent researches have +reduced the number of supposed species to two, <i>N. narica</i> of Mexico +and Central America, and <i>N. rufa</i> of South America from Surinam +to Paraguay. Remains of this genus, mostly referable to the +existing species, occur in the cavern-deposits of Brazil.</p> + +<p><i>Cercoleptes.</i><a id="FNanchor_491" href="#Footnote_491" class="fnanchor">[491]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ²⁄₂; total 36. Molars +with low flat crowns, very obscurely tuberculated. Skull short and +rounded, with flat upper surface. Vertebræ: C 7, D 14, L 6, S 3, +C 26-29. Clavicles present, but in a very rudimentary condition. +Head broad and round. Ears short. Body long and musteline. +Limbs short. Tail long, tapering, and prehensile. Fur short and +soft. Tongue long and very extensile. But one species of this +somewhat aberrant genus is known, <i>C. caudivolvulus</i>, the Kinkajou, +found in the forests of the warmer parts of South and Central +America. It is about the size of a Cat, of a uniform, pale, yellowish-brown +colour, nocturnal and arboreal in its habits, feeding on +fruit, honey, eggs, and small birds and mammals, and is of a +tolerably gentle disposition and easily tamed.</p> + +<h5><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Mustelidæ</span>.</h5> + +<p>True molars ¹⁄₂ (or ¹⁄₁ in <i>Mellivora</i><a id="FNanchor_492" href="#Footnote_492" class="fnanchor">[492]</a>). No alisphenoid canal. In +the upper molar the inner tubercular portion is always longer in +the antero-posterior direction than the secant external portion; the +degree of inflation of the auditory bulla is but slight; and the +palate is generally much produced behind the last molars, as is the +case with the members of the preceding family. The post-glenoid +process of the cranium is generally considerably curved over the +glenoid fossa, so as to hold very tightly the condyle of the mandible. +The humerus may or may not have an entepicondylar +foramen. Except in the Otters, the kidneys resemble those of +the <i>Procyonidæ</i> in being of simple structure.</p> + +<p>This family is a large and widely distributed one, especially in +the northern temperate regions of the earth. The different genera, +which are very difficult to arrange in any natural order, are rather +artificially divided, chiefly according to the characters of their feet +and claws, into the Otter-like (Lutrine), Badger-like (Meline), and +Weasel-like (Musteline) forms.</p> + +<p>Subfamily <b>Lutrinæ</b>.—Feet short, rounded (except the hind feet of +<i>Latax</i>). Toes webbed. Claws small, curved, blunt. Head broad +and much depressed. Upper molar large and quadrate, with its +inner tubercular portion much expanded antero-posteriorly (<a href="#figure261">Fig. +261</a>). Kidneys conglomerate. Habits aquatic.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_568"></a>[568]</span></p> + +<p><i>Lutra.</i><a id="FNanchor_493" href="#Footnote_493" class="fnanchor">[493]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₃, <i>m</i> ¹⁄₂; total 36. Upper +carnassial with a trenchant tricuspid blade, and a very large inner +lobe, hollowed on the free surface, with a raised sharp edge, and extending +along two-thirds or more of the length of the blade. True +molar large, with a quadricuspidate +crown, broader +than long. First upper +premolar very small, and +in some cases absent (<a href="#figure261">Fig. +261</a>). Skull broad and +depressed, contracted immediately +behind the +orbits. Facial portion +very short; brain case +large. Vertebræ: C 7, +D 14-15, L 6-5, S 3, C +20-26. Body very long. +Ears short and rounded. +Limbs short. Feet more or less completely webbed; claws usually +well developed on all the toes, although they may be rudimentary +or absent. Tail long, thick at the base and tapering, rather +depressed. Fur short and close. The humerus may or may not +have an entepicondylar foramen. In conformity with the shape +of the skull, the posterior part of the brain is expanded laterally.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure261" style="max-width: 21.875em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure261.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 261.</span>—Palate of <i>Lutra cinerea</i>. (From the +<i>Palæontologia Indica</i>.)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The Common British Otter (<i>L. vulgaris</i>), as the type of the +genus, may be described somewhat fully. It has an elongated, low +body, short limbs, short broad feet, with five toes on each, connected +together by webs, and all with short, moderately strong, +compressed, curved, pointed claws. Head rather small, broad, and +flat; muzzle very broad; whiskers thick and strong; eyes small +and black; ears short and rounded. Tail a little more than half +the length of the body and head together, very broad and strong at +the base, and gradually tapering to the end, somewhat flattened +horizontally. The fur is of very fine quality, consisting of a short +soft under fur of a whitish-gray colour, brown at the tips, interspersed +with longer, stiffer, and thicker hairs, very shining, grayish +at the base, bright rich brown at the points, especially on the upper +parts and outer surface of the legs; the throat, cheeks, under parts +and inner surface of the legs brownish-gray throughout. Individual +Otters vary much in size; but the total length from the nose to the +end of the tail averages about 3½ feet, of which the tail occupies +1 foot 3 or 4 inches. The weight of a full-sized male is from 18 to +24 lbs., that of a female about 4 lbs. less.</p> + +<p>As the Otter lives almost exclusively on fish, it is rarely met +with far from water, and usually frequents the shores of brooks,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_569"></a>[569]</span> +rivers, lakes, and, in some localities, the sea itself. It is a most +expert swimmer and diver, easily overtaking and seizing fish in the +water, but when it has captured its prey it brings it to shore to +devour it. When lying upon the bank it holds the fish between its +forepaws, commences at the head, and then eats gradually towards +the tail, which it is said always to leave. The female produces +three to five young ones at a time, in the month of March or April, +and brings them up in a nest formed of grass or other herbage, +usually placed in a hollow place in the bank of a river, or under +the shelter of the roots of some overhanging tree. The Common +Otter is found in localities suitable to its habits throughout Great +Britain and Ireland, though far less abundantly than formerly, for, +being very destructive to fish, and thus coming into keen competition +with those who pursue the occupation of fishing either for +sport or for gain, it is rarely allowed to live in peace when once its +haunts are discovered. Otter-hunting with packs of hounds of a +special breed, and trained for the purpose, was formerly a common +pastime in the country. When hunted down and brought to bay +by the dogs, the Otter is finally despatched by long spears carried +for the purpose by the huntsmen.</p> + +<p>The Common Otter ranges throughout the greater part of +Europe and Asia, the Indian <i>L. nair</i> not being distinct. A closely +allied but larger species, <i>L. canadensis</i>, is extensively distributed +throughout North America, where it is systematically pursued by +professional trappers for the value of its fur. The Common Otter +is regularly trained by the natives of some parts of Bengal to assist +them in fishing, by driving the fish into the nets. In China Otters +are taught to catch fish, being let into the water for the purpose +attached to a long cord.</p> + +<p>Otters are widely distributed over the earth, and, as they are +much alike in size and coloration, their specific distinctions are +by no means well defined.<a id="FNanchor_494" href="#Footnote_494" class="fnanchor">[494]</a> Besides those mentioned above, the +following may be noticed. In the Oriental region there are <i>L. +ellioti</i><a id="FNanchor_495" href="#Footnote_495" class="fnanchor">[495]</a> of India, <i>L. sumatrana</i> of the Malay countries, and <i>L. cinerea</i> +ranging over the greater part of the region. The latter species +(often known as <i>L. leptonyx</i>) is of small size, with a short head, and +rudimentary claws, which may be absent; it was at one time +regarded as generically distinct, under the name of <i>Aonyx</i>. The +upper true molar (<a href="#figure261">Fig. 261</a>) is characterised by the great development +of its inner tubercular portion, and the first upper premolar +is absent. In the Ethiopian region there are two species, <i>L. capensis</i> +and <i>L. maculicollis</i>. Of the Neotropical forms it will suffice to +mention the small <i>L. felina</i> and the large <i>L. brasiliensis<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_570"></a>[570]</span></i>. The latter +is by far the largest of the existing forms, and is characterised by +the presence of a prominent flange-like ridge along each lateral +margin of the tail, on which account it was referred by Dr. Gray to +a distinct genus, with the name of <i>Pteronura sambachi</i>. It should +be observed that all Otters have a very distinct inner cusp to the +blade of the lower carnassial, but that the relative size of this cusp +varies in the different species.</p> + +<p><i>Extinct Otters.</i>—Several species of fossil Otters have been +described. Thus in the Indian Siwaliks we have <i>L. palæindica</i>, +which is closely allied to <i>L. sumatrana</i>, and a larger form described +as <i>L. bathygnathus</i>. The Pliocene of Hessen-Darmstadt yields +<i>L. hessica</i>; while <i>L. dubia</i>, of the Middle Miocene of France, is a +species characterised by the small size of the inner cusp of the +lower carnassial—a character in which it resembles those Tertiary +forms described as <i>Trochictis</i>, which are believed to connect <i>Lutra</i> +with the <i>Mustelinæ</i>. Two very large Otters, respectively from the +Indian Siwaliks and the Italian Miocene, named <i>L. sivalensis</i> and +<i>L. campanii</i>, may be regarded either as representing a very distinct +<i>Enhydriodont</i> group of <i>Lutra</i> or as referable to a separate genus +<i>Enhydriodon</i>. They are characterised by certain peculiarities in +the structure of the teeth, and the second upper premolar may be +absent in the Indian form. Lastly, the genus <i>Potamotherium</i> contains +a small Otter (<i>P. valetoni</i>) from the Lower Miocene of the +Continent, which differs from all other known <i>Mustelidæ</i> in having +a minute second upper true molar. This species is evidently a +very generalised form approximating to the <i>Viverridæ</i> in its dental +formula, and also in the characters of the teeth themselves. The +brain, as recently described by Dr. Filhol, differs from that of <i>Lutra</i> +and other Mustelines in the great relative width of the anterior +extremity of the hemispheres and olfactory lobes, and also in the +disposition of the sulci, in both of which respects it more nearly +resembles the <i>Viverridæ</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Latax.</i><a id="FNanchor_496" href="#Footnote_496" class="fnanchor">[496]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₂, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ¹⁄₂; total 32. Differs +from all other existing Carnivora in having but two incisors on +each side of the lower jaw, the one corresponding to the first (very +small in the true Otters) being constantly absent. Though the +molar teeth generally resemble those of <i>Lutra</i> in their proportions, +they differ very much in the exceeding roundness and massiveness +of their crowns and bluntness of their cusps. Feet webbed. Fore +feet small, with five subequal toes, furnished with short compressed +claws; palms naked. Hind feet very large, depressed, and fin-like. +The phalanges flattened as in the Seals. The fifth toe the +longest and stoutest, the rest gradually diminishing in size<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_571"></a>[571]</span> to the +first, all with moderate claws. Tail moderate, cylindrical, and +obtuse; about one-fourth the length of the head and body.</p> + +<p>The Sea-Otter (<i>L. lutris</i>, <a href="#figure262">Fig. 262</a>) is the sole representative of +this genus. The entire length of the animal from nose to end of +tail is about 4 feet, so that the body is considerably larger and +more massive than that of the English Otter. The skin is peculiarly +loose, and stretches when removed from the animal so as to give +the idea of a still larger creature than it really is. The pellage is +remarkable for the preponderance of the beautifully soft woolly +under fur, the longer stiffer hairs being very scanty. The general +colour is a deep liver brown, everywhere silvered or frosted with +the hoary tips of the longer hairs. These are, however, removed +when the skin is dressed for commercial purposes.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp84" id="figure262" style="max-width: 28.125em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure262.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 262.</span>—The Sea-Otter (<i>Latax lutris</i>). From Wolf, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1865, pl, vii.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>Sea-Otters are only found upon the rocky shores of certain +parts of the North Pacific Ocean, especially the Aleutian Islands +and Alaska, extending as far south on the American coast as Oregon; +but, owing to the unremitting persecution to which they are subjected +for the sake of their skins, which rank among the most +valuable known to the furrier, their numbers are greatly diminishing, +and, unless some restriction can be placed upon their destruction, +such as that which protects the Fur-Seals of the Pribyloff +Islands, the species is threatened with extermination, or, at all +events, excessive scarcity. When this occurs, the occupation of +five thousand of the half-civilised natives of Alaska, who are +dependent upon Sea-Otter hunting as a means for obtaining their<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_572"></a>[572]</span> +living, will be gone. The principal hunting grounds at present are +the little rocky islets and reefs around the island of Saanach and +the Chernobours, where they are captured by spearing, clubbing, or +nets, and recently by the more destructive rifle bullet. They do +not feed on fish, like the true Otters, but on clams, mussels, sea-urchins, +and crabs, for the mastication of which the blunt cusps of +their teeth are admirably suited. The female brings forth but a +single young one at a time, apparently at any season of the +year. They are excessively shy and wary, and all attempts to +rear the young ones in captivity have hitherto failed.</p> + +<p>Subfamily <b>Melinæ</b>.—Feet elongated. Toes straight. Claws +non-retractile, slightly curved, subcompressed, blunt; those of the +fore foot especially large. Upper molar variable. Kidneys simple. +Habits mostly terrestrial and fossorial.</p> + +<p><i>Mephitis.</i><a id="FNanchor_497" href="#Footnote_497" class="fnanchor">[497]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ¹⁄₂; total 34. Upper +molar larger than the carnassial, subquadrate, rather broader than +long. Lower carnassial with talon less than half the length of the +whole tooth. Bony palate terminating posteriorly opposite the +hinder border of the last molar tooth. Facial portion of skull +short and somewhat truncated in front. Vertebræ: C 7, D 16, +L 6, S 2, C 21. Head small. Body elongated. Limbs moderate, +subplantigrade. Ears short and rounded. Tail long, abundantly +clothed with very long fine hair. Anal glands largely developed. +The secretion of these glands, which can be discharged at the will +of the animal, has an intolerably offensive odour, which circumstance +has rendered the Skunks, as they are commonly called, proverbial. +They are strictly nocturnal animals, terrestrial and burrowing, feeding +chiefly on small mammals, birds, reptiles, insects, worms, roots, +and berries. All the known species have a prevalent black colour, +varied by white strips or spots on the upper part (<a href="#figure263">Fig. 263</a>). They +generally carry the body, much arched, and the tail erect, the long +loose hair of which waves like a plume over the back. There are +three species, all inhabitants of the American continent, over which +they have an extensive range.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="figure263" style="max-width: 28.125em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure263.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 263.</span>—The Common Skunk (<i>Mephitis mephitica</i>).</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The Common Skunk (<i>M. mephitica</i>, <a href="#figure263">Fig. 263</a>) is an animal of +about the size of a small Cat, ranging from Hudson’s Bay to +Guatemala. The following account of its habits is given by +Dr. C. H. Merriam in his <i>Mammals of the Adirondack Region</i>:—</p> + +<p>“The skunk preys upon mice, salamanders, frogs, and the eggs +of birds that nest on or within reach from the ground. At times +he eats carrion, and if he chances to stumble upon a hen’s nest the +eggs are liable to suffer; and once in a while he acquires the evil +habit of robbing the hen-roost, but as a rule skunks are not addicted +to this vice. Of all our native mammals perhaps no one is so +universally abused and has so many unpleasant things said about it<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_573"></a>[573]</span> +as the innocent subject of the present biography; and yet no other +species is so valuable to the farmer. Pre-eminently an insect-eater, +he destroys more beetles, grasshoppers, and the like than all our +other mammals together, and in addition to these he devours vast +numbers of mice. He does not evince that dread of man that is so +manifest in the great majority of our mammals, and when met during +any of his circumambulations rarely thinks of running away. He +is slow in movement and deliberate in action, and does not often +hurry himself in whatever he does. His ordinary gait is a measured +walk, but when pressed for time he breaks into a low shuffling +gallop. It is hard to intimidate a skunk, but when once really +frightened he manages to get over the ground at a very fair pace. +Skunks remain active throughout the greater part of the year in +this region, and hibernate only during the severest portion of the +winter. They differ from most of our hibernating mammals in that +the inactive period is apparently dependent solely on the temperature, +while the mere amount of snow has no influence whatever +upon their movements. Skunks, particularly when young, make +very pretty pets, being attractive in appearance, gentle in +disposition, interesting in manners, and cleanly in habits—rare +qualities indeed! They are playful, sometimes mischievous, and +manifest considerable affection for those who have the care of them.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_574"></a>[574]</span> +Their flesh is white, tender, and sweet, and is delicious eating. +Skunks have large families, from six to ten young being commonly +raised each season; and as a rule they all live in the same hole +until the following spring.”</p> + +<p>The two ducts leading from the anal glands open at the tips of +two small conical papillæ placed in such a position that the +animal can protrude them externally, and can thus guide the +direction of the jet of nauseous fluid, which can be propelled +by the powerful muscles surrounding the glands to a distance of +from 8 to 12 feet.</p> + +<p>The Long-tailed Skunk (<i>M. macrura</i>), from Central and Southern +Mexico, has two lateral stripes, and a longer and more bushy tail +than the common species. <i>M. putorius</i>, of the Southern United +States and thence southwards to Yucatan and Guatemala, is of a +much smaller size, with four interrupted white lateral stripes, and +a skull differing considerably in form from that of the type species. +It is regarded by some writers as representing a distinct genus, +<i>Spilogale</i>; and has been recently divided by Dr. C. H. Merriam +into several nominal species.</p> + +<p><i>Conepatus.</i><a id="FNanchor_498" href="#Footnote_498" class="fnanchor">[498]</a>—The Skunk of tropical America (<i>C. mapacito</i>), +ranging from Texas to Chili and Patagonia, differs considerably +from the true Skunks, although in colour it is almost precisely +similar to the common species, with which it also agrees in the +variation of the relative development of the black and white. Its +build is heavier than that of <i>Mephitis</i>; the snout and head are more +Pig-like; and the nostrils open downwards and forwards instead of +laterally on the sides of the muzzle. The skull also has many +special characters, and the teeth are different in shape and, as, a rule, +in number also, the first minute premolar of <i>Mephitis</i> being almost +invariably absent, so that the dental formula is <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ²⁄₃, +<i>m</i> ¹⁄₂; total 32.</p> + +<p>Remains of <i>Conepatus</i>, which have been referred to three species, +are found in the cavern-deposits of Brazil.</p> + +<p><i>Arctonyx.</i><a id="FNanchor_499" href="#Footnote_499" class="fnanchor">[499]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₄, <i>m</i> ¹⁄₂; total 38. Incisor +line curved, the outer teeth being placed posteriorly to the others. +Lower incisors proclivous. First premolars often rudimentary or +absent. Upper molar much larger than the carnassial, longer in +the antero-posterior direction than broad; lower carnassial with +a very large, low, tuberculated talon. Cranium elongated and +depressed; face long, narrow, and concave above. Bony palate +extending as far backwards as the level of the glenoid fossa; palatal +bones dilated; suborbital foramina very large. Vertebræ: C 7, +D 16, L 4, S 4, C 20. Snout long, naked, mobile, and truncated, +with large terminal nostrils, much like that of a Pig. Eyes small.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_575"></a>[575]</span> +Ears very small and rounded. Body compressed rather than +depressed. Limbs of moderate length and digitigrade in walking. +Tail moderate, tapering. A full soft under fur, with longer, bristly +hairs interspersed. The best-known species is <i>A. collaris</i>, the Sand-Badger, +or <i>Bhálu-soor</i><a id="FNanchor_500" href="#Footnote_500" class="fnanchor">[500]</a> (<i>i.e.</i> Bear-pig) of the natives, found in the +mountains of the north-east of India and Assam. It is rather +larger than the English Badger, higher on its legs, and very Pig-like +in general aspect, of a light gray colour, with flesh-coloured snout +and feet; and is nocturnal and omnivorous in habits. The imperfectly +known <i>A. taxoides</i> from Assam and Arakan, and perhaps +China, is a much smaller species. A third form probably exists in +Eastern Tibet. Professor Mivart remarks that the brain-case of +<i>Arctonyx</i> is narrower than in any other Arctoid; while the palate is +relatively longer than in any other Carnivore except <i>Procyon</i>; and +the metatarsus is relatively shorter than in any other member of +the order.</p> + +<p><i>Mydaus.</i><a id="FNanchor_501" href="#Footnote_501" class="fnanchor">[501]</a>—Dentition as in the last genus, but the cusps of the +teeth more acutely pointed. Cranium elongated, face narrow and +produced. Suborbital foramen small, and the palate, as in all the +succeeding genera of this group, produced backwards about midway +between the last molar tooth and the glenoid fossa. Vertebræ: C 7, +D 14-15, L 6-5, S 3, C 12. Head pointed in front; snout produced, +mobile, obliquely truncated, the nostrils being inferior. Limbs +rather short and stout. Tail extremely short, but clothed with +rather long bushy hair. Anal glands largely developed, and emitting +an odour like that of the American Skunks. One species, <i>M. meliceps</i>, +the Teledu, a small burrowing Badger, found in the mountains of +Java at an elevation of 7000 or more feet above sea-level.</p> + +<p><i>Meles.</i><a id="FNanchor_502" href="#Footnote_502" class="fnanchor">[502]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₄, <i>m</i> ¹⁄₂; total 38. The first +premolar in both jaws extremely minute and often deciduous. +Upper molar very much larger than the carnassial, subquadrate, as +broad as long. Lower carnassial with a broad, low, tuberculated +talon, more than half the length of the whole tooth. The post-glenoid +processes of the skull are so strongly developed, and the glenoid +fossa is so deep, that the condyle of the lower jaw is firmly held in +its place even after all the surrounding soft parts are removed. +Vertebræ: C 7, D 15, L 5, S 3, C 18. Muzzle pointed. Ears very +short. Body stout, broad. Limbs short, strong, subplantigrade. +Tail short. The best-known species is the common Badger (<i>M. taxus</i>) +of Europe and Northern Asia, still found in many parts of England, +where it lives in woods, is nocturnal, burrowing, and very omnivorous, +feeding on mice, reptiles, insects, fruit, acorns, and roots. +Other nearly allied species, <i>M. leucurus</i> and <i>M. chinensis</i>, are found in +continental Asia, <i>M. canescens</i> in Persia, and <i>M.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_576"></a>[576]</span> anakuma</i> in Japan.</p> + +<p>The appearance of the common Badger is too well known to +need description, but, it may be mentioned that a full-grown +individual stands about a foot in height at the shoulder, and +measures from 2½ to 3 feet in length. The young are born in +a naked and blind condition, usually in litters of three or four. +It appears that the usual period of gestation is about eleven +and a half months, but instances are recorded where the period +has been protracted to upwards of fifteen months.</p> + +<p>Fossil remains of the common Badger are found in the +Pleistocene deposits of Europe, while extinct species have been +described from the Lower Pliocene beds of Maragha, in Persia.</p> + +<p><i>Taxidea.</i><a id="FNanchor_503" href="#Footnote_503" class="fnanchor">[503]</a>—Dental formula as in <i>Meles</i>, except that the rudimentary +anterior premolar appears to be always wanting in the +upper jaw. The upper carnassial much larger in proportion to the +other teeth. Upper molar about the same size as the carnassial, +triangular, with the apex turned backwards. Talon of lower carnassial +less than half the length of the tooth. Skull very wide in +the occipital region; the lambdoidal crest very greatly developed, +and the sagittal but slightly, contrary to what obtains in <i>Meles</i>. +Vertebræ: C 7, D 15, L 5, S 3, C 16. Body very stoutly +built and depressed. Tail short. The animals of this genus are +peculiar to North America, where they represent the Badgers of +the Old World, resembling them much in appearance and habits. +<i>T. americana</i> is the common American Badger of the United States; +<i>T. berlandieri</i>, the Mexican Badger, is perhaps only a local variety.</p> + +<p><i>Mellivora.</i><a id="FNanchor_504" href="#Footnote_504" class="fnanchor">[504]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ¹⁄₁; total 32. Upper +carnassial large, with its inner tubercle quite at the anterior end +of the blade, as in the following genera; molar much smaller and +transversely extended, having a very small outer and a larger +rounded inner lobe. Talon of lower carnassial very small, scarcely +one-fourth of the whole length of the tooth, and with but one cusp; +lower tubercular molar absent. Vertebræ: C 7, D 14, L 4, S 4, C 15. +Body stout, depressed. Limbs short, strong. Head depressed, nose +rather pointed. External ears rudimentary. Tail short. The +animals of this genus are commonly called Ratels. <i>M. indica</i> from +India, and, <i>M. ratel</i> (<a href="#figure264">Fig. 264</a>) from South and West Africa, have +nearly the same general appearance and size, being rather larger +than a common Badger. Their coloration is peculiar, all the upper +surface of the body, head, and tail being ashy gray, while the lower +parts, separated by a distinct longitudinal boundary line, are black. +The two species may be distinguished by the circumstance that +the African one has a distinct white line round the body at the +junction of the gray of the upper side with the black of the lower,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_577"></a>[577]</span> +while in the Indian form this line is absent; the teeth also of the +former are, on the whole, larger, rounder, and heavier than those of +the latter. In spite of these differences the two are, however, so +nearly allied that they might almost be considered as local races of +a single widely spread species.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="figure264" style="max-width: 28.125em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure264.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 264.</span>—The African Ratel (<i>Mellivora ratel</i>).</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The following account of the Indian species is extracted from +Dr. Jerdon’s <i>Mammals of India</i>: “The Indian badger is found +throughout the whole of India, from the extreme south to the foot +of the Himalayas, chiefly in hilly districts, where it has greater +facilities for constructing the holes and dens in which it lives; but +also in the north of India in alluvial plains, where the banks of +large rivers afford equally suitable localities wherein to make its +lair. It is stated to live usually in pairs, and to eat rats, birds, +frogs, white ants, and various insects, and in the north of India it +is accused of digging out dead bodies, and is popularly known as +the grave-digger. It doubtless also, like its Cape congener, +occasionally partakes of honey. It is often very destructive to +poultry, and I have known of several having been trapped and +killed whilst committing such depredations in Central India and in +the northern Circars. In confinement the Indian badger is quiet +and will partake of vegetable food, fruits, rice, etc.”</p> + +<p>A fossil species of <i>Millivora</i>, apparently closely allied to the +existing forms, occurs<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_578"></a>[578]</span> in the Pliocene Siwaliks of India. The same +deposits have also yielded remains of an extinct genus described as +<i>Mellivorodon</i>.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure265" style="max-width: 21.875em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure265.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 265.</span>—<i>Helictis personata.</i> (From Blanford, <i>Mammalia of British +India</i>, p. 175.)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Helictis.</i><a id="FNanchor_505" href="#Footnote_505" class="fnanchor">[505]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₄, <i>m</i> ¹⁄₂; total 38. Upper +carnassial with a large bicuspid inner tubercle; upper molar +smaller, wider transversely than in the antero-posterior direction. +Lower carnassial with talon about one-third the length of the tooth. +Skull elongated, +rather narrow +and depressed. +Facial portion +especially narrow. +Infraorbital +foramen +very large. +Head rather +small and produced +in front, +with an elongated, +obliquely +truncated, naked +snout. Ears +small. Body +elongated. Limbs short. Tail short or moderate, bushy. Several +species are described (<i>H. orientalis</i>, <i>personata</i> [<a href="#figure265">Fig. 265</a>], <i>moschata</i>, +<i>subaurantiaca</i>), all from Eastern Asia; they are all small animals +compared with the other members of the subfamily, climbing trees +with agility and living much on fruit and berries as well as on +small mammals and birds. The two first named species occur in +British India, <i>H. orientalis</i> also ranging into Java; the Chinese +<i>H. subaurantiaca</i> is brilliantly coloured in the region of the throat.<a id="FNanchor_506" href="#Footnote_506" class="fnanchor">[506]</a></p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure266" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure266.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 266.</span>—Left lateral and superior aspect of the brain of <i>Helictis subaurantiaca</i>. (From +Garrod, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1879, p. 307.)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The brain of <i>Helictis</i>, represented in the accompanying figure, +shows the general type of cerebral structure characteristic of the +<i>Mustelidæ</i>. The brain of this genus differs, however, from<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_579"></a>[579]</span> that +of every other Carnivore in that the hippocampal gyrus rises to +the surface on either side of the great longitudinal fissure, in +consequence of which there is no crucial fissure, and the so-called +“Ursine lozenge,” so characteristic of the Arctoidea, is incomplete +behind. The superior gyrus, as in <i>Ictonyx</i> and <i>Mustela</i>, ceases at +the superior posterior angle of the hemisphere.</p> + +<p><i>Ictonyx.</i><a id="FNanchor_507" href="#Footnote_507" class="fnanchor">[507]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ¹⁄₂; total 34. In general +characters the teeth much resemble those of the Polecats (<i>Mustela</i>), +being more delicately cut and sharply cusped than in most of the +foregoing. Upper molar smaller than the carnassial, narrow from +before backwards. Lower carnassial with a small narrow talon and +distinct inner cusp. General form of body Musteline. Limbs short. +Fore feet large and broad, with five stout, nearly straight, blunt, +and non-retractile claws, of which the first and fifth are considerably +shorter than the others. Tail moderate, with longer hairs towards +the end, giving it a bushy appearance. Hairs generally long and +loose. The best known species of this genus, <i>I. zorilla</i>, the Cape +Polecat, was placed by Cuvier in the genus <i>Mustela</i>, and by +Lichtenstein in <i>Mephitis</i>; and in many characters it forms a +transition between these genera. It is about the size of an English +Polecat, but conspicuous by its coloration, having broad, longitudinal +bands of dark brown, alternating with white. Its odour is said to +be as offensive as that of the American Skunks. From the Cape of +Good Hope it ranges as far north as Senegal. Another species, +<i>I. frenata</i>, from Sennaar and Egypt, has been described.</p> + +<p>Subfamily <b>Mustelinæ</b>.—Toes short, partially webbed; claws +short, compressed, acute, curved, often semiretractile. Upper molar +of moderate size, wide transversely. Kidneys simple. Terrestrial +and arboreal in habits.</p> + +<p><i>Galictis.</i><a id="FNanchor_508" href="#Footnote_508" class="fnanchor">[508]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ¹⁄₂; total 34. Molars small +but stout. Upper carnassial with the inner tubercle near the middle +of the inner border of the tooth. Lower carnassial with talon small, +and inner cusp small or absent. Body long. Limbs short; claws +non-retractile. Palms and soles naked. Head broad and depressed. +Tail of moderate length. The best-known species are <i>G. vittata</i>, the +Grison (genus <i>Grisonia</i>, Gray), and <i>G. barbara</i>, the Tayra (genus +<i>Galera</i>, Gray), both South American; <i>G. allamandi</i> is an intermediate +form.</p> + +<p>Remains of <i>Galictis</i> occur in the Pleistocene cavern-deposits of +Brazil, and also in the Pleistocene of North America.</p> + +<p><i>Mustela.</i><a id="FNanchor_509" href="#Footnote_509" class="fnanchor">[509]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁻⁴⁄₃₋₄, <i>m</i> ¹⁄₂; total 34 or 38. +Upper carnassial with inner tubercle close to the anterior edge of +the tooth. Molar nearly as large as carnassial. Lower carnassial<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_580"></a>[580]</span> +with small or no inner cusp. Vertebræ: C 7, D 14, L 6, S 3, +C 18-23. Body long and slender. Limbs short, digitigrade. Feet +rounded; toes short, with compressed, acute, semiretractile claws. +Tail moderate or long, more or less bushy.</p> + +<p>The genus <i>Mustela</i>, as restricted by Cuvier (<i>Règne Animal</i>, +1817), contains a very natural assemblage of animals commonly +called Martens, Sables, Polecats, Stoats, Ermines, and Weasels, all +closely allied in structure and habits. A structural division, however, +occurs between the two first-named and all the others, especially +shown in the presence of an additional small premolar tooth on +each side of the jaw; and, availing himself of this and some +other minor characters, Cuvier divided the genus into two subgenera, +for the first of which he retained the name of <i>Mustela</i>, and to the +second assigned that of <i>Putorius</i>. Three years later Nilsson (<i>Skand. +Fauna</i>, 1820) definitely constituted the two groups into genera, +applying to the first the name of <i>Martes</i>, by which the animals +composing it had been generally designated by the Latin writing +zoologists of the preceding century, and keeping <i>Mustela</i> for the +more typical Weasels and their immediate allies. Later zoologists +have been divided between the nomenclature of Cuvier, which has +the priority, and that of Nilsson, which on other grounds is preferable. +Those who adopt the latter affirm that Cuvier’s names, +being only used by him in a subgeneric sense, and not binominally, +need not be applied generically, but this is contrary to the practice +usually followed in such cases; and therefore, if the original genus +be divided, the name <i>Mustela</i> should be retained for the Martens, +and <i>Putorius</i> for the Polecats and Weasels. Here, however, the genus +will be employed in its wider sense, and divided into two groups.</p> + +<p>The typical group of the Martens<a id="FNanchor_510" href="#Footnote_510" class="fnanchor">[510]</a> presents the following +distinctive features. Body long, slender, and very flexible, though +less so than in the true Weasels. Head somewhat triangular; muzzle +pointed, the nose extending a little beyond the lips; eyes large +and prominent; ears conspicuous, broad, somewhat triangular, +rounded at the ends, furred outside and in. Limbs short; feet +rounded; toes short, five on each foot, all with short, compressed, +curved, sharp-pointed claws; soles densely furred between the +naked pads. Tail moderately long, more or less bushy. Outer +fur long, strong, and glossy; a very abundant soft under fur. +Skull elongated and depressed. Facial portion moderate and +rather compressed. Zygomata arched and wide, but slender. +Postorbital processes small. Auditory bullæ large, but not very +globose. Mandible with a strong triangular vertical coronoid<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_581"></a>[581]</span> +process and a well-developed angular process. Premolars ⁴⁄₄. +Upper incisors in a straight transverse line, rather long and +compressed; first and second subequal, third considerably larger. +Lower incisors very small, especially the first, and crowded +together, the second placed rather behind the others. Canines +long and sharp-pointed. Upper premolars: first very small, with +simple crown and one root; second and third nearly equal in size +and two-rooted, with simple compressed sharp-pointed crowns, +with very slightly developed accessory cusps; fourth (the carnassial) +with blade consisting chiefly of the central and posterior lobes, the +anterior being rudimentary, inner tubercle small and confined to +the anterior part of the tooth. True molar tubercular, about +twice as wide transversely as in the antero-posterior direction, +having an outer, more elevated, but smaller portion, bearing three +blunt tubercles; to the inner side of this the crown is contracted, +and its surface deeply hollowed; it then expands again into a +broad low lobe, with the central part elevated, and a raised, even, +semicircular, slightly crenated internal border. Lower premolars: +first very small, simple, and one-rooted; second, third, and fourth +increasing slightly in size, with high compressed pointed crowns +and posterior accessory cusps, best marked in the third. First +molar (carnassial) with well-marked bilobed blade, talon scarcely +more than one-third of the length of the tooth, and a very small +inner cusp. Second molar small, single-rooted, with a low, +flattened, subcircular or oval tubercular crown.</p> + +<p>In geographical distribution the Martens are limited to the +northern hemisphere, ranging throughout the greater part of the +temperate regions of both Old and New Worlds, as far north as +conditions of existence suited to their habits are met with, and +southwards in America to 35° N. lat., while in Asia one species is +met with as far in this direction as the island of Java.</p> + +<p>The various species appear to be very similar in their habits. +They live in woods and rocky places, and are thoroughly arboreal, +spending most of their time in trees, although descending to the +ground in quest of prey. They climb with great facility, and are +agile and graceful in their movements. Some species are said +occasionally to resort to berries and other fruit for food, but as a +rule they are strictly carnivorous, feeding chiefly on birds and their +eggs, small mammals, as squirrels, hares, rabbits, and moles, but +chiefly mice of various kinds, of which they destroy great numbers, +and occasionally snakes, lizards, and frogs. In proportion to their +size they are among the most bloodthirsty of animals, though less +so than the true Weasels. The female usually makes her nest of +moss, dried leaves, and grass in the hollow of a tree, but sometimes +in a hole among rocks or ruined buildings, and produces several +young at a birth, usually from four to six. Though wild and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_582"></a>[582]</span> +untameable to a great degree if captured when fully grown, when +taken young they are very docile, and have frequently been made +pets of, not having the strong unpleasant odour of the smaller +<i>Mustelidæ</i>. The common European Marten appears to have been +partially domesticated by the Greeks and Romans, and to have +been used to keep houses clear from rats and mice before cats were +introduced.<a id="FNanchor_511" href="#Footnote_511" class="fnanchor">[511]</a> In the same way, according to Hodgson, the Yellow-bellied +Weasel (<i>M. cathia</i>) “is exceedingly prized by the Nipalese +for its service in ridding houses of rats. It is easily tamed; and +such is the dread of it common to all Murine animals that not one +will approach a house where it is domiciled.” It is, however, to +the great value attached to the pelts of these animals that their +importance to man is chiefly due. Though all yield fur of +serviceable quality, the commercial value varies immensely, not +only according to the particular species from which it is obtained, +but according to individual variation, depending upon age, sex, +season, and other trifling circumstances. The skins from northern +regions are more full and of a finer colour and gloss than those +from more temperate climates, as are those of animals killed in +winter compared with the same individuals in the summer season. +The caprices of fashion have, moreover, set wholly factitious values +upon slight shades of colour, recognised and named by experienced +furriers, but not indicating any specific or other distinctions of +which zoologists have any cognisance. Enormous numbers of +animals are annually caught, chiefly in traps, to supply the demand +of the fur trade, Siberia and North America being the principal +localities from which they are obtained.</p> + +<p>With the exception of the Pekan (<i>M. pennanti</i>) all the Martens +are so much alike in size, general colouring, and cranial and dental +characters that the discrimination of the species, and assignment of +the proper geographical distribution to each, has been a subject +which has sorely perplexed the ingenuity and patience of zoologists. +The following description by Dr. Elliott Coues of the external +characters of the American Pine Marten (<i>M. americana</i>) will apply +almost equally well to most of the others: “It is almost impossible +to describe the colour of the Pine Marten, except in general terms, +without going into the details of the endless diversities occasioned +by age, sex, season, or other incidents. The animal is ‘brown,’ of +various shades from orange or tawny to quite blackish; the tail and +feet are ordinarily the darkest, the head lightest, often quite whitish; +the ears are usually rimmed with whitish; on the throat there is +usually a large tawny-yellowish or orange-brown patch, from the +chin to the fore legs, sometimes entire, sometimes broken<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_583"></a>[583]</span> into a +number of smaller, irregular blotches, sometimes wanting, sometimes +prolonged on the whole under surface, when the animal is +bicolor like a Stoat in summer. The general ‘brown’ has a grayish +cast, as far as the under fur is concerned, and is overlaid with rich +lustrous blackish-brown in places where the long bristly hairs prevail. +The claws are whitish; the naked nose pad and whiskers are black. +The tail occasionally shows interspersed white hairs, or a white tip.”</p> + +<p>The species generally recognised as distinct are the following, the +first five belonging to the Old and the last two to the New World:—</p> + +<p><i>M. foina</i>, the Beech Marten, Stone Marten, or White-breasted +Marten.—Distinguished from the following by the greater breadth +of the skull, and some minute but constant dental characters, by +the dull grayish-brown colour of the fur of the upper parts, and +the pure white of the throat and breast. It inhabits the greater +part of the continent of Europe, but is more southern than the +next in its distribution, not being found in Sweden or Norway, +nor, according to the investigations of Mr. Alston, in the British +Isles, although included in their fauna by all earlier writers; to +the eastward it ranges into Afghanistan and the Himalaya.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="figure267" style="max-width: 28.125em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure267.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 267.</span>—The Pine Marten (<i>Mustela martes</i>).</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>M. martes</i>, the Pine Marten (<a href="#figure267">Fig. 267</a>).—Outer fur rich dark +brown; under fur reddish-gray, with clear yellow tips; breast spot +usually yellow, varying from bright orange to pale cream-colour or +yellowish-white. Length of head and body 16 to 18 inches; of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_584"></a>[584]</span> +tail (including the hair) 9 to 12 inches. This species is extensively +distributed throughout northern Europe and Asia, and was formerly +common in most parts of Great Britain and Ireland. Though +commonly called “Pine Marten,” it does not appear to have any +special preference for coniferous trees, except that, inasmuch as +they constitute the greater proportion of the forests of the countries +which it inhabits, it is more often met with in them than in any +other. With regard to its recent occurrence in the British Isles, +Mr. Alston writes in the <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1879:—</p> + +<p>“Although greatly reduced in numbers by persecution, it still +maintains its ground in the wilder districts of Scotland, the north +of England, Wales, and Ireland; and occasionally specimens are +killed in counties where the species was thought to have been long +extinct. In Scotland it is still found, though comparatively rarely, +in the Lews and in most of the Highland mainland counties, being +perhaps most abundant in Sutherland and Ross-shire, especially in +the deer forests. In the Lowlands a Marten is now a very great +rarity; but a fine example was killed in Ayrshire in the winter of +1875-76. In the north of England Mr. W. A. Durnford says the +species is still plentiful in the wilder parts of Cumberland, Westmoreland, +and Lancashire, and in Lincolnshire several have been +recorded, the latest killed in 1865, by Mr. Cordeaux. In Norfolk +one was shot last year; and I have myself examined a fine +example which was shot in Hertfordshire, within 20 miles of +London, in December 1872. In Dorsetshire the last is said to +have been killed in 1804; but a specimen occurred in Hampshire +about forty years ago, and another in Surrey in 1847. In Ireland +the following counties were enumerated by Thompson as habitats +of this species: Donegal, Londonderry, Antrim, Down, Armagh, +Fermanagh, Longford, Galway, Tipperary, Cork, and Kerry. The +<i>Cat-crann</i> is probably now a rarer animal in Ireland than it was +when Thompson wrote; but it still exists in various districts, +especially in County Kerry, whence the society has received several +living examples; and Professor A. Leith Adams states that it has +been seen of late years even in county Dublin.”</p> + +<p><i>M. zibellina</i>, the Sable (German, <i>Zobel</i> and <i>Zebel</i>; Swedish, +<i>sabel</i>; Russian, <i>sobel</i>, a word probably of Turanian origin).—Closely +resembling the last, if indeed differing from it except in the quality +of the fur, which is the most highly valued of that of all the group. +Found chiefly in Eastern Siberia.</p> + +<p><i>M. flavigula</i>, the Indian Marten.—Inhabits the southern slopes +of the Himalaya, the Nilgiri Hills, the interior of Ceylon, the +Malay Peninsula, and Java. The coloration of this species is very +striking, the upper parts being blackish-brown, and the throat +and breast yellow or orange, in the bright coloured variety. It +differs from the other species in having the soles of the feet more +or less naked.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_585"></a>[585]</span></p> + +<p><i>M. melampus.</i>—Japan.</p> + +<p><i>M. americana</i>, the North-American Sable or Marten.—A species +so closely allied to the European Pine Marten and Asiatic Sable +that it is very difficult to assign constant distinguishing characters +between them. The importance of the fur of this animal as an +article of commerce may be judged of from the fact that 15,000 +skins were sold in one year by the Hudson’s Bay Company as long +ago as 1743, and the more recent annual imports into Great Britain +have exceeded 100,000. It is ordinarily caught in wooden traps +of very simple construction, being little enclosures of stakes or +brush in which the bait is placed upon a trigger, with a short +upright stick supporting a log of wood, which falls upon its victim +on the slightest disturbance. A line of such traps, several to a mile, +often extends many miles. The bait is any kind of meat, a mouse, +squirrel, piece of fish, or bird’s head. It is principally trapped +during the colder months, from October to April, when the fur is +in good condition, as it is nearly valueless during the shedding in +summer. Dr. Coues tells us that, notwithstanding the persistent +and uninterrupted destruction to which the American Sable is +subjected, it does not appear to diminish materially in numbers in +unsettled parts of the country. It holds its own partly in consequence +of its shyness, which keeps it away from the abodes of men, +and partly because it is so prolific, bringing forth six to eight young +at a litter. Its home is sometimes a den under ground or beneath +rocks, but oftener the hollow of a tree, and it is said frequently to +take forcible possession of a squirrel’s nest, driving off or devouring +the rightful proprietor.</p> + +<p><i>M. pennanti</i>, the Pekan or Pennant’s Marten, also called Fisher +Marten, though there appears to be nothing in its habits to justify +the appellation.—This is the largest species of the group, the head +and body measuring from 24 to 30 inches, and the tail 14 to 18 +inches. It is also more robust in form than the others, its general +aspect being more that of a Fox than a Weasel; in fact, its usual +name among the American hunters is “Black Fox.” Its general +colour is blackish, lighter by mixture of brown or gray on the head +and upper fore part of the body, with no light patch on the throat, +and unlike the other Martens generally darker below than above. +It was generally distributed in wooded districts throughout the +greater part of North America, as far north as Great Slave Lake, +63° N. lat., and Alaska, and extending south to the parallel of 35°; +but at the present time it is almost exterminated in the settled parts +of the United States east of the Mississippi.</p> + +<p>Fossil remains of a Marten from the Pliocene Siwaliks of India +indicate a species which cannot be distinguished from those now +inhabiting the same region; while remains of <i>M. martes</i> occur in +European cavern-deposits, and in the fens of Cambridgeshire.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_586"></a>[586]</span></p> + +<p>With the <i>Putoriine</i> group (genus <i>Putorius</i>) we come to those +smaller forms distinguished by having only three premolars in each +jaw, by the absence of an inner cusp to the blade of the lower +carnassial, as well as by certain external characters. This group +contains a few species known as Minks, differing from the rest by +slight structural modifications, and especially by their semiaquatic +habits. They are distinguished from the Polecats, Stoats, and +Weasels, which constitute the remainder of the group, by the facial +part of the skull being narrower and more approaching in form +that of the Martens, by the premolar teeth (especially the anterior +one in the upper jaw) being larger, by the toes being partially +webbed, and by the absence of hair in the intervals between the +naked pads of the soles of the feet. The two best-known species, +so much alike in size, form, colour, and habits that although they +are widely separated geographically some zoologists question their +specific distinction, are <i>M. lutreola</i>, the <i>Nörz</i> or <i>Sumpfotter</i> (Marsh-Otter) +of Eastern Europe, and <i>M. vison</i>, the Mink of North America. +The former inhabits Finland, Poland, and the greater part of +Russia, though not found east of the Ural Mountains. Formerly +it extended westward into Central Germany, but is now very +rare, if not extinct, in that country. The latter is found in places +which suit its habits throughout the whole of North America. +Another form, <i>M. sibirica</i>, from Eastern Asia, of which much less is +known, appears to connect the true Minks with the Polecats.</p> + +<p>For the following description, chiefly taken from the American +form (though almost equally applicable to that of Europe), we +are mainly indebted to Dr. Coues’s <i>Fur-bearing Animals of North +America</i>. In size it much resembles the English Polecat,—the length +of the head and body being usually from 15 to 18 inches, that of the +tail to the end of the hair about 9 inches. The female is considerably +smaller than the male. The tail is bushy, but tapering at the +end. The ears are small, low, rounded, and scarcely project beyond +the adjacent fur. The pellage consists of a dense, soft, matted under +fur, mixed with long, stiff, lustrous hairs on all parts of the body +and tail. The gloss is greatest on the upper parts; on the tail the +bristly hairs predominate. Northern specimens have the finest and +most glistening pellage; in those from southern regions there is less +difference between the under and over fur, and the whole pellage +is coarser and harsher. In colour different specimens present a +considerable range of variation, but the animal is ordinarily of a rich +dark brown, scarcely or not paler below than on the general upper +parts; but the back is usually the darkest, and the tail is nearly +black. The under jaw, from the chin about as far back as the angle +of the mouth, is generally white. In the European Mink the upper +lip is also white, but as this occasionally occurs in American specimens<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_587"></a>[587]</span> +it fails as an absolutely distinguishing character. Besides the +white on the chin, there are often other irregular white patches +on the under parts of the body. In very rare instances the tail is +tipped with white. The fur, like that of most of the animals of +the group to which it belongs, is an important article of commerce.</p> + +<p>The principal characteristic of the Mink in comparison with its +congeners is its amphibious mode of life. It is to the water what +the other Weasels are to the land, or Martens to the trees, being as +essentially aquatic in its habits as the Otter, Beaver, or Musk-Rat, +and spending perhaps more of its time in the water than it does +on land. It swims with most of the body submerged, and dives +with perfect ease, remaining long without coming to the surface to +breathe. It makes its nest in burrows in the banks of streams, +breeding once a year about the month of April, and producing five +or six young at a birth. Its food consists of frogs, fish, freshwater +molluscs and crustaceans, as well as mice, rats, musk-rats, rabbits, +and small birds. In common with the other animals of the genus, +it has a very peculiar and disagreeable effluvium, which, according +to Coues, is more powerful, penetrating, and lasting than that of +any animal of the country except the Skunk. It also possesses the +courage, ferocity, and tenacity of life of its allies. When taken +young, however, it can be readily tamed, and lately Minks have +been extensively bred in captivity in America, both for the sake of +their fur and for the purpose of using them in like manner as +Ferrets in England, to clear buildings of rats.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp92" id="figure268" style="max-width: 25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure268.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 268.</span>—The Common Polecat (<i>Mustela putorius</i>).</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The Polecats include four species confined to the northern +hemisphere, the best known of which is the Common Polecat<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_588"></a>[588]</span> +(<i>M. putorius</i>, <a href="#figure268">Fig. 268</a>). The Ferret is a domesticated variety of +this species, generally of a yellowish-white colour; whereas the Wild +Polecat is dark brown above and black beneath, the face being +variegated with dark brown and white markings.</p> + +<p>The skull is rough, strongly ridged, and of a far more powerful +type than that of the Stoats, Weasels, or Martens; being in the +female much smaller and lighter than in the male. The fur, which +is long, coarse, and of comparatively small value, changes its colour +very little, if at all, at the different seasons of the year.</p> + +<p>The distribution and habits of this species have been described +by Blasius, the following being an abstract of his account. The +Polecat ranges over the greater part of Europe, reaching northwards +into Southern Sweden, and in Russia to the region of the White +Sea. It does not occur in the extreme South, but is common everywhere +throughout Central Europe. In the Alps it ranges far above +the tree-line during the summer, but retreats in winter to lower +ground. In fine weather it lives either in the open air, in holes, +fox-earths, rabbit-warrens, under rocks, or in wood-stacks, while in +winter it seeks the protection of deserted buildings. During the +day it sleeps in its hiding-place, sallying forth at night to plunder +dovecots and hen-houses. It climbs but little, and shows far less +activity than the Marten. It feeds ordinarily on small mammals, +such as rabbits, hamsters, rats, and mice, on such birds as it can +catch, especially poultry and pigeons, and also on snakes, lizards, +frogs, fish, and eggs. Its prey is devoured only in its lair, but, +even though it can carry away but a single victim, it commonly +kills everything that comes in its way, often destroying all the +inhabitants of a hen-house in order to gratify its passion for +slaughter. The pairing time is towards the end of the winter, and +the young, from three to eight in number, are born in April or +May, after a period of gestation of about two months. The young, +if taken early, may be easily trained, like Ferrets, for rabbit catching. +The Polecat is very tenacious of life, and will bear many severe +wounds before succumbing; it is also said to receive with impunity +the bite of the adder. Its fetid smell has become proverbial.</p> + +<p>Four other species of Polecats are known, viz.—The Siberian +Polecat (<i>M. eversmanni</i>) of Western and Northern Asia is nearly +allied to the European species, but the head and back are almost +white, and the skull is stouter and more constricted behind the +orbits. The Tibetan <i>M. larvata</i> is distinguished from the last +by the presence of a process connecting the pterygoid with the +auditory bulla, and by a difference in the shape of the upper +molar. The American Polecat (<i>M. nigripes</i>), inhabiting the central +plateau of the United States, and extending southwards into Texas, +is another closely allied species, although some zoologists have made +it the type of the genus <i>Cynomyonax</i>. Finally, the Mottled<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_589"></a>[589]</span> Polecat +(<i>M. sarmatica</i>) is a species sparsely distributed in Eastern Europe +and parts of Western Asia, but common in Southern Afghanistan. +Its skull, although smaller, resembles that of the common species; +but the coloration is very different, all the upper parts being +mottled with large irregular reddish spots on a white ground, and +the under side, limbs, and tail deep shining black. The tail is long.</p> + +<p>The Common Polecat occurs in a fossil condition in the cave-deposits +of Europe.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="figure269" style="max-width: 25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure269.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 269.</span>—The Common Weasel (<i>Mustela vulgaris</i>).</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The remaining members of the genus comprise the true Weasels +and Stoats, which are of almost cosmopolitan distribution. In the +Common Weasel (<i>M. vulgaris</i>, <a href="#figure269">Fig. 269</a>) the upper parts, outside of +limbs and tail, are a uniform reddish-brown, the under parts pure +white. In very cold regions, both in Europe and America, it turns +completely white in winter, but less regularly and at a lower +temperature than the Stoat, from which it is easily distinguished by +its smaller size, and by its wanting the black end of the tail. The +length of the head and body of the male is usually about 8 inches, +that of the tail 2½ inches; the female is smaller.</p> + +<p>This species is pretty generally distributed throughout Europe, +Northern and Central Asia, British North America, and the northern +portions of the United States. It possesses in a full degree all the +active, courageous, and bloodthirsty disposition of the rest of the +genus, but its diminutive size prevents it attacking and destroying<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_590"></a>[590]</span> +any but the smaller mammals and birds. Mice, rats, voles, moles, +and frogs constitute its principal food. It is generally found on or +near the surface of the ground, but it can not only pursue its prey +through very small holes and crevices of rocks and under dense +tangled herbage, but follow it up the stems and branches of trees, +or even into the water, swimming with perfect ease. It constructs +a nest of dried leaves and herbage, placed in a hole in the ground +or a bank or hollow tree, in which it brings up its litter of four to +six (usually five) young ones. The mother will defend her young +with the utmost desperation against any assailant, having been often +known to sacrifice her own life rather than desert them.</p> + +<p>The Stoat or Ermine (<i>M. erminea</i>) has nearly the same distribution +as the Weasel, but in Asia it is said to extend into parts of +the Kashmir Himalaya. Its size, as already mentioned, considerably +exceeds that of the Weasel; and its most distinctive feature is +the black tip at the end of the tail, which remains when the rest of +the pellage turns white. The white winter skins from the northern +regions of its habitat, where the fur is thick and close, form the +well-known and valuable ermine of commerce. Remains of the +Stoat are found in the Pleistocene cavern-deposits of Europe. The +other species of Weasels are very numerous and widely distributed.</p> + +<p><i>Extinct Mustelines.</i>—A number of European Miocene Carnivores +may be referred to the genus <i>Mustela</i> in its wider sense, and serve to +confirm the propriety of this use of the term. Thus <i>M. sectoria</i> is +a species of somewhat larger size than the Stoat, with <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₄, while in +<i>M. angustifrons</i> the number of premolars is ³⁄₄, and in <i>M. mustelina</i> +⁴⁄₃; the latter species agreeing very closely in size with the Stoat. +The extinct <i>Plesictis</i>, in which there are <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₄ and the lower carnassial +has a large inner cusp, is distinguished from <i>Mustela</i> by the +circumstance that the temporal ridges of the skull never unite to +form a sagittal crest. Moreover, the inner tubercular portion of the +upper molar (as in some of the Miocene species of <i>Mustela</i>) is shorter +in an antero-posterior direction than the secant outer moiety; and +the auditory bulla is more inflated than in <i>Mustela</i>, although it has +no septum. Both these features indicate a decided approximation to +the Viverroid genus <i>Stenoplesiotis</i> (<a href="#Page_539">p. 539</a>); and since there are no +well-marked characters of family value by which these two genera +can be distinguished the available evidence points to a transition from +the Viverroid to the Musteloid type. <i>Mustela larteti</i>, of the Middle +Miocene of France, should perhaps be referred to <i>Ictonyx</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Pœcilogale.</i><a id="FNanchor_512" href="#Footnote_512" class="fnanchor">[512]</a>—This genus has been made for the reception of the +South African <i>Mustela albinucha</i>, in which the coloration is similar +to that of <i>Ictonyx</i>, but the number of cheek-teeth is usually reduced +to <i>p</i> ²⁄₂, <i>m</i> ¹⁄₁, although there may be a second lower molar. The +auditory bulla is quite flat.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_591"></a>[591]</span></p> + +<p><i>Lyncodon.</i><a id="FNanchor_513" href="#Footnote_513" class="fnanchor">[513]</a>—This name has been proposed for a small Musteline +from Patagonia, with <i>p</i> ²⁄₂, <i>m</i> ¹⁄₁, which Mr. O. Thomas suggests +may be nothing more than an aberrant southern form of <i>Mustela</i> +(<i>Putorius</i>) <i>brasiliensis</i>. The auditory bulla is more inflated than in the +typical Weasels. This animal is somewhat larger than the Stoat.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp90" id="figure270" style="max-width: 28.125em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure270.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 270.</span>—The Wolverene (<i>Gulo luscus</i>).</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Gulo.</i><a id="FNanchor_514" href="#Footnote_514" class="fnanchor">[514]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₄, <i>m</i> ¹⁄₂; total 38. Crowns of +the teeth very stout. Upper molar very much smaller than the carnassial. +Lower carnassial large, with very small talon and no inner +cusp. Third upper incisor unusually large, almost like a canine. +The dentition, though really but a modification of that of the Weasels, +presents a great general resemblance to that of the Hyæna. Palate +prolonged somewhat behind the last molar. Humerus with an entepicondylar +foramen. Vertebræ: C 7, D 15, L 5, S 3, C 15. Body +and limbs stoutly made. Feet large and powerful, subplantigrade, +with large, compressed, much curved, and sharp-pointed claws. +Soles of the feet (except the pads of the toes) covered with thick +bristly hairs. Ears very small, nearly concealed by the fur. Eyes +small. Tail short, thick, and bushy. Fur full, long, and rather +coarse. The one species, the Wolverene or Glutton (<i>G. luscus</i>, +<a href="#figure270">Fig. 270</a>), an inhabitant of the forest regions of Northern Europe, +Asia, and America, much resembles a small Bear in appearance. It +is a very powerful animal for its size, climbs trees, and lives on +grouse, squirrels, hares, foxes, beavers, reindeer, and is said to attack +even horses and cows. The Wolverene has a curious habit of <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_592"></a>[592]</span>stealing +and secreting articles of which it can make no possible use, as is +exemplified in the following instance related by Dr. Coues: +“A hunter and his family, having left their lodge unguarded +during their absence, on their return found it completely gutted—the +walls were there, but nothing else. Blankets, guns, kettles, axes, +cans, knives, and all the other paraphernalia of a trapper’s tent had +vanished, and the tracks left by the beast showed who had been the +thief. The family set to work, and, by carefully following up all his +paths, recovered, with some trifling exceptions, the whole of the lost +property.” The pairing season occurs in March, and the female, +secure in her burrow, produces her young, four or five at a birth, +in June or July. In defence of these she is exceedingly bold, and +the Indians, according to Coues, “have been heard to say that they +would sooner encounter a she-bear with her cubs than a carcajou (the +Indian name of the glutton) under the same circumstances.”</p> + +<p>Fossil remains of the Wolverene are found in cavern and other +Pleistocene deposits in various parts of Europe.</p> + +<h3><i>Suborder</i> <span class="smcap">Pinnipedia</span>.</h3> + +<p>The Eared-Seals, Walruses, and Seals differ from the rest of +the Carnivora mainly in the structure of their limbs, which are +modified for aquatic progression,—the two proximal segments being +very short and partially enveloped in the general integument of the +body; while the third segment, especially in the hinder extremities, +is elongated, expanded, and webbed. There are always five well-developed +digits on each limb. In the hind limb the two marginal +digits (first and fifth) are stouter and generally longer than the +others. The teeth also differ from those of the more typical +Carnivora. The incisors are always fewer than ³⁄₃. The cheek +series consists generally of four premolars and one molar of very +uniform characters, with never more than two roots, and with +conical, more or less compressed, pointed crowns, which may have +accessory cusps, placed before or behind the principal one, but +are never broad and tuberculated; and there is no differentiated +carnassial tooth. The milk-teeth are very small and simple, and +are shed or absorbed at a very early age, usually either before or +within a few days after birth. The brain is relatively large; the +cerebral hemispheres being broad in proportion to their length, +with numerous and complex convolutions. There is a very short +cæcum. The kidneys are divided into numerous distinct lobules. +There are no Cowper’s glands. The mammæ are either two or +four, and abdominal in position. No clavicles. Tail always very +short. Eyes very large and exposed, with flat cornea.</p> + +<p>The animals of this group are all aquatic in their mode of life, +spending the greater part of their time in the water, swimming<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_593"></a>[593]</span> and +diving with great facility, feeding mainly on fish, crustaceans, and +other marine animals, and progressing on land with difficulty. +They always come on shore, however, for the purpose of bringing +forth their young. They are generally marine, but they occasionally +ascend large rivers, and some inhabit inland seas and lakes, as +the Caspian and Baikal. Though not numerous in species, they +are widely distributed over the world, but occur most abundantly +on the coasts of lands situated in cold and temperate zones. The +suborder is divisible into three well-marked families: the <i>Otariidæ</i>, +Fur-Seals or Sea-Bears, which form a transition from the Fissiped +Carnivora to the Seals; the <i>Trichechidæ</i>, containing the Walrus; and +the <i>Phocidæ</i> or typical Seals.</p> + +<p>The resemblances between the skull and other parts of the +body of the Fur Seals and the Ursoid true Carnivora is suggestive +of some genetic relationship between the two groups, and Professor +Mivart<a id="FNanchor_515" href="#Footnote_515" class="fnanchor">[515]</a> expresses the opinion that the one group is the direct +descendant of the other. The same writer goes on to suggest that +if the Eared-Seals have been derived from Bear-like Carnivores this +need not necessarily hold good with the true Seals, which may have +had another, and possibly Lutrine, origin. The presence of an +alisphenoid canal in <i>Ursus</i> and the <i>Otariidæ</i>, and its absence in <i>Lutra</i> +and the <i>Phocidæ</i>, together with other osteological features, are cited +in support of this view; but although these resemblances and +differences are certainly remarkable, yet much more evidence is +required before the hypothesis can be accepted as even a probable +one. It must, moreover, be borne in mind that the true Bears are +a very modern group; and there is a possibility that the Pinnipeds +may prove to have been independently derived from the extinct +Carnivora noticed below under the name of Creodonta.</p> + +<h4><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Otariidæ</span>.</h4> + +<p>When on land the hind feet are turned forwards under the body, +and aid in supporting and moving the trunk as in ordinary mammals. +A small external ear. Testes suspended in a distinct external +scrotum. Skull with postorbital processes, and an alisphenoid canal. +Angle of mandible inflected. Palms and soles of feet naked.</p> + +<p><i>Otaria.</i><a id="FNanchor_516" href="#Footnote_516" class="fnanchor">[516]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₂, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₄, <i>m</i> ¹⁻²⁄₁; total 34 or 36. +First and second upper incisors small, with the summits of the +crowns divided by a deep transverse groove into an anterior +and a posterior cusp of nearly equal height; the third large and +canine-like. Canines large, conical, pointed, recurved. Molars and +premolars usually ⁵⁄₅, of which the second, third, and fourth are<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_594"></a>[594]</span> +preceded by milk-teeth shed a few days after birth; sometimes (as +in <a href="#figure271">Fig. 271</a>) a sixth upper molar (occasionally developed on one +side and not the other); all with similar characters, generally +uniradicular; crown moderate, compressed, pointed, with a single +principal cusp, and sometimes a cingulum, and more or less developed +anterior +and posterior +accessory cusps. +Vertebræ: C 7, +D 15, L 5, S 4, +C 9-14. Head +rounded. Eyes +large. Pinna +of ear small, +narrow, and +pointed. Neck +long. Skin of +all the feet extended +far beyond +the nails and ends of the digits, with a deeply-lobed margin. +The nails small and often quite rudimentary, especially those of +the first and fifth toes of both feet, the best developed and most +constant being the three middle claws of the hind foot, which are +elongated, compressed, and curved.</p> + +<figure class="figleft illowp100" id="figure271" style="max-width: 21.875em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure271.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 271.</span>—Skull of <i>Otaria forsteri</i>. (From Gray, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> +1872, p. 660.)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The Eared-Seals, commonly called Sea-Bears or Sea-Lions, are +widely distributed, especially in the temperate regions of both +hemispheres, though absent from the coasts of the North Atlantic. +As might be inferred from their power of walking on all fours, +they spend more of their time on shore, and range inland to greater +distances, than the true Seals, especially at the breeding time, +though they are obliged always to return to the water to seek their +food. They are gregarious and polygamous, and the males are +usually much larger than the females, a circumstance which has +given rise to some of the confusion existing in the specific determination +of the various members of the genus. Some of the +species possess, in addition to the stiff, close, hairy covering common +to all the group, an exceedingly fine, dense, woolly under fur. The +skins of these, when dressed and deprived of the longer harsh outer +hairs, constitute the “seal-skin” of commerce, so much valued for +wearing apparel, which is not the product of any of the true Seals. +The best-known species are <i>O. stelleri</i>, the Northern Sea Lion, the +largest of the genus, from the North Pacific, about 10 feet in +length; <i>O. jubata</i>, the Patagonian or Southern Sea Lion (<a href="#figure272">Fig. 272</a>), +from the Falkland Islands and Patagonia; <i>O. californiana</i>, from +California, frequently exhibited alive in menageries in Europe; +<i>O. ursina</i>, the common Sea-Bear or Fur-Seal of the North Pacific, the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_595"></a>[595]</span> +skins of which are imported in immense numbers from the Prybiloff +Islands; <i>O. pusilla</i>, from the Cape of Good Hope; <i>O. forsteri</i> and +others, from the coasts of Australia and various islands scattered +over the southern hemisphere. These have been grouped by some +zoologists into many genera, founded upon very trivial modifications +of teeth and skull. In a recent memoir Mr. Beddard<a id="FNanchor_517" href="#Footnote_517" class="fnanchor">[517]</a> concludes +that if the genus be split up at all, it should be divided into +<i>Otaria</i>, containing only <i>O. jubata</i> (with its numerous synonyms), and +<i>Arctocephalus</i>, comprising all the other species. The latter group is +distinguished by the more narrow and pointed nose, the longer ears, +the palate not excavated nor truncated posteriorly, the presence of +a hook-like process to the pterygoids, and by the posterior border +of the nasals extending behind the zygoma.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp93" id="figure272" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure272.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 272.</span>—The Patagonian Sea-Lion (<i>Otaria jubata</i>). From Sclater, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1866, p. 80.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The following account of <i>O. ursina</i> in the Prybiloff Islands is +taken, with slight verbal alteration, from Nordenskiöld’s <i>Voyage of +the Vega</i>: “The Sea-Bears are found year after year during summer +at certain parts of the coast, known as ‘rookeries,’ where, collected +in hundreds of thousands, they pass several months without the +least food. The males or ‘bulls’ come first to the place, most of them +in the month of May or in the beginning of June. The most +violent conflicts, often with a deadly issue for one of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_596"></a>[596]</span> parties, +now arise regarding the space of about a hundred square feet +which each bull-seal considers necessary for his home. The +strongest and most successful in fight retain the best places near +the shore; the weaker have to crawl farther up on land, where the +chances of getting a sufficient number of spouses are not particularly +great. The fighting goes on with many feigned attacks and parades. +At first the contest concerns only the proprietorship of the soil. +The attacked, therefore, never follows his opponent beyond the +area he has once taken up, but haughtily lays itself down, when +the enemy has retired, in order to collect strength for a new +combat. The animal in such a case grunts with satisfaction, throws +himself on his back, scratches himself with his fore feet, attends to his +toilet, or cools himself by slowly fanning with one of his hind feet; +but he is always on the alert and ready for a new fight, until he is +tired out and meets his match and is driven farther up from the +beach. In the middle of June the females come up from the sea. +At the water’s edge they are received in a very gallant way by +some strong bulls that have succeeded in securing for themselves +places next the shore, and now are bent by fair means or foul on +annexing the females for their harem. But scarcely is the female +that has come up out of the water established with male No. 1 than +he rushes towards a new female on the surface of the water. Male +No. 2 now stretches out his neck and without ceremony lays hold +of the female of No. 1, to be afterwards exposed to a similar trick +by No. 3. In such cases the females are quite passive, never fall +out with each other, and bear with patience the severe wounds they +often get when they are pulled about by the combatants, now in +one direction, now in another. All the females are finally distributed +in this way after furious combats among the males, those +of the latter who are nearest the beach getting from 12 to 15 consorts +to their share. Soon after landing the females bring forth their +young, which are treated with great indifference, and are protected +by their adopted father only within the limits of the harem. Next +comes the pairing season, and when it has passed there is an end to +the arrangement and distribution into families at first so strictly +maintained. The males, rendered lean by three months’ absolute +fasting, by degrees leave the rookery, which is left in possession of +the Walruses and the young Sea Bears, including a number of +young males that have not ventured to the place before. In the +middle of September, when the young have learned to swim, the +place is quite abandoned, with the exception of single animals that +have for some reason remained behind.”</p> + +<h4><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Trichechidæ</span>.</h4> + +<p>In many characters the single genus representing this family<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_597"></a>[597]</span> +is intermediate between the <i>Otariidæ</i> and <i>Phocidæ</i>, but it has a +completely aberrant dentition. It has no external ears, as in the +<i>Phocidæ</i>; but when on land the hind feet are turned forwards and +used in progression, though less completely than in the <i>Otariidæ</i>. +The upper canines are developed into immense tusks, which descend +a long distance below the lower jaw. All the other teeth (<a href="#figure273">Fig. +273</a>), including the lower canines, are much alike, small, simple, +and one-rooted, the molars with flat crowns. The skull is without +postorbital process, but has an alisphenoid canal.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure273" style="max-width: 28.125em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure273.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 273.</span>—Diagram of the dentition of the Walrus (<i>Trichechus rosmarus</i>). The denticles +placed apart from the others are milk-teeth, and disappear soon after birth. The small teeth +in connection with the jaws frequently persist throughout life.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Trichechus.</i><a id="FNanchor_518" href="#Footnote_518" class="fnanchor">[518]</a>—Dentition of young: <i>i</i> ²⁄₂, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> and <i>m</i> ⁵⁄₄. Many +of these teeth are, however, lost early or remain through life in a +rudimentary state concealed by the gums. The teeth which are +usually developed functionally are <i>i</i> ¹⁄₀, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ⁰⁄₀; total 18. +Vertebræ: C 7, D 14, L 6, S 4, C 12. Head round. Eyes rather +small. Muzzle short and broad, with on each side a group of long, +very stiff, bristly whiskers. The remainder of the hair-covering +very short and adpressed. Tail very rudimentary. Fore feet with +subequal toes, carrying five minute flattened nails. Hind feet with +subequal toes, the fifth slightly the largest, having cutaneous lobes +projecting beyond the ends as in <i>Otaria</i>; first and fifth with minute +flattened nails; second, third, and fourth with large, elongated, +subcompressed pointed nails.</p> + +<p><i>Trichechus</i> is the almost universally accepted generic name by +which the Walrus or Morse<a id="FNanchor_519" href="#Footnote_519" class="fnanchor">[519]</a> is known to zoologists, but some confusion +has been introduced into literature by the revival of the +nearly obsolete terms <i>Rosmarus</i> by some authors and <i>Odobænus</i> by +others. <i>T. rosmarus</i> is the name of the species met with in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_598"></a>[598]</span> the +Arctic seas; that of the North Pacific, if distinct, is <i>T. obesus</i>. The +preceding and following descriptions will apply equally to both. +A full-grown male Walrus measures from 10 to 11 feet from the +nose to the end of the very short tail, and is a heavy, bulky animal, +especially thick about the shoulders. The soles of both fore and +hind feet are bare, rough, and warty. The surface of the skin +generally is covered with short, adpressed hair of a light, yellowish-brown +colour, which, on the under parts of the body and base of +the flippers, passes into dark reddish-brown or chestnut. In old +animals the hair becomes more scanty, sometimes almost entirely +disappearing, and the skin shows ample evidence of the rough life +and pugnacious habits of the animal in the innumerable scars with +which it is usually covered. It is everywhere more or less wrinkled, +but especially over the shoulders, where it is thrown into deep and +heavy folds.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp90" id="figure274" style="max-width: 28.125em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure274.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 274.</span>—The Walrus (<i>Trichechus rosmarus</i>).</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The tusks are formidable weapons of defence, but their principal +use seems to be scraping and digging among the sand and shingle +for the molluscs and crustaceans on which the Walrus feeds. They +are said also to aid in climbing up the slippery rocks and ledges of +ice on which so much of the animal’s life is passed. Although this +function of the tusks is affirmed by numerous authors, some of +whom appear to have had opportunities of actual observation, it is +explicitly denied by Malmgren.</p> + +<p>Walruses are more or less gregarious in their habits, being met +with generally in companies or herds of various sizes. They are +only found near the coast or on large masses of floating ice, and +rarely far out in the open sea; and, though often moving from one<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_599"></a>[599]</span> +part of their feeding ground to another, they have no regular +seasonal migrations. Their young are born between the months of +April and June, usually but one at a time, never more than two. +Their strong affection for their young, and their sympathy for each +other in times of danger, have been particularly noticed by all who +have had the opportunity of observing them in their native haunts. +When one of their number is wounded, the whole herd usually +join in a concerted and intelligent defence. Although harmless and +inoffensive when not molested, they exhibit considerable fierceness +when attacked, using their great tusks with tremendous effect +either on human enemies who come into too close quarters or on +Polar Bears, the only other adversaries they can meet with in their +own natural territory. Their voice is a loud roaring, and can be +heard at a great distance; it is described by Dr. Kane as “something +between the mooing of a cow and the deepest baying of a +mastiff, very round and full, with its bark or detached notes repeated +rather quickly seven or nine times in succession.”</p> + +<p>The principal food of the Walrus consists of bivalved molluscs, +especially <i>Mya truncata</i> and <i>Saxicava rugosa</i>, two species very +abundant in the Arctic regions, which it digs up from the mud +and sand in which they lie buried at the bottom of the sea by +means of its tusks. It crushes and removes the shells by the aid +of its grinding teeth and tongue, swallowing only the soft part +of the animal. It also feeds on other molluscs, sand-worms, +star-fishes, and shrimps. Portions of various kinds of algæ or +sea-weeds have been found in its stomach, but whether swallowed +intentionally or not is still doubtful.</p> + +<p>The commercial products of the Walrus are its oil, hide (used to +manufacture harness and sole-leather and twisted into tiller ropes), +and tusks. The ivory of the latter is, however, inferior in quality +to that of the Elephant. Its flesh forms an important article of +food to the Eskimo and Tchuktchis. Of the coast tribes of the +last-named people the Walrus forms the chief means of support. +“The flesh supplies them with food, the ivory tusks are made into +implements used in the chase and for other domestic purposes, as +well as a affording a valuable article of barter, and the skin furnishes +the material for covering their summer habitations, harness for their +dog-teams, and lines for their fishing gear” (Scammon).</p> + +<p>Geographically the Walrus is confined to the northern circumpolar +regions of the globe, extending apparently as far north as +explorers have penetrated, but its southern range has been much +restricted of late in consequence of the persecutions of man. On the +Atlantic coast of America it was met with in the sixteenth century as +low as the southern coast of Nova Scotia, and in the last century it was +common in the Gulf of St. Lawrence and on the shores of Labrador. +It still inhabits the coast round Hudson’s Bay, Davis Straits, and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_600"></a>[600]</span> +Greenland, where, however, its numbers are daily decreasing. It +is not found on the Arctic coast of America between the 97th and +158th meridians. In Europe occasional stragglers have reached +the British Isles, and it was formerly abundant on the coasts of +Finmark. It is rare in Iceland, but Spitzbergen, Nova Zembla, and +the western part of the north coast of Siberia are still constant +places of resort, in all of which a regular war of extermination is +carried on. The North Pacific, including both sides of Behring’s +Strait, northern Kamschatka, Alaska, and the Pribyloff Islands, are +also the haunts of numerous Walruses, which are isolated from +those of the North Atlantic by the long stretches of coast, both +of Siberia and North America, where they do not occur. The +Pacific Walrus appears to be as large as, if not larger than, that of +the Atlantic; its tusks are longer and more slender, and curved +inwards; the whiskers are smaller, and the muzzle (of the skull) +relatively deeper and broader. These and certain other minor +differences have induced some naturalists to consider it specifically +distinct under the name of <i>Trichechus obesus</i>. Its habits appear to +be quite similar to those of the Atlantic form. Though formerly +found in immense herds, it is rapidly becoming scarce, as the +methods of destruction used by the American whalers, who have +systematically entered upon its pursuit, are far more certain and +deadly than those of the native Tchuktchis, to whom, as mentioned +before, the Walrus long afforded the principal means of subsistence.</p> + +<p>Fossil remains of Walruses and closely allied animals have been +found in the United States, and in England, Belgium, and France, +in deposits of Pliocene age.</p> + +<h4><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Phocidæ</span>.</h4> + +<p>The true Seals are the most completely adapted for aquatic life +of all the Pinnipeds. When on land the hind limbs are extended +behind them and take no part in progression, which is effected by +a series of jumping movements produced by the muscles of the +trunk, in some species aided by the fore limbs only. The palms +and soles of the feet are hairy. There is no pinna to the ear, and +no scrotum, the testes being abdominal. The upper incisors have +simple, pointed crowns, and vary in number in the different groups. +All the forms have well-developed canines and ⁵⁄₅ teeth of the cheek-series. +In those species of which the milk-dentition is known, +there are three milk molars (<a href="#figure275">Fig. 275</a>), which precede the second, +third, and fourth permanent molars; the dentition is therefore <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₄, +<i>m</i> ¹⁄₁, the first premolar having as usual no milk-predecessor. The +skull has no postorbital process and no alisphenoid canal; and the +angle of the mandible is not inflected. The fur is stiff and +adpressed, without woolly under fur.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_601"></a>[601]</span></p> + +<p>Subfamily <b>Phocinæ</b>.—Incisors ³⁄₂. All the feet with five well-developed +claws. The toes on the hind feet subequal, the first and +fifth not greatly exceeding the others in length, and with the +interdigital membrane not extending beyond the toes.</p> + +<p><i>Halichœrus.</i><a id="FNanchor_520" href="#Footnote_520" class="fnanchor">[520]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₂, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₄, <i>m</i> ¹⁄₁; total 34. Crowns +of molars large, simple, conical, recurved, slightly compressed, +with sharp anterior and posterior edges, but without accessory +cusps, except sometimes in the two hinder ones of the lower jaw. +With the exception of the last one or two in the upper jaw and +the last in the lower jaw they are all uniradicular. Vertebræ: C +7, D 15, L 5, S 4, C 14.</p> + +<p>One species, <i>H. grypus</i>, the Gray Seal of the coasts of +Scandinavia and the British Isles (see <a href="#Page_604">page 604</a>.)</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure275" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure275.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 275.</span>—Upper permanent and deciduous dentition of the Greenland Seal (<i>Phoca grœnlandica</i>). +The first and second deciduous incisors are already absorbed.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Phoca.</i><a id="FNanchor_521" href="#Footnote_521" class="fnanchor">[521]</a>—Dental formula as the last. Teeth smaller and more +pointed. Molars (<a href="#figure275">Figs. 275 and 276</a>) with two roots (except the first +in each jaw); and +their crowns with +accessory cusps. +Vertebræ: C 7, D +15, L 5, S 4, C +12-15. Head +round and short. +Fore feet short, +with five very +strong, subcompressed, +slightly +curved, rather +sharp claws, subequal +in length. +On the hind feet the claws much narrower and less curved. The +species of this genus are widely distributed throughout the northern +hemisphere, and include <i>P. barbata</i>, the Bearded Seal; <i>P. grœnlandica</i>, +the Greenland Seal; <i>P. vitulina</i>, the Common Seal (<a href="#figure277">Fig. +277</a>); and <i>P.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_602"></a>[602]</span> hispida</i>, the Ringed Seal of the North Atlantic; +<i>P. caspica</i>, from the Caspian and Aral Seas; and <i>P. sibirica</i>, from +Lake Baikal.</p> + +<figure class="figright illowp100" id="figure276" style="max-width: 21.875em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure276.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 276.</span>—Skull of Common Seal, showing form of teeth.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>Although the members of this subfamily swim and dive +with the greatest ease, often remaining as much as a quarter of +an hour or more below the surface, and are dependent for +their sustenance entirely on living prey captured in the water, +yet they frequently resort to sandy beaches, rocks, or ice-floes, +either to sleep or to bask in the sun, and especially for the purpose +of bringing forth their young. The latter appears to be the +universal habit, and, strange as it may seem, the young seals—of +some species at least—take to the water at first very reluctantly, +and have actually to be taught to swim by their parents. The +number of young produced is usually one annually, though +occasionally two. They are at first covered with a coat of very +thick, soft, nearly white fur, and until it falls off they do not +usually enter the water. This occurs in the Greenland and Gray +Seal when from two to three weeks old, but in the Common Seal +apparently much earlier. One of this species born in the London +Zoological Gardens had shed its infantile woolly coat and was +swimming and diving about in its pond within three hours after its +birth. The movements of the true Seals upon the ground or ice +are very different from those of the Eared-Seals. Thus the hinder +limbs (by which mainly they propel themselves through the water) +are on land always perfectly passive, stretched backwards, with the +soles of the feet applied to each other, and often raised to avoid +contact with the ground. Sometimes the fore limbs are equally +passive, being placed close to the sides of the body, and motion is +then effected by a shuffling or wriggling action produced by the +muscles of the trunk. When, however, there is any necessity for +a more rapid mode of progression the animals use the fore paws, +either alternately or simultaneously, pressing the palmar surface +on the ground and lifting and dragging the body forwards in a +succession of short jumps. In this way they manage to move so +fast that a man has to step out beyond a walk to keep up with +them; but such rapid action costs considerable effort, and they +very soon become heated and exhausted. These various modes of +progression appear to be common to all species so far as has been +observed.</p> + +<p>Most kinds of Seals are gregarious and congregate, especially at +the breeding season, in immense herds. Such is the habit of the +Greenland Seal (<i>Phoca grœnlandica</i>), which resorts in the spring to +the ice-floes of the North Sea, around Jan Mayen Island, where +about 200,000 are killed annually by the crews of the Scotch, +Dutch, and Norwegian sealing vessels. Others, like the Common +Seal of the British islands (<i>P. vitulina</i>), though having a wide +geographical range, are never met with in such large numbers<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_603"></a>[603]</span> or +far away from land. This species is stationary all the year round, +but some have a regular season of migration, moving south in +winter and north in summer. They are usually harmless, timid, +inoffensive animals, though, being polygamous, the old males often +fight desperately with each other, their skins being frequently +found covered with wounds and scars. They are greatly attached +to their young, and remarkably docile and easily trained when in +captivity; indeed, although there would seem little in the structure +or habits of the Seal to fit it by nature to be a companion of man, +yet there is perhaps no wild animal which attaches itself so readily +to the person who takes care of and feeds it. Seals appear to +have much curiosity, and it is a very old and apparently well-attested +observation that they are strongly attracted by musical +sounds. Their sense of smell is very acute, and their voice varies +from a harsh bark or grunt to a plaintive bleat. Seals feed chiefly +on fish, of which they consume enormous quantities; some, however, +subsist largely on crustaceans, especially species of <i>Gammarus</i>, +which swarm in the northern seas, also on molluscs, echinoderms, +and even occasionally sea-birds, which they seize when swimming +or floating on the water.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp79" id="figure277" style="max-width: 28.125em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure277.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 277.</span>—The Common Seal (<i>Phoca vitulina</i>).</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>Although the true Seals do not possess the beautiful under fur +(“seal-skin” of the furriers) which makes the skin of the Sea-Bears +so precious, yet their hides are still sufficiently valuable as articles +of commerce, together with the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_604"></a>[604]</span> oil yielded by their fat, to subject +them to a devastating persecution, by which their numbers are +being continually diminished.</p> + +<p>Two species of seals only are met with regularly on the British +coasts, the Common Seal and the Gray Seal. The former (<a href="#figure277">Fig. +277</a>) is a constant resident in all suitable localities round the +Scottish, Irish, and English coasts, from which it has not been +driven away by the molestations of man. Although, naturally, +the most secluded and out-of-the-way spots are selected as their +habitual dwelling-places, there are few localities where they may +not be occasionally met with. Within the writers’ knowledge one +was seen not many years ago lying on the shingly beach at so +populous a place as Brighton, and another was caught in the river +Welland, near Stamford, 30 miles from the sea. They frequent +bays, inlets, and estuaries, and are often seen on sandbanks or +mudflats left dry at low tide, and, unlike some of their congeners, +are not found on the ice-floes of the open sea, nor, though +gregarious, are very large numbers ever seen in one spot. The +young are produced at the end of May or beginning of June. +They feed chiefly on fish, and the destruction they occasion among +salmon is well known to Scottish fishermen. The Common Seal is +widely distributed, being found not only on the European and +American coasts bordering the Atlantic Ocean, but also in the +North Pacific. It is from 4 to 5 feet in length, and variable in +colour, though usually yellowish-gray, with irregular spots of dark +brown or black above and yellowish-white beneath. The Gray +Seal (<i>Halichœrus grypus</i>) is of considerably larger size, the males +attaining when fully adult a length of 8 feet from nose to end of +hind feet. It is of a yellowish-gray colour, lighter beneath, and +with dark gray spots or blotches, but, like most other Seals, is +liable to great variations of colour according to age. This species +appears to be restricted to the North Atlantic, having been rarely +seen on the American coasts, but not farther south than Nova +Scotia; it is chiefly met with on the coasts of Ireland, England, +Scotland, Norway, and Sweden, including the Baltic and Gulf of +Bothnia, and Iceland, though it does not appear to range farther +north. It is apparently not migratory, and its favourite breeding +places are rocky islands; the young being born in the end of +September or beginning of October.</p> + +<p>Subfamily <b>Monachinæ</b>.—Incisors ²⁄₂. Cheek-teeth two-rooted, +except the first. On the hind feet the first and fifth toes greatly +exceeding the others in length, with nails rudimentary or absent.</p> + +<p><i>Monachus.</i><a id="FNanchor_522" href="#Footnote_522" class="fnanchor">[522]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ²⁄₂, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₄, <i>m</i> ¹⁄₁; total 32. Crowns +of molars strong, conical, compressed, hollowed on the inner side, +with a strongly marked lobed cingulum, especially on the inner side, +and slightly developed accessory cusps before and behind. The<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_605"></a>[605]</span> +first and last upper and the first lower molar considerably smaller +than the others. Vertebræ: C 7, D 15, L 5, S 2, C 11. All the +nails of both fore and hind feet very small and rudimentary. One +species, <i>M. albiventer</i>, the Monk-Seal of the Mediterranean and +adjacent parts of the Atlantic.</p> + +<p>The other genera<a id="FNanchor_523" href="#Footnote_523" class="fnanchor">[523]</a> of this section have the same dental formula, +but are distinguished by the characters of the cheek-teeth and the +feet. They are all inhabitants of the shores of the southern +hemisphere.</p> + +<p><i>Ogmorhinus.</i><a id="FNanchor_524" href="#Footnote_524" class="fnanchor">[524]</a>—All the teeth of the cheek-series with three +distinct pointed cusps, deeply separated from each other; of these +the middle or principal cusp is largest and slightly recurved; the +other two (anterior and posterior) are nearly equal in size, and +have their apices directed towards the middle one. Skull much +elongated. One species, <i>O. leptonyx</i>, the Sea-Leopard, widely distributed +in the Antarctic and southern temperate seas.</p> + +<p><i>Lobodon.</i><a id="FNanchor_525" href="#Footnote_525" class="fnanchor">[525]</a>—Cheek-teeth with much-compressed elongated crowns +and a principal recurved cusp, rounded and somewhat bulbous at +the apex, and one anterior, and one, two, or three posterior, very +distinct accessory cusps. One species, <i>L. carcinophaga</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Pœcilophoca.</i><a id="FNanchor_526" href="#Footnote_526" class="fnanchor">[526]</a>—Cheek-teeth small, with simple, subcompressed, +conical crowns, having a broad cingulum, but no distinct accessory +cusps. One species, <i>P. weddelli</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Ommatophoca.</i><a id="FNanchor_527" href="#Footnote_527" class="fnanchor">[527]</a>—All the teeth very small; those of the cheek-series +with pointed recurved crowns, and small posterior and still +less developed anterior accessory cusps. Orbits very large. Nails +quite rudimentary on front, and absent on hind feet. The skull +bears a considerable resemblance to that of the members of the +next subfamily, towards which it may form a transition. There is +one species, <i>O. rossi</i>, of which very little is known.</p> + +<p>Subfamily <b>Cystophorinsæ</b>.—Incisors ²⁄₁. Teeth of cheek-series +generally one-rooted. Nose of males with an appendage capable of +being inflated. First and fifth toes of hind feet greatly exceeding +the others in length, with prolonged cutaneous lobes, and rudimentary +or no nails.</p> + +<p><i>Cystophora.</i><a id="FNanchor_528" href="#Footnote_528" class="fnanchor">[528]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ²⁄₁, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₄, <i>m</i> ¹⁄₁; total 30. The +last molar has generally two distinct roots. Beneath the skin<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_606"></a>[606]</span> over +the face of the adult male, and connected with the nostrils, is a +sac which, when inflated, forms a kind of hood covering the +upper part of the head. Nails present, though small, on the hind +feet. One species, <i>C. cristata</i>, the Hooded or Bladder-Nose Seal of +the Polar Seas.</p> + +<p><i>Macrorhinus.</i><a id="FNanchor_529" href="#Footnote_529" class="fnanchor">[529]</a>—Dentition as the last, but cheek-teeth of simpler +character, and all one-rooted. All the teeth, except the canines, +very small relatively to the size of the animal. Hind feet without +nails. Vertebræ: C 7, D 15, L 5, S 3, C 11. Nose of adult +male produced into a short tubular proboscis, ordinarily flaccid, +but capable of dilatation and elongation under excitement. One +species, <i>M. leoninus</i>, the Elephant Seal, or Sea-Elephant of the +whalers, the largest of the whole family, attaining the length of +nearly 20 feet. Formerly abundant in the Antarctic Seas, and +also found on the coast of California.</p> + +<p><i>Extinct Seals.</i>—Remains of animals of this group have been +found in late Miocene and Pliocene strata in Europe and America, +the most abundant and best-preserved being those of the Pliocene +Antwerp Crag, the subject of an illustrated monograph by Van +Beneden. Nothing has, however, yet been discovered which +throws any light upon the origin of the group, since all the extinct +forms at present known come within the definition of the existing +families; and, though annectant forms between these occur, there +are as yet no transitions to a more generalised type of mammal. +Indeed, all those of which the characters are best known belong to +the completely developed Phocine or Trichechine, and not to the +Otariine, type. The typical genus <i>Phoca</i> occurs in the Antwerp +Crag, while remains of Seals provisionally referred to this genus +are found in the Pliocene of the Crimea and the Miocene of Malta +and Virginia. Of the other Antwerp forms <i>Callophoca</i> is said to +be allied to <i>Phoca grœnlandica</i>, <i>Platyphoca</i> to <i>Phoca barbata</i>, <i>Phocanella</i> +to <i>Phoca foetida</i>, <i>Gryphoca</i> to <i>Halichœrus</i>, <i>Palæophoca</i> and <i>Monatherium</i> +to <i>Monachus</i>, and <i>Mesotaria</i> to <i>Cystophora</i>; while <i>Prophoca</i> does not +appear to come very close to any existing form. It should be +observed that it is extremely doubtful whether all these fossil Seals +are really entitled to generic distinction.</p> + +<div class="bibliography"> + +<p><i>Bibliography of Pinnipedia.</i>—J. A. Allen, <i>History of North American +Pinnipeds</i>, 1880; St. George Mivart, “Notes on the Pinnipedia,” <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> +1885, p. 484; P. J. Van Beneden, <i>Ossements fossiles d’Anvers</i>, in the <i>Mém. Acad. +Roy. d. Belgique</i>.</p> + +</div> + +<h3><i>Suborder</i> <span class="smcap">Creodonta</span>.</h3> + +<p>The discovery of fossil remains in Eocene and early Miocene +formations both in Europe and North America shows that numerous<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_607"></a>[607]</span> +species of terrestrial carnivorous animals existed upon the earth +during those periods which cannot be referred to either of the +sections into which the order has now become broken up. By some +zoologists these have been supposed to be Marsupials, or at least to +show transitional characters between the Metatherian and Eutherian +subclasses. By others they are looked upon as belonging altogether +to the latter group, and as the common ancestors of existing +Carnivores and Insectivores, or perhaps rather as descendants or +relatives of such common ancestors, retaining more of the generalised +characters than any of the existing species. They shade off almost +insensibly into numerous other forms less distinctly carnivorous, +to the whole of which, including the modern Insectivora, Cope +(to whom we are indebted for much of our knowledge of the +American extinct species) gives the name of <span class="smcap">Bunotheria</span>, those more +specially related to the existing Carnivora forming the suborder +Creodonta. These are instances, however, in which the application +of the principles of classification adopted in the case of existing +species, of which the entire structure is known, and which have +become divided into isolated groups by the extinction of intermediate +forms, is almost impossible. If the generally accepted view +of evolution is true, and the extreme modifications pass insensibly +into each other by minute gradations (a view the palæontological +proof of which becomes strengthened by every fresh discovery), +there must be many of these extinct forms which cannot be +assigned to definitely characterised groups. There are, however, +some which stand out prominently from the others as formed on +distinct types, having no exact representatives at present living on +the earth.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp96" id="figure278" style="max-width: 28.125em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure278.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 278.</span>—Anterior portion of the skull of <i>Hyænodon leptorhynchus</i>. (After Filhol.)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_608"></a>[608]</span></p> + +<p>The more typical Creodonts appear, however, to be so closely +related to the true Carnivora through the extinct <i>Miacidæ</i> (<a href="#Page_539">p. 539</a>), +that it is on the whole advisable to regard them as representing +a distinct suborder of Carnivora. In the strong development of the +canines (<a href="#figure278">Fig. 278</a>) they are distinguished from the modern Insectivora; +and they also differ from the latter and resemble the true +Carnivores in the form of the incisors, the second one in the lower +jaw (when three are present) being thrust up above the level of the +other two in the manner obtaining in most of the modern Carnivora. +Some of the most generalised forms included in the present +group approximate so closely to the Condylarthrous Ungulates as +to indicate that both groups have probably had a common origin.</p> + +<p>The Creodonta as a whole are characterised by the small size +of the brain, the absence of a single differentiated carnassial tooth, +and the triangular form or secant character of their upper molars. +In the carpus the scaphoid and lunar were usually distinct; the +femur has a third trochanter; the upper or tibial surface of the +astragalus usually wants the groove found in modern Carnivores: +and the feet were plantigrade. The curious resemblance of the +molars of many of these forms to those of the Marsupials may +indicate a genetic relationship between the two groups; but, on the +other hand, the presence of a full set of milk-teeth and the absence +of palatal vacuities, or of an inflection of the angle of the mandible, +sharply distinguishes them from that order. Space permits of a +notice only of the more interesting forms.</p> + +<p><i>Hyænodontidæ.</i>—This family is taken to include some of the +more specialised types, such as the European and American +<i>Hyænodon</i> and <i>Oxhyæna</i> and the European <i>Pterodon</i>. In <i>Hyænodon</i> +(<a href="#figure278">Fig. 278</a>) the dental formula is <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₄, <i>m</i> ²⁄₃; the fourth +premolar above and the first true molar below being formed upon +the “carnassial” plan, but the teeth behind these, instead of being +tuberculated as in all existing Carnivora, repeat the characters of +the carnassial, and also increase in size, especially in the lower jaw, +from before backwards. The last lower molar differs from the +two preceding teeth, and is very like the carnassial of <i>Felis</i>. The +scaphoid and lunar of the carpus were fused together. Some species, +as <i>H. leptorhynchus</i>, were as large as a Wolf, while others did not +exceed a Fox in size. <i>Pterodon</i> is readily distinguished by having +<i>m</i> ³⁄₃, by the larger size of the inner tubercles of the upper molars, +and the similarity in the form of the three lower molars. In some +species there were only two upper incisors, and the first lower premolar +may be wanting. <i>Oxhyæna</i> is a specialised form with <i>i</i> ²⁻³⁄₀, +<i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₄, <i>m</i> ²⁄₂, and a very long mandibular symphysis.</p> + +<p><i>Proviverridæ.</i>—The European and American genus <i>Proviverra</i> +(<i>Cynohyænodon</i> or <i>Stypolophus</i>) may be regarded as representing a +second family. The dental formula in this genus is the typical <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_609"></a>[609]</span><i>i</i> ³⁄₃, +<i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₄, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃, the upper molars have a large inner tubercle, while +the lower molars are differentiated into a blade and talon, the +blade having a large inner cusp. The upper teeth closely resemble +the molars of <i>Dasyurus</i>, while the lower molars are like the lower +carnassial of <i>Cynodictis</i> and <i>Viverra</i>; and thus indicate how the +Creodonts may have passed into the true Carnivores through the +extinct <i>Miacidæ</i>.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure279" style="max-width: 25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure279.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 279.</span>—The three right upper molars of <i>Arctocyon +dueli</i> (<i>a</i>), and the second of <i>A. gervaisi</i> (<i>b</i>); from +the lowest Eocene of Rheims. <i>pr</i>, protocone; <i>pa</i>, +paracone; <i>me</i>, metacone; <i>hy</i>, hypocone; <i>ml</i>, metaconule; +<i>pl</i>, paraconule. (From Osborn.)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Arctocyonidæ and Mesonychidæ.</i>—The first of these families is +represented by <i>Arctocyon primævus</i>, one of the oldest known Tertiary +mammals, from the lowest Eocene beds of La Fère, department of +Aisne, France, and also by other species from corresponding beds +at Rheims. The dental formula is <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i>?⁄₃₋₄, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃. The upper +molars (<a href="#figure279">Fig. 279</a>) are tritubercular, with an incipient postero-internal +column (hypocone); +the lower are quadritubercular; +and the premolars +simple. The typical species +was of large size, but the +two of which the teeth are +figured were considerably +smaller. In the American +<i>Mesonyx</i> the dental formula +was the typical one, the jaws +were comparatively short, the +mandibular symphysis was elongated, the cheek-teeth were of +simple structure, and resembled the premolars of many of the true +Carnivora, and the astragalus had a grooved tibial surface and +distinct distal facets for the cuboid and navicular, resembling in the +latter respect the corresponding bone of a Perissodactyle Ungulate. +The terminal phalanges had deeply fissured extremities, and are said +to be more like those of Rodents than true Carnivores. <i>Mesonyx +ossifragus</i> was larger than a Grizzly Bear. <i>Amblyctonus</i>, of the same +deposits, differs by the smooth tibial face of the astragalus and the +development of an anterior cusp to the lower molars.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_610"></a>[610]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XII">CHAPTER XII<br> +<span class="smaller">THE ORDER INSECTIVORA</span></h2> + +</div> + +<figure class="figright illowp100" id="figure280" style="max-width: 21.875em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure280.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 280.</span>—Right lateral aspect of the anterior portion of the +cranium of <i>Erinaceus collaris</i>. Enlarged. (From Dobson, <i>Proc. Zool. +Soc.</i> 1881, p. 403.)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The Insectivora comprise a number of comparatively small mammals, +generally of terrestrial, although rarely of arboreal or aquatic +habits, and presenting the following common features. They are +unguiculate, and have plantigrade or subplantigrade, and generally +pentadactylate feet, in which the pollex and hallux are not opposable +to the other digits. They are diphyodont and heterodont, and +the teeth are rooted. The molars are studded with sharp cusps, +the crowns of the upper molars being either quadrangular or triangular; +there are never less than two incisors in either side of the +mandible; and in many cases the incisors, canines, and anterior +premolars are not clearly differentiated from one another (<a href="#figure280">Fig. 280</a>); +the canines being +usually weak. +Clavicles are present, +except in +<i>Potamogale</i>. The +body is clothed +with fur or protected +by an +armature of +spines; the +testes are inguinal +or placed +near the kidneys, +and are not received into a scrotum; the penis is pendent or suspended +from the wall of the abdomen; the uterus is two-horned +and with or without a distinct corpus uteri; the placenta is discoidal +and deciduate; and the smooth cerebral hemispheres do not +extend backwards over the cerebellum (<a href="#figure281">Fig. 281</a>). The projection<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_611"></a>[611]</span> +of the muzzle far beyond the extremity of the lower jaw is a +very general feature. The humerus generally has an entepicondylar +foramen. Certain forms, such as <i>Talpa</i> and <i>Galeopithecus</i>, are unique +among mammals in having ossified intercentra in the dorso-lumbar +region of the vertebral column.</p> + +<p>Representatives of this order are found throughout the temperate +and tropical parts of both hemispheres +(except South America and Australia), +and exhibit much variety both in +organisation and in habits. With the +exception of the <i>Tupaiidæ</i>, all are nocturnal; +the greater number are cursorial, +but some (<i>Talpa</i>, <i>Chrysochloris</i>, <i>Oryzorictes</i>) +are fossorial; some (<i>Potamogale</i>, <i>Nectogale</i>, +<i>Myogale</i>) are natatorial, and a few +(<i>Tupaiidæ</i>) arboreal; while the species +of the aberrant genus <i>Galeopithecus</i> glide +through the air like the Flying Squirrels. +To the great majority the term insectivorous +is strictly applicable, <i>Galeopithecus</i> +alone being phytophagous; while <i>Potamogale</i> +is said to feed on fish, and the +different species of Moles live chiefly on +worms. The general organisation of the +Insectivora indicates a very low type, +and were it not for the specialised +character of their placentation and the +tendency to lose the differentiated characters +of the anterior teeth they might be regarded as closely +allied to the ancestral type of many of the heterodont mammals. +The strongly marked distinction of the canines from the incisors +and anterior premolars in the Mesozoic and most of the Tertiary +mammals (excepting some of the Ungulates) points, however, very +decidedly to the conclusion that the want of definition between +these teeth in many of the modern Insectivora is an acquired +feature. Fossil forms apparently indicate a relationship on the +one hand with the Creodont Carnivora, and on the other with +the Lemuroid Primates; indeed it is in some instances impossible +to say whether extinct genera are really Insectivores or Lemuroids.</p> + +<figure class="figleft illowp42" id="figure281" style="max-width: 12.5em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure281.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 281.</span>—Upper surface of the +brain of <i>Tupaia ferruginea</i>. (From +Garrod, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1879, p. 304.)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>In most Insectivora the cranial cavity is of small relative size, +and in none is the brain-case elevated to any considerable extent +above the facial line. The facial part of the skull is generally +much produced, and the premaxillary and nasal bones are well +developed. The zygomatic arch is usually slender or deficient, the +latter being the case in most of the species; and postorbital processes +of the frontals are found only in the <i>Galeopithecidæ</i>, <i>Tupaiidæ</i>,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_612"></a>[612]</span> +and <i>Macroscelididæ</i>. The number of dorsal vertebræ varies from 13 +in <i>Talpa</i> to 19 in <i>Centetes</i>; that of the lumbar from 3 in <i>Chrysochloris</i> +to 6 in <i>Talpa</i> and <i>Sorex</i>; and of the caudal from the rudimentary +series of 8 in <i>Centetes</i> to the 40 or more of <i>Microgale</i>. Not +less variable are the characters of the vertebræ themselves; the +spinous processes often being very long in one and short in another +species of the same genus. In the <i>Soricidæ</i> and <i>Myogale</i> the neural +arches of the cervical vertebræ are very slender. In the <i>Soricidæ</i> +and <i>Gymnura</i> the four anterior vertebræ develop large single hypapophyses. +In <i>Galeopithecus</i> the centrum of each vertebra supports +posteriorly a pair of intercentral ossifications; while in <i>Erinaceus</i>, +<i>Myogale</i>, and <i>Talpa</i> small oval ossicles are found on the inferior +surfaces of the lumbar interspaces. In <i>Erinaceus</i>, owing to the +thickness of the neural cord in the cervical region and its abrupt +termination, the diameter of the neural canal in the cervical and +first two dorsal vertebræ greatly exceeds that of any of the succeeding +vertebræ. The sternum is variable, but generally narrow, +bilobate in front, and divided into segments. The pectoral girdle +presents some remarkable adaptive modifications, most fully expressed +in <i>Talpa</i>, having relation to the use of the fore limbs in +burrowing; but in the Golden Moles (<i>Chrysochloris</i>) the forearm +and manus alone become specially modified for this purpose. In +<i>Galeopithecus</i> and <i>Macroscelides</i> the bones of the forearm (radius +and ulna) are distally united. The manus has generally five digits, +but in <i>Rhynchocyon</i> and in one species of <i>Oryzorictes</i> the pollex is +wanting, while in the true Moles it is extremely modified. The +femur has, in most species, a prominent ridge below the greater +trochanter representing a third trochanter. In <i>Galeopithecus</i>, <i>Tupaia</i>, +<i>Centetes</i>, <i>Hemicentetes</i>, <i>Ericulus</i>, and <i>Solenodon</i> the tibia and fibula +are distinct, but in all the other genera more or less united +together. The pes usually possesses five digits (rarely four by +reduction of the hallux); and in some forms, as in the leaping +species (<i>Macroscelides</i>, <i>Rhynchocyon</i>), the tarsal bones are greatly +elongated. The form of the pelvis, and especially of the symphysis +pubis, varies within certain limits; and these differences +have been proposed by Leche as a basis for the classification of the +families. Thus in the <i>Galeopithecidæ</i>, <i>Tupaiidæ</i>, and <i>Macroscelididæ</i> +there is a long symphysis; in the <i>Erinaceidæ</i>, <i>Centetidæ</i>, and <i>Potamogalidæ</i> +the symphysis is short; and in the <i>Soricidæ</i>, <i>Talpidæ</i>, and +<i>Chrysochloridæ</i> there is none.</p> + +<p>Space does not admit of attempting a sketch of the modifications +of the muscular system, which will be found fully described +in Dr. Dobson’s <i>Monograph</i>, referred to in the bibliography. As to +the nervous system, it has been already mentioned that the brain +throughout the order presents a low type of organisation; in none +of the members do the cerebral hemispheres present any trace of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_613"></a>[613]</span> +convolutions, nor do they extend backwards so as to cover the +cerebellum, while the olfactory lobes are large and project in front, +and the corpus callosum is short and thin. In the Hedgehogs +(<i>Erinaceus</i>) the spinal column ends abruptly opposite the third or +fourth dorsal vertebra in a slender filament, and the dorsal and +lumbar nerves, given off in front of this point, are carried backwards +in two compressed bundles occupying the suddenly narrowed +spinal canal as far as the sacrum.</p> + +<p>Owing to the similarity in the character of the food, the truly +insectivorous species, forming more than nine-tenths of the order, +present little variety in the structure of their digestive organs. +Except in <i>Galeopithecus</i> the stomach is a simple, thin-walled sac; +but in some, as in <i>Centetes</i> and allied genera, the pyloric and +œsophageal openings are very close together. The intestinal canal +has much the same calibre throughout, and varies from three (in +the Shrews) to twelve times (in the Hedgehogs) the length of the +head and body. In the arboreal genera, <i>Galeopithecus</i> and <i>Tupaia</i>, +as well as in the <i>Macroscelididæ</i>, all of which probably feed in +part on vegetable substances, most of the species possess a cæcum. +The liver is deeply divided into lobes, the right and left lateral +being cut off by deep fissures; and both the caudate and Spigelian +lobes being generally well developed. The gall-bladder, which is +usually large and globular, is placed on the middle of the posterior +surface of the right central lobe.</p> + +<p>In most of the members of the order (<i>Soricidæ</i>, <i>Centetidæ</i>, <i>Chrysochloridæ</i>) +the penis is capable of being more or less completely +retracted within the fold of integument surrounding the anus; in +some (<i>Galeopithecidæ</i>, <i>Talpidæ</i>) it is pendent in front of the anus; +while in others (<i>Macroscelididæ</i>, <i>Erinaceidæ</i>, <i>Solenodontidæ</i>) it is +carried forwards and suspended from the abdominal wall. In the +subfamily <i>Centetinæ</i> and <i>Chrysochloris</i> the testes lie immediately +behind the kidneys, but in others more or less within the pelvis. +During the rutting season they become greatly enlarged, forming +protrusions in the inguinal region. Except in <i>Rhynchocyon</i> the +uterine cornua are long and open into a short corpus uteri, which +in many species (<i>Soricidæ</i>, <i>Talpidæ</i>, <i>Centetidæ</i>, <i>Chrysochloridæ</i>) is not +separated from the vagina by a distinct os uteri. With the +exception of <i>Galeopithecus</i> all Insectivora appear to be multiparous, +the number of young at a birth varying from two to eight in +<i>Erinaceus</i>, and from twelve to twenty in <i>Centetes</i>. The position +of the mammary glands and the number of the teats vary greatly. +Thus in <i>Galeopithecus</i> there are two pairs of axillary teats, and in +<i>Solenodon</i> a single post-inguinal pair; but in most species they range +from the thorax to the abdomen, varying from two pairs in <i>Gymnura</i> +to twelve in <i>Centetes</i>. In <i>Chrysochloris</i> the thoracic and inguinal teats +are lodged in deep cup-shaped depressions.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_614"></a>[614]</span></p> + +<p>Odoriferous glands exist in many species. In most Shrews +these glands occur on the sides of the body at a short distance +behind the axilla, and their exudation is probably protective, since +few carnivorous animals will eat the dead bodies of these creatures. +In both species of <i>Gymnura</i> and in <i>Potamogale</i> large pouches are +situated on either side of the rectum and discharge their secretions +by ducts, opening in the first-named genus in front of, and in the +latter within the margin of the anus. In <i>Centetes</i> the ducts of +similarly situated racemose glands open by pores at the bottom of +deep pits placed at either side of the anus.</p> + +<p>The integument is thin, but in many species is lined by a +muscular coat, which is probably more developed in the Hedgehogs +(<i>Erinaceidæ</i>) than in any other mammal. In this family +and the <i>Centetidæ</i> most of the species are protected by spines +implanted in the panniculus carnosus muscle, and more or less +replacing the fur of the upper surface of the body.</p> + +<p>The order is usually divided into two suborders, but the very +aberrant genus which constitutes the first might well be raised to +ordinal rank. It has little in common with the true Insectivora, +but as it certainly belongs to no other of the recognised mammalian +orders it is retained among them chiefly to avoid the inconvenience +of increasing the number of ordinal divisions for the sake of a +single isolated form.</p> + +<h3><i>Suborder</i> <span class="smcap">Dermoptera</span>.</h3> + +<p>Upper and lower incisors compressed, multicuspidate, the lower +deeply pectinated; fore and hind limbs connected by a broad +integumentary expansion forming a parachute.</p> + +<h4><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Galeopithecidæ</span>.</h4> + +<p>In addition to the characters given under the head of the suborder +it may be mentioned that the orbit is nearly surrounded by +bone, the zygomatic arches are well developed, the tympanic forms +a bulla, the ulna is distally united with the radius, the tibia and +fibula are distinct, the pubic symphysis is long, the penis is pendent, +the testes are received into inguinal pouches, the mammæ are +axillary, the uterus is two-horned, and there is a large cæcum.</p> + +<p><i>Galeopithecus.</i><a id="FNanchor_530" href="#Footnote_530" class="fnanchor">[530]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ²⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ²⁄₂, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 34. Second +upper incisor and canine with two roots. Two species—<i>G. volans</i> +and <i>G. philippinensis</i>. The former, which is distinguished from the +latter by the form of the upper incisors, has a total length of nearly +2 feet. The long and slender limbs are connected by a broad +integumentary expansion extending outwards from the sides of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_615"></a>[615]</span> +neck and body, and forming also a web between the fingers and +toes as far as the base of the claws (<a href="#figure282">Fig. 282</a>); the hind limbs are +further connected by a similar expansion passing outwards along +the back of the feet to the base of the claws, and, inwardly, involving +the long tail to the tip, forming a true interfemoral membrane, +as in the Bats.</p> + +<p>The two species of Flying Lemurs, as the representatives of this +genus are commonly but erroneously called, live in the forests of the +Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Borneo, and the Philippine Islands, where +they feed chiefly on the leaves and fruits of trees. Their habits are +nocturnal, and during the daytime they cling to the trunks or limbs +of trees, head downwards, in a state of repose. With the approach +of night their season of activity commences, when they may be +seen gliding from tree to tree supported on their cutaneous +parachute, and they have been observed to traverse in this way a +space of 70 yards with a descent of only about one in five.</p> + +<figure class="figright illowp100" id="figure282" style="max-width: 25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure282.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 282.</span>—Feet of <i>Galeopithecus philippinensis</i>.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Galeopithecus</i> was referred by some of the older zoologists and +anatomists to the Bats, and by others to the Lemurs, but Professor +Peters’s view, that it belongs to neither of these orders, and should +be considered an aberrant Insectivore, has been very generally +accepted, although, as mentioned above, the association is by no +means a close one. Besides differing from the Bats in the form of +the anterior limbs and of the double-rooted outer incisor and canine, +it also contrasts strongly with them in the presence of a large sacculated +cæcum, and in the great length of the colon, which is so +remarkably short in all the Chiroptera. From the Lemurs, on the +other hand, the form of the brain, the characters of the teeth, the +structure of the skull, and the deciduate discoidal placenta completely +separate it. In a recent elaborate memoir on the myology +and affinities of <i>Galeopithecus</i> Dr. Leche<a id="FNanchor_531" href="#Footnote_531" class="fnanchor">[531]</a> considers that we<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_616"></a>[616]</span> have in +this genus an indication of the mode in which the Insectivora were +modified into the Chiroptera, although it is completely off the direct +line of descent. The deeply pectinated crowns of the lower incisors +of <i>Galeopithecus</i> are quite unique in the class, and the only approach +to the double-rooted canine, except in <i>Erinaceus</i> and <i>Talpa</i>, is found +among the Marsupials in <i>Perameles</i>, where the root of the canine is +grooved.</p> + +<h3><i>Suborder</i> <span class="smcap">Insectivora Vera</span>.</h3> + +<p>Upper and lower incisors conical, unicuspidate or with basal +cusps only, the lower not pectinated; limbs free, formed for +terrestrial progression.</p> + +<p>The following table gives a key to the distinctive characters of +the existing families:—</p> + +<ul> + <li>I. Upper molars broad, multicuspidate, with more or less well-defined + W-shaped crowns. + <ul> + <li>A. Symphysis pubis long; generally a cæcum; cerebral cavity + comparatively large. + <ul> + <li><i>a.</i> Orbit encircled by bone; metatarsus moderate; + arboreal. <i>Tupaiidæ</i>.</li> + <li><i>b.</i> Orbit not encircled by bone; metatarsus greatly + elongated; terrestrial. <i>Macroscelididæ.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + <li>B. Symphysis pubis short or none; no cæcum; cerebral cavity + small; skull without postorbital processes. + <ul> + <li><i>a.</i> First and second upper molars with a central + fifth cusp. + <ul> + <li><i>a′.</i> Tympanic annular, not forming a bulla. + <i>Erinaceidæ.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + <li><i>b.</i> No central fifth cusp to upper molars. + <ul> + <li><i>a′.</i> Tympanic annular, not forming a bulla; + no zygomatic arch. <i>Soricidæ.</i></li> + <li><i>b′.</i> Tympanic forming a bulla; zygomatic arch + developed. <i>Talpidæ.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> + </li> + <li>II. Upper molars narrow, with V-shaped crowns. + <ul> + <li><i>a′.</i> Tympanic annular, not forming a bulla; zygomatic + arch imperfect. + <ul> + <li><i>a″.</i> No clavicles. <i>Potamogalidæ.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + <li><i>b″.</i> Clavicles well developed. + <ul> + <li><i>a‴.</i> Skull constricted between the orbits; penis + suspended. <i>Solenodontidæ.</i></li> + <li><i>b‴.</i> Skull not constricted; penis pendent, + retractile. <i>Centetidæ.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + <li><i>b′.</i> Tympanic forming a bulla; zygomatic arch well + developed. <i>Chrysochloridæ.</i> + </li> + </ul> + </li> +</ul> + +<p>The second section, in which the molars are of the primitive +tritubercular type, should probably be regarded as containing the +most generalised representatives of the order; and it is noteworthy +that the whole of them are confined to Africa, Madagascar, and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_617"></a>[617]</span> +the West Indies, whereas most of the first section are widely +distributed over the Palæarctic and Oriental regions. None of the +existing families of the second section are known in a fossil condition, +although it is suggested that the extinct <i>Leptictidæ</i> includes allied +types.</p> + +<h4><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Tupaiidæ</span>.</h4> + +<p>Skull with comparatively large brain-case, orbit surrounded by +bone, well-developed zygomatic arch, perforated jugal, and a tympanic +bulla. Upper molar broad, with cusps arranged in a W. Pubic +symphysis long; radius and ulna, and tibia and fibula separate; +metatarsus only slightly longer than tarsus. Usually a short cæcum. +Habits arboreal and diurnal. Confined to the Oriental region.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp63" id="figure283" style="max-width: 25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure283.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 283.</span>—The Pentailed Tree-Shrew (<i>Ptilocercus lowi</i>). From Gray, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1848. +½ natural size.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Tupaia.</i><a id="FNanchor_532" href="#Footnote_532" class="fnanchor">[532]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ²⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 38. Feet naked +beneath, the sole furnished with projecting pads; claws moderate, +curved, and sharp; head pointed; ears rounded; tail bushy, +distichous, with short hair below. The Tree-Shrews, of which there +are some nine species, are found in India, Burma, the Malay<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_618"></a>[618]</span> +Peninsula, the Nicobars, Sumatra, Java, and Borneo. The species +closely resemble one another, differing chiefly in size and in the +colour and length of the fur. Their general appearance is very +Squirrel-like. Their food consists of insects and fruit, which they +usually seek in the trees, but also occasionally on the ground. +When feeding they often sit on their haunches, holding the food, +after the manner of Squirrels, between their forepaws.</p> + +<p><i>Ptilocercus.</i><a id="FNanchor_533" href="#Footnote_533" class="fnanchor">[533]</a>—Represented only by the Pentailed Tree-Shrew +(<i>P. lowi</i>, <a href="#figure283">Fig. 283</a>) of Borneo, in which the tail is of extraordinary +length, with the proximal two-thirds naked, and the remaining third +furnished with a bilateral fringe of long hairs, from which the genus +takes its name.</p> + +<p><i>Extinct Genera.</i>—An Insectivore from the Middle Miocene of +France, described as <i>Lantanotherium</i>, is said to be nearly allied to +<i>Tupaia</i>. The genus <i>Parasorex</i>, from strata of similar age, has the +dental formula <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₄, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃, and is regarded as connecting the +present with the following family.</p> + +<h4><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Macroscelididæ</span>.</h4> + +<p>Skull with comparatively large brain-case, strong zygomatic +arch, a tympanic bulla, orbit surrounded by bone, imperforate +jugal, and usually no postorbital process. Molars broad, with +four cusps arranged in a W. Pubic symphysis long; proximal end +of tibia and fibula united; radius and ulna united or separate; +metatarsus much longer than tarsus. A large cæcum. Habits +terrestrial, saltatorial, and nocturnal. The family is confined to +Africa.</p> + +<p><i>Macroscelides.</i><a id="FNanchor_534" href="#Footnote_534" class="fnanchor">[534]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₄, <i>m</i> ²⁄₂₋₃; total 40 or 42. +Distal extremity of radius and ulna united. Five digits in manus, +and five or four in pes. This genus, which is taken to include +<i>Petrodromus</i>, comprises ten species widely distributed throughout the +African continent. All are closely related, resembling one another +in general form, and even in the colour of the fur. They fall into +two groups, distinguished by the presence or absence of a small +third lower molar.<a id="FNanchor_535" href="#Footnote_535" class="fnanchor">[535]</a> <i>M. tetradactylus</i> (<a href="#figure284">Fig. 284</a>), the type of the +genus <i>Petrodromus</i>, differs from all the other species in the absence +of the hallux, and of the third lower molar. These animals are +commonly known as Jumping Shrews, and, like the following +genus, have the muzzle much produced.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_619"></a>[619]</span></p> + +<p><i>Rhynchocyon.</i><a id="FNanchor_536" href="#Footnote_536" class="fnanchor">[536]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ¹⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₄, <i>m</i> ²⁄₂; total 36. Upper +incisor frequently shed in the adult. Radius and ulna distinct; +hind limbs relatively shorter, and proboscis longer than in the type +genus; four digits in each foot. Four closely allied species have +been described from East Africa. The head and body of the type +species measures about 8 inches in length; and the long tail is +covered with a ringed skin, sparsely haired. Its habits are fossorial.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp66" id="figure284" style="max-width: 25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure284.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 284.</span>—<i>Macroscelides tetradactylus.</i> × ½. (From Peters, <i>Reise nach Mossambique.</i>)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<h4><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Erinaceidæ</span>.</h4> + +<p>Skull with a small brain-case; no postorbital process; slender +and occasionally imperfect zygomatic arch, and an annular tympanic, +which does not form a bulla. Upper molars with four principal +cusps and a small central median cusp. Acromion of scapula bifid; +pubic symphysis short; radius and ulna free, but tibia and fibula +united proximally. No cæcum; penis carried forward and suspended +from the wall of the abdomen. Habits terrestrial. Found +in the Palæarctic, Ethiopian, and Oriental regions.</p> + +<p>Subfamily <b>Gymnurinæ</b>.—Palate completely ossified; pelvis +very narrow; fur without spines.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_620"></a>[620]</span></p> + +<p><i>Gymnura.</i><a id="FNanchor_537" href="#Footnote_537" class="fnanchor">[537]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₄, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 44. This +genus, if <i>Hylomys</i> is rightly included, is represented by the two +species, <i>G. rafflesi</i> and <i>G. suilla</i>, from the Malay Peninsula and Indian +Archipelago. The former has the appearance of a large Rat with a +long tail and head and projecting mobile snout; the latter, which is +much smaller, with a short tail and small third upper premolar, has +long been known under the name of <i>Hylomys suillus</i>, and classed +with the <i>Tupaiidæ</i>. Both species present a very generalised type +of dentition, in this respect occupying an almost central position in +the order. <i>G. suilla</i> is represented in Mount Kina-Balu, Borneo, by +a variety characterised by the presence of a dark dorsal streak. +Many zoologists prefer to retain <i>Hylomys</i> as a distinct genus.</p> + +<p>Subfamily <b>Erinaceinæ</b>.—Palate imperfectly ossified; pelvis +wide; fur with spines.</p> + +<p><i>Erinaceus.</i><a id="FNanchor_538" href="#Footnote_538" class="fnanchor">[538]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₂, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁄₂, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 36. The first pair +of upper incisors (<a href="#figure285">Fig. 285</a>) are considerably larger than the others, +and are widely +separated from one +another in the +middle line; the +canine is very similar +to the third incisor; +and, except +in <i>E. europæus</i> (<a href="#figure285">Fig. +285</a>), each of these +teeth is inserted by +two distinct roots +(<a href="#figure280">Fig. 280</a>, <a href="#figure280">p. 610</a>). +The first lower incisor +is large and +proclivous. The +number of vertebræ is C 7, D 15, L 6, S 3, C 11.</p> + +<figure class="figleft illowp100" id="figure285" style="max-width: 21.875em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure285.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 285.</span>—Right lateral aspect of the anterior portion of the +skull of the Hedgehog (<i>Erinaceus europæus</i>). Enlarged. (From +Dobson, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1881, p. 403.)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The Hedgehogs comprise nearly twenty species, distributed +throughout Europe, Africa, and the greater part of Asia, but not +found in Madagascar, Ceylon, Burma, Siam, the Malay Peninsula, +or Australia. All the species resemble one another in the armature +of spines investing the upper surface and sides of the body; and +all possess the power of rolling themselves up into the form of +a ball, protected on all sides by the strong spines; the dorsal +integument being brought downwards and inwards over the head +and tail, so as to include the limbs also, by the action of special +muscles. The common Hedgehog (<i>E. europæus</i>) is the most aberrant +species, differing from all the rest in the peculiarly shaped and +single-rooted third upper incisor and canine (<a href="#figure285">Fig. 285</a>), and in its +very coarse, harsh fur. The dentition of the long-eared North<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_621"></a>[621]</span> +Indian form, <i>E. collaris</i> (<a href="#figure280">Fig. 280</a>), may be considered characteristic +of all the other species, the only important differences being found +in the variable size and position of the second upper premolar, +which is very small, external, and deciduous in the Indian +<i>E. micropus</i> and <i>pictus</i>. The former species, limited to South India, +is further distinguished by the absence of the jugal bone. Of the +African species, <i>E. diadematus</i>, with long frontal spines, is probably +the commonest; while <i>E. albiventris</i> has been made the type of a +separate genus on account of the total absence of the hallux.</p> + +<p>The well-known European species feeds on insects, worms, slugs, +mice, rats, lizards, snakes, etc., as well as on eggs, fruit, and roots. +It hibernates during the winter. The young are usually produced +in July or August in litters of not more than four, but there may +be a second litter in October; and the period of gestation is believed +not to exceed a month. The Indian, and probably also the +African species, do not hibernate.</p> + +<p>The existing <i>E. europæus</i> dates from the Pleistocene period, and +extinct species of the genus are found in the Upper and Middle +Miocene of the Continent.</p> + +<p><i>Extinct Genera.</i>—The French Lower Miocene genus, <i>Palæoerinaceus</i>, +appears to be allied to <i>Erinaceus</i>, but is distinguished by the +wider and completely ossified palate. In the Upper Eocene of +Central France there are two genera, which appear to be most +nearly allied to <i>Gymnura</i>, although connected by <i>Palæoerinaceus</i> with +<i>Erinaceus</i>. Of these <i>Necrogymnurus</i>,<a id="FNanchor_539" href="#Footnote_539" class="fnanchor">[539]</a> with which <i>Cayluxotherium</i> is +apparently identical, has teeth like <i>Gymnura</i>, but an imperfectly +ossified palate like <i>Erinaceus</i>; and the skull is remarkable for the +peculiar rugose structure of the parietal and temporal regions. +<i>Comphotherium</i> is distinguished by the presence of a cingulum to +the lower molars, like that found in <i>Gymnura</i>.</p> + +<h4><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Soricidæ</span>.</h4> + +<p>Skull (<a href="#figure286">Fig. 286</a>) long and narrow, with no zygomatic arch or +postorbital process, and the tympanic ring-like and not forming +a bulla. Upper molars with the cusps arranged in a distinct W. +No pubic symphysis. The tibia and fibula united. No cæcum. +Habits usually terrestrial, rarely aquatic. Distribution extensive.</p> + +<p>The Shrews are Rat-like or Mouse-like insectivores, with the +body covered with hair, and the muzzle long and pointed. Their +dentition (<a href="#figure286">Fig. 286</a>) is peculiar and characteristic. Thus the first +upper incisor is large and hook-like, with a more or less developed +basal cusp on the posterior border. Between this and the last premolar +there are a variable number of small teeth, representing the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_622"></a>[622]</span> +other incisors, the canine, and the anterior premolars; although, +owing to the early obliteration of the maxillo-premaxillary suture, +their homology is exceedingly difficult to determine. Three molars +are invariably present, of which the third is much the smallest. In +the mandible there are always six teeth, but in one species of +<i>Myosorex</i> there may be a seventh. +The first lower incisor is usually +directed horizontally forwards; the +second incisor (formerly reckoned as +the canine) is the smallest tooth of +the series, the fourth premolar being +slightly larger.</p> + +<p>This family, which includes considerably +more than half the representatives +of the order, has a +distribution coextensive with the +latter. Many classifications of this +difficult group have been attempted, +but according to the latest proposal +of Dr. Dobson,<a id="FNanchor_540" href="#Footnote_540" class="fnanchor">[540]</a> the genera may be +divided into two subfamilies, distinguished +by the apparently trivial +character of the colour of the teeth.</p> + +<figure class="figright illowp75" id="figure286" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure286.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 286.</span>—Left lateral view of the +cranium and mandible of <i>Sorex veræpacis</i>. +In the cranium—<i>i</i>, first incisor; <i>c</i>, fourth +incisor; <i>p</i>, canine; <i>m</i>, fourth premolar: +in the mandible—<i>i</i>, first incisor; <i>c</i>, second +incisor; <i>p</i>, fourth premolar; <i>m</i>, first molar. +(From Alston, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1877.)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>Subfamily <b>Soricinæ</b>.—Summits of the teeth coloured red.</p> + +<p><i>Sorex.</i><a id="FNanchor_541" href="#Footnote_541" class="fnanchor">[541]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ⁴⁄₂, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₀, <i>p</i> ²⁄₁, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 32. Openings of +male and female generative organs separated from the anal orifice; +penis cylindrical or tapering; ear well developed; tail long, +covered with equal or subequal hairs.</p> + +<p>It has been shown by Brandt that the position of the premaxillo-maxillary +sutures in the type of the genus is between the +fourth and fifth tooth, so that it appears that we must regard this +genus as differing from all other Eutherian mammals in having four +upper incisors. Dr. Dobson, in his paper quoted, classes the tooth +here reckoned as the upper canine with the premolar series in all +the Shrews. Habits terrestrial. Species numerous, inhabiting the +Palæarctic and Nearctic regions.</p> + +<p>Of the two species found in the British Isles the Common +Shrew (<i>S. vulgaris</i>, <a href="#figure287">Fig. 287</a>) is by far the most common in England, +and is about the size of the House Mouse, to which it approximates +in general form. The body is clothed with close long fur, very +soft and dense, and varying in colour from light reddish to dark +brown above, rarely speckled or banded with white. The under +surface of both the body and the tail is grayish. The basal four-fifths +of all the hairs above and beneath are dark bluish-gray; the +hairs of the tail are less densely set and coarser. On each side of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_623"></a>[623]</span> +the body, at a point about one-third of the distance between the +elbow and the knee, may be found, especially in the rutting season, +a gland covered by two rows of coarse hairs. This secretes a +peculiar fluid, on which the odour of the animal depends; this +odour being evidently protective, and rendering the creature secure +against the attacks of many predaceous animals.</p> + +<p>The geographical range of the Common Shrew is exceedingly +wide, extending eastwards through Europe and Asia (north of the +Himalayas) to North America.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure287" style="max-width: 25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure287.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 287.</span>—The Common Shrew (<i>Sorex vulgaris</i>).</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The Lesser Shrew (<i>S. pygmæus</i><a id="FNanchor_542" href="#Footnote_542" class="fnanchor">[542]</a>) is far less common in England +and Scotland, although more abundant in Ireland, where <i>S. vulgaris</i> +is unknown. It is distinguished from the latter not only by its +inferior dimensions, but also by the circumstance that the third +upper incisor is not longer than the fourth, and by the considerably +shorter length of the forearm and manus. This species extends +through Europe and Asia as far as the inland of Saghalin. Both +this and the preceding species generally live in wooded districts, +making their nests under the roots of trees, or in slight hollows. +The great mortality noticeable among the Shrews in the early part +of the autumn is probably due to insufficiency of food. The breeding +season extends from the latter part of April to the beginning +of August. The young, which are blind, naked, and toothless at +birth, are very quickly developed. The number in a litter is +usually from five to seven, but may be as many as ten.</p> + +<p>The Alpine Shrew (<i>S. alpinus</i>), which is restricted to the Alpine +region of Central Europe, is slightly larger than the common +species, from which it is distinguished by the longer tail, the length +of which exceeds that of the head and body, by the fur being dark +on both surfaces of the body, and also by the larger size of the +upper canine.</p> + +<p>In North America <i>S. bendirei</i> is by far the largest species of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_624"></a>[624]</span> +genus; and, as in many other species of the same country, the +fourth upper incisor is relatively small. In <i>S. hoyi</i> (separated by +some writers as <i>Microsorex</i>), of the same country, this tooth is +rudimentary.</p> + +<p>Other North American Shrews, which are regarded by some +zoologists as generically distinct under the name of <i>Neosorex</i>, are +aquatic, and thus take the place of the Old World genus <i>Crossopus</i>. +These are <i>S. palustris</i> of the Rocky Mountains and <i>S. hydrodromus</i> of +Unalaska Island, both of which resemble <i>Crossopus</i> in having the +feet provided with swimming fringes, but agree with the other +species of <i>Sorex</i> in their dentition and the character of the tail. +The former species is about the size of <i>Crossopus fodiens</i>, while the +latter is scarcely larger than <i>S. pygmæus</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Soriculus.</i><a id="FNanchor_543" href="#Footnote_543" class="fnanchor">[543]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ⁴⁄₂, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₀, <i>p</i> ¹⁻²⁄₁, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 30, or rarely +32. Opening of male or female generative organs forming with the +anal orifice a shallow cloaca. Ear and tail as in <i>Sorex</i>. First upper +incisor with an internal cusp. Habits terrestrial.</p> + +<p>This genus is the only representative in the Oriental region of +the <i>Soricinæ</i>, which are otherwise confined to the Palæarctic and +Nearctic regions. The Indian and Burmese species comprise +<i>S. nigrescens</i>, <i>S. caudatus</i>, and <i>S. macrurus</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Notiosorex.</i><a id="FNanchor_544" href="#Footnote_544" class="fnanchor">[544]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₂, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₀, <i>p</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 28. Tail +moderate; first upper incisor without an inner cusp; other +characters as in <i>Soriculus</i>. Habits terrestrial.</p> + +<p>This American genus is represented by <i>S. crawfordi</i> and <i>S. evotis</i>, +which are found in Central America and Mexico, and are thus some +of the most southerly representatives of the Shrews in that continent. +Their external appearance is very similar to that of the +Old World genus <i>Crocidura</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Blarina.</i><a id="FNanchor_545" href="#Footnote_545" class="fnanchor">[545]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ⁴⁻³⁄₂, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₀, <i>p</i> ²⁄₁, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 32 or 30. Ear +truncated above; tail short; otherwise as in <i>Soriculus</i>. This group of +so-called Earless or Short-tailed Shrews is mainly North American, the +common forms being <i>B. dekayi</i> and <i>B. brevicauda</i>. The species vary +considerably in size; and <i>B. mexicana</i> and <i>micrura</i> extend the +range of the genus into Mexico and Guatemala. The following +account of the habits of <i>B. brevicauda</i> is taken from Dr. Merriam’s +<i>Mammals of the Adirondack Region</i>: “The rigours of our northern +winters seem to have no effect in diminishing its activity, for +it scampers about on the snow during the severest weather, +and I have known it to be out when the thermometer indicated +a temperature of -20° Fahr. It makes long journeys +over the snow, burrowing down whenever it comes to an<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_625"></a>[625]</span> +elevation that denotes the presence of a log or stump, and I am +inclined to believe that at this season it must feed largely upon +the chrysalides and larvæ of insects that are always to be found in +such places.” Dr. Merriam has made the interesting discovery +that the common short-tailed North American Shrew supplements +its insectivorous fare by feeding on beech-nuts, which will account +for the generally very worn state of the teeth in this species.</p> + +<p><i>Crossopus.</i><a id="FNanchor_546" href="#Footnote_546" class="fnanchor">[546]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₂, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₀, <i>p</i> ²⁄₁, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 30. Opening +of male or female generative organs enclosed within the same ring +as the anal orifice; penis broad, with lateral processes. Ears small, +not truncated. Tail long, with an inferior fringe of elongated +hair; feet also fringed. Habits aquatic. The Palæarctic Water-Shrew +(<i>C. fodiens</i>) is considerably larger than the Common Shrew, +from which it is readily distinguished externally by its shorter and +much broader muzzle, comparatively smaller eyes, and larger feet +adapted for swimming,—the sides of the feet and toes being provided +with comb-like fringes of stiff hairs. The tail is longer than +the body, and possesses a well-developed swimming fringe of +moderately long, regularly arranged hairs, which extend along the +middle of the flat under surface from the end of its basal third to +its extremity. The fur of the body is long and very dense, varying +much in colour in different individuals, and this has given rise to +descriptions of many nominal species; the prevailing shades are +dark brown, almost black, above, and more or less bright ashy +tinged with yellowish beneath; sometimes in the same litter there +are individuals with the under surface more or less dark coloured. +In the number as well as in the shape of the teeth the Water-Shrew +differs from the Common Shrew: there is a premolar +less on each side above; the bases of the teeth are much more +prolonged posteriorly; and their cusps are much less stained brown, +so that in old individuals with worn teeth they often appear altogether +white. This species resembles the otter in its aquatic +habits, swimming and diving with great agility. It frequents +rivers and lakes, making its burrows in the overhanging banks, +from which when disturbed it escapes into the water. Its food +consists of insects and their larvæ, small crustaceans, and probably +the fry of small fishes. It is generally distributed throughout +England, is less common in Scotland, and as yet it has not been +recorded in Ireland; specimens have been obtained from many parts +of Europe, and also from Asia as far eastward as the Altai Mountains.</p> + +<p>Subfamily <b>Crocidurinæ</b>.—Teeth completely white.</p> + +<p><i>Myosorex.</i><a id="FNanchor_547" href="#Footnote_547" class="fnanchor">[547]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₂, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₀, <i>p</i> ²⁄₁₋₂, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 30 or 32. +Penis cylindroid and tapering; male or female generative organs +opening close to anal orifice, but not forming a cloaca. Ears well +developed; tail long, clothed with equal or subequal hairs. Habits +terrestrial.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_626"></a>[626]</span></p> + +<p>This genus is typically represented by <i>M. varius</i>, a very small +Shrew from the Cape, which is quite unique among the whole +family in having a rudimental seventh pair of lower teeth.</p> + +<p><i>Crocidura.</i><a id="FNanchor_548" href="#Footnote_548" class="fnanchor">[548]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₂, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₀, <i>p</i> ²⁻¹⁄₁, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 28 or 30. +Male or female generative organs forming a short cloaca with the +anal orifice. Tail long, with a mixture of long and short hairs. +Other characters as in <i>Myosorex</i>. Habits terrestrial.</p> + +<p>This Old World genus includes over seventy nominal species, +which have been divided into four subgenera, <i>C. aranea</i> and <i>C. +suaveolens</i> of Continental Europe, and <i>C. cœrulea</i> of India, being well-known +forms. The species are very variable and difficult to discriminate. +<i>C. aranea</i> has a very wide distribution, ranging from +Central and Southern Europe to North Africa and Central Asia. +The name Musk-Rat is popularly applied in India to <i>C. cœrulea</i>, +which frequents houses at night, hunting round rooms for cockroaches +and other insects, and occasionally uttering a sharp shrill cry. The +strong musky odour of this animal arises from large glands situated +beneath the skin of the side of the body, a short distance behind +the fore limbs. This odour is so powerful and penetrating that it +is popularly believed in India that if the animal runs over a corked +bottle of wine or beer it will infect the fluid within. Jerdon says +that certainly many bottles are met with quite undrinkable from +the peculiar musky odour of their contents, but, rejecting the +possibility of its passing through the glass, he attributes it to +the corks having been infected previously to bottling, stating in +corroboration of this view that he has never found the odour in +liquors bottled in England.</p> + +<p><i>Diplomesodon.</i><a id="FNanchor_549" href="#Footnote_549" class="fnanchor">[549]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ²⁄₂, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₀, <i>p</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 26. Tail +moderate; soles of the feet hairy. Other characters as in <i>Crocidura</i>. +Habits terrestrial.</p> + +<p>This genus is represented only by <i>D. pulchellus</i> of the Kirghiz +steppes, which is allied to the following form, although retaining +the normal Shrew-like external contour.</p> + +<p><i>Anurosorex.</i><a id="FNanchor_550" href="#Footnote_550" class="fnanchor">[550]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ²⁄₂, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₀, <i>p</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 26. Ear +very short; tail rudimental or short; soles of feet naked. Other +characters as in <i>Diplomesodon</i>.</p> + +<p>The two species of this genus are Mole-like terrestrial forms, of +which the typical <i>A. squamipes</i> occurs in Tibet, while <i>A. assamensis</i> +is found in Assam. The latter species has the longer tail. The +habits of both are probably fossorial.</p> + +<p><i>Chimarrogale.</i><a id="FNanchor_551" href="#Footnote_551" class="fnanchor">[551]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₂, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₀,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_627"></a>[627]</span> <i>p</i> + ¹⁄₁, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 28. Penis +broad, with lateral processes; male or female generative organs +opening within the same integumentary ring as the anal orifice. +Tail long, with an inferior fringe of elongated hairs; ears small; +plantar callosities simple; toes free. Habits aquatic.</p> + +<p>This genus includes <i>C. himalayica</i> of the Himalaya and <i>C. platycephalus</i> +of Japan. Both have the feet fringed, and, together with +the next genus, may be regarded as the eastern analogues of <i>Crossopus</i> +among the red-toothed series; their structural resemblances to +the latter, if Dr. Dobson’s classification is a natural one, being +probably due to adaptation for a similar mode of life.</p> + +<p><i>Nectogale.</i><a id="FNanchor_552" href="#Footnote_552" class="fnanchor">[552]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₂, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₀, <i>p</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 28. External +ears not forming a conch, valvular. Plantar callosities forming +adhesive pads; toes webbed. Other characters as in <i>Chimarrogale</i>. +Habits aquatic.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp84" id="figure288" style="max-width: 28.125em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure288.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 288.</span>—<i>Nectogale elegans.</i> (From Milne-Edwards, <i>Mammif. Tibet</i>.)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The sole representative of this genus is the Tibetan Water-Shrew +(<i>N. elegans</i>, <a href="#figure288">Fig. 288</a>), which differs from all other members +of the family by the webbed toes and the presence of the disc-like +adhesive pads on the under surface of the feet, which are believed +to enable the creature to hold on to smooth rocks or stones in the +beds of the streams it inhabits. This species is probably more +completely aquatic in its habits than the allied <i>Chimarrogale</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Fossil Soricidæ.</i>—Remains of existing species of <i>Sorex</i> or <i>Crossopus</i> +occur in the Norfolk Forest bed, while an extinct species has<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_628"></a>[628]</span> +been found in the Pleistocene of Sardinia. <i>Crocidura</i> occurs in the +cavern-deposits of Madras. Shrews from the Miocene and Upper +Eocene of Europe have been referred to <i>Sorex</i> and the genus <i>Amphisorex</i>, +which is a synonym of <i>Crossopus</i>.</p> + +<h4><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Talpidæ</span>.</h4> + +<p>Allied to the <i>Soricidæ</i>, but distinguished by the presence of a +zygomatic arch and auditory bulla in the skull, and by the form of +the teeth. The eyes are very small, and in some species covered +with skin; the ears are short and concealed by the fur; the fore +limbs are generally more or less modified for digging; there is no +symphysis pubis; the intestine has no cæcum; the tibia and fibula +are united; and the unicuspidate first upper and lower incisors +are not extended horizontally forwards.</p> + +<p>This family is connected with the <i>Soricidæ</i> by <i>Urotrichus</i> and +<i>Uropsilus</i>. All the members are limited to the temperate regions +of Europe, Asia, and North America; and the majority of them +are of fossorial habits, although a few are aquatic or cursorial. The +family has been divided into two subfamilies by Professor Mivart, +and since this arrangement has been very generally adopted it will +be followed here. From the presence of intermediate forms like +<i>Scaptonyx</i> Dr. Dobson, in the second part of his <i>Monograph of the +Insectivora</i>, has proposed a different arrangement, which, with the +omission of some forms which are of not more than subgeneric +value, is as follows:—</p> + +<table> + <tr> + <td colspan="3"><span class="smcap">Myogalæ</span>—<i>Myogale</i>.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="3"><span class="smcap">Condyluræ</span>—<i>Condylura</i>.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td rowspan="2" class="valign"><span class="smcap">Scalopes</span></td> + <td class="tdr">{</td> + <td><i>Scapanus</i>.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">{</td> + <td><i>Scalops</i>.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="3"><span class="smcap">Talpæ</span>—<i>Talpa</i>.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td rowspan="2" class="valign"><span class="smcap">Urotrichi</span></td> + <td class="tdr">{</td> + <td><i>Scaptonyx</i>.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">{</td> + <td><i>Urotrichus</i>.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="3"><span class="smcap">Uropsili</span>—<i>Uropsilus</i>.</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p>Subfamily <b>Myogalinæ</b>.—Clavicles and humerus moderately +elongated; manus without falciform bone.</p> + +<p><i>Myogale</i>.<a id="FNanchor_553" href="#Footnote_553" class="fnanchor">[553]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₄, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 44. Feet +webbed. Habits aquatic. This genus is represented by the two +species <i>M. moschata</i> (<a href="#figure289">Fig. 289</a>) and <i>M. pyrenaica</i>, of which the former +is by far the largest member of the family, its total length being +about 16 inches. Its long proboscis-like snout projects far beyond +the margin of the upper lip; the toes are webbed as far as the bases +of the claws; and the long scaly tail is laterally flattened, so as to +form a powerful instrument of propulsion when swimming. This<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_629"></a>[629]</span> +species inhabits the banks of streams and lakes in South-East Russia, +where its food consists of various aquatic insects. <i>M. pyrenaica</i>, +living in a similar manner in the region of the Pyrenees, is very +much smaller, has a round tail, and a proportionally longer snout. +Fossil remains of <i>M. moschata</i> occur in the Norfolk Forest bed, and +were originally described under the name of <i>Palæospalax</i>. The +genus is also represented in the Middle and Lower Miocene of the +Continent.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp67" id="figure289" style="max-width: 28.125em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure289.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 289.</span>—The Desman (<i>Myogale moschata</i>). ¹⁄₃ natural size.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Urotrichus.</i><a id="FNanchor_554" href="#Footnote_554" class="fnanchor">[554]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ²⁄₁, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₃ or ³⁄₄, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 36. Feet +not webbed; manus broad. Habits fossorial. The Mole-Shrews, +as these animals are called, are represented by <i>U. talpoides</i> of the +mountains of Japan and <i>U. gibbsi</i> of North America. These two +species are small and closely allied animals; the American form +(which it has been proposed to separate subgenerically as <i>Neurotrichus</i>) +having <i>p</i> ³⁄₄.</p> + +<p><i>Uropsilus.</i><a id="FNanchor_555" href="#Footnote_555" class="fnanchor">[555]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ²⁄₁, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 34. Manus +narrow; tail naked and scaly. Habits cursorial. The single<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_630"></a>[630]</span> +species, <i>U. soricipes</i>, from the borders of Tibet, is a slate-coloured +animal with the external form of a Shrew but the skull of a Mole.</p> + +<p>Subfamily <b>Talpinæ</b>.—Clavicle and humerus very short and +broad; manus with a large falciform bone.</p> + +<p>A. First upper incisor much larger than the second (New +World Moles).</p> + +<p><i>Scalops.</i><a id="FNanchor_556" href="#Footnote_556" class="fnanchor">[556]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₂, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₀, <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 36. Extremity +of muzzle simple; hind feet webbed; tail short and nearly naked. +Represented by three species in the United States.</p> + +<p><i>Scapanus.</i><a id="FNanchor_557" href="#Footnote_557" class="fnanchor">[557]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₄, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 44. Extremity +of muzzle simple. The two North American species of this genus +resemble <i>Scalops</i> in general characters, but have a dentition like +<i>Condylura</i>. The habits are like those of the latter, and the right +to generic distinction is doubtful.</p> + +<p><i>Condylura.</i><a id="FNanchor_558" href="#Footnote_558" class="fnanchor">[558]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₄, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 44. Extremity +of muzzle surrounded by filiform appendages. The Star-nosed +Mole (<i>C. cristata</i>) derives its name from the star-like ring of +appendages at the extremity of the muzzle, with the nostrils in the +centre. The general contour is Mole-like, but the tail is nearly as +long as the body, and the manus is somewhat less powerful, with +its terminal phalanges not cleft. The length of the head and body +is about 5 inches. This species is common in parts of North +America, and forms tunnels in the ground like the Common Mole.</p> + +<p>B. First upper incisor scarcely larger than the second (Old +World Moles).</p> + +<p><i>Scaptonyx.</i><a id="FNanchor_559" href="#Footnote_559" class="fnanchor">[559]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₂, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₄, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 42. Manus +moderately broad, as in <i>Urotrichus</i>. Represented only by <i>S. fusicaudatus</i> +of Eastern Tibet, which may be regarded as connecting +<i>Talpa</i> with <i>Urotrichus</i>, having the head of the former and the limbs +of the latter.</p> + +<p><i>Talpa.</i><a id="FNanchor_560" href="#Footnote_560" class="fnanchor">[560]</a>—Dentition (usually): <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₄, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 44. +Manus extremely broad.</p> + +<p>This genus includes the true Moles, of which the common +English Mole<a id="FNanchor_561" href="#Footnote_561" class="fnanchor">[561]</a> (<i>T. europæa</i>) is the type. This animal is about 6 +inches in total length, of which rather more than one inch is occupied +by the tail. The body is elongated and cylindrical, and, owing +to the very anterior position of the fore limbs, the head appears to +rest between the shoulders; the muzzle is long and obtusely +pointed, terminated by the nostrils, which are close together; the +minute eye is almost hidden by the fur; the ear is without a conch, +and opens on a level with the surrounding integument. The fore<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_631"></a>[631]</span> +limbs are rather short and very muscular, terminating in broad, +naked, shovel-shaped feet, with the palms normally directed outwards, +and each with five subequal digits armed with strong flattened +claws. The hind feet are long and narrow, and the toes are provided +with slender claws. The body is densely covered with soft, +erect, velvety fur, the hairs being uniform in length and thickness, +except on the muzzle and short tail. The colour of the fur is +generally black, with a more or less grayish tinge, or brownish-black, +but various paler shades up to pure white have been observed.</p> + +<p>The food of the Mole consists chiefly of the earth-worm, in +pursuit of which it forms its well-known underground excavations. +Its habits were many years ago studied and described by M. Henri +le Court. Like many other mammals, the Mole has a lair to which +it may retire for security. This consists of a central nest formed +under a hillock, placed in some protected situation, as under a bank, +or between the roots of trees. The nest, which is lined with dried +grass or leaves, communicates with the main run by four passages, +of which only one joins it directly, leading downwards for a short +distance and then ascending again. The other three are directed +upwards and communicate at regular intervals with a circular +gallery constructed in the upper part of the hillock, which in turn +communicates by five passages leading downwards and outwards +with another much larger gallery placed lower down on a level +with the central nest, from which passages proceed outwards in +different directions, one only communicating directly with the main +run, while the others, curving round, either soon join or end blindly. +The main run is somewhat wider than the animal’s body: its walls +are smooth, and formed of closely compressed earth, the depth +varying according to the nature of the soil, but ordinarily from 4 +to 6 inches. Along this tunnel the animal passes backwards and +forwards several times daily, and here traps are laid by mole-catchers +for its capture. From the main run numerous passages are formed +on each side, along which the animal hunts its prey, throwing +out the soil in the form of mole-hills. The Mole is one of the +most voracious of mammals, and, if deprived of food, is said to die +in from ten to twelve hours. Almost any kind of flesh is eagerly +devoured by captive Moles, which have been seen by various +observers, as if maddened by hunger, to attack animals nearly as +large as themselves, such as birds, lizards, frogs, and even snakes; +toads, however, they will not touch, and no form of vegetable food +attracts their notice. If two Moles be confined together without +food, the weaker is invariably devoured by the stronger. Moles +take readily to the water, in which respect they resemble their +representatives on the North American continent. Bruce, writing +in 1793, remarks that he saw a Mole paddling towards a small +island in the Loch of Clunie, 180 yards from land, on which he +noticed mole-hills.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_632"></a>[632]</span></p> + +<p>The sexes come together about the second week in March, and +the young—generally from four to six in number—which are +brought forth in about six +weeks, quickly attain their +full size.</p> + +<figure class="figleft illowp34" id="figure290" style="max-width: 20.3125em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure290.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 290.</span>—Skeleton of Mole × ⅔ (lower jaw +removed to show base of skull). <i>c</i>, Calcaneum; +<i>c.h.</i>, clavicular articulation of the humerus; <i>cl.</i>, +clavicle; <i>e.c</i>, external condyle of humerus; <i>f.</i>, +femur; <i>fb</i>, fibula; <i>fc</i>, falciform bone (radial sesamoid); +<i>h</i>, humerus; <i>i.c</i>, internal condyle of +humerus; <i>il</i>, left ilium; <i>i.p</i>, ramus of the ilium +and pubis; <i>is.</i>, ischium; <i>l.d</i>, ridge of insertion of +latissimus dorsi muscle; <i>l.t</i>, lesser trochanter; <i>m</i>, +manubrium sterni; <i>o</i>, fourth intercentral ossicle; +<i>ol</i>, olecranon; <i>p.</i>, pubis widely separated from that +of the opposite side; <i>pa.</i>, patella; <i>p.m.</i>, ridge for +insertion of pectoralis major muscle; <i>pt.</i>, pectineal +eminence; <i>r</i>, radius; <i>rb</i>, first rib; <i>s</i>, plantar sesamoid +ossicle corresponding to the radial sesamoid +(os falciforme) in the manus; <i>sc.</i>, scapula; <i>s.h.</i>, +scapular articulation of the humerus; <i>t</i>, tibia; <i>u</i>, +ulna.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The Mole exhibits in the +whole of its organisation a +perfect adaptation to its +peculiar mode of life. In +the structure of the skeleton +(<a href="#figure290">Fig. 290</a>) very striking departures +from the typical +mammalian form are noticeable. +Thus the presternum +is so much produced anteriorly +as to extend forward as far as +a vertical line from the second +cervical vertebra, carrying +with it the very short and +almost quadrate clavicle, which +is articulated with its anterior +extremity and distally with +the humerus; being also connected +ligamentously with the +scapula. The fore limbs are +thus brought opposite the +sides of the neck, and from +this position a threefold advantage +is derived: in the +first place, as this is the +narrowest part of the body, +they add but little to the +general width, which if increased, +would lessen the +power of movement in a +confined space; secondly, this +position allows of a longer +fore limb than would otherwise +be possible, and so increases +its power; and, thirdly, +although the entire limb is +relatively very short, its anterior +position enables the +animal, when burrowing, to +thrust the claws so far forward<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_633"></a>[633]</span> +as to be in a line with the +end of the muzzle, the importance +of which is evident. Posteriorly, the hind limbs are similarly +removed out of the way by approximation of the hip-joints to the +centre line of the body. This is effected by inward curvature of +the innominate bones at the acetabula to such an extent that they +almost meet in the centre, while the pubic bones are widely separated +behind. The shortness of the fore limb is caused by the great +reduction in the length of the humerus, which has lost all resemblance +to its normal shape. In addition to the usual articulation with the +glenoid cavity of the scapula, the humerus also has a separate +articulation with the extremity of the clavicle. The bones of the +manus are enormously expanded laterally; this expansion being +increased by the large sickle-like bone on the radial side of the +carpus, which is considered by some anatomists to represent the +prepollex. The skull is long and tapering, with very slender +zygomatic arches and elongated nasals, which are ankylosed +together, and in advance of which the mesethmoid is more or +less ossified. The vertebræ are usually C 7, D 13, L 6, S 6, +C 10-12; all having very strong surfaces for mutual articulation. +The upper incisors are chisel-like, and the canine has two roots; +the first three upper premolars are simple and conical, but the +fourth is much larger, and canine-like. In the mandible the +incisors are small and somewhat proclivous, while the canine can +only be distinguished from them by its position: the first lower +premolar is larger than the others.</p> + +<p>The Common Mole has an exceedingly wide distribution, +ranging over the greater part of the Palæarctic region, where it is +met with in places so widely sundered as England and Japan. It +occurs in both the Himalaya and Altai mountains. In Ireland it +is unknown, and in Scotland it extends as far north as Caithness. +Eight species of the genus are recognised, which may be grouped, +from the characters of their dentition, as follows, viz.: <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₀, <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₄, +<i>m</i> ³⁄₃, <i>T. wogura</i>; <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₄, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃, <i>T. europæa</i>, <i>cæca</i>, <i>longirostris</i>, +<i>micrura</i>; <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁄₄, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃, <i>T. leucura</i>, <i>leptura</i>; <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃, +<i>T. moschata</i>.</p> + +<p>Except in <i>T. europæa</i>, the eyes are covered by a membrane. In +<i>T. micrura</i> the short tail is concealed by the fur. <i>T. cæca</i> is found +south of the Alps; the remaining species are Asiatic, and two only—<i>T. +micrura</i> and <i>T. leucura</i>—occur south of the Himalaya. <i>T. +moschata</i>, of Tibet, is regarded by some zoologists as generically +distinct under the name of <i>Scaptochirus</i>.</p> + +<p>Remains of <i>T. europæa</i> occur in the Norfolk Forest bed, while +extinct species are found in the European Tertiaries as far down as +the Lower Miocene, although it has been proposed to separate +some of these forms generically. <i>Protalpa</i>, of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_634"></a>[634]</span> Upper Eocene +Phosphorites of Central France, is very closely allied, but the +structure of the humerus is somewhat less specialised.</p> + +<p><i>Extinct Genera.</i>—A number of extinct Insectivora from the +European Tertiaries more or less closely allied to the Moles have +been described, but since our knowledge of most of them is +extremely imperfect their precise affinities are in many instances +problematical. Of these, the Lower Miocene <i>Tetracus</i> is said to have +affinity both with <i>Myogale</i> and <i>Erinaceus</i>; while the forms +described as <i>Mysarachne</i> and <i>Echinogale</i>, are considered to connect +the present with the two preceding families. <i>Plesiosorex</i> is another +Lower Miocene type known only by the mandible, in which there +are ten teeth; it is generally referred to the <i>Myogalinæ</i>. The minute +<i>Amphidozotherium</i>, of the French Phosphorites, is considered to be +allied to <i>Urotrichus</i>.</p> + +<h4><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Adapisoricidæ</span>.</h4> + +<p>This extinct family is represented by the genera <i>Adapisorex</i> and +<i>Adapisoriculus</i>, of the lowest Eocene of Rheims, which are regarded +as allied to the <i>Soricidæ</i>, but somewhat more specialised. In the +type genus the formula of the lower teeth is <i>i</i> 2, <i>c</i> 1, <i>p</i> 4, <i>m</i> 3; +the incisors and canine being proclivous, and the molars (of which +the last is small and without a third lobe) quadritubercular. +<i>Adapisoriculus</i> is a smaller form with differently shaped molars.</p> + +<figure class="figright illowp100" id="figure291" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure291.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 291.</span>—The last left upper cheek-teeth +of <i>Pleuraspidotherium aumonieri</i>; +from the Lowest Eocene of Rheims. <i>pr</i>, +protocone; <i>me</i>, metacone; <i>pa</i>, paracone; +<i>b</i>, cingulum-cusp. (From Osborn.)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>Here also may be mentioned the genera <i>Orthaspidotherium</i> and +<i>Pleuraspidotherium</i>, from the above-mentioned +deposits, which are probably +members of the present order. +They appear to have been animals +somewhat smaller than a Hedgehog, +with quadritubercular upper molars +(<a href="#figure291">Fig. 291</a>), and the hinder premolars +more complex than those of the +<i>Erinaceidæ</i>. In the first-named genus +the dental formula is <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₄, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; the third and fourth upper +premolars having one outer column. <i>Pleuraspidotherium</i> has apparently +only three premolars, of which the third and fourth +(<a href="#figure291">Fig. 291</a>) have two outer columns. The humerus in both has +no entepicondylar foramen, the femur has a third trochanter, and +the astragalus is vertically perforated.</p> + +<h4><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Potamogalidæ</span>.</h4> + +<p>Skull with a small brain-case, no zygomatic arch or postorbital +process, and the tympanic annulate and not forming a bulla. +Upper molars with the cusps arranged in a broad V, and somewhat<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_635"></a>[635]</span> +intermediate in structure between those of the preceding and +succeeding families. No clavicle; pubic symphysis ligamentous; +tibia and fibula typically united distally. No cæcum. Confined to +the Ethiopian region.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp96" id="figure292" style="max-width: 28.125em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure292.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 292.</span>—<i>Potamogale velox.</i> × ¼. (From Allman, <i>Trans. Zool. Soc.</i> vol. vi. pl. i.)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Potamogale.</i><a id="FNanchor_562" href="#Footnote_562" class="fnanchor">[562]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 40. Represented +only by <i>P. velox</i> of Western Equatorial Africa. This animal +(<a href="#figure292">Fig. 292</a>) inhabits the banks of streams, and is thoroughly adapted +for an aquatic life; it is nearly 2 feet in length, the tail measuring +about half. The long cylindrical body is continued uninterruptedly +into the thick laterally compressed tail, the legs are very short, and +the toes are not webbed, progression through the water evidently +depending wholly on the action of the powerful tail, while the +limbs are folded inwards and backwards. The muzzle is broad and +flat, and the nostrils are protected by valves. The fur is dark +brown above, the extremities of the hairs on the back being of a +metallic violet hue by reflected light, beneath whitish. This curious +animal was discovered by M. du Chaillu.</p> + +<p><i>Geogale.</i><a id="FNanchor_563" href="#Footnote_563" class="fnanchor">[563]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ²⁄₂, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁄₂, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 34. This genus +is known solely by <i>G. aurita</i>, a small Mouse-like species from Madagascar, +agreeing closely with <i>Potamogale</i> in the general form of the +skull and teeth. The tibia and fibula are distinct, but it is not +known whether a clavicle exists; and the material at present available +is insufficient to definitely fix the natural position of the genus.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_636"></a>[636]</span></p> + +<h4><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Solenodontidæ</span>.</h4> + +<p>Skull with a small brain-case constricted between the orbits, no +zygomatic arch or postorbital process, and the tympanic annulated +and not forming a bulla. Upper molars tritubercular, the cusps +being arranged in a V. Pubic symphysis short; tibia and fibula +distinct. Vertebræ: C 7, D 15, L 4, S 5, C 23. No cæcum. The +penis is carried forwards and suspended from the abdomen; the +testes are received into perineal pouches; the mammary glands are +post-inguinal; the uterine cornua end in cæcal sacs.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="figure293" style="max-width: 25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure293.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 293.</span>—<i>Solenodon cubanus.</i> × ⅕ (From Peters, <i>Abh. Akad. Berlin</i>.)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Solenodon.</i><a id="FNanchor_564" href="#Footnote_564" class="fnanchor">[564]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 40. This genus, +with <i>S. paradoxus</i> and <i>S. cubanus</i> (<a href="#figure293">Fig. 293</a>), from Hayti and Cuba +respectively, alone represents the family. These species, which +differ chiefly in the colour and quality of the fur, have a remarkably +long cylindrical snout, a long naked tail, feet formed for +running, and the body clothed with long, coarse fur.</p> + +<p>The position of the mammæ quite behind on the buttocks is +unique among Insectivora. The first upper incisor is much enlarged, +and this and the other incisors, canines, and premolars, closely +resemble those of <i>Myogale</i>; the second lower incisor is, as in +<i>Potamogale</i>, much larger than the anterior one, and is deeply +hollowed out internally. While thus<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_637"></a>[637]</span> apparently showing relationship +with the <i>Talpidæ</i>, the form of the crowns of the molar teeth +connects them with the next family.</p> + +<h4><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Centetidæ</span>.</h4> + +<p>Skull (<a href="#figure294">Fig. 294</a>) with a small cylindrical brain-case not constricted +between the orbits, no zygomatic arch or postorbital process, +and the +tympanic annulate +and not +forming a bulla. +Upper molars +tritubercular. +Pubic symphysis +short; +and the tibia +and fibula either +united or free. +No cæcum. The +penis is pendent and retractile within the fold of the integument +surrounding the anus; the testes are abdominal; the mammæ are +thoracic and ventral; and the uterine cornua are terminated by +the Fallopian tubes. All the species are limited to Madagascar.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure294" style="max-width: 25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure294.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 294.</span>—Left lateral view of the skull of the Tenrec (<i>Centetes +ecaudatus</i>). Reduced.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>Subfamily <b>Centetinæ</b>.—Tibia and fibula distinct; testes near +kidneys; fur with spines.</p> + +<p><i>Centetes.</i><a id="FNanchor_565" href="#Footnote_565" class="fnanchor">[565]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ²⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 38. Vertebræ: +C 7, D 19, L 5, S 3, C 8. The single species is the well-known +Tenrec (<i>C. ecaudatus</i>), characterised by the absence of a tail; it +reaches a total length of from 12 to 16 inches, and is the largest +known Insectivore. The adult males have long canines, the +extremities of the lower pair being received into pits in front of +the upper ones (<a href="#figure294">Fig. 294</a>). It is probably the most prolific of all +mammals, since as many as twenty-one young are said to have been +brought forth at a birth. The young have strong white spines +arranged in longitudinal lines along the back, but these are lost in +the adult animal, which is provided only with a nuchal crest of +long rigid hairs. In rare instances a fourth upper molar may be +developed.</p> + +<p><i>Hemicentetes.</i><a id="FNanchor_566" href="#Footnote_566" class="fnanchor">[566]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 40. This +genus is represented by the two species <i>H. semispinosus</i> (of which +the skull is shown in <a href="#figure295">Fig. 295</a>) and <i>H. nigriceps</i>. It differs from +<i>Centetes</i> by the presence of the third upper incisor, the much smaller +canines, and by the form of the skull. Both species<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_638"></a>[638]</span> are very much +smaller than <i>C. ecaudatus</i>, and the dorsal spines are retained in the +adult state. Vertebræ: C 7, D 16, L 5, S 3, C 9.</p> + +<p><i>Ericulus.</i><a id="FNanchor_567" href="#Footnote_567" class="fnanchor">[567]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ²⁄₂, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 36. Vertebræ: +C 7, D 17, L 6, S 4, C 9. The single species, <i>E. setosus</i>, is a +Hedgehog-like animal, having the whole upper surface and the +short tail densely covered with close-set spines. The facial bones +are much shorter than in any of the preceding genera, and the +first upper incisor is elongated, as in <i>Erinaceus</i>. Judging from +the slight development of the cutaneous muscles compared with +those of the true Hedgehogs, it is probable that complete involution +of the body does not take place.</p> + +<p>Subfamily <b>Oryzorictinæ</b>.—Tibia and fibula united; testes near +urethra; fur without spines.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure295" style="max-width: 25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure295.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 295.</span>—Skull of <i>Hemicentetes semispinosus</i>. × 2. (From Mivart, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1871.)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Microgale.</i><a id="FNanchor_568" href="#Footnote_568" class="fnanchor">[568]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 40. This genus +includes <i>M. longicaudata</i> and <i>M. cowani</i>, both of which are small +Mouse-like species, the former with a tail double the length of the +head and body, and having 43 caudal vertebræ; teeth like those of +<i>Centetes ecaudatus</i>, but, owing to the comparatively much shorter +muzzle, not separated by wide spaces, and the last premolar and +molar with internal basal processes.</p> + +<p><i>Oryzorictes.</i><a id="FNanchor_569" href="#Footnote_569" class="fnanchor">[569]</a>—Represented by two species, <i>O. hova</i> and <i>O. tetradactylus</i>, +the latter distinguished by the presence of only four digits +in the manus, the three inner having long laterally compressed +fossorial claws. The general form of the head and body of the +two species known is like that of a Mole. These animals burrow +in the rice-fields and do much damage to the crops.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_639"></a>[639]</span></p> + +<h4><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Chrysochloridæ</span>.</h4> + +<p>Skull conical, not constricted between the orbits, without postorbital +process, but with well-developed zygomatic arch and tympanic +bulla. Upper molars tritubercular, with the crowns very tall. +No pubic symphysis; the tibia and fibula united. The eyes are +covered by the hairy integument; the ears short and concealed by +the fur; the internal generative organs are as in <i>Centetinæ</i>; the +mammæ are thoracic and inguinal and placed in cup-shaped depressions. +Habits fossorial. Confined to the southern part of the +Ethiopian region, not extending to Madagascar.</p> + +<p>This family is closely allied to the <i>Centetidæ</i>, occupying the +same relative position with respect to that family that the <i>Talpidæ</i> +does to the <i>Soricidæ</i>. Compared with the <i>Talpidæ</i>, we find the +following differences in the structural adaptation to a fossorial life; +the manubrium sterni is not anteriorly elongated, neither are the +clavicles shortened; but this is compensated for by a deep hollowing +out of the antero-lateral walls of the thorax, the ribs in these parts +and the sternum being convex inwards. The long clavicles have +their distal extremities pushed forward, and the concavities on the +sides and inferior surface of the thorax lodge the thick muscular +arms.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp96" id="figure296" style="max-width: 28.125em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure296.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 296.</span>—The Golden Mole (<i>Chrysochloris obtusirostris</i>).</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Chrysochloris.</i><a id="FNanchor_570" href="#Footnote_570" class="fnanchor">[570]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ³⁻²⁄₃₋₂; total 40 or 36. +Vertebræ: C 7, D 19, L 3, S 5, C 8. This genus includes some +seven or eight South African species, commonly known as Golden +Moles (<a href="#figure296">Fig. 296</a>). Those species, in which the molars are reduced +to ²⁄₂, with a basal talon to the lower ones, and without a prominence +in the temporal fossa, have been placed in a separate genus, +<i>Chalcochloris</i>, by Professor Mivart. Nearly all the species<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_640"></a>[640]</span> have the +fur of the upper surface of a brilliant metallic lustre, varying from +golden bronze to green and violet of different shades. The manus +has four digits, of which the two outer are small, while the middle +ones are large, with immensely powerful claws.</p> + +<p><i>Extinct Types.</i>—The only fossil forms which can be referred to +the section of the Insectivora with tritubercular molars are the +<i>Leptictidæ</i>, of the Eocene and Miocene of North America. This +family includes the genera <i>Leptictis</i>, <i>Mesodectes</i>, and <i>Ictops</i>, all of +which are regarded by Dr. Schlosser as true Insectivora, although +they were placed by Professor Cope with the Creodont Carnivora.</p> + +<div class="bibliography"> + +<p><i>Bibliography of Insectivora.</i>—Peters, <i>Reise nach Mossambique—Säugeth.</i> 1852; +Id. “Ueber die Classification der Insectivora,” <i>Monatsb. Akad. Wissensch. +Berlin</i>, 1865, and other papers; Mivart, “On the Osteology of Insectivora,” +<i>Journ. Anat. and Phys.</i> 1867, 1868, and <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1871; Gill, “Synopsis of +Insectivorous Mammals,” <i>Bull. Geol. and Geog. Survey, U.S.A.</i> Washington, +1875 (includes a general bibliography of the order); Dobson, <i>Monograph of the +Insectivora, Systematic and Anatomical</i>, London, 1882-90.</p> + +</div> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_641"></a>[641]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XIII">CHAPTER XIII<br> +<span class="smaller">THE ORDER CHIROPTERA.</span></h2> + +</div> + +<p>Mammals, having their fore limbs specially modified for flight. +The forearm consists of a rudimentary ulna, and a long curved +radius. The carpus has six bones supporting a small pollex and +four greatly elongated fingers, between which and the sides of +the body and the hinder extremities a thin expansion of the +integument (the wing-membrane or patagium) is extended. The +knee is directed backwards, owing to the rotation of the hind limb +outwards by the wing membrane; a peculiar elongated cartilaginous +process (the calcar), rarely rudimentary or absent, arising from the +inner side of the ankle-joint, is directed inwards, and supports part +of the posterior margin of an accessory membrane of flight, extending +from the tail or posterior extremity of the body to the hinder limbs +(the interfemoral membrane). The penis is pendent; the testes are +abdominal or inguinal; the mammary glands thoracic and generally +postaxillary; the uterus is simple or with more or less long cornua; +the placenta discoidal and deciduate; and the smooth cerebral +hemispheres do not extend backwards over the cerebellum. The +dental series includes incisors, canines, premolars, and molars and +never exceeds <i>i</i> ²⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 38.</p> + +<p>The animals comprised in this order are at once distinguished +by the presence of true wings, and this peculiarity is accompanied +by other modifications of bodily structure having special relation to +flight. Thus, in contrast to most other mammals, in which the hind +limbs greatly preponderate in size over the fore, in the present +order the fore limbs immensely exceed the short and weak hinder +extremities. The thorax, as giving origin to the great muscles +which sustain flight, and containing the proportionately large lungs +and heart, is remarkably capacious, and the ribs are flattened and +close together; the shoulder-girdle is also greatly developed in +comparison with the weak pelvic bones.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_642"></a>[642]</span></p> + +<p>Linnæus included the Bats among the Primates, mainly on +account of the number of their upper incisors, supposed to be +always four, the thoracic position of the mammæ, and the pendent +condition of the penis. Many other zoologists, taking into consideration +the placental characters and the form of the uterus, have +followed him; but it is evident that the situation of the mammæ +is related to the necessarily central position of the young during +flight, the shortness of the uterine cornua, observable in so many +species, to the generally uniparous gestation requiring less room, +while the discoidal deciduate placenta is equally present in and +characteristic of the Insectivora, many species of which also have +the penis pendent. Thus, the reasons for maintaining the Bats in +this high position being disposed of, we find in the low organisation +of their brain a proof of their inferior status; while furthermore, +although they differ widely from all other mammals in external +form, it is evident that this is only the result of special adaptation +to aerial locomotion; and, taking into account their whole bodily +structure, we may accept the view of Professor Huxley that they +should merely be regarded as exceedingly modified Insectivora.</p> + +<p>So thoroughly, however, has this adaptation for flight been +carried out that of all animals the Bats are the least terrestrial, not +one of them being equally well fitted for progression on the earth. +This is due to the hind as well as the fore limbs being pressed into +the service of aerial locomotion. Thus the hind limb is so rotated +outwards by the wing-membrane that, contrary to what obtains in all +other vertebrates, the knee is directed backwards, and corresponds +in position to its serial homologue the elbow. It necessarily follows +from this arrangement that when a Bat is on the ground it rests on +all fours, having the knees directed upwards; while, in order to +bring it into a position for forward progression, the foot rotates +forwards and inwards on the ankle. Walking under these circumstances +is at best only a kind of shuffle, and that this is fully +recognised by the animal is evidenced by its great anxiety to take +wing, or, if this be impracticable, to ascend to some point where it +can hitch itself up by the claws of the hind legs in its usual position +when at rest.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure297" style="max-width: 43.75em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure297.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 297.</span>—Skeleton and flying-membranes of +the Noctule Bat (<i>Vesperugo noctula</i>). × ⅓. <i>c</i>, Clavicle; +<i>h</i>, humerus; <i>r</i>, radius; <i>u</i>, ulna (rudimentary); +<i>d¹</i>, pollex; <i>d²</i>, <i>d³</i>, <i>d⁴</i>, <i>d⁵</i>, other +digits of the manus supporting <i>wm</i>, the wing-membrane; <i>m</i>, +<i>m</i>, metacarpal bones; <i>ph¹</i>, first phalanx; <i>ph²</i>, second +phalanx; <i>ph³</i>, third phalanx; <i>am</i>, antebrachial membrane; +<i>f</i>, femur; <i>t</i>, tibia; <i>fb</i>, fibula (rudimentary); +<i>c</i>, calcar supporting <i>im</i>, the interfemoral membrane; +<i>pcl</i>, postcalcaneal lobe.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The bones of the skeleton are characterised by their slenderness +and the great size of the medullary canals in those of the +extremities. The vertebral column is short, and the vertebræ differ +very slightly in number and form throughout the species. The +general number of the dorso-lumbar vertebræ is 17, of which 12 +are dorsal; the cervicals are very broad, but short from before +backwards, their breadth being due to the great transverse +diameter of the spinal canal rendered necessary by the comparatively +large size of the spinal cord, which, after giving off the nerves<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_643"></a>[643]</span> +to the fore limbs and thorax, rapidly diminishes in size, and in the +lumbo-sacral region is reduced to a fine thread. Except in the +frugivorous <i>Pteropodidæ</i>, the vertebræ, from the third cervical backwards, +are devoid of neural spines. From the first dorsal to the +last lumbar vertebra the spinal column forms a single curve backwards, +which is most pronounced in the lumbar region. The centra +of the vertebræ are but slightly movable upon each other, and in +old individuals appear to become partially ankylosed together. +The caudal vertebræ are simple cylindrical bones without processes; +their number and length being extremely variable even in closely +allied species; and the anterior caudals are generally united to the +ischial tuberosities. The relative development of the caudal +vertebræ is, indeed, intimately correlated to the habits of the +animals; the long tail in the insectivorous forms supporting and +controlling the position of the large interfemoral membrane, which +appears not only to aid their rapid motions when in pursuit of their +prey by acting as a rudder, but also to assist in the capture and +retention of the larger insects. In the frugivorous types, on the +other hand, this is not required, and the tail is accordingly <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_644"></a>[644]</span>rudimentary +or absent. In all Bats the presternum has a prominent +keel for the attachment of the great pectoral muscles. In most +species the ribs are much flattened, and in some they are partially +ankylosed by their contiguous margins.</p> + +<p>The skull is subject to considerable structural variations, +even within the limits of a single family. Postorbital processes +to the frontals are found only in the <i>Pteropodidæ</i>, and some +<i>Nycteridæ</i> and <i>Emballonuridæ</i>. <i>Pteropus leucopterus</i> and <i>Pteralopex</i> +are peculiar in having the orbit completely surrounded by +bone. A slender zygomatic arch is present, except in some of the +<i>Phyllostomatidæ</i>.</p> + +<p>The milk-teeth are peculiar in that they are utterly unlike those +of the permanent series. They are slender, with sharp recurved +cusps; and as a rule are shed at an early period (in the <i>Rhinolophidæ</i> +before birth), but may coexist with some of the fully +developed permanent teeth. The permanent teeth are subject to +great variation of form, although they always have distinct roots. +In the Insectivorous types they are acutely cusped, the cusps in +those of the upper jaw being arranged in a more or less distinct W; +but in the frugivorous forms, like the <i>Pteropodidæ</i> and some of the +<i>Phyllostomatidæ</i>, the molars are longitudinally grooved or hollowed +out.</p> + +<p>The pectoral girdle maintains a very constant type. Thus the +clavicle is very long, strong, and curved; and the scapula large, +oval, triangular, with a long curved coracoid process. The humerus, +though long, is scarcely two-thirds the length of the radius. The +ulna is rudimentary, its proximal extremity, which articulates with +but a small part of the humerus, being ankylosed to the radius; +and immediately beyond the joint it is reduced to a slender splint-like +bone, extending about as far as the middle of the radius. In +all species a detached sesamoid bone exists in the tendon of the +triceps muscle. The radius is very long, in some species actually +equal to the length of the head and body. The proximal row of +the carpus consists of a single bone formed by the united scaphoid, +lunar, and cuneiform; which, with the extremity of the radius, +forms the radio-carpal joint. In the distal row the trapezium, +trapezoid, and magnum vary in size in the different families, the +unciform appearing to be the most constant, and the pisiform being +generally very small.</p> + +<p>The manus is always furnished with five digits. The first, +fourth, and fifth digits consist of a metacarpal and two phalanges; +but in the second and third digits the number of phalanges is +different in certain families. The pollex always terminates in a +claw, which—like the proximal phalanx—is best developed in the +frugivorous species. In most of the frugivorous <i>Pteropodidæ</i> the +second digit is provided with a claw; but in all other Bats this<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_645"></a>[645]</span> and +the remaining digits are unarmed. In the genus <i>Triænops</i> alone a +very peculiar short bony process projects from the outer side of +the proximal extremity of the terminal phalanx of the fourth digit. +The relative development of the digits and their phalanges will be +noticed under each family.</p> + +<p>As might be expected from the small size of the posterior +limbs, the pelvic girdle is relatively weak. The ilia are long and +narrow. In the males of most species the pubic bones of opposite +sides are very loosely united in front, while in females they are +widely separated; and in the family <i>Rhinolophidæ</i> alone do these +bones form a symphysis. The ileo-pectineal eminence develops a +long pectineal process, which in the subfamily <i>Hipposiderinæ</i> is continued +forwards to the anterior extremity of the ilium enclosing a +preacetabular foramen unique among mammals. The acetabulum +is small and directed outwards and slightly upwards; and with +this is related the peculiar position of the hind limb already noticed +as one of the chief characteristics of the order. The femur is +slender and cylindrical, with a small head and very short neck, and +scarcely differs in form throughout the order. The bones of the +leg and foot are variable; in the subfamily <i>Molossinæ</i> alone is there +a well-developed fibula, while in all other species this bone is either +very slender, or cartilaginous and ligamentous in its upper third, or +reduced to a small bony process above the heel, as in <i>Megaderma</i>, +or altogether absent, as in <i>Nycteris</i>.</p> + +<p>The foot consists of a very short tarsus, and of slender, laterally +compressed toes, with much curved claws. The hallux is +composed of a metacarpal, a proximal and an ungual phalanx, and +is slightly shorter than the other four toes, each of which has an +additional phalanx, except in the subfamily <i>Hipposiderinæ</i> and in +the anomalous genera <i>Thyroptera</i> and <i>Myxopoda</i>, where all the toes +have the same number of phalanges as the first digit, and are equal +to it in length. In the genus <i>Chiromeles</i> the first digit is thumb-like +and separated from the others, and in the typical <i>Molossinæ</i> +the first and fifth digits are much thicker than the intermediate +toes.</p> + +<p>The most noticeable peculiarities in the myology of the order +consist in the separated bands or slips into which the platysma is +divided, and in the presence of the remarkable muscle termed +occipito-pollicalis, which extends from the occipital bone to the base +of the terminal phalanx of the pollex.</p> + +<p>Although, as already mentioned, the brain presents a low type +of organisation, yet probably no animals possess so delicate a sense of +touch as the Chiroptera. It is undoubtedly this perceptive power +which enabled the individuals deprived of sight, hearing, and smell, +in Spallanzani’s well-known experiments, to avoid the numerous +threads hung across the rooms in which they were permitted to fly<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_646"></a>[646]</span> +about. In the common Bats the tactile organs evidently exist, not +only in the delicate vibrissæ which spring from the sides of the +muzzle, but also in the highly sensitive and widely extended integumentary +structures entering into the formation of the wing-membranes +and ear-conchs; while in many other species, notably in the +tropical Rhinolophine and Phyllostomatine Bats, peculiar foliaceous +cutaneous expansions surrounding the nasal apertures or extending +backwards behind them are added. These structures, collectively +known as the “nose-leaf” (whence the term “leaf-nosed Bats”), +have been shown by Dr. Dobson to be made up partly of the +extended and thickened marginal integument of the nostrils, and +partly of the highly differentiated glandular eminences occupying +the sides of the muzzle, in which, in all the common Bats, the +vibrissæ are implanted.</p> + +<p>In all species of leaf-nosed Bats, and especially in the <i>Rhinolophidæ</i>, +where the nasal appendages reach their highest development, +the superior maxillary division of the fifth nerve is of remarkably +large calibre. The nasal branch of this nerve, which is given off +immediately beyond the infraorbital foramen, is by far the largest +portion; the palpebral and labial branches consisting of a few +slender nerve-fibres only. This branch passes forwards and upwards +on the side of the maxilla, but soon spreads out into numerous +filaments extending into the muscles and integument above, and +into the base of the nose-leaf. The nerve supply of the nose-leaf is +further augmented by the large nasal branch of the ophthalmic +division of the fifth nerve. While the many foliations, elevations, +and depressions which vary the form of the nose-leaf greatly increase +the sensory surface supplied by the fifth nerve, and during rapid +flight intensify the vibrations conveyed to it, the great number of +sweat and oil glands which enter into its structure perform a function +analogous to that of the glands of the auditory canal in relation +to the membrana tympani in maintaining its surface in a highly +sensitive condition. The nasal appendages of the Chiroptera may +thus be regarded as performing the office of an organ of a very +exalted sense of touch standing in the same relation to the nasal +branches of the fifth nerve as the aural apparatus to the auditory +nerve; for, as the latter organ collects and transmits the waves of +sound, so the former receives impressions arising from vibrations +communicated to the air by approaching objects.</p> + +<p>In no order of mammals is the ear-conch so greatly developed or +so variable in form. Thus in most of the insectivorous species the +ears are longer than the head, while in some, as in the common +Long-eared Bat (<i>Plecotus auritus</i>), their length nearly equals that of +the head and body. The form of the conch is very characteristic of +the various families; in most the tragus is remarkably large, in +some extending nearly to the outer margin of the conch; and its<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_647"></a>[647]</span> +function appears to be to cause undulations in the waves of sound, +and so intensify and prolong them. It is worthy of notice that in +the <i>Rhinolophidæ</i>, the only family of insectivorous Bats wanting the +tragus, the auditory bullæ reach their greatest size, and the highly +sensitive nasal appendages their highest development; and that in the +typical group of the <i>Molossinæ</i> the ear-conch +is divided by a prominent keel; +and the antitragus is unusually large +in those species in which the tragus is +minute (see <a href="#figure298">Fig. 298</a>, <i>a</i>). In the frugivorous +Bats the form of the ear-conch +is very simple, and but slightly variable, +throughout the various types.</p> + +<figure class="figleft illowp68" id="figure298" style="max-width: 15.625em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure298.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 298.</span>—Head of <i>Molossus glaucinus</i>. +(From Dobson, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1876.) <i>a</i>, +Antitragus; <i>b</i>, keel of the ear-conch; <i>c</i>, +notch behind antitragus.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>In all Bats the ears are extremely +mobile, each moving independently at +the will of the animal. This has been +observed even in the frugivorous <i>Pteropodidæ</i>, +in which the peculiar vibratory +movements first noticed in <i>Artibeus +perspicillatus</i> may also be seen when +the animals are alarmed.</p> + +<p>The opening of the mouth is anterior in most species, but in +many it is inferior, the extremity of the nose being more or less +produced beyond the lower lip,—so much so indeed in the small +South-American species <i>Rhynchonycteris naso</i> as to resemble that of +the Shrews. The lips exhibit the greatest variety in form, which +will be referred to under each family. The absence of a fringe +of hairs is characteristic of all fruit-eating Bats, and probably +always distinguishes them from the insectivorous species, which they +may resemble in the form of their teeth and other respects.</p> + +<p>The œsophagus is narrow in all species, and especially so in the +sanguivorous Desmodont <i>Phyllostomatidæ</i>. The stomach presents two +principal types of structure, which correspond respectively to the +two great divisions of the order, the Megachiroptera and the Microchiroptera; +in the former (with the exception of <i>Harpyia</i>) the +pyloric extremity is more or less elongated and folded upon itself, +in the latter it is simple, as in the Insectivora Vera; a third +exceptional type is met with in the Desmodont <i>Phyllostomatidæ</i>, +where the left or cardiac extremity is greatly elongated, forming a +long narrow cæcum-like appendage. The intestine is comparatively +short, varying from one and a half to four times the length of the +head and body, being longest in the frugivorous and shortest in the +insectivorous species. Only in <i>Rhinopoma microphyllum</i> and <i>Megaderma +spasma</i> has a very small cæcum been found.</p> + +<p>The liver is characterised by the great size of the left lateral +lobe, which occasionally equals half the size of the whole organ;<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_648"></a>[648]</span> the +right and left lateral fissures are usually very deep; in the Megachiroptera +(<i>Harpyia</i> excepted) the Spigelian lobe is ill-defined or +absent, and the caudate is generally very large; but in the Microchiroptera, +on the other hand, the Spigelian lobe is very large, while +the caudate is small, in most species forming a ridge only. The +gall-bladder is generally well developed and attached to the right +central lobe, except in the <i>Rhinolophidæ</i>, where it is connected with +the left central.</p> + +<p>In most species the hyoids are simple, consisting of a chain of +slender, elongated, cylindrical bones connecting the small basi-hyoid +with the cranium, while the pharynx is short, the larynx shallow +with feebly developed +vocal +cords, and +guarded by a +short, acutely-pointed +epiglottis, +which in +some genera +(<i>Harpyia</i>, <i>Vampyrus</i>) +is almost +obsolete. In +<i>Epomophorus</i>, +however, we +find a remarkable +departure +from the general +type. Thus +the pharynx is +long and very +capacious; the +aperture of the +larynx is far removed +from +the fauces, and, +opposite to it, +opens a canal, +leading from the narial chambers, and extending along the back +of the pharynx; the laryngeal cavity is spacious and its walls are +ossified; the hyoid bone is quite unconnected, except by muscle, +with the cranium; the ceratohyals and epihyals are cartilaginous +and greatly expanded, entering into the formation of the walls of +the pharynx, and in the males of three species at least, supporting +the orifices of a large pair of air-sacs communicating with the +pharynx (<a href="#figure299">Fig. 299</a>).</p> + +<figure class="figright illowp80" id="figure299" style="max-width: 25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure299.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 299.</span>—Head and neck of <i>Epomophorus franqueti</i> (adult male, +natural size). The anterior (<i>a.ph.s</i>) and posterior (<i>p.ph.s</i>) pharyngeal +sacs are opened from without, the dotted lines indicating the points +where they communicate with the pharynx; <i>s</i>, thin membranous septum +in middle line between the anterior pharyngeal sacs of opposite sides; +<i>s.m.</i>, sterno-mastoid muscle separating the anterior from the posterior +sac. (Dobson, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1881.)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>In extent, peculiar modifications, and sensitiveness the cutaneous<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_649"></a>[649]</span> +system reaches its highest development in this order. As a sensory +organ its chief modifications in connection with the external ear +and with the nasal and labial appendages have been described when +referring to the nervous system. It remains therefore to consider +its relative development as part of the organs of flight.</p> + +<p>The extent and shape of the flying-membranes depend mainly +on the form of the bones of the anterior extremities, and on the +presence or absence of the tail. Certain modifications of these +membranes, however, are met with which do not depend on the +skeleton, but are related to the habits of the animals, and to the +manner in which the wing is folded in repose.</p> + +<p>These membranes consist of the “antebrachial membrane,” +extending from the point of the shoulder along the humerus and more +or less of the forearm to the base of the pollex, the metacarpal bone +of which is partially or wholly included in it; the “wing-membrane,” +which is spread out between the greatly elongated fingers, and +extends along the sides of the body to the posterior extremities, +generally reaching to the feet; and the “interfemoral membrane,” +the most variable of all, which is supported between the extremity +of the body, the legs, and the calcar (<a href="#figure297">Fig. 297</a>).</p> + +<figure class="figleft illowp100" id="figure300" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure300.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 300.</span>—Frontal sac and nose-leaf in male +and female of <i>Hipposiderus larvatus</i>. (Dobson, +<i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1873.)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The antebrachial and wing-membranes are most developed in +those species fitted only for aerial locomotion, which when at +rest hang with the body enveloped in the wings; but in the family +<i>Emballonuridæ</i>, and especially in the subfamily <i>Molossinæ</i> (the species +of which are the best fitted of all Bats for terrestrial progression), +the antebrachial membrane is reduced to the smallest size, and +is not developed along the forearm, leaving also the pollex quite +free, and the wing-membrane is very narrow and folded in repose +completely under the forearm. +The relative development of the +interfemoral membrane has been +referred to above in describing +the caudal vertebræ. Its small +size in the frugivorous and sanguivorous +species, in which its presence +would be injurious as impeding +their motions when searching for +food as they hang suspended by +their feet, is easily understood. +Odoriferous glands and pouches opening on the surface of the outer +skin are developed in many species, but in most cases more so in +males than in females, and thus constitute secondary sexual characters, +which will be referred to when treating of the peculiarities +of certain species.</p> + +<p>All the fossil Chiroptera at present known are true Bats in every +sense of the word, and therefore throw<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_650"></a>[650]</span> no light on the origin of the +order. The earliest representatives of the order occur in beds +of Upper Eocene (Lower Oligocene) age.</p> + +<p>The order is divided by Dobson into the suborders Megachiroptera +and Microchiroptera.</p> + +<h3><i>Suborder</i> <span class="smcap">Megachiroptera</span>.</h3> + +<p>Frugivorous Bats, generally of large size. Crowns of molars +smooth, marked with a longitudinal groove (cuspidate in <i>Pteralopex</i>); +bony palate continued behind the last molar, narrowing +slowly backwards; three phalanges in the index finger, the third +phalanx generally terminated by a claw; sides of the ear-conch +forming a complete ring at the base; tail, when present, inferior +to (not contained in) the interfemoral membrane; pyloric extremity +of the stomach generally much elongated; the Spigelian lobe of +the liver ill-defined or absent, and the caudate well developed.</p> + +<p>Limited to the tropical and subtropical parts of the eastern +hemisphere.</p> + +<p>Mr. O. Thomas<a id="FNanchor_571" href="#Footnote_571" class="fnanchor">[571]</a> considers that the ordinary type of molar +dentition found in this suborder is a specialised adaptation from +the cuspidate type of the Microchiroptera; the genus <i>Pteralopex</i> +retaining the ancestral form of teeth.</p> + +<h4><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Pteropodidæ</span>.</h4> + +<p>Since all the forms are included in this family its characters +may be taken to be the same as those of the suborder.</p> + +<p>Subfamily <b>Pteropodinæ</b>.—Tongue moderate; molars well developed.</p> + +<p><i>Epomophorus.</i><a id="FNanchor_572" href="#Footnote_572" class="fnanchor">[572]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ²⁻¹⁄₂, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ²⁄₃, <i>m</i> ¹⁄₂; total 28 or +26. Tail absent or very short, when present free from interfemoral +membrane; second digit of manus clawed; premaxillæ +united. This genus includes some seven species inhabiting Africa +south of the Sahara. The head is large and long, and the lips are +expansible, and frequently with peculiar folds. The ears have a +white tuft of hair on the margin; and in the males of most species +there are large glandular pouches in the skin of the side of the +neck near the shoulder, from the mouth of which project long and +coarse yellowish hairs, forming tufts on the shoulders, from which +the genus takes its name. Another male secondary sexual +character consists in the presence of a pair of large air-sacs +extending outwards on each side from the pharynx beneath the +integument of the neck, in the position shown in <a href="#figure299">Fig. 299</a>. These<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_651"></a>[651]</span> +sacs are evidently capable of being greatly distended at the will of +the animal, and their inflation probably occurs under the same +circumstances that the wattles of male gallinaceous birds swell up, +namely, when engaged in courting the females. Other remarkable +conditions in which these Bats appear to differ from all other species +occur in the form of the hyoid bones and larynx. These Bats +appear to live principally on figs, the juicy contents of which +their large lips and capacious mouths enable them to swallow +without loss.</p> + +<figure class="figleft illowp90" id="figure301" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure301.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 301.</span>—Head of Fox-Bat (<i>Pteropus personatus</i>). +From Gray, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1866.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Pteropus.</i><a id="FNanchor_573" href="#Footnote_573" class="fnanchor">[573]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ²⁄₂, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ²⁄₃; total 34. This +genus has more than forty species, and thus includes more than +half the members of the family. All are of large size, and the +absence of a tail, the long pointed +muzzle (<a href="#figure301">Fig. 301</a>), and the woolly +fur covering the neck render +their recognition easy. They +are commonly known as “Flying +Foxes,” or Fox-Bats; and one +of the species (<i>P. edulis</i>) inhabiting +Java measures 5 feet +across the fully extended wings, +and is thus the largest known +species of the order. All the +species closely resemble one +another in dentition, and are +mainly distinguished by the +form of the ears and the quality of the fur. <i>P. scapulatus</i>, from +North-East Australia, approaches the species of the second subfamily +in the remarkable narrowness of its molars and premolars.</p> + +<p>The range of this genus extends from Madagascar and the +neighbouring islands through the Seychelles to India, Ceylon, +Burma, the Malay Archipelago, Southern Japan, New Guinea, +Australia, and Polynesia (except the Sandwich Islands, Ellice’s +Group, Gilbert’s Group, Tokelau, and the Low Archipelago). Of +the islands inhabited by it some are very small and remote from +any continent, such as Savage Island in the South Pacific and +Rodriguez in the Indian Ocean. Although two species inhabit the +Comoro Islands, which are scarcely 200 miles from the African +coast, not a single species is found in Africa; but in India, +separated by thousands of miles of almost unbroken ocean, a +species exceedingly closely allied to the common Madagascar +Fox-Bat is abundant. The Malay Archipelago and Australia are +their headquarters; and in some places they occur in countless +multitudes. Mr. Macgillivray remarks of <i>P. conspicillatus</i>: “On +the wooded slope of a hill on Fitzroy Island I one day fell in with<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_652"></a>[652]</span> +this Bat in prodigious numbers, looking while flying in the bright +sunshine (so unusual for a nocturnal animal) like a large flock of +rooks. On close approach a strong musky odour became apparent, +and a loud incessant chattering was heard. Many of the branches +were bending under their load of Bats, some in a state of inactivity, +suspended by their hind claws, others scrambling along among the +boughs, and taking to wing when disturbed.”</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp62" id="figure302" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure302.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 302.</span>—Female and young of <i>Xantharpyia collaris</i>. (From Sclater, +<i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1870, p. 127.)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_653"></a>[653]</span></p> + +<p><i>Xantharpyia.</i><a id="FNanchor_574" href="#Footnote_574" class="fnanchor">[574]</a>—Dentition as in <i>Pteropus</i>, but a short tail present, +and the fur on the back of the neck similar to that of the body. +This genus is represented by some nine species, which have a +distribution very similar to that of <i>Pteropus</i>, except that they +extend into Africa, and are not found in Australia and Polynesia. +<i>X. ægyptiaca</i> inhabits the chambers of the Great Pyramid +and other deserted buildings in Egypt, and is probably the species +so generally figured in Egyptian frescoes. <a href="#figure302">Fig. 302</a> exhibits an +African species of this genus in the attitude assumed by the Fox-Bats +when at rest.</p> + +<p><i>Boneia.</i><a id="FNanchor_575" href="#Footnote_575" class="fnanchor">[575]</a>—This genus, as represented by <i>B. bidens</i> of Borneo, +differs from <i>Xantharpyia</i> in having only a single pair of upper +incisors.</p> + +<p><i>Cynopterus.</i><a id="FNanchor_576" href="#Footnote_576" class="fnanchor">[576]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ²⁄₂₋₁, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ²⁄₂; total 32 or 30. +Muzzle short, grooved like <i>Pteropus</i> in front; tail and fur generally +as in <i>Xantharpyia</i>, but the former sometimes wholly absent. This +genus, with seven species, is almost limited to the Oriental region. +<i>C. marginatus</i> is very common in India, and extremely destructive +to ripe fruit of every description. Dr. Dobson states that “he +gave to a specimen of this Bat obtained at Calcutta a ripe banana, +which, with the skin removed, weighed exactly 2 ounces; the +animal immediately, as if famished with hunger, fell upon the +fruit, seizing it between the thumbs and the index fingers, and took +large mouthfuls out of it, opening the mouth to the fullest extent +with extreme voracity. In the space of three hours the whole +fruit was consumed. Next morning the Bat was killed, and found +to weigh one ounce, or half the weight of the food eaten in three +hours. Indeed the animal when eating seemed to be a kind of +living mill, the food passing from it almost as fast as devoured, +and apparently unaltered, eating being, as it were, performed only +for the pleasure of eating.”</p> + +<p><i>Harpyia.</i><a id="FNanchor_577" href="#Footnote_577" class="fnanchor">[577]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ¹⁄₀, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ²⁄₃, <i>m</i> ²⁄₂; total 24. Premaxillæ +well developed and united in +front; facial bones much elevated +above the margin of +the jaw, nostrils tubular (<a href="#figure303">Fig. +303</a>); body and limbs as in +<i>Cynopterus</i>. Includes two +species from the Austro-Malayan +sub-region, readily +recognised by the peculiar +tubular and projecting +nostrils, as shown in the +accompanying woodcut.</p> + +<figure class="figright illowp100" id="figure303" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure303.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 303.</span>—Head of <i>Harpyia major</i>. (From Dobson, +<i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1877.)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_654"></a>[654]</span></p> + +<p><i>Cephalotes.</i><a id="FNanchor_578" href="#Footnote_578" class="fnanchor">[578]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ²⁄₃, <i>m</i> ²⁄₃; total 28. Premaxillæ +separate in front; nostrils simple; muzzle short; index +finger without a claw; tail short. Includes one species, having +the same distribution as <i>Harpyia</i>. The wing-membrane arises from +the middle line of the back, to which it is attached by a longitudinal +very thin process of the integument; the wings are quite naked, +but the back covered by them is clothed with hair.</p> + +<p><i>Pteralopex.</i><a id="FNanchor_579" href="#Footnote_579" class="fnanchor">[579]</a>—External characters as in <i>Pteropus</i>; ears short and +hairy; wings arising from the middle line of the back. Muzzle +very short; plane of orbit directed more upwards than in <i>Pteropus</i>; +orbit surrounded by bone; sagittal crest strongly developed. Teeth +cuspidate; upper incisors with broad posterior ledges; upper +canine short and thick, with a stout secondary cusp in the middle +of the posterior border, and two smaller postero-internal basal +cusps; cheek-teeth short and broad, with their anterior and +posterior basal ledges so developed and the main cusps so nearly +conical as to obliterate the longitudinal grooving of <i>Pteropus</i>. +Lower incisors very disproportionate, the outer pair being nearly +twenty times the bulk of the inner; lower canine stout, with a simple +posterior basal ledge. Represented by <i>P. atrata</i> of the Solomon +Islands. As already mentioned, Mr. Thomas regards the dentition +of this genus as the most generalised type found in the suborder.</p> + +<p>Subfamily <b>Carponycterinæ</b>.—Facial part of skull much produced; +molars narrow, and scarcely raised above the gum; and +the tongue exceedingly long, attenuated in the anterior third, and +armed with long recurved papillæ near the tip.</p> + +<p><i>Notopteris.</i><a id="FNanchor_580" href="#Footnote_580" class="fnanchor">[580]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ²⁄₁, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ²⁄₃, <i>m</i> ²⁄₂; total 28. Index +finger without a claw; wings arising from the middle line of the +back; tail long; first upper premolar long, with two roots. The +single representative of the genus, <i>N. macdonaldi</i>, inhabits the Fiji +Islands, Aneiteum Island, and New Guinea. It is at once distinguished +from all other Bats of this family by the length of its tail, +which is nearly as long as the forearm.</p> + +<p><i>Eonycteris.</i><a id="FNanchor_581" href="#Footnote_581" class="fnanchor">[581]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ²⁄₂, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ²⁄₃; total 34. First upper +premolar small, with a single root. This genus is likewise represented +by a single species (<i>E. spelæa</i>), from the Farm Caves, Moulmein, +Burma, which has somewhat the appearance of <i>Xantharpyia</i>; +but the absence of a claw to the index finger and the characteristic +tongue and teeth at once distinguish it.</p> + +<p><i>Carponycteris</i><a id="FNanchor_582" href="#Footnote_582" class="fnanchor">[582]</a> and <i>Melonycteris</i>,<a id="FNanchor_583" href="#Footnote_583" class="fnanchor">[583]</a> + each with a single species,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_655"></a>[655]</span> are +closely allied; the index finger in both has a claw, and the number +of the teeth is the same as in <i>Eonycteris</i>. <i>Carponycteris minima</i> is +the smallest known species of the suborder, being much smaller than +the common Noctule Bat of Europe, and its forearm scarcely longer +than that of the Long-eared Bat. It is nearly as common in certain +parts of India as <i>Cynopterus marginatus</i> (compared with which it is +proportionally equally destructive to fruit), and extends eastward +through the Malay Archipelago as far as New Ireland, where it is +associated with <i>Melonycteris melanops</i>, distinguished from it by its +larger size and the total absence of the tail.</p> + +<p><i>Nesonycteris.</i><a id="FNanchor_584" href="#Footnote_584" class="fnanchor">[584]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ²⁄₁, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ²⁄₃; total 32. Allied to +<i>Melonycteris</i>, but distinguished by the absence of the inner pair of +lower incisors, and of a claw to the index finger. Tail wanting. +Represented by <i>N. woodfordi</i>, of the Solomon Islands.</p> + +<p><i>Callinycteris.</i><a id="FNanchor_585" href="#Footnote_585" class="fnanchor">[585]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ²⁄₂, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ²⁄₂, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 32. Allied +to the preceding, but with a short tail; no claw to index. One +species from Celebes.</p> + +<p><i>Trygenycteris.</i><a id="FNanchor_586" href="#Footnote_586" class="fnanchor">[586]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ²⁄₂, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ²⁄₃; total 34. No +external tail; a claw on index. One species from West Africa.</p> + +<h3><i>Suborder</i> <span class="smcap">Microchiroptera</span>.</h3> + +<p>Insectivorous (rarely frugivorous or sanguivorous) Bats, of comparatively +small size. Crowns of molars acutely cusped, marked +by transverse grooves; bony palate narrowing abruptly, not continued +backwards laterally behind the last molar; one rudimentary +phalanx (rarely two phalanges or none) in the index finger, which +is never terminated by a claw; outer and inner sides of ear-conch +commencing inferiorly from separate points of origin; tail, when +present, contained in the interfemoral membrane, or appearing upon +its upper surface; stomach simple (except in the Desmodont <i>Phyllostomatidæ</i>); +Spigelian lobe of the liver very large, and the caudate +generally small. Inhabit the tropical and temperate regions of +both hemispheres. The members of this suborder may be divided +into two sections.</p> + +<h4><i>Section</i> <span class="smcap">Vespertilionina</span>.</h4> + +<p>Tail contained within the interfemoral membrane; the middle +pair of upper incisors never large, and separated from each other +by a more or less wide space. Middle finger with two osseous +phalanges only (except in <i>Myxopoda aurita</i>,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_656"></a>[656]</span> <i>Thyroptera tricolor</i>, and +<i>Mystacops tuberculatus</i>). First phalanx of the middle finger extended +(in repose) in a line with the metacarpal bone.</p> + +<h5><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Rhinolophidæ</span>.</h5> + +<p>In all the species of this family the nasal appendages are highly +developed, and surround the sides of the nasal apertures, which are +situated in a depression on the upper surface of the muzzle; the +ears are large and generally separate, without trace of a tragus; the +premaxillæ are rudimentary, suspended from the nasal cartilages, +and supporting a pair of very small incisors; the molars have acute +W-shaped cusps; the skull is large, and the nasal bones which support +the large nasal cutaneous appendages are much expanded vertically +and laterally; in the females a pair of teat-like appendages are +found in front of the pubis; and the tail is long and produced to +the posterior margin of the interfemoral membrane. This family is +found in the temperate and tropical parts of the eastern hemisphere.</p> + +<p>From whatever point of view the <i>Rhinolophidæ</i> may be considered, +they are evidently the most highly organised of insectivorous +Bats. In them the osseous and cutaneous systems reach the +most elaborate development. Compared with those of the present +family the bones of the extremities and the flying-membranes of +other Bats appear coarsely formed, and even their teeth seem less +perfectly fitted to crush the hard bodies of insects. The very complicated +nasal appendages, which evidently act as delicate organs of +special perception, here reach their highest development, and the +differences in their form afford valuable characters in the discrimination +of the species, which resemble one another very closely in +dentition and in the colour of the fur.</p> + +<p>Subfamily <b>Rhinolophinæ</b>.—First toe with two, other toes with +three, phalanges each; ilio-pectineal spine +not connected by bone with the antero-inferior +surface of the ilium.</p> + +<figure class="figleft illowp62" id="figure304" style="max-width: 15.625em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure304.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 304.</span>—Head of Indian +Horse-shoe Bat (<i>Rhinolophus +mitratus</i>). (From Dobson, +<i>Monogr. Asiat. Chiropt.</i>)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Rhinolophus.</i><a id="FNanchor_587" href="#Footnote_587" class="fnanchor">[587]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ¹⁄₂, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ²⁄₃, +<i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 32. Nose-leaf (<a href="#figure304">Fig. 304</a>) with a +central process behind and between the nasal +orifices, posterior extremity lanceolate, antitragus +large. Includes more than twenty +species. <i>R. luctus</i>, in which the forearm has a +length of 3 inches, is the largest species, inhabiting +elevated hill tracts in India and Malayana; +<i>R. hipposiderus</i> of Europe, extending into +South England and Ireland, forearm 1·5 +inches, is one of the smallest; and <i>R. ferrum-equinum</i>, +with the forearm 2·3 inches in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_657"></a>[657]</span> +length, represents the average size of the species, which are mainly +distinguished from one another by the form of the nose-leaf. The +last-named species extends from England to Japan, and southward to +the Cape of Good Hope. The genus is represented in the Himalaya +by the closely allied <i>R. tragatus</i>, distinguished by having three +vertical grooves on the lower lip, in place of the single groove found +in <i>R. ferrum-equinum</i>. <i>Rhinolophus</i> is represented in the Upper +Eocene Phosphorites of Central France by <i>R. antiquus</i> and <i>R. +dubius</i>; the former appears to have the same dental formula as in +the existing species, but differs slightly in the structure of some of +the lower molars, so that it is separated generically by some writers +under the name of <i>Pseudorhinolophus</i>. The face is also longer than +in existing forms, and there are certain differences in the structure +of the skull. <i>Alastor</i>, from the same deposits, differs from <i>Rhinolophus</i> +by the extreme shortness of the nasal region. <i>Palæonycteris</i>, +from the Lower Miocene of France, is said to be allied to <i>Rhinolophus</i>, +but the premolars are ³⁄₃, and the limb bones are stated to +resemble those of <i>Molossus</i>.</p> + +<p>Subfamily <b>Hipposiderinæ</b>.—Toes equal, of two phalanges each; +ilio-pectineal spine united by a bony isthmus with a process derived +from the antero-inferior surface of the ilium.</p> + +<figure class="figright illowp90" id="figure305" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure305.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 305.</span> Head of <i>Hipposiderus calcaratus</i>. +(From Dobson, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> +1877.)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Hipposiderus.</i><a id="FNanchor_588" href="#Footnote_588" class="fnanchor">[588]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ¹⁄₂, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ²⁻¹⁄₂, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 30 or 28. +Tail well developed. This genus, of which more than twenty +species have been described, differs +from <i>Rhinolophus</i> in the form of the +nose-leaf, which is not lanceolate +behind and is unprovided with a central +process covering the nostrils. The +largest species, <i>H. armiger</i>, appears +to be the most northerly, having +been taken at Amoy in China, and +in the Himalaya at an elevation of +5,500 feet. Many of the species are +provided with a peculiar frontal sac +behind the nose-leaf, rudimentary +in females (<a href="#figure305">Fig. 305</a>), which the +animal can evert at pleasure; the sides of this sac secrete a +waxy substance, and its extremity supports a pencil of straight +hairs.</p> + +<p><i>Anthops.</i><a id="FNanchor_589" href="#Footnote_589" class="fnanchor">[589]</a>—Like <i>Hipposiderus</i>, but with the tail rudimentary, +consisting merely of three or four vertebræ hidden in the base of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_658"></a>[658]</span> +the interfemoral membrane. Nose-leaf very complicated, its upright +transverse portion emarginate above, and the projections rounded +and hollowed behind, and their substance quite thin. Premolars ²⁄₂. +Represented by <i>A. ornatus</i> of the Solomon Islands.</p> + +<p>Mr. O. Thomas, the describer of this Bat, remarks that it is +evidently more nearly allied to the preceding than to the succeeding +genera, although it agrees with <i>Cœlops</i> in the rudimentary tail.</p> + +<p><i>Rhinonycteris</i><a id="FNanchor_590" href="#Footnote_590" class="fnanchor">[590]</a> and <i>Triænops</i>.<a id="FNanchor_591" href="#Footnote_591" class="fnanchor">[591]</a>—These + are two allied genera with +well-developed tails; the former +being represented by <i>R. aurantia</i> +from Australia, and the latter by +<i>T. persicus</i> from Persia and Eastern +Africa. <i>Triænops</i> (<a href="#figure306">Fig. 306</a>) is +characterised by the remarkable +form of its nasal appendages and +ears, and the presence of a peculiar +osseous projection from the +proximal extremity of the second +phalanx of the fourth finger.</p> + +<figure class="figleft illowp75" id="figure306" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure306.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 306.</span>—Head of <i>Triænops persicus</i>. × 2. +(From Dobson, <i>Monogr. Asiat. Chiropt.</i>)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Cœlops.</i><a id="FNanchor_592" href="#Footnote_592" class="fnanchor">[592]</a>—This genus is known +only by a single species, <i>C. frithi</i>, +from the Bengal Sunderbans, +Java, and Siam (in the roof of +the great pagoda at Laos); and +is distinguished, not only by the form of its nose-leaf, but also by +the great length of the metacarpal of the index finger, as well as +by the shortness of the calcar and interfemoral membrane and the +rudimental tail.</p> + +<h5><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Nycteridæ</span>.</h5> + +<p>This small family, including only two genera of Bats of peculiar +aspect, limited to the tropical and subtropical parts of the eastern +hemisphere, is distinguished from the <i>Rhinolophidæ</i> by the presence +of a distinct tragus to the ear, and by the premaxillæ being cartilaginous +or small and separated from one another in front by a distinct +space.</p> + +<p><i>Megaderma.</i><a id="FNanchor_593" href="#Footnote_593" class="fnanchor">[593]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ⁰⁄₂, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ²⁻¹⁄₂, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 28 or 26. +This genus, which is represented by five species, is readily recognised +by the absence of upper incisors, the cylindrical narrow muzzle +surmounted by an erect naked cutaneous nose-leaf, the base of +which conceals the nasal orifices, by the immense connate ears with +large bifid tragi, and by the great extent of the interfemoral<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_659"></a>[659]</span> +membrane, in the base of which the very short tail is concealed. +<i>M. gigas</i> (<a href="#figure307">Fig. 307</a>), from Central Queensland (length of forearm 4·2 +inches), is not only the largest species of the genus but also of the +suborder. <i>M. lyra</i>, common in India (forearm 2·7 inches), has been +caught in the act of sucking the blood, while flying, from a small +species of <i>Vesperugo</i>, which it afterwards devoured, so that it is +probable that the Bats of this genus do not confine themselves to +insect prey alone, but also feed, when they can, upon the smaller +species of Bats and other small mammals.</p> + +<figure class="figright illowp63" id="figure307" style="max-width: 25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure307.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 307.</span>—<i>Megaderma gigas.</i> × ½. (From Dobson, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1880.)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The Oriental <i>M. spasma</i> and <i>M. lyra</i> differ from the Ethiopian +<i>M. cor</i> and <i>M. frons</i> in having two upper premolars instead of one, +and also in the shape of the frontals and nasals.</p> + +<p><i>Nycteris.</i><a id="FNanchor_594" href="#Footnote_594" class="fnanchor">[594]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ²⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ¹⁄₂, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 32. This genus, +of which there are seven species, differs so much from <i>Megaderma</i> +that it may be considered the type of a separate subfamily. As in +that genus, the frontal bones are deeply hollowed out and expanded +laterally, the muzzle presents a similar cylindrical form, and the +lower jaw also projects, but the single elevated nose-leaf<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_660"></a>[660]</span> is absent, +and instead of it the face is marked by a deep, longitudinal, sharp-edged +groove extending from the nostrils (which are on the upper +surface of the muzzle, near its extremity) to the low band connecting +the bases of the large ears, the sides of this depression being +margined as far back as the eyes by small horizontal cutaneous +appendages. All the species resemble one another closely, and are +mainly distinguished by the form of the tragus and the size and +relative position of the second lower premolar. With the exception +of <i>N. javanica</i>, they are all limited to the Ethiopian region.</p> + +<h5><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Vespertilionidæ</span>.</h5> + +<p>Nostrils opening by simple crescentic or circular apertures at +the extremity of the muzzle, not surrounded by distinct foliaceous +cutaneous appendages; premaxillæ small, lateral, and separated by +a wide space in front; tragus distinct. In addition to these characters, +it may be observed that the skull is of moderate size, the +nasal and frontal bones not being much extended laterally or vertically, +nor furrowed by deep depressions. The number of incisors +varies from ²⁄₃ to ¹⁄₃, rarely (in <i>Antrozous</i> only) ¹⁄₂, premolars ³⁄₃, or ²⁄₂, +or ¹⁄₂, rarely (in <i>Vesperugo noctivagans</i> of North America) ²⁄₃; the +upper incisors are small, separated by a wide space in the middle +line, and placed in pairs or singly near the canine; the molars are +well-developed, with acute W-shaped cusps.</p> + +<p>This family, which may be regarded as occupying a central +position in the suborder, includes the common simple-faced Bats of +all countries, of which the well-known Pipistrelle and the Whiskered +Bat (<i>Vespertilio mystacinus</i>) may be taken as familiar types, and its +species number more than 150, or considerably more than one-third +the total number of the known species of the entire order. The +various genera may be conveniently grouped into the <i>Plecotine</i>, +<i>Vespertilionine</i>, <i>Miniopterine</i>, and <i>Thyropterine</i> divisions.</p> + +<p>In the <i>Plecotine</i> division, of which the common Long-eared Bat +(<i>Plecotus auritus</i>) is the type, the crown of the head is but slightly +raised above the face-line, the outermost upper incisor is close to +the canine, and the nostrils are margined behind by grooves on the +upper surface of the muzzle, or by rudimentary nose-leaves; the +ears also are generally very large and united.</p> + +<p><i>Plecotus.</i><a id="FNanchor_595" href="#Footnote_595" class="fnanchor">[595]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ²⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ²⁄₃, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 36. Outer +margin of ear-conch ending abruptly near the angle of the mouth, +the inner margin with a more or less prominent rounded projection +directed inwardly above the base; tragus very large, tapering upwards, +with a lobe at the base of its outer margin, rounded, and +placed half horizontally. This genus is represented by the European<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_661"></a>[661]</span> +Long-eared Bat (<i>P. auritus</i>), and <i>P. macrotis</i>, restricted to +North America. The latter is distinguished by the great size of +the glandular prominences of the sides of the muzzle, which meet +in the centre above and behind the nostrils. <i>P. auritus</i> extends +over the greater part of the Palæarctic region, occurring in Ireland +in the west and the Himalaya in the east.</p> + +<p><i>Synotus.</i><a id="FNanchor_596" href="#Footnote_596" class="fnanchor">[596]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ²⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ²⁄₂, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 34. This genus +is distinguished from the preceding by the loss of one lower premolar +and by the outer margin of the ear being carried forwards +above the mouth and in front of the eye; it includes the European +Barbastelle Bat (<i>S. barbastellus</i>) and <i>S. darjilingensis</i> from the Himalaya.</p> + +<p><i>Otonycteris.</i><a id="FNanchor_597" href="#Footnote_597" class="fnanchor">[597]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ¹⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ¹⁄₂, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 30. The +reduction in the number of upper incisors readily characterises this +genus, which appears to connect the typical representatives of the +section, through <i>Scotophilus</i>, with the Vespertilionine division. It is +represented by a single species, <i>O. hemprichi</i>, from North Africa and +the Himalaya.</p> + +<p><i>Nyctophilus.</i><a id="FNanchor_598" href="#Footnote_598" class="fnanchor">[598]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ¹⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ¹⁄₂, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 30. This +and the following genera are distinguished from all the preceding +by the presence of a rudimentary nose-leaf. The present genus +contains <i>N. timoriensis</i> of the Australian region, and <i>N. microtis</i> of +New Guinea.</p> + +<p><i>Antrozous.</i><a id="FNanchor_599" href="#Footnote_599" class="fnanchor">[599]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ¹⁄₂, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ¹⁄₂, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 28. Readily +distinguished from the other members of the whole family by +having but two lower incisors, and from the other species of the +section by the separate ears. The single species, <i>A. pallidus</i>, inhabits +California.</p> + +<p>The <i>Vespertilionine</i> division includes some nine-tenths of all the +representatives of the family. They are distinguished from the +preceding section by the simple nostrils, opening by crescentic or +circular apertures at the extremity of the muzzle, the generally +small size of the ears, and the absence of grooves on the forehead.</p> + +<p><i>Vesperugo.</i><a id="FNanchor_600" href="#Footnote_600" class="fnanchor">[600]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ²⁻¹⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ²⁻¹⁄₂₋₃, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 34, 30, +or 36. This large genus comprises about one-third of the section, +and is divided into groups or subgenera, according to the number +of premolars and incisors; the latter varying from ²⁄₃ to ¹⁄₃ in the +subgenera <i>Scotozous</i> and <i>Rhogeëssa</i>, and the premolars from ²⁄₂ to ¹⁄₂ (in +the subgenus <i>Lasionycteris</i> ²⁄₃). The Bats of this genus are generally +easily distinguished by their comparatively thickly formed bodies, +flat broad heads and obtuse muzzles, short, broad, and triangular +obtusely-pointed ears, obtuse and usually slightly incurved tragus,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_662"></a>[662]</span> +short legs, and by the presence in most species of a well-developed +post-calcaral lobule. This lobule (which is supported by a cartilaginous +process derived from the calcar) may act as a kind of +adhesive disc in securing the animal’s grasp when climbing over +smooth surfaces. <i>Vesperugo</i> probably contains the greatest number +of individuals among the genera of Chiroptera, and, with the exception +of <i>Vespertilio</i>, its species have also the widest geographical +range, being almost cosmopolitan; and one of the species, the well-known +Serotine (<i>V. [Vesperus] serotinus</i>) is remarkable as the only +species of Bat known to inhabit both the Old and the New World; +one (<i>V. borealis</i>) has been found close to the limits of the Arctic +circle, and another (<i>V. magellanicus</i>) inhabits the cold and desolate +shores of the Straits of Magellan, being doubtless the Bat referred +to by Mr. Darwin in the <i>Naturalist’s Voyage</i>. The Common Pipistrelle +(<i>V. pipistrellus</i>), ranging over the greater part of the Palæarctic +region, is the best known species.</p> + +<p><i>Chalinolobus.</i><a id="FNanchor_601" href="#Footnote_601" class="fnanchor">[601]</a>—This genus agrees with <i>Vesperugo</i> in the dental +formula, but is readily distinguished by the presence of a well-defined +lobe projecting near the angle of the mouth from the lower +lip, and by the unicuspidate first upper incisor. The species fall +into two subgenera—<i>Chalinolobus</i> proper, with <i>p</i> ²⁄₂, represented by +<i>C. morio</i> from New Zealand, Tasmania, and Australia, and three +other species from Australia; and <i>Glauconycteris</i>, with <i>p</i> ¹⁄₂, limited +to Southern and Equatorial Africa, and known by <i>C. argentatus</i> and +two other species, the Bats of this subgenus being especially remarkable +for their peculiarly thin membranes, traversed by very distinct +reticulations and parallel lines.</p> + +<figure class="figright illowp93" id="figure308" style="max-width: 15.625em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure308.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 308.</span>—Head of <i>Scotophilus +emarginatus</i>. (Dobson, +<i>Monogr. Asiat. Chiropt.</i>)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Scotophilus.</i><a id="FNanchor_602" href="#Footnote_602" class="fnanchor">[602]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ¹⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ¹⁄₂, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 30. This +genus comprises a comparatively small number of species nearly +allied to <i>Vesperugo</i>, and some of which +approach so closely to the aberrant types of +the latter ranged under the subgenus <i>Scotozous</i>, +as to render the definition of the present genus +almost impossible.<a id="FNanchor_603" href="#Footnote_603" class="fnanchor">[603]</a> The species are restricted +to the tropical and subtropical regions of the +eastern hemisphere, though widely distributed +within these limits. The more typical species +are distinguished especially by the single pair +of unicuspidate upper incisors separated by a +wide space and placed close to the canines, by +the small transverse first lower premolar squeezed in between the +canine and second premolar, and, generally, by their conical nearly +naked muzzles and remarkably thick leathery membranes. <i>S. kuhli<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_663"></a>[663]</span></i> +is probably the commonest species of Bat in India, and appears +often on the wing even before the sun has touched the horizon, +especially when the white-ants are swarming, feeding eagerly upon +them as they rise in the air. <i>S. gigas</i>, from Equatorial Africa, +with the forearm measuring 3·4 inches, is by far the largest +species. <i>S. albofuscus</i>, from the Gambia, which is readily distinguished +from the other species by its white wings, is an aberrant +form, in which the lower premolars are long and not crowded +together, and thereby so closely resembles <i>Vesperugo</i> (<i>Scotozous</i>) +<i>dormeri</i> as to render it almost impossible to distinguish <i>Scotophilus</i> +and <i>Vesperugo</i>. The figured species is from India.</p> + +<p><i>Nycticejus.</i><a id="FNanchor_604" href="#Footnote_604" class="fnanchor">[604]</a>—This genus, with the same dental formula as +<i>Scotophilus</i>, is distinguished by the first lower premolar not being +squeezed in between the adjoining teeth, and by the comparatively +much greater size of the last upper molar. It includes only the +common North American <i>N. humeralis</i> (<i>crepuscularis</i>), a small Bat +scarcely larger than the Pipistrelle. It seems, however, as pointed +out by Mr. O. Thomas, that the discovery of <i>Scotophilus albofuscus</i> +renders the generic distinctness of <i>Nycticejus</i> no longer tenable, and +that the species should be known as <i>Scotophilus humeralis</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Atalapha.</i><a id="FNanchor_605" href="#Footnote_605" class="fnanchor">[605]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ¹⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ²⁻¹⁄₂, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 32 or 30. +The five species of this genus, which are confined to the New +World, are generally characterised by the interfemoral membrane +being more or less covered with hair (in the two commonest species, +<i>A. noveboracensis</i> and <i>A. cinerea</i>, wholly covered), and by the peculiar +form of the tragus, which is expanded above and abruptly curved +inwards. These species have two upper premolars, of which the +first is extremely small and quite internal to the tooth-row.</p> + +<p><i>Harpyiocephalus.</i><a id="FNanchor_606" href="#Footnote_606" class="fnanchor">[606]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ²⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ²⁄₂, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 34. This +genus includes some eight species of small Bats distinguished by +their prominent tube-like nostrils and hairy interfemoral membrane. +<i>H. suillus</i>, from Java and neighbouring islands, is the best-known +species, and another closely allied (<i>H. hilgendorfi</i>)has been described +by Professor Peters from Japan. The remaining six species are +known only from the Himalaya and Tibet. All appear to be +restricted to the hill tracts of the countries in which they are found.</p> + +<p><i>Vespertilio.</i><a id="FNanchor_607" href="#Footnote_607" class="fnanchor">[607]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ²⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 38. Next +to <i>Vesperugo</i>, this genus includes by far the largest number of species, +amounting to over forty; it has, however, rather a wider geographical +distribution in both hemispheres, one species at least +being recorded from the Navigators’ Islands. The species are +easily recognised by the peculiar character of the upper incisors,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_664"></a>[664]</span> +the crowns of which diverge from each other; by the large number +of premolars, of which the second upper one is always very small; +and by the oval elongated ear and narrow attenuated tragus. In +the British Isles this genus is represented by four species, viz. +Bechstein’s Bat (<i>V. bechsteini</i>); the Reddish-Gray Bat (<i>V. nattereri</i>), +of very local occurrence; Daubenton’s Bat (<i>V. daubentoni</i>); and the +Whiskered Bat (<i>V. mystacinus</i>).</p> + +<p><i>Cerivoula.</i><a id="FNanchor_608" href="#Footnote_608" class="fnanchor">[608]</a>—This genus, which has the same dental formula +as <i>Vespertilio</i>, is distinguished by the parallel upper incisors, +and the comparatively large size of the second +upper premolar. Some ten species have been +described from the Ethiopian and Oriental +regions, of which <i>C. picta</i>, from India and the +Indo-Malayan sub-region, is the best-known, +being well characterised by its brilliantly +coloured orange fur and conspicuously marked +membranes, which are variegated with orange +and black. This genus includes the most delicately +formed and most truly insectivorous, +tropical, forest-haunting Bats, which appear to +stand as regards the species of <i>Vespertilio</i> in a +position similar to that occupied by <i>Chalinolobus</i> +with respect to <i>Vesperugo</i>.</p> + +<figure class="figleft illowp42" id="figure309" style="max-width: 12.5em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure309.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 309.</span>—Side and +front views of the head +of <i>Cerivoula hardwickei</i>. +(Dobson, <i>Monogr. Asiat. +Chiropt.</i>)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The <i>Miniopterine</i> division includes only two +genera, and is characterised by the great elevation +of the crown of the head above the facial +line, and also by the upper incisors being separated from the canine +and also in the middle line.</p> + +<p><i>Natalus.</i><a id="FNanchor_609" href="#Footnote_609" class="fnanchor">[609]</a>—This genus, while having the divisional characters +mentioned above, agrees in the dental formula and its general +external form with <i>Cerivoula</i>, from +which it is distinguished by the +short triangular tragus. It includes +three species, restricted to +South and Central America and +the West Indies; the head of <i>N. +micropus</i> being shown in <a href="#figure310">Fig. 310</a>.</p> + +<figure class="figright illowp100" id="figure310" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure310.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 310.</span>—Head of <i>Natalus micropus</i>. × 3. +(Dobson, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1880.)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Miniopterus.</i><a id="FNanchor_610" href="#Footnote_610" class="fnanchor">[610]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ²⁄₃, +<i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ²⁄₃, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 36. In +addition to the difference in the +number of the teeth, this genus is +distinguished by the shortness of +the first phalanx of the middle finger and the great length of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_665"></a>[665]</span> +tail, which is wholly contained within the interfemoral membrane; +it includes four species, restricted to the eastern hemisphere. Of +these the best-known, <i>M. schreibersi</i>, is very widely distributed, being +found almost everywhere throughout the tropical and warmer +temperate regions of the eastern hemisphere; specimens from +Germany, Madagascar, Japan, and Australia differing in no +appreciable respect from one another.</p> + +<p>The last or <i>Thyropterine</i> division, which likewise comprises only +two genera, is characterised by the presence of an additional osseous +phalanx in the middle finger and an equal number of phalanges in +the toes, and also by peculiar accessory clinging organs attached +to the extremities.</p> + +<p><i>Thyroptera.</i><a id="FNanchor_611" href="#Footnote_611" class="fnanchor">[611]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ²⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 38. In the +single species <i>T. tricolor</i> of Brazil the clinging organs have the +appearance of small, circular, pedunculated, hollow discs (<a href="#figure311">Fig. 311</a>), +resembling in miniature the sucking cups of cuttle-fishes, and are +attached to the inferior surfaces of the thumbs and soles of the +feet. With these the animal is enabled to maintain its hold when +creeping over smooth vertical surfaces.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure311" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure311.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 311.</span>—Suctorial discs in <i>Thyroptera tricolor</i>. <i>a</i>, Side and <i>b</i>, concave surface, of thumb-disc; +<i>c</i>, foot with disc, and calcar with projections (all much enlarged). Dobson, <i>Proc. Zool. +Soc.</i> 1876.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Myxopoda.</i><a id="FNanchor_612" href="#Footnote_612" class="fnanchor">[612]</a>—The second genus is likewise represented only by +a single species—<i>M. aurita</i> of Madagascar—and is distinguished +from the preceding by the characters of the teeth and the form of +the ears. The whole inferior surface of the pollex supports a +large sessile horse-shoe-shaped adhesive pad, with the circular +margin directed forwards and notched along its edge, and a +smaller pad occupies part of the sole of the foot.</p> + +<p><i>Fossil Vespertilionidæ.</i>—It is not improbable that <i>Vesperugo</i> is +represented in the Upper Eocene of the Paris basin by <i>V. parisiensis</i>, +which appears to be allied to <i>V. serotina</i>, although it has +been regarded by some writers as generically distinct, under the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_666"></a>[666]</span> +name of <i>Nyctitherium</i>. <i>Vesperugo</i> (<i>Nyctitherium</i>) also occurs in the +Bridger Eocene of the United States; <i>Nyctilestes</i> from the same +deposits being an allied extinct genus. A number of European +Miocene species have been referred to <i>Vespertilio</i>, but the term in +these cases must be used in a somewhat wide sense. <i>Vespertiliavus</i>, +of the Phosphorites of Central France, differs from <i>Vespertilio</i> in the +proportions of its premolars.</p> + +<h4><i>Section</i> <span class="smcap">Emballonurina</span>.</h4> + +<p>Tail perforating the interfemoral membrane and appearing on +its upper surface, or produced considerably beyond the truncated +membrane; the middle pair of upper incisors generally large and +close together.</p> + +<h5><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Emballonuridæ</span>.</h5> + +<p>First phalanx of the middle finger folded (in repose) on the +dorsal surface of the metacarpal bone (except in <i>Noctilio</i> and +<i>Mystacops</i>). Nostrils opening by simple circular or valvular apertures +at the extremity of the muzzle, not surrounded or margined +by foliaceous cutaneous appendages; tragus distinct.</p> + +<p>The <i>Emballonuridæ</i> are generally easily distinguished by the +peculiar form of the muzzle, which is obliquely truncated, the +nostrils projecting more or less in front beyond the lower lip; by +the first phalanx of the middle finger being folded in repose +forwards on the upper surface of the metacarpal bone; by the tail, +which either perforates the interfemoral membrane or is produced +far beyond it; and by the upper incisors, which are generally a +single pair separated from the canine and also in the middle line. +The family is cosmopolitan like the <i>Vespertilionidæ</i>, but rarely +extends north or south of the thirtieth parallel of latitude.</p> + +<p>Subfamily <b>Emballonurinæ</b>.—Tail slender, perforating the interfemoral +membrane, and appearing upon its upper surface, or +terminating in it; legs long, fibula very slender; upper incisors +weak.</p> + +<p>In the <i>Furipterine</i> division the tail terminates in the interfemoral +membrane; the crown of the head is greatly elevated above the +face-line; the thumb and first phalanx of the middle finger are very +short; and the dentition is <i>i</i> ²⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ²⁄₃, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 38.</p> + +<p>Represented by two genera, <i>Furipterus</i><a id="FNanchor_613" href="#Footnote_613" class="fnanchor">[613]</a> + and <i>Amorphochilus</i>,<a id="FNanchor_614" href="#Footnote_614" class="fnanchor">[614]</a> each +including one species of peculiar aspect; the latter distinguished +from the former by the widely separated nostrils and the great +extension backwards of the bony palate. Habitat South America.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_667"></a>[667]</span></p> + +<p>In the typical or <i>Emballonurine</i> division part of the tail is +included in the basal half of the interfemoral membrane, the remaining +part passing through and appearing upon its upper surface; +the crown of the head is slightly elevated; the pollex and first +phalanx of the middle finger are moderately +long; and the number of the premolars is +always ²⁄₂.</p> + +<p><i>Emballonura.</i><a id="FNanchor_615" href="#Footnote_615" class="fnanchor">[615]</a>—Incisors ²⁄₃. Extremity of +the muzzle more or less produced beyond the +lower lip, forehead flat. Contains some five +species, inhabiting islands from Madagascar +through the Malay Archipelago to the Navigators’ +Islands.</p> + +<figure class="figleft illowp83" id="figure312" style="max-width: 15.625em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure312.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 312.</span>—Ear of <i>Emballonura +raffrayana</i>, × 2. (Dobson, +<i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1878.)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Coleüra.</i><a id="FNanchor_616" href="#Footnote_616" class="fnanchor">[616]</a>—Incisors ¹⁄₃. Extremity of the +muzzle broad, forehead concave. Has two +species from East Africa and the Seychelles Islands.</p> + +<p><i>Rhynchonycteris.</i><a id="FNanchor_617" href="#Footnote_617" class="fnanchor">[617]</a>—This genus is distinguished from <i>Coleüra</i> by +the much-produced extremity of the muzzle. The single species, <i>R. +naso</i>, from Central and South America, is very common in the +vicinity of streams throughout the tropical parts of these countries; +it is usually found during the day resting on the vertical faces of +rocks, or on the trunks of trees growing over the water, and, owing +to the peculiar grayish colour of the fur covering the body and +growing in small tufts from the antebrachial membrane, so as to +counterfeit the weathered surfaces of rocks and the bark of trees, +easily escapes notice. As the shades of evening approach it appears +early on the wing, flying close to the surface of the water, and +seizing the minute insects that hover over it.</p> + +<p><i>Saccopteryx.</i><a id="FNanchor_618" href="#Footnote_618" class="fnanchor">[618]</a>—Incisors ¹⁄₃. Antebrachial membrane with a pouch +opening on its upper surface. This genus contains six species from +Central and South America. In the adult males a valvular longitudinal +opening is found on the upper surface of the membrane, +varying in position in different species. This opening leads into a +small pouch (in some species large enough to hold a pea), the +interior of which is lined with a glandular membrane secreting an +unctuous substance of a reddish colour with a strong ammoniacal +odour. The presence of this sac only in males indicates that it +is a secondary sexual character analogous to the shoulder-pouches +of <i>Epomophorus</i> and the frontal sacs of <i>Hipposiderus</i>. It is quite +rudimentary in the females.</p> + +<p><i>Taphozous.</i><a id="FNanchor_619" href="#Footnote_619" class="fnanchor">[619]</a>—Incisors ¹⁄₂; upper pair deciduous. This genus, +represented by some ten species, inhabiting the tropical and subtropical<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_668"></a>[668]</span> +parts of all the eastern hemisphere except Polynesia, forms +the second group of this division, distinguished by the cartilaginous +premaxillaries, deciduous upper incisors, and the presence of only +two lower incisors. Most of the species have a peculiar glandular +sac (<a href="#figure313">Fig. 313</a>) placed between the angles of the lower jaw. This +is a sexual character, for, while always more developed in males +than in females, in some species, although distinct in the male, +it is quite absent in the female. An open gular sac is wanting +in both sexes in <i>T. melanopogon</i>, but about its usual position the +openings of small pores may be seen, the secretion exuding from +which probably causes the hairs to grow very long, forming the +black beard found in many male specimens of this species.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure313" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure313.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 313.</span>—Heads of <i>Taphozous longimanus</i>, showing relative development of gular sacs in +male and female. (Dobson, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1873.)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>In the <i>Diclidurine</i> division there is but a single genus, represented +by two species.</p> + +<p><i>Diclidurus.</i><a id="FNanchor_620" href="#Footnote_620" class="fnanchor">[620]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ¹⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ²⁄₂, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 32. Both +species are from the Neotropical region, the typical <i>D. albus</i> ranging +as far north as Central America. This Bat resembles the species +of <i>Taphozous</i> in the form of the head and ears, but, besides other +characters, differs from all other Bats in possessing a peculiar pouch, +opening on the centre of the inferior surface of the interfemoral +membrane; the extremity of the tail enters this, and perforates its +fundus.</p> + +<p>The <i>Noctilionine</i> division is likewise represented only by a single +genus, with two species. This genus connects the present with the +following family, possessing characters common to both, but also so +many remarkable special peculiarities as almost to warrant the +formation of a separate family for its reception.</p> + +<p><i>Noctilio.</i><a id="FNanchor_621" href="#Footnote_621" class="fnanchor">[621]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ²⁄₁, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ¹⁄₂, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 28. The two +species <i>N. leporinus</i> and <i>N. albiventer</i> inhabit Central and South +America. The typical <i>N. leporinus</i> is a Bat of very curious aspect, +with strangely folded lips, erect cutaneous processes on the chin, +and enormous feet and claws. The first upper incisors are close +together, and so large as to conceal the small outer ones, while in +the lower jaw there is one pair of small incisors. This apparent<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_669"></a>[669]</span> +resemblance to a Rodent actually led Linnæus to remove this species +from the Bats and place it in the Rodents. This Bat is remarkable +for feeding on fish—a circumstance which has only recently +been fully authenticated.</p> + +<p>The remaining genus of this subfamily is regarded as representing +another division, which may be known as the <i>Rhinopomatine</i> +division.</p> + +<p><i>Rhinopoma.</i><a id="FNanchor_622" href="#Footnote_622" class="fnanchor">[622]</a>—This genus, represented by the single species +<i>R. microphyllum</i>, might also be elevated to the rank of a family, for it +is difficult to determine its exact +affinities, a kind of cross relationship +attaching it to the <i>Nycteridæ</i> on the +one hand and to this family, in which +it is here placed provisionally, on the +other. This species, distinguished +from all other Microchiroptera as well +by the presence of two phalanges in +the index finger as by its remarkably +long and slender tail projecting far +beyond the narrow interfemoral membrane, inhabits the subterranean +tombs in Egypt and deserted buildings generally from North-East +Africa to Burma.</p> + +<figure class="figright illowp100" id="figure314" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure314.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 314.</span>—Skull of <i>Rhinopoma microphyllum</i>. +× 2. (Dobson, <i>Monogr. Asiat. +Chiropt.</i>)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>Subfamily <b>Molossinæ</b>.—Tail thick, produced far beyond the +posterior margin of the interfemoral membrane (except in <i>Mystacops</i>); +legs short and strong, with well-developed fibula; upper +incisors strong. This subfamily includes all the species of <i>Emballonuridæ</i> +with short and strong legs and broad feet (whereof the +first toe, and in most species the fifth also, is much thicker than +the others, and furnished with long curved hairs), well-developed +callosities at the base of the thumbs, and a single pair of large +upper incisors occupying the centre of the space between the +canines. In all the species the feet are free from the wing-membrane, +which folds up perfectly under the forearm and legs; the +interfemoral membrane is retractile, being movable backwards and +forwards along the tail, and this power of varying its superficial +extent must confer upon these Bats great dexterity in quickly +changing the direction of their flight, as when obliged to double in +pursuing their swift insect prey, which their extremely expansible +lips evidently enable them to secure with ease. Like the preceding +subfamily, the genera may be arranged in divisions, of which there +are two.</p> + +<p>The <i>Molossine</i> division is characterised by the production of the +tail beyond the posterior margin of the interfemoral membrane; it +includes three genera.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_670"></a>[670]</span></p> + +<p><i>Chiromeles.</i><a id="FNanchor_623" href="#Footnote_623" class="fnanchor">[623]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ¹⁄₂, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 26. Hallux +much larger than the other toes and separable from them, ears +separate. This genus is represented by a single species, <i>C. torquatus</i>, +of large size (forearm 3·1 inches) and peculiar aspect, inhabiting +the Indo-Malayan sub-region. This Bat is nearly naked, a collar +only of thinly spread hairs half surrounding the neck; and is +further remarkable for its enormous throat-sac and curious nursing-pouches. +The former consists of a great semicircular fold of skin +forming a deep pouch round the neck beneath, and concealing the +orifices of large subcutaneous pectoral glands, which discharge an +oily fluid of insufferably offensive smell. The nursing-pouch is +formed on each side by an extension of a fold of skin from the side +of the body to the inferior surfaces of the humerus and femur. In +the anterior part of this pouch the mammæ are placed.</p> + +<p><i>Molossus.</i><a id="FNanchor_624" href="#Footnote_624" class="fnanchor">[624]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ¹⁄₁₋₂, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ¹⁻²⁄₁, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 24 or 28. +Upper incisors close together in the middle line. There are some +ten species, restricted to the tropical +and subtropical regions of the New +World. The woodcut of the head of +<i>M. glaucinus</i> (<a href="#figure315">Fig. 315</a>) exhibits the +general physiognomy of the Bats of +this genus. <i>M. obscurus</i>, a small species, +is very common in tropical America. It +inhabits the hollow trunks of palms and +other trees, and also the roofs of houses. +The males and females live apart (as, +indeed, appears to be the case in most, +if not in all, species of Bats). In the +hollow trunk of a palm two colonies +were discovered, one consisting of from +150 to 200 individuals, exclusively males, while the other was +composed almost entirely of females.</p> + +<figure class="figleft illowp75" id="figure315" style="max-width: 15.625em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure315.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 315.</span>—Head of <i>Molossus glaucinus</i>. +(Dobson, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1876.)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Nyctinomus.</i><a id="FNanchor_625" href="#Footnote_625" class="fnanchor">[625]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ¹⁄₃₋₂, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ²⁻¹⁄₂, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 32 or +28. Upper incisors separated in the middle line. The genus contains +about twenty-five species, inhabiting the tropical and subtropical +parts of both hemispheres. The lips of the Bats of this +genus are even more expansible than in <i>Molossus</i>, in many of the +species (as in the woodcut of the head of <i>N. macrotis</i>, <a href="#figure316">Fig. +316</a>) showing vertical wrinkles. <i>N. tæniotis</i>, one of the largest +species, alone extends into Europe, and has been taken as +far north as Switzerland. <i>N. johorensis</i>, from the Malay Peninsula, +is remarkable from the extraordinary form of its ears. +<i>N. brasiliensis<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_671"></a>[671]</span></i> is nearly as common as <i>Molossus obscurus</i> in tropical +America, and extends farther north (California) and south than +that species.</p> + +<p>In the <i>Mystacopine</i> division the tail perforates the interfemoral +membrane and appears upon the upper surface.</p> + +<figure class="figright illowp83" id="figure316" style="max-width: 15.625em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure316.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 316.</span>—Head of <i>Nyctinomus +macrotis</i>. (Dobson, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> +1876.)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Mystacops.</i><a id="FNanchor_626" href="#Footnote_626" class="fnanchor">[626]</a>—This genus includes only <i>M. tuberculatus</i> of New +Zealand, where, together with <i>Chalinolobus tumorio</i>, it represents +the whole indigenous mammalian fauna of +the islands. There are three distinct +phalanges in the middle finger; the +greater part of the wing-membrane is +exceedingly thin, but a narrow portion +along the forearm, the sides of the body, +and the legs is remarkably thick and +leathery; beneath this thickened portion +the wings are folded. With the wings +thus encased, this species is the most +quadrupedal of Bats. Other peculiarities +of structure are found in the remarkable +form of the claws of the thumbs and toes, +which have each a small talon projecting from its concave surface +near the base, also in the sole of the foot and inferior surface of +the leg, as shown in <a href="#figure317">Fig. 317</a>. The plantar surface, including the +toes, is covered with soft and very lax integument deeply wrinkled, +and each toe is marked by a central longitudinal groove with short +grooves at right angles to it. The lax wrinkled integument is +continued along the inferior flattened surface of the ankle and leg. +These peculiarities appear to be related to climbing habits in the +species.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure317" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure317.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 317.</span>—Pollex and leg and foot of <i>Mystacops tuberculatus</i>, enlarged. (Dobson, +<i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1876.)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Fossil Emballonuridæ.</i>—In the cavern-deposits of Madras remains +of the existing <i>Taphozous saccolæmus</i> are not uncommon; while in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_672"></a>[672]</span> +the corresponding beds of Brazil bones of a <i>Molossus</i>, probably referable +to <i>M. temmincki</i>, now inhabiting the same region, are met with. +It has been suggested that remains from the Upper Eocene Phosphorites +of Central France may indicate the existence of the genus +<i>Taphozous</i> at that early epoch.</p> + +<h5><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Phyllostomatidæ</span>.</h5> + +<p>Middle finger with three well-developed bony phalanges; first +phalanx of the middle finger short; nostrils in the front part of the +cutaneous nasal appendages, or opening by simple apertures at +the extremity of the muzzle; chin with warts or erect cutaneous +ridges; premaxillæ well developed, united in front.</p> + +<p>The members of this family are readily distinguished by the +third phalanx in the middle finger, associated either with distinct +cutaneous nasal appendages, or with well-developed first upper +incisors, or with both. Unlike the <i>Rhinolophidæ</i>, their eyes are +generally large; and the tragus is well developed, maintaining +almost the same form throughout the species, however much the +other parts of the body may vary. The fur is of a dull colour, and +the face and back (in the <i>Stenodermatine</i> division especially) are often +marked with white streaks, as in the <i>Pteropodidæ</i>, of which these +Bats take the place in the western hemisphere. A few species, +probably all those with the tail and interfemoral membrane well +developed, feed principally on insects, while the greater number of +the species of the <i>Vampirine</i> and <i>Glossophagine</i> divisions appear to +live on a mixed diet of insects and fruits; and the <i>Desmodontine</i> +division, of which two species only are known, are true blood-suckers, +and have their teeth and intestinal tract specially modified +in accordance with their habits. The family is restricted to the +tropical and subtropical parts of Central and South America.</p> + +<p>Subfamily <b>Chilonycteriinæ</b>.—Nostrils opening by simple apertures +at the extremity of +the muzzle in front, not +margined by a distinct nose-leaf; +chin with expanded +leaf-like appendages. It +includes two genera.</p> + +<figure class="figright illowp100" id="figure318" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure318.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 318.</span>—Head of <i>Mormops blainvillei</i>. (Dobson, +<i>Cat. Chiropt. Brit. Mus.</i>)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Chilonycteris.</i><a id="FNanchor_627" href="#Footnote_627" class="fnanchor">[627]</a>—Dentition: +<i>i</i> ²⁄₂, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ²⁄₃, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 34. +The crown of the head is +moderately elevated above +the facial line, and the basicranial +axis is almost in the +same plane as the facial. There are about half a dozen species.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_673"></a>[673]</span></p> + +<p><i>Mormops.</i><a id="FNanchor_628" href="#Footnote_628" class="fnanchor">[628]</a>—The two species of this genus are distinguished +from <i>Chilonycteris</i> by the great elevation of the crown of the head +above the line of the face, as well as by the basicranial plane being +nearly at right angles to the facial. Both species are noticeable +for their peculiar physiognomy, as is shown in the accompanying +woodcut (<a href="#figure318">Fig. 318</a>).</p> + +<p>Subfamily <b>Phyllostomatinæ</b>.—Nostrils opening on the upper +surface of the muzzle, the nasal apertures more or less surrounded +or margined by well-developed cutaneous appendages, forming a +distinct nose-leaf; chin with warts. The numerous genera, most +of which can only be mentioned here by name, may be arranged +under four divisions.</p> + +<p>In the first or <i>Vampirine</i> division the muzzle is long and narrow +in front; the distance between the eyes is generally less than, rarely +equal to, that from the eye to the extremity of the muzzle; the +nose-leaf is well developed, horse-shoe shaped in front, and lanceolate +behind; interfemoral membrane well developed; tail generally +distinct, rarely absent; inner margin of the lips not fringed. The +dentition is: <i>i</i> ²⁄₂₋₁, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ²⁄₂₋₃, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 32. The cusps of the +upper molars are usually well developed, and arranged in a W. +Nearly all the species of this division appear to be insectivorous, so +that the name applied to them must not be considered as having +any relation to their habits. <i>Vampyrus spectrum</i>, a large Bat +inhabiting Brazil, of forbidding aspect, which was long considered +by naturalists to be sanguivorous in its habits, and named accordingly +by Geoffroy, has been shown by the observations of modern +travellers to be mainly frugivorous, and is considered by the +inhabitants of the countries in which it is found to be perfectly +harmless. It is the largest Bat in America, the length of the +forearm being 4·2 inches. <i>Otopterus waterhousei</i> appears to prey +occasionally on small species of Bats, like <i>Megaderma lyra</i> of the +eastern hemisphere, which it resembles in many respects.</p> + +<p><i>Lonchorhina</i>,<a id="FNanchor_629" href="#Footnote_629" class="fnanchor">[629]</a> <i>Otopterus</i>,<a id="FNanchor_630" href="#Footnote_630" class="fnanchor">[630]</a> + <i>and Dolichophyllum</i>.<a id="FNanchor_631" href="#Footnote_631" class="fnanchor">[631]</a>—These three genera +are characterised by the tail continuing to the hinder margin of the +interfemoral membrane. <i>Lonchorhina</i> is represented by the single +species <i>L. aurita</i>, in which the nose-leaf is much elongated, and the +ear-conch and tragus are unusually large.</p> + +<p><i>Vampyrus</i>,<a id="FNanchor_632" href="#Footnote_632" class="fnanchor">[632]</a> <i>etc.</i>—In + all the remaining genera of this division the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_674"></a>[674]</span> +tail perforates the interfemoral membrane, so as to appear upon its +upper surface. These genera are <i>Vampyrus</i>, <i>Lophostoma</i>, <i>Micronycteris</i>,<a id="FNanchor_633" href="#Footnote_633" class="fnanchor">[633]</a> +<i>Trachyops</i>, <i>Phylloderma</i>, <i>Phyllostoma</i>, <i>Anthorhina</i>,<a id="FNanchor_634" href="#Footnote_634" class="fnanchor">[634]</a> <i>Mimon</i>, + <i>Hemiderma</i><a id="FNanchor_635" href="#Footnote_635" class="fnanchor">[635]</a> +and <i>Rhinophylla</i>; all, with the exception of the last, being distinguished +from one another chiefly by the form of the skull and the presence +or absence of the second lower premolar. +<i>Trachyops</i>, <i>Phylloderma</i>, and the three +last-named genera are each represented +by a single species. <i>Phyllostoma hastatum</i>, +in which the forearm has a +length of 3·2 inches, and next in point +of size to <i>Vampyrus spectrum</i>, is a well-known +species in South America; <i>P. +elongatum</i> (<a href="#figure319">Fig. 319</a>) differs in its smaller +size and much larger nose-leaf. <i>Hemiderma +brevicauda</i> is a small species, +which forms a connecting link between +this and the next division. <i>Rhinophylla +pumilio</i>, the smallest known species +of the family, is further distinguished by the narrowness of its +molars, which do not form W-shaped cusps, and by the very small +size of the last upper molar; characters connecting it with the +<i>Stenodermatine</i> division.</p> + +<figure class="figleft illowp83" id="figure319" style="max-width: 15.625em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure319.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 319.</span>—Head of <i>Phyllostoma elongatum</i>. +(From Dobson, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> +1866.)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>In the second or <i>Glossophagine</i> division of the subfamily the +muzzle is long and narrow; the tongue remarkably long and extensible, +much attenuated towards the tip, and beset with very long +filiform recurved papillæ; lower lip with a wide groove above, and +in front margined by small warts; nose-leaf small; tail short or +absent. Dentition: <i>i</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>c</i> ²⁄₂, <i>p</i> ²⁻³⁄₃₋₂, <i>m</i> ²⁄₃₋₂; teeth very narrow; +molars with narrow W-shaped cusps, sometimes indistinct or absent; +lower incisors very small or deciduous.</p> + +<p>The ten species included in this division are arranged under +seven genera,<a id="FNanchor_636" href="#Footnote_636" class="fnanchor">[636]</a> distinguished principally by differences in the form +and number of the teeth and the presence or absence of the +zygomatic arch. The form and position of the upper incisors are +extremely variable. In <i>Glossophaga</i> and <i>Phyllonycteris</i> the upper +incisors form, as in the <i>Vampyrine</i> division, a continuous row between +the canines; in <i>Monophylla</i> and <i>Leptonycteris</i><a id="FNanchor_637" href="#Footnote_637" class="fnanchor">[637]</a> they are separated +into pairs by a narrow interval in front; while in <i>Lonchoglossa</i>, +<i>Glossonycteris</i>, and <i>Chœronycteris</i> they are widely separated<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_675"></a>[675]</span> and placed +in pairs near the canines. In the first four genera the lower incisors +are present (at least up to a certain age), while in the last three +they are deciduous even in youth. The zygomatic arch is wanting +in <i>Phyllonycteris</i>, <i>Glossonycteris</i>, and <i>Chœronycteris</i>.</p> + +<p>The typical species is <i>Glossophaga soricina</i>, which so closely +resembles <i>Hemiderma brevicauda</i>, both in external form and dentition, +that it has frequently been confounded with it. Its long fimbriated +tongue, which it possesses in common with other species of the +division, led Spix to +describe it as a blood-sucker, +believing that +this organ was used to +increase the flow of +blood. This view is, +however, without foundation, +and from later +observations it is evident +that the peculiarly +shaped tongue is used +by the animal to lick out the pulpy contents of fruits having hard +rinds. The food of the species of this division appears to consist +of both fruit and insects, and the long tongue may also be used for +extracting the latter from the deep corollæ of certain flowers. This +type of tongue is shown in the woodcut of the head of <i>Chœronycteris</i> +(<a href="#figure320">Fig. 320</a>); and it is paralleled among the Megachiroptera by the +Carponycteriine <i>Pteropodidæ</i>.</p> + +<figure class="figright illowp100" id="figure320" style="max-width: 21.875em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure320.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 320.</span>—Head of <i>Chœronycteris mexicana</i>, showing +fimbriated tongue. (Dobson, <i>Cat. Chiropt. Brit. Mus.</i>)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The <i>Stenodermatine</i> division is characterised by the muzzle being +very short and generally broad in front, the distance between the +eyes nearly always exceeding (rarely equal to) that from the eye to +the extremity of the muzzle; nose-leaf short, horse-shoe shaped in +front, lanceolate behind (except in <i>Brachyphylla</i> and <i>Centurio</i>); +interfemoral membrane always concave behind; tail none; inner +margin of the lips fringed with conical papillæ. Dentition: +<i>i</i> ²⁄₂₋₁, <i>p</i> ²⁄₂, <i>m</i> ³⁻²⁄₃₋₂; the number of the molars being either ³⁄₃, ²⁄₃, +or ²⁄₂ in different species; premolars and molars very broad (except +in <i>Sturnira</i>), the latter with concave or flat crowns margined externally +by raised cutting-edges. Although the members of this division +are usually distinguished from those of the Vampirine division by +the peculiar shortness and breadth of the muzzle and the form of +the molars, yet certain species of the latter closely resemble those +of the former in external appearance, agreeing almost absolutely in +the form of the nose-leaf, of the ears and tragus, and of the warts +on the chin. These resemblances indicate that, while the form of +the teeth and jaws has become modified to suit the nature of the +food, the external characters, being but slightly affected by this +cause, have remained much the same. The food of these Bats<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_676"></a>[676]</span> +appears to be wholly or in great part fruit. The twenty species +have been grouped into nine genera, distinguished by the form of +the skull and teeth. <i>Artibeus</i>, with six species, includes the well-known +frugivorous Bat, <i>A. perspicillatus</i>. Waterton believed that +<i>A. planirostris</i>, a common Bat in British Guiana, usually found in +the roofs of houses, and now known to be frugivorous, was the true +blood-sucking Vampire. <i>Stenoderma achradophilum</i>, found in Jamaica +and Cuba, associated with <i>Artibeus perspicillatus</i>, from which it is +scarcely distinguishable externally except by its much smaller size, +differs altogether in the absence of the horizontal plate of the +palatal bones. <i>Sturnira lilium</i>, while +agreeing with the above in the form of +the nose-leaf and ears, differs from all +the species of the family in its longitudinally-grooved +molars, which resemble +those of the <i>Pteropodidæ</i> more closely than +those of any other Bats; and the presence +of tufts of long differently coloured hairs +over glands in the sides of the neck shows +another common character still more +remarkable, which can scarcely be considered +the result of adaptive change. <i>Centurio senex</i> is the type +of a genus distinguished from <i>Stenoderma</i> and other genera of this +division by the absence of a distinct nose-leaf; its facial aspect, as +shown in <a href="#figure321">Fig. 321</a>, is altogether bizarre.</p> + +<figure class="figleft illowp100" id="figure321" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure321.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 321.</span>—Head of <i>Centurio senex</i>. +(Dobson, <i>Cat. Chiropt. Brit. Mus.</i>)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>In the last or <i>Desmodont</i> division the muzzle is conical and +short; there is a distinct nose-leaf; the interfemoral membrane is +very short; and the tail is wanting. Dentition: <i>i</i> ¹⁄₂, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ²⁄₃, +<i>m</i> ¹⁻⁰⁄₁₋₀; total 24 or 20. Upper incisors very large, trenchant, +occupying the whole space between the canines; premolars very +narrow, with sharp-edged longitudinal crowns; molars rudimentary +or wanting; stomach greatly elongated, intestiniform. There are only +two genera, the single species of each of which are the true blood-sucking +Vampires. They appear to be confined chiefly to the +forest-clad parts, and their attacks on men and other warm-blooded +animals were noticed by some of the earliest writers. Thus Peter +Martyr (Anghiera), who wrote soon after the conquest of South +America, says that in the Isthmus of Darien there were Bats which +sucked the blood of men and cattle when asleep to such a degree +as to kill them. Condamine, a writer of the eighteenth century, +remarks that at Borja (Ecuador) and in other places they had +entirely destroyed the cattle introduced by the missionaries. Sir +Schomburgk relates that at Wicki, on the river Berbice, no +fowls could be kept on account of the ravages of these creatures, +which attacked their combs, causing them to appear white from loss +of blood. Although these Bats were known thus early to Europeans,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_677"></a>[677]</span> +the species to which they belonged were not determined until about +sixty years ago, several of the large frugivorous species having been +wrongly set down as blood-suckers and named accordingly; and it +fell to the lot of Darwin to determine at least one of the blood-sucking +species, the following being his account of the circumstances +under which the discovery of the sanguivorous habits of <i>Desmodus +rufus</i> was made: “The Vampire Bat is often the cause of much +trouble by biting the horses on their withers. The injury is generally +not so much owing to the loss of blood as to the inflammation +which the pressure of the saddle afterwards produces. The whole +circumstance has lately been doubted in England; I was therefore +fortunate in being present when one was actually caught on a horse’s +back. We were bivouacking late one evening near Coquimbo, in +Chili, when my servant, noticing that one of the horses was very +restive, went to see what was the matter, and, fancying he could +detect something, suddenly put his hand on the beast’s withers +and secured the Vampire.”</p> + +<p>These Bats present, in the extraordinary differentiation of the +manducatory and digestive apparatus, a departure from the type of +other members of the family unparalleled in any of the other orders +of Mammalia, standing apart from all other mammals as being fitted +only for a diet of blood, and capable of sustaining life upon that +alone. Travellers describe the wounds inflicted by the large sharp-edged +incisors as similar to those caused by a razor when shaving: +a portion of the skin being shaved off and a large number of +severed capillary vessels thus exposed, from which a constant flow +of blood is maintained. From this source the blood is drawn +through the exceedingly narrow gullet—too narrow for anything +solid to pass—into the intestine-like stomach, whence it is probably +gradually drawn off during the slow process of digestion, while the +animal, sated with food, is hanging in a state of torpidity from the +roof of a cave or the inner side of a hollow tree.</p> + +<figure class="figright illowp100" id="figure322" style="max-width: 15.625em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure322.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 322.</span>—Head of Vampire Bat +(<i>Desmodus rufus</i>).</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Desmodus.</i><a id="FNanchor_638" href="#Footnote_638" class="fnanchor">[638]</a>—No true molar, and no calcar. The Common +Vampire (<i>D. rufus</i>) is widely spread over the tropical and subtropical +parts of Central and South +America from Oaxaca to Southern Brazil +and Chili. It is a comparatively small +species, a little larger than the common +Noctule, the head and body being about +3 inches in length, the forearm 2½, with +a remarkably long and strong thumb; +it is destitute of a tail, and has a +peculiar physiognomy, well represented +in <a href="#figure322">Fig. 322</a>. The body is covered with +rather short fur of a reddish-brown colour, but varying in shade;<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_678"></a>[678]</span> +the extremities of the hairs being sometimes ashy. The teeth +are peculiar and admirably adapted for the purposes for which they +are employed. The upper incisor is greatly enlarged, and of somewhat +triangular shape (<a href="#figure323">Fig. 323</a>); the canine, although smaller +than the incisor, is large and sharp; but the cheek-teeth are very +small, with laterally compressed crowns rising but slightly above +the level of the gum, their longitudinally disposed cutting-edges +being continuous with the base of the canine and with each other. +The lower incisors are small, bifid, and separated from the canine, +with a space in front. The +lower cheek-teeth are narrow, +like those in the upper +jaw, but the anterior tooth +is slightly larger than the +others, and separated by a +small space from the canine. +Behind the lower incisors +the jaw is deeply hollowed +out to receive the extremities +of the large upper +incisors. The exceedingly +narrow œsophagus opens at +right angles into the slender, intestine-like stomach, which almost +immediately terminates on the right, without a distinct pylorus, +in the duodenum, but on the left forms a greatly elongated fundus, +bent and folded upon itself, appearing at first sight like part of the +intestines. This cardiac extremity of the stomach is, for a short +distance, to the left of the entrance of the œsophagus, still very +narrow, but soon increases in size, till near its termination it +attains a diameter quite three times that of the short pyloric +portion. The length of this cardiac diverticulum of the stomach +appears to vary from 2 to 6 inches, the size in each specimen +probably depending on the amount of food obtained by the animal +before it was captured.</p> + +<figure class="figleft illowp100" id="figure323" style="max-width: 21.875em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure323.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 323.</span>—Dentition of <i>Desmodus rufus</i>. <i>a</i>, Front +view of upper teeth; <i>b</i>, left lateral view of upper and +lower teeth.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Diphylla.</i><a id="FNanchor_639" href="#Footnote_639" class="fnanchor">[639]</a>—A small true molar in each jaw, and a rudimentary +calcar. The single species <i>D. ecaudata</i> inhabits Brazil, and appears +to be much less abundant than <i>Desmodus rufus</i>, from which, in +addition to the characters already mentioned, it is distinguished by +its slightly smaller size, the absence of a groove in the front of the +lower lip, the non-development of the interfemoral membrane in the +centre, and the peculiar form of the lower incisors, which are much +expanded in the direction of the jaws and pectinated, forming a +semicircular row touching each other, the outer pair being wider +than the inner ones, and having six notches, the inner pair having +only three notches.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_679"></a>[679]</span></p> + +<p><i>Fossil Phyllostomatidæ.</i>—Remains of <i>Vampyrus spectrum</i>, as well +as of several species of <i>Phyllostoma</i> or closely allied types, are found +in the cavern deposits of Brazil. The mandible of a large Bat from +the Upper Eocene Phosphorites of Central France, described as +<i>Necromantis</i>, has been referred to this family—a determination +which, if confirmed, will be of great interest from a distributional +point of view.</p> + +<div class="bibliography"> + +<p><i>Bibliography of Chiroptera.</i>—G. E. Dobson, <i>Catalogue of the Chiroptera in the +Collection of the British Museum</i>, 1878, including descriptions of all the species +of Bats then known; subsequent papers by the same author in <i>Rep. Brit. Assoc.</i>, +<i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i>, <i>Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.</i>, and <i>Bull. Soc. Zool. de France</i>; by +Peters in <i>Monatsb. Akad. Wiss. Berlin</i>; by O. Thomas in <i>Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.</i>, +<i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i>, and <i>Ann. Mus. Genova</i>; and by J. Scully in <i>Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.</i> +and <i>Journ. As. Soc. Bengal</i>; H. A. Robin, <i>Recherches Anatomiques sur les Mammifères +de l’Ordre des Chiroptères</i>, Paris, 1881; W. T. Blanford, “Notes on Indian +Chiroptera,” <i>Journ. As. Soc. Bengal</i>, vol. lviii. (1888). See also papers by Jentink, +Bocage, and others.</p> + +</div> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_680"></a>[680]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XIV">CHAPTER XIV<br> +<span class="smaller">THE ORDER PRIMATES</span></h2> + +</div> + +<p>This order in the system of Linnæus includes Man, the Monkeys, +the Lemurs, and the Bats. By common consent of all zoologists +the last-named animals have been removed into a distinct order; +but with regard to the association of the others there has been, +and still is, much difference of opinion.</p> + +<p>That all the Monkeys, from the highest Anthropoid Apes to +the lowest Marmosets, form a natural and tolerably homogeneous +group seems never to have been questioned; but whether the +Lemurs on the one hand and Man on the other should be united +with them in the same order are points of controversy. If, in +accordance with the traditional views of zoologists, the former are +still considered to be members of this order, they must form a suborder +apart from all the others, with which they have really very +little in common except the opposable hallux of the hind foot, a +character also met with in the Opossums, and which is therefore of +very secondary importance.<a id="FNanchor_640" href="#Footnote_640" class="fnanchor">[640]</a></p> + +<p>Using the term Primates in this wider sense it is not easy to +give any precise definition of the order. The dentition is diphyodont +and heterodont; the number of incisors being very generally +²⁄₂, and that of the molars, with the exception of the <i>Hapalidæ</i>, +being ³⁄₃. The cheek-teeth are adapted for grinding, the molars +being more complex than the premolars, and usually having four<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_681"></a>[681]</span> +main tubercles, which may be either subconical or more or less +compressed. The orbit is invariably surrounded by a ring of bone; +the clavicles are well developed; and the radius and ulna are never +united. The scaphoid and lunar of the carpus, and commonly also +the centrale, remain distinct from one another. There are usually +five digits furnished with well-developed nails in both the manus +and the pes; but the pollex may be rudimentary or wanting. The +hallux, except in Man, is opposable to the other digits, and has a +flat nail (absent in <i>Simia</i>); and the pollex, +when present, is usually also more or less +opposable. The terminal phalanges of +the digits are flattened (except in the +second digit of the pes of the Lemuroidea), +and not cleft at their extremities. +The fingers and toes generally do not +taper towards their extremities, but (except +in <i>Chiromys</i>) are dilated, flattened, +and rounded at their tips. The humerus +has no entepicondylar foramen, nor the +femur a third trochanter. In the alimentary +canal (<a href="#figure324">Fig. 324</a>) the stomach is +generally simple, although sacculated in +the subfamily <i>Semnopithecinæ</i> of the +<i>Cercopithecidæ</i>; and there is always a +cæcum, which is generally of large size. +The placenta may be either non-deciduous, +or discoidal and deciduous. There are +always two mammæ in the pectoral +region, except in <i>Chiromys</i>; and the +testes descend into a scrotum.</p> + +<figure class="figright illowp37" id="figure324" style="max-width: 15.625em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure324.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 324.</span>—Alimentary canal of +<i>Galago</i>, the greater part of the small +intestine being omitted. <i>d</i>, duodenum; +<i>i</i>, ileum; <i>cm</i>, cæcum; <i>r</i>, +rectum.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The Lemuroidea are decidedly low in +the scale of organisation, their placentation +being of a lower type than that +of the Insectivora; and all the Primates retain generalised features +in their pentadactylate limbs and more or less bunodont cheek-teeth. +In respect to cerebral characters and other features the higher +representatives of the order have, however, acquired a specialisation +clearly indicating their right to occupy the highest position in the +animal kingdom. So far as the available material admits of forming +an opinion, fossil forms appear to indicate an intimate connection +between the Lemuroidea and Insectivora, so that in some cases it is +almost impossible to determine whether an extinct type should be +referred to the former or to the latter group. It is noteworthy +that while in all existing<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_682"></a>[682]</span> Primates the upper molars are of a quadrituberculate +type, in the extinct Lemuroid genus <i>Anaptomorphus</i> +they are trituberculate.</p> + +<h3><i>Suborder</i> <span class="smcap">Lemuroidea</span>.</h3> + +<p>The Latin term <i>Lemur</i> was applied by Linnæus to the typical +representatives of the present group of Primates, having been suggested +by the nocturnal habits and strange ghost-like appearance +of some of its members. As these animals had previously no +vernacular appellation in English, this name has been generally +adopted, and is now completely anglicised, making “Lemurs” in +the plural. The French call them <i>Makis</i>, and the Germans <i>Halbaffen</i>, +in allusion to their forming a transition from monkeys to ordinary +quadrupeds. For the same reason they are called <i>Prosimiæ</i> by +some systematic writers. When the name was bestowed by +Linnæus only five species were known, of which one, <i>L. volans</i>, +Linn. (<i>Galeopithecus volans</i> of modern writers), is now removed by +common consent from the group. Notwithstanding the discovery +of many new and curious forms, the Lemurs remain a very natural +and circumscribed division of the animal kingdom, though no longer +considered a single genus, but divided up into many genera and +even families.</p> + +<p>The existing species are not numerous, and do not diverge +widely in their organisation or habits, being all of small or moderate +size, all adapted to an arboreal life, climbing with ease, and, as they +find their living, which consists of fruits, leaves, birds’ eggs, small +birds, reptiles, and insects, among the branches of the trees, they +rarely have occasion to descend to the ground. None are aquatic, +and none burrow in the earth. Many of the species, although by no +means all, are nocturnal in their habits, spending the day in sleeping +in holes, or rolled up in a ball, perched on a horizontal branch, +or in the fork of a tree, and seeking their food by night. Their +geographical distribution is very peculiar; by far the larger proportion +of species, including all those to which the term “Lemur” +is now especially restricted, being exclusively inhabitants of Madagascar, +where they are so abundant and widely distributed that it +is said by M. Grandidier, who has contributed more than any other +traveller to enrich our knowledge of the structure and manners of +these animals, that there is not a little wood in the whole island +in which some of them cannot be found. From Madagascar as a +centre a few species less typical in character extend through the +African continent westward as far as Senegambia, and others are +found in the Oriental region as far east as the Philippine Islands +and Celebes.</p> + +<p>The following are the essential characters by which the suborder +as a whole is distinguished from the Anthropoidea. Skull<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_683"></a>[683]</span> +with the orbit opening freely into the temporal fossa beneath the +postorbital bar (except in <i>Tarsius</i>); and the lachrymal foramen +situated externally to the margin of the orbit (<a href="#figure327">Fig. 327</a>). The +pollex and hallux are always well developed, the latter being +especially large; the second or index digit of the manus may be +rudimentary; while in the pes the second digit invariably terminates +in a long pointed claw. The cerebral hemispheres do not +completely overlap the cerebellum, and are but slightly convoluted. +The uterus is bicornuate. The placenta is non-deciduate, and either +diffused or bell shaped—the whole of the chorion except the +cephalic pole being covered with villi; and the allantois is of very +great size. There may be abdominal mammæ. Except in <i>Chiromys</i>, +the first pair of upper incisors are separated in the middle line. +In marked contrast to the Anthropoidea, the middle or transverse +portion of the colon is almost always folded or convoluted on +itself. (See <a href="#figure324">Fig. 324</a>.)</p> + +<p>In subdividing the group for the purpose of a more detailed +description of the different animals of which it is composed it must +first be noted that there are two very aberrant forms, each represented +by a single species—the little <i>Tarsius</i> of the Indian archipelago, +and the singular <i>Chiromys</i> or Aye-aye, which, though an +inhabitant of Madagascar, the headquarters of the suborder, and living +in the same forests and under the same external conditions as the +most typical Lemurs, exhibits a most remarkable specialisation in +the structure of its limbs and teeth, the latter being modified so as +to resemble, at least superficially, those of the Rodents, in which +order it was once placed. The differences between these two forms +and the remaining Lemurs are so great that the whole suborder +naturally divides itself into three families, the first of which may +be again divided into four subfamilies.</p> + +<h4><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Lemuridæ</span>.</h4> + +<p>Upper incisors two on each side, small and separated by an +interval in the middle line. Upper canine large, conical, compressed, +and pointed. Premolars two or three, molars three on +each side above and below, with numerous more or less pointed +cusps. In the front of the lower jaw are on each side two or three +closely approximated, long, slender teeth lying almost horizontally +and projecting forwards. These are generally considered to represent +the incisors and canine, but there is some doubt about their +homologies, and they may be all considered as incisors, the canine +being absent. The first lower premolar larger than those behind +it, and shaped like a canine, of which it performs the function +(<a href="#figure327">Fig. 327</a>). The orbit and temporal fossa widely continuous beneath +the bar of bone (formed by the frontal and jugal) constituting the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_684"></a>[684]</span> +posterior boundary of the former cavity. The fibula well developed +and distinct from the tibia. All the digits of both feet (except the +second of the hind foot) with flat nails, and corresponding form of +ungual phalanges.</p> + +<p>Subfamily <b>Indrisinæ</b>.—The dentition of the adult consists of +thirty teeth, usually expressed by the formula <i>i</i> ²⁄₁, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ²⁄₂, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; +but, as indicated above, they may be <i>i</i> ²⁄₂, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₀, <i>p</i> ²⁄₂, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃. In the +milk-dentition there are twenty-two teeth, the true molars of course +not being represented, but there are two additional teeth in the +fore part of the lower jaw which have no successors in the permanent +series. Hind limbs greatly developed, but the tarsus normal. +Hallux of large size, and very opposable. The other toes united +at their base by a fold of skin, which extends as far as the end of +the first phalanx. Mammæ two, pectoral. Cæcum very large, and +colon extremely long and spirally coiled.</p> + +<p>The animals of this group are, as their organisation indicates, +essentially arboreal, and feed exclusively on fruit, leaves, buds, and +flowers. They are restricted geographically to the island of +Madagascar. Among them are the largest members of the suborder. +A detailed and beautifully illustrated account of their +characters, external and internal, and distribution and habits, +is given in the <i>Histoire Naturelle de Madagascar</i>, by A. Grandidier +and Alphonse Milne-Edwards (1875). The species are not numerous +and are distributed into three genera.</p> + +<p><i>Indris.</i><a id="FNanchor_641" href="#Footnote_641" class="fnanchor">[641]</a>—Upper incisors subequal in size. Upper canine larger +than the first premolar. Muzzle moderately long. Ears exserted. +Carpus without an os centrale. Tail rudimentary. Vertebræ: +C 7, D 12, L 9, S 4, C 9.</p> + +<p>The only well-established species is the Indris (<i>I. brevicaudata</i>, +<a href="#figure325">Fig. 325</a>), discovered by Sonnerat in 1780. It is the largest of +the Lemurs, the length of the head and body being about 2 feet, +and the tail 2 inches. It is very variable in colour, for although +usually nearly black, marked with whitish spots principally in the +lumbar region and forearm, individuals have been found quite +white. It inhabits exclusively the forests of a part of the east +coast of Madagascar, living in small troops of four or five in number, +and resembling in most of its habits the animals of the next genus.</p> + +<p><i>Propithecus.</i><a id="FNanchor_642" href="#Footnote_642" class="fnanchor">[642]</a>—Second upper incisor much smaller than the first. +Upper canine larger than the first premolar. Muzzle rather short. +Ears short, concealed by the fur. An os centrale in the carpus. +Tail long. Vertebræ: C 7, D 12, L 8, S 3, C 28.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp56" id="figure325" style="max-width: 28.125em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure325.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 325.</span>—Indris (<i>Indris brevicaudata</i>). From Milne-Edwards and Grandidier, +<i>Mammifères de Madagascar</i>, pl. 12.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The species are all subject to great variations in colour, which +has led to much difficulty in discriminating them, and to much +confusion of synonymy. Grandidier and Milne-Edwards recognise<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_685"></a>[685]</span> +three as certainly distinct—<i>P. diadema</i>, <i>P. verreauxii</i>, and <i>P. +coronatus</i> (<a href="#figure326">Fig. 326</a>). Some of these are to be found in almost +every part of the island of Madagascar, living in the woods in small +bands of six or eight together, and feeding exclusively on buds, +flowers, and berries. Their powerful hind limbs enable them to +leap from tree to tree, often to a distance of 10 yards, without any +apparent effort, and thus seeming to fly through the air. When +obliged to descend to the ground to pass from one clump of trees +to another they do not run on all fours, but stand erect, and +throwing their arms above their heads progress by a series of short +jumps, producing an effect which is described by travellers who +have seen them thus in their native haunts as exceedingly ludicrous. +They are not nocturnal, but most active in the morning and evening, +remaining seated or coiled up among the branches during the +heat of the day. They are naturally of a quiet and gentle disposition,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_686"></a>[686]</span> +and do not show much intelligence. All the species are also +less vociferous than the true Lemurs, only when alarmed or angered +making a noise which has been compared to the clucking of a fowl. +Like the rest of the subfamily they never have more than a single +young one at a time.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp51" id="figure326" style="max-width: 28.125em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure326.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 326.</span>—<i>Propithecus coronatus.</i> (From Milne-Edwards and Grandidier, <i>Mammifères de +Madagascar</i>, pl. 7.)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Avahis.</i><a id="FNanchor_643" href="#Footnote_643" class="fnanchor">[643]</a>—Second upper incisor larger than the first. Upper +canine scarcely larger than the first premolar. Muzzle very short. +Ears very small and hidden in the fur, which is very soft and +woolly. Carpus without an os centrale. Tail long. Vertebræ: C 7, +D 11, L 9, S 3, C 23.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_687"></a>[687]</span></p> + +<p>One species, <i>A. laniger</i>, the Woolly Lemur, or Avahis, considerably +smaller than any of the last genus. It differs from them in +its habits, being quite nocturnal, and not associating in small troops, +but being always met with either alone or in pairs. It is very +slow in its movements, and rarely descends to the ground, but +when it does it walks upright like the other <i>Indrisinæ</i>. It is found +throughout the forests which clothe the mountains on the east coast +of Madagascar, and also in a limited district on the north-west +coast, the specimens from the latter locality being of smaller size +and rather different in colour.</p> + +<p>Subfamily <b>Lemurinæ</b>.—The dentition in the adult consists of +thirty-six teeth, which, as usually enumerated, are <i>i</i> ²⁄₂, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃. +In the fore part of the lower jaw are on each side three elongated, +compressed, procumbent teeth, of which the outer, usually considered +the homologue of the canine, is larger than the others. All +the forms have long tails. Hind limbs not of the same disproportionate +size as in the last group; and the cæcum much less developed. +Tarsus but slightly elongated, the calcaneum being always +less than one-fourth the length of the tibia. Toes of the hind feet +free to the base. Habitat, Madagascar, and some of the adjacent +Comoro Islands.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure327" style="max-width: 25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure327.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 327.</span>—Skull of Ring-tailed Lemur (<i>Lemur catta</i>). × ⅓; <i>uc</i>, +Upper canine; <i>lc</i>, lower canine; <i>pm</i>, premolars; <i>m</i>, molars.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>This group contains the typical Lemurs, or rather those to +which the term is now chiefly restricted. Two somewhat aberrant +members make it necessary to divide it into three genera.</p> + +<p><i>Lemur.</i><a id="FNanchor_644" href="#Footnote_644" class="fnanchor">[644]</a>—Upper incisors separated by an interval in the middle, +and not in contact with each other or the canine, in front of which +they are both placed. Muzzle elongated. Ears conspicuous and +tufted. Mammæ two, pectoral. Vertebræ: C 7, D 12, L 7 (or D +13, L 6), S 3, C 27.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp56" id="figure328" style="max-width: 28.125em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure328.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 328.</span>—The Ring-tailed Lemur (<i>Lemur catta</i>).</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>Animals much about the size of a common Cat, with Fox-like +faces, soft thick fur, and long tails well clothed with hair. Not +having the same +disproportionate +size of the limbs +as the last group, +they are much +more quadrupedal +in their +actions, walking +on the ground +or running along +the branches of +trees on all four +feet, but also +jumping with<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_688"></a>[688]</span> +marvellous agility. They are gregarious, living in small troops, +are diurnal in their habits, but most active towards evening, when +they make the woods resound with their loud cries. They feed +not only on fruits and buds, but also on eggs, young birds, +and insects. When at rest or sleeping they generally coil +their long, bushy tails around their bodies, apparently for the +sake of the warmth it affords. They have either one or two +young ones at a birth, which are at first nearly naked, and are +carried about, hanging close to and almost concealed by the hair of +the mother’s belly. After a while they change their position and +mount upon the mother’s back, where they are carried about until +they are able to climb and leap by themselves. Though no member +of the <i>Indrisinæ</i> has as yet lived long enough in captivity to be +brought alive to Europe, various species of <i>Lemurinæ</i> are commonly +seen in menageries, and often breed in England. They present a +great tendency to variation in their colouring, in consequence of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_689"></a>[689]</span> +which many nominal species have been made. The most distinct, and +at the same time most beautiful, is the Ring-tailed Lemur (<i>L. catta</i>, +<a href="#figure328">Fig. 328</a>), of a delicate gray colour, and with a long tail marked +with alternating rings of black and white. This is said by Mr. G. +A. Shaw<a id="FNanchor_645" href="#Footnote_645" class="fnanchor">[645]</a> to be an exception to all the other Lemurs in not being +arboreal, but living chiefly among rocks and bushes. Pollen, however, +says that it inhabits the forests of the south-west parts of +Madagascar, living, like its congeners, in considerable troops, and +not differing from them in its habits. He adds that it is extremely +gentle, and active and graceful in its movements, and utters at +intervals a little plaintive cry like that of a domestic cat. All the +others have the tail of uniform colour. The largest species is <i>L. +varius</i>, the Ruffed Lemur, sometimes black and white, and sometimes +reddish-brown, the variation apparently not depending on +sex or age, but on the individual. In <i>L. macaco</i> the male is black +and the female red. <i>L. mongoz</i>, <i>L. collaris</i>, and <i>L. albifrons</i> are +other well-known species.</p> + +<p><i>Hapalemur.</i><a id="FNanchor_646" href="#Footnote_646" class="fnanchor">[646]</a>—Upper incisors very small, subequal, separated +widely in the middle line. Those of either side in contact with each +other and with the canine, the posterior one being placed on the +inside, and not in front of the latter. Muzzle very short and +truncated. Mammæ four. There is apparently but one species, +<i>H. griseus</i>, smaller than any of the true Lemurs, of a dark gray +colour, with round face and short ears. It is quite nocturnal, and +lives chiefly among bamboos, subsisting on the young shoots. A +second species has been named <i>H. simus</i>, but it is doubtful if it is +more than a variety.</p> + +<p><i>Lepidolemur.</i><a id="FNanchor_647" href="#Footnote_647" class="fnanchor">[647]</a>—Upper incisors absent or rudimentary. Muzzle +more elongated than in the last. No distinct os centrale in the +carpus. <i>L. mustelinus</i> is the best-known species. It has, at all +events when adult, no upper incisors. It is rare, and like +<i>Hapalemur</i> nocturnal in its habits. A second closely allied species, +but with better developed premaxillæ, containing a pair of small +styliform incisors, has been described by Peters<a id="FNanchor_648" href="#Footnote_648" class="fnanchor">[648]</a> under the name +of <i>Myxocebus caniceps</i>.</p> + +<p>Subfamily <b>Galaginæ</b>.—Dentition as in <i>Lemurinæ</i>, from which +the members of this subfamily are distinguished by the elongation +of the tarsus, caused by a peculiar modification of the calcaneum +and the navicular, the distal portion of the former and the whole +of the latter having the form of almost cylindrical rods placed side +by side, while the other bones retain nearly their normal form and +proportion.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_690"></a>[690]</span></p> + +<p><i>Chirogaleus.</i><a id="FNanchor_649" href="#Footnote_649" class="fnanchor">[649]</a>—Last upper premolar very much smaller than the +first molar, with only one external cusp. The animals included +under this name appear to form a transition between the true +Lemurs and the Galagos. The genus was originally established by +Geoffroy St. Hilaire in 1812 for the reception of three species +only known at that time by drawings made in Madagascar by the +traveller Commerson. Subsequent discoveries have brought to +light several others that may be referred to it, including one or +two which are sometimes considered as forming a genus apart under +the name of <i>Microcebus</i>. They are all small, some being less than +a rat in size, long-tailed, and nocturnal in their habits. One of the +largest, <i>C. furcifer</i>, is of a reddish-gray colour, and distinguished +by a dark median stripe on its back which divides on the top of +the head into two branches, one of which passes forwards above +each eye. The most interesting peculiarity of these animals, a +knowledge of which we owe to M. Grandidier, is that certain species +(<i>C. samati</i>, <i>C. gliroides</i>, <i>C. milii</i>, etc.) during the dry season coil themselves +up in holes of trees and pass into a state of torpidity like +that of the hibernating animals in the winter of northern climates. +Before this takes place an immense deposit of fat accumulates +upon certain parts of the body, especially upon the basal portion of +the tail, which has then dimensions corresponding to that of the +well-known fat-tailed Sheep of the Cape, but which by the time +they emerge from their torpor has acquired its normal proportions. +The smallest species, to which many names have been given +(<i>C. pusillus</i>, <i>rufus</i>, <i>smithi</i>, etc.), lives among the small branches on +the tops of the highest trees, feeding on fruit and insects, and +making nests which resemble those of birds.</p> + +<p><i>Galago.</i><a id="FNanchor_650" href="#Footnote_650" class="fnanchor">[650]</a>—Last upper premolar with two large external cusps, +and nearly equalling the first molar in size. Calcaneum about one-third +the length of the tibia, and the navicular much longer than +the cuboid. Vertebræ: C 7, D 13, L 6, S 3, C 22-26. Tail long, +and generally bushy. Ears large, rounded, naked, and capable of +being folded at the will of the animal. Mammæ four, two pectoral +and two inguinal.</p> + +<p>The Galagos differ from all the Lemuroids previously mentioned, +inasmuch as they are inhabitants, not of Madagascar, but of the +African continent, being widely distributed in the wooded districts +from Senegambia in the west to Abyssinia in the east, and as far +south as Natal. They pass the day in sleep, but are very active at +night, feeding on fruit, insects, and small birds. When they +descend to the ground they sit upright, and move about by jumping +with their hind legs, like jerboas and kangaroos. They are +pretty little animals, varying in size from that of a small cat to less +than a rat, with large eyes and ears, soft woolly fur, and <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_691"></a>[691]</span>long tails. +There are several species, of which <i>G. crassicaudatus</i>, from Mozambique, +is the largest. A similar species, or perhaps variety, from +Angola is <i>G. montieri</i>. <i>G. garnetti</i>, <i>alleni</i>, <i>maholi</i>, <i>demidoffi</i>, and +<i>senegalensis</i> are other recognised species. The last-mentioned was +the first known to science, having been brought from Senegal by +Adanson, and described in 1796 by Geoffroy, who adopted the +name <i>Galago</i>, by which it was said to be called by the natives.</p> + +<p>Subfamily <b>Lorisinæ</b>.—Dental formula as in <i>Lemurinæ</i>. Index +finger very short, sometimes rudimentary and nailless. Fore and +hind limbs nearly equal in length. Tarsus not specially elongated. +Pollex and hallux diverging widely from the other digits, the hallux +especially being habitually directed backwards. Tail short or quite +rudimentary. Mammæ two, pectoral.</p> + +<p>A small group of very peculiar animals, of essentially nocturnal +habits, and remarkable for the slowness of their movements. They +are completely arboreal, their limbs being formed only for climbing +and clinging to branches, not for jumping or running. They have +rounded heads, very large eyes, short ears, and thick, short, soft +fur. They feed not only on vegetable substances, but, like many +of the <i>Lemuridæ</i>, on insects, eggs, and also birds, which they steal +upon while roosting at night. None of the species are found in +Madagascar. One of the greatest anatomical peculiarities of these +animals is the breaking up of the large arterial trunks of the limbs +into numerous small parallel branches, constituting a <i>rete mirabile</i>, +which is found also in the Sloths, with which the Loris are sometimes +confounded on account of the slowness of their movements. +The animals of this group are usually divided into four genera, +though the characters by which they are separated are very trivial. +There are more properly two natural divisions.</p> + +<p><i>A.</i> Characterised by the index finger being small, but having +the complete number of phalanges, and by their Asiatic habitat.</p> + +<p>These form the genus <i>Loris</i> of Geoffroy St. Hilaire (1796), +<i>Stenops</i> of Illiger (1811), but they were in 1812 divided by Geoffroy +into two genera, <i>Nycticebus</i> and <i>Loris</i>, a division which has been +accepted by most modern zoologists.</p> + +<p><i>Nycticebus.</i><a id="FNanchor_651" href="#Footnote_651" class="fnanchor">[651]</a>—First upper incisor larger than the second, which +is often early deciduous. Inner margins of the orbits separated +from each other by a narrow flat space. Nasal and premaxillary +bones projecting but very slightly in front of the maxillæ. Body +and limbs stout. No external tail. Vertebræ: C 7, D 17, L 6, S 3, +C 12. The species are <i>N. tardigradus</i>, the common Slow Lemur or +Loris, of the Malay Countries, Sumatra, and Borneo; <i>N. javanicus</i>, +of Java; and <i>N. cinereus</i> (<a href="#figure329">Fig. 329</a>) of Siam and Cochin China. The +habits of all are much alike. They lead a solitary life in the +recesses of large forests, chiefly in mountainous districts, where<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_692"></a>[692]</span> they +sleep during the day in holes or fissures of large trees, rolled up +into a ball, with the head between the hind legs. On the approach +of evening they awake; and during the night they ramble among +the branches of trees, slowly and quietly, in search of their food, +which consists of tender leaves and fruit, small birds, insects, and +mice. When in quest of living prey they move noiselessly till quite +close, and then suddenly seize it with one of their hands. The +female produces but one young one at a time. <i>L. tardigradus</i> was +placed by Linnæus at the head of the list of species of his genus +<i>Lemur</i>, and its habits doubtless suggested the generic name which +was transferred by Geoffroy to the less nocturnal and spectre-like +Madagascar members of the group.<a id="FNanchor_652" href="#Footnote_652" class="fnanchor">[652]</a></p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp96" id="figure329" style="max-width: 28.125em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure329.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 329.</span>—The Gray Loris (<i>Nycticebus cinereus</i>). From A. Milne-Edwards, <i>N. Archives +du Muséum</i>, vol iii. pl 3.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Loris</i>.<a id="FNanchor_653" href="#Footnote_653" class="fnanchor">[653]</a>—Upper incisors very small and equal. Orbits very large, +and only separated in the middle line above by a thin vertical plate +of bone. Nasals and premaxillæ produced forwards considerably +beyond the anterior limits of the maxillæ, and supporting a pointed +nose. Body and limbs slender. No external tail. Vertebræ: C 7, +D 14, L 9, S 3, C 6. This genus is represented only by the Slender +Loris (<i>L. gracilis</i>) of Southern India and Ceylon (<a href="#figure330">Fig. 330</a>). This +species is common in some of the forest regions of Southern India, +and may be purchased in the bazaars at Madras, its eyes being +regarded as a remedy by the natives for ophthalmic diseases. It is<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_693"></a>[693]</span> +a strange-looking creature, about the size of a squirrel, of a +yellowish-brown colour, with large, prominent eyes, pointed nose, +long thin body, long, angularly bent, slender limbs, and no tail. +Its habits, according to Mr. W. T. Blanford,<a id="FNanchor_654" href="#Footnote_654" class="fnanchor">[654]</a> are “very similar +to those of +<i>Nycticebus tardigradus</i>, +except +that the Slender +Loris is rather +quicker in its +movements, +though still slow +in general. Like +its ally, it is +purely nocturnal +and arboreal, +living upon +shoots and young +leaves, insects, +birds’ eggs, birds, +and lizards. It +is said to be very +fond of honey or +syrup. It sleeps +rolled up in a +ball with its head between its legs, grasping its perch with its arms.”</p> + +<figure class="figright illowp81" id="figure330" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure330.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 330.</span>—The Slender Loris (<i>Loris gracilis</i>). From Blanford, +<i>Mammalia of British India</i>, p. 47.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>B.</i> Index fingers reduced to a mere tubercle without nail. Both +the known species are from West Africa.</p> + +<p><i>Perodicticus.</i><a id="FNanchor_655" href="#Footnote_655" class="fnanchor">[655]</a>—A short tail, about a third of the length of the +trunk. Two or three of the anterior dorsal vertebræ have very +long slender spinous processes which in the living animal project +beyond the general level of the skin, forming distinct conical prominences, +covered only by an exceedingly thin and naked integument. +The Potto, <i>P. potto</i>, is one of the oldest known members of +the lemuroid group, having been described in 1705 by Bosman, +who met with it in his voyage to Guinea. It was, however, lost +sight of until 1825, when it was rediscovered in Sierra Leone, and +fully described by Bennett in 1830 under the name of <i>Perodicticus +geoffroyi</i>. Bennett’s generic name has been retained, but the specific +name bestowed by Gmelin, adopted from Bosman, has been restored. +It is also found in the Gaboon. It is strictly nocturnal, and slower +in its movements even than <i>Nycticebus tardigradus</i>, which otherwise +it much resembles in its habits.</p> + +<p>A second species, the Awantibo (<i>P. calabarensis</i>), rather smaller<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_694"></a>[694]</span> +and more delicately made, with smaller hands and feet and rudimentary +tail, constitutes the genus <i>Arctocebus</i> of Gray. It is found +at Old Calabar, and is very rare, only a few individuals having as +yet been met with. Vertebræ: C 7, D 15, L 7, S 3, C 9.<a id="FNanchor_656" href="#Footnote_656" class="fnanchor">[656]</a></p> + +<h4><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Tarsiidæ</span>.</h4> + +<p>Dentition: <i>i</i> ²⁄₁, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 34. The first upper +incisor large, and in contact with its fellow of the opposite side. +Canine of moderate size. Molars with numerous pointed cusps. +Lower canine semi-erect, its apex diverging from that of the single +incisor. First lower premolar smaller than those behind it. Orbit +to a large extent separated from the temporal fossa by a bony +partition. Fibula slender, with its lower half confluent with the +tibia. Second and third digits of the hind foot with compressed +claws; all the other digits of both feet with flat nails. Calcaneum +and navicular bone of the foot elongated as in the Chirogales and +Galagos, but to a still greater extent. Colon short and not folded. +Vertebræ: C 7, D 13, L 6, S 3, C 27.</p> + +<p><i>Tarsius.</i><a id="FNanchor_657" href="#Footnote_657" class="fnanchor">[657]</a>—The family contains the single genus <i>Tarsius</i>, of +which but one species is known, <i>T. spectrum</i>, the Tarsier, a very +singular little animal, rather smaller than an English squirrel, with +very large eyes and ears, a long thin tail, tufted at the end, and +immensely elongated tarsal portion of the foot, in allusion to which +its generic name was given to it. It inhabits the forests of many +of the islands of the Indo-Malayan archipelago, including Sumatra, +Borneo, Celebes, and some of the Philippines, feeds chiefly on insects +and lizards, sleeps during the day, but is tolerably active at night, +moving chiefly by jumping from place to place, an action for which +the structure of its hind legs, which present a curious resemblance +to those of a frog, seems particularly well adapted. It is rare, not +more than two being generally found together, and only brings +forth one young at a time.<a id="FNanchor_658" href="#Footnote_658" class="fnanchor">[658]</a></p> + +<h4><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Chiromyidæ</span>.</h4> + +<p>Dentition of adult: <i>i</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>c</i> ⁰⁄₀, <i>p</i> ¹⁄₀, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 18. Incisors very +large, compressed, curved, with persistent pulps and enamel only in +front, as in Rodents. Teeth of cheek series with flat, very indistinctly +tuberculated crowns. In the young the first set of teeth +more resemble those of the normal lemurs, being <i>i</i> ²⁄₂, <i>c<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_695"></a>[695]</span></i> ¹⁄₀, <i>m</i> ²⁄₂, all +very small. Orbit surrounded by a ring of bone posteriorly, beneath +which it communicates freely with the temporal fossa. Fibula well +developed and distinct from the tibia. All the digits of both feet +with pointed rather compressed claws, except the hallux, which has +a flattened nail. Middle digit of the hand excessively attenuated. +Vertebræ: C 7, D 12, L 6, S 3, C 27.</p> + +<figure class="figleft illowp100" id="figure331" style="max-width: 21.875em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure331.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 331.</span>—Skull of Aye-aye (<i>Chiromys madagascariensis</i>). × ⅙ +Mus. Roy. Coll. Surgeons.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Chiromys.</i><a id="FNanchor_659" href="#Footnote_659" class="fnanchor">[659]</a>—This family, like the last, is formed for the reception +of a single genus, <i>Chiromys</i>,<a id="FNanchor_660" href="#Footnote_660" class="fnanchor">[660]</a> containing one species, <i>C. madagascariensis</i>, +the Aye-aye, an animal about the size of a cat, with a +broad rounded head, short face, and large and naked ears. It has +very large hands and long thin fingers with pointed claws, one of +which (the middle +or third) is remarkable +for its extreme +slenderness. The +foot resembles that +of the other lemurs +in its large opposable +hallux, with a flat +nail, but all the +other toes have +pointed compressed +claws, like that of +the second toe in +the <i>Lemurinæ</i> and +the second and third +in the <i>Tarsiidæ</i>. Tail +long and bushy. General colour dark brown, the outer fur being +long and rather loose, with a woolly undercoat. Mammæ two, +inguinal in position. It is a native of Madagascar, where it was +discovered by Sonnerat in 1780. The specimen brought to Paris by +that traveller was the only one known until 1860. Since then many +others have been obtained, and they may frequently be seen living in +the gardens of the Zoological Society of London. Like so many of +the Lemurs, the Aye-aye is completely nocturnal in its habits, living +either alone or in pairs, chiefly in the bamboo forests. Observations +upon captive specimens have led to the conclusion that it feeds principally +on succulent juices, especially of the sugar-cane, which it obtains +by tearing open the hard woody circumference of the stalk with its +strong incisor teeth. It is said also to devour certain species of +wood-boring caterpillars, which it obtains by first cutting down<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_696"></a>[696]</span> +with its teeth upon their burrows, and then picking them out +of their retreat with the claw of its attenuated middle finger. It +constructs large ball-like nests of dried leaves, lodged in a fork +of the branches of a tree with the opening on one side. The +resemblance of its teeth to those so characteristic of the Rodentia +caused it to be placed formerly in that order, and it was only when +its anatomical characters were fully known that its true affinities +with the Lemurs became apparent.<a id="FNanchor_661" href="#Footnote_661" class="fnanchor">[661]</a></p> + +<h4><i>Extinct</i> <span class="smcap">Lemuroids</span>.</h4> + +<p>The discoveries of the last few years have revealed the former +existence, both in Europe and North America, of a number of +extinct animals more or less closely allied to the living Lemurs, +which are of especial interest as showing in some instances characters +of a more generalised type than is the case with the living +representatives of the suborder. It is, however, in some cases very +difficult to determine whether these extinct forms should be referred +to the Lemuroidea or Insectivora; and if those naturalists are right +who regard these groups as survivors of a very generalised ancestral +type of mammalian organisation, it is to be expected that as we +recede in time we should find that the two groups show more and +more marked signs of a natural connection. The earliest reference +of one of these extinct Upper Eocene types to the Primates was +made in 1862 by Professor L. Rütimeyer, of Basle, who described +part of an upper jaw with three teeth from the so-called Bohnerz +of Egerkingen, near Soleure in Switzerland, under the name of +<i>Cænopithecus lemuroides</i>, regarding the animal to which the specimen +belonged as partaking of the characters both of the Lemurs and the +American Monkeys. Most other palæontologists refused, however, +to accept this determination, and it was not until many years +later that the researches of Gaudry and Filhol showed not only +that <i>Cænopithecus</i> was indeed a true Lemuroid, but also that it was +either identical with or closely allied to a form described by Cuvier +in the early part of this century under the name of <i>Adapis</i> and +regarded as referable to the Ungulata. Later researches have +brought to light other Lemuroids in the Tertiaries of both the Old +and the New World; and it is very noteworthy that all these types +seem to have disappeared from both regions with the close of the +upper portion of the Eocene period.</p> + +<figure class="figright illowp100" id="figure332" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure332.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 332.</span>—The last five right upper cheek-teeth of <i>Microchœrus +antiquus</i> (<i>A</i>) and <i>Microchœrus erinaceus</i> (<i>B</i>). Twice +natural size, and natural size.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>Among the more interesting of the forms which are generally +regarded as true Lemuroids we may first mention a small species +from the Quercy Phosphorites, of which the hinder cheek-teeth are<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_697"></a>[697]</span> +shown in <a href="#figure332">Fig. 332</a>, <i>A</i>, which was originally described as <i>Necrolemur +antiquus</i>, but appears to be generically identical with <i>Microchœrus +erinaceus</i>, of the upper Eocene of Hampshire, of which the corresponding +teeth are shown in <i>B</i> of the same figure. In this genus, +according to Dr. Schlosser, the dental formula is <i>i</i> ²⁄₁, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃, +or the same as in the existing <i>Tarsius</i>; but it is not improbable that +in some instances the first lower premolar may have been developed. +The upper molars of <i>M. erinaceus</i> differ from those of <i>M. antiquus</i> +by the simpler structure of their columns and the smaller size of +the external cingulum, which lacks the median cusp found in the +latter. The angle of the mandible is produced into a large hook-like +flange which at once +distinguishes the genus +from all existing Lemurs; +and the anterior lower +premolar is not canine-like. +<i>M. antiquus</i> is of +very small size, but the +larger <i>M. edwardsi</i> of the +same deposits comes +nearer in dimensions to +<i>M. erinaceus</i>. The upper +molars decrease in size +from the first to the third, the first and second having a median +cusp in the external cingulum, by which they are readily distinguished +from the corresponding teeth of the under-mentioned +genus <i>Hyopsodus</i>. The third upper molar differs from that of +<i>Hyopsodus</i> by its small size and the abortion of its posterior columns. +The skull approximates to that of the living genus <i>Galago</i>, exhibiting +the same inflation of the auditory bulla. The upper molars +are also not unlike one species of that genus, but the fourth upper +premolar has but one outer cusp, as in <i>Chirogaleus</i>.</p> + +<p>The small <i>Anaptomorphus</i>, from the North American Eocene, +has a skull of about the same size as that of the smallest species of +<i>Microchœrus</i>, but the dental formula is <i>i</i> ²⁄₂, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ²⁄₂, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃, and the +upper molars are of the tritubercular type.</p> + +<figure class="figleft illowp100" id="figure333" style="max-width: 15.625em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure333.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 333.</span>—The left upper cheek-teeth +of <i>Adapis magna</i>, from the Upper Eocene +of Hampshire.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The well-known <i>Adapis</i> (<i>Aphelotherium</i> or <i>Palæolemur</i>), of the +Upper Eocene of France and England, differs from all existing +Lemuroids in possessing four premolars<a id="FNanchor_662" href="#Footnote_662" class="fnanchor">[662]</a>; the dental formula being +<i>i</i> ²⁄₂, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₄, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃. The fourth upper premolar has two outer cusps, +and the upper molars (<a href="#figure333">Fig. 333</a>) resemble those of <i>Lepidolemur</i> and +<i>Hapalemur</i>, while the lower canine is a well-developed tooth performing +the usual function of biting against the canine of the upper +jaw. The lower incisors have upright, spatulate crowns, as in the +true Apes. The skull is said to approximate in contour to that of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_698"></a>[698]</span> +<i>Propithecus</i>. The typical <i>A. parisiensis</i> is of comparatively small +size, but the species of which the upper cheek-teeth are shown in +the woodcut is of much larger dimensions. The skull of <i>A. magna</i>, +which measures upwards of 4 inches in length, resembles that of +<i>A. parisiensis</i> in its general characters, but is modified much in the +way that the skulls of larger animals differ from the smaller ones of +the same natural group. Thus the brain-chamber and orbits are +relatively smaller, the face larger, the muscular crests more +developed, and the constriction between +the cerebral and the facial +portion of the skull more marked. +These modifications remove the skull +in its general characters still farther +from the existing Lemurs—so much +so that M. Filhol refers it and the +other species of <i>Adapis</i> to a distinct +zoological type, intermediate between +the lemurs and the pachyderms, to +which he gives the name of <i>Pachylemuriens</i>, +but later researches do not support this view. As +mentioned above, it has been suggested that <i>Cænopithecus lemuroides</i> +is inseparable from <i>Adapis parisiensis</i>, but the postero-internal +column of the upper molars is said to be larger. The genera +<i>Tomitherium</i> and <i>Notharctus</i>, of the Eocene of the United States, +appear to be allied to <i>Adapis</i>, but the second has a larger lower +canine. The same deposits have also yielded more or less imperfect +remains of other forms departing more widely from the existing +Lemuroid type. Of these <i>Hyopsodus</i>, of the Wasatch and Bridger +Eocene of the United States, has the dental formula <i>i</i> ²⁄₂, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₄, +<i>m</i> ³⁄₅. The quadrituberculate upper molars have well-developed +accessory intermediate columns (protoconule and metaconule), and +thus resemble those of <i>Microchœrus</i>; the external surfaces of the +outer columns of their teeth being flattened, with vertical ridges +and a distinct cingulum. The third upper molar has its postero-internal +column (hypocone) partly aborted, but is otherwise as well +developed as the preceding molars. <i>Microsyops</i>, of the North +American Eocene, appears to have been +an allied form in which there were probably +only three premolars.</p> + +<figure class="figright illowp100" id="figure334" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure334.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 334.</span>—The right upper +cheek-teeth of <i>Plesiadapis remensis</i>; +from the Lowest Eocene of +Rheims. × ³⁄₂. <i>p</i>, 3, 4, premolars; +<i>m</i>, 1, 2, 3, molars. (From Osborn.)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The genera <i>Protoadapis</i> and <i>Plesiadapis</i>, +from the lowest Eocene of Rheims, may +not improbably be regarded as primitive +Lemuroids. The lower molars are quinquetubercular, +and not unlike those of +<i>Microsyops</i>; the dental formula of the +lower jaw is <i>i</i> 2, <i>c</i> 1, <i>p</i> 3-4, <i>m</i> 3 in the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_699"></a>[699]</span> +first-named genus, but in the second the +dentition is reduced to <i>i</i> ²⁄₁, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₀, <i>p</i> ²⁄₂, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃. In <i>Plesiadapis</i> the lower +and the first upper incisor are enlarged, the upper molars +(<a href="#figure334">Fig. 334</a>) tritubercular, and the lower quadritubercular. <i>Indrodon</i>, +of the lowest Eocene of the United States, resembles <i>Plesiadapis</i> in +its tritubercular upper molars, and appears to have a nearly similar +dental formula. <i>Mixodectes</i>, of the same deposits, was probably a +more or less closely allied type. <i>Pelycodus</i> of the Wasatch Eocene +of North America, in which the hallux was not opposable, and +<i>Cryptopithecus</i> of the German Eocene, may be regarded as very +generalised Lemuroids.</p> + +<div class="bibliography"> + +<p><i>Bibliography.</i>—Besides the works and memoirs on particular families and genera +referred to above, see St. G. Mivart, “Notes on the Crania and Dentition of +the <i>Lemuridæ</i>,” in <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1864 (pp. 611-648) and 1867 (pp. 960-975); +Mivart and Murie, “On the Anatomy of the <i>Lemuroidea</i>,” in <i>Trans. Zool. Soc.</i> +1872, vol. vii. pp. 1-113; W. Turner, “On the Placentation of the Lemurs,” in +<i>Phil. Trans.</i> vol. clxvi. pp. 569-587; F. Pollen and D. C. Van Dam, <i>Recherches +sur la Faune de Madagascar</i>. 2ᵐᵉ parte, “Mammifères,” 1868. For the fossil +types see M. Schlosser, “Die Affen, Lemuren, etc., des Europäischen Tertiärs,” +in <i>Beitr. Pal. Œstr-Ungar</i>, 1888.</p> + +</div> + +<h3><i>Suborder</i> <span class="smcap">Anthropoidea</span>.</h3> + +<p>This suborder includes the whole of the remaining members of +the Primates, namely, those animals commonly known as Marmosets, +Monkeys, Baboons, and Apes, together with Man himself. The +characters by which the Anthropoidea are distinguished as a whole +from the Lemuroidea may be summarised as follows. Skull with +the orbit separated from the temporal fossa by a vertical plate of +bone joining the postorbital bar, and the lachrymal foramen situated +within the margin of the orbit. Pollex sometimes rudimentary or +absent; second digit of manus always well developed, and that of +the pes usually with a flattened nail (not so in <i>Hapalidæ</i>). The +cerebral hemispheres of the brain either completely or almost +completely cover the cerebellum, and are much convoluted. +Uterus not bicornuate. The placenta is deciduate and discoidal; +and the allantois is small. There are never abdominal mammæ. As +additional points of distinction from the Lemuroidea, it may be +mentioned that the anterior cornu of the hyoid is shorter than the +posterior; the inner pair of upper incisors are in contact in the +middle line; and the transverse portion of the colon extends uninterruptedly +across the abdomen.</p> + +<p>The Anthropoidea may be divided into the five families—<i>Hapalidæ</i>, +<i>Cebidæ</i>, <i>Cercopithecidæ</i>, <i>Simiidæ</i>, and <i>Hominidæ</i>, of which the +first and second are confined to the New, and the third and fourth +to the Old World.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_700"></a>[700]</span></p> + +<p>In noticing some of the salient features in the external and +internal structure of the Anthropoidea it will be found convenient +to allude to all the members of the first four families as Apes, in +contradistinction to Man. In respect to relative size the extremes +are found in the Gorilla on the one hand and <i>Hapale</i> on the other; +the difference in this respect between these two forms being greater +than that between Man and a Squirrel. The relative proportions +between the limbs and the body, and also between the fore and +hind limbs, are subject to great variation. Thus in <i>Hylobates</i> and +<i>Ateles</i> both pairs of limbs are much elongated; in the former case +the pectoral being much longer than the pelvic pair (<a href="#figure335">Fig. 335</a>). +In other cases, as in the Orang (<a href="#figure354">Fig. 354</a>), while the arms are very +long, the legs are short; but in the subfamily <i>Cercopithecinæ</i> both +pairs are short and subequal. Only in the <i>Hapalidæ</i> and some of +the <i>Cebidæ</i> are the legs proportionately as long as in Man.</p> + +<p>The tail is as much as three times the length of the body in +<i>Ateles</i>; while in the <i>Simiidæ</i> it is totally absent. In the majority +of genera it is long in all the species; but in some cases, as in +<i>Macacus</i>, it may be either long, short, or absent in the different +species of a single genus.</p> + +<p>Equally marked variations occur in the shape of the head. +Thus in <i>Ateles</i> it is rounded; while in the Orang it is elevated +vertically; in <i>Chrysothrix</i> it is produced posteriorly; and in the +Baboons (<i>Cynocephalus</i>) it is characterised by the great production +of the muzzle and the terminal position of the nostrils, whereby a +characteristic Dog-like form is assumed. The eyes are always +directed forwards, and are never more separated from one another +than in Man, although, as in <i>Chrysothrix</i>, they may be closer +together. They are of very large size in <i>Nyctipithecus</i>, while in the +Baboons they are relatively small in proportion to the size of the +head. The ears are invariably well developed, and are usually +pointed at their postero-superior angle. Those of man are characterised +by the soft depending portion known as the “lobule,” of +which there is a rudiment in the Gorilla. In the majority of Apes +the nose is but very slightly prominent; but it attains an extraordinary +development in <i>Nasalis larvatus</i>, and is scarcely less +remarkable in <i>Semnopithecus roxellanæ</i> (<a href="#figure349">Fig. 349</a>). Among the +Gibbons the Hoolock has a distinctly aquiline nose. The nostrils +are terminal in the true Baboons; and while in all the Old World +Apes they are approximated, in those of the New World they are +separated by a broad septum. With the exception of the Orang, +the lips of the Apes are thin.</p> + +<p>The pollex makes a nearer approach in form to the human +thumb in the Chimpanzee than in any other Ape. Man differs +from all the Apes in having the hallux frequently longer instead of +shorter than the other digits of the foot. The hallux of the Orang<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_701"></a>[701]</span> +is peculiar in having no nail, but in other cases the nail is flat; the +nails of the other digits of the Apes are never quite flat, and in +some of the <i>Cebidæ</i> they are decidedly compressed laterally, while +in the <i>Hapalidæ</i> they assume the form of sharp and curved claws.</p> + +<p>All the Apes have the greater part of the body well clothed +with hair. In the Gibbons and the <i>Cercopithecidæ</i> the buttocks have +naked ischiatic callosities, which attain their greatest development +in <i>Cynocephalus</i> and its allies. The male of the Orang has a well-developed +beard, and in <i>Cercopithecus diana</i> there is long hair on the +cheeks and chin, while in <i>Macacus silenus</i> the face is surrounded by +a fringe of long hair, separated by an interval on the forehead. +Long hair is found on the head in <i>Hapale œdipus</i> and in some species +of <i>Semnopithecus</i>; while in the Bonnet Monkey (<i>Macacus sinicus</i>) it +radiates in all directions from a central point on the vertex. Long +hair clothes the shoulders in <i>Cynocephalus hamadryas</i> and <i>Hapale +humeralifer</i>; and the end of the tail has a tuft in two species of +<i>Cynocephalus</i> and in <i>Macacus sinicus</i>. Many of the African <i>Colobi</i> +and some species of the Howlers have very long hair on the flanks; +and in <i>Pithecia</i> this development of hair extends to the greater part +of the body and the tail, <i>P. satanas</i> also having a long beard. In +all the lower Apes the hairs on the arm and forearm are directed +towards the hand quite down to the wrist; and the same arrangement +obtains in <i>Hylobates</i>. In the other <i>Simiidæ</i>, however (as in +man), the points of the hairs of the arm and forearm converge +at the elbow. Darwin’s explanation of this peculiarity is that these +Apes are accustomed to sit with the arms bent, so that the rain is +thus enabled to run off at the elbow.</p> + +<p>In one species of <i>Hapale</i> the hair is of a silky texture, and in +the South American <i>Eriodes</i>, and <i>Macacus tibetanus</i> (as in all the +mammals inhabiting the arid and severe climate of Tibet) it becomes +woolly.</p> + +<p>The development of very brilliant colours on the naked parts of +the body, such as the face, sexual organs, and ischiatic callosities is +a marked feature of many of the <i>Cercopithecidæ</i> and some other Apes.</p> + +<p>With the exception of the long tail found in most forms, the +general structure of the skeleton of the Apes is very similar to +that of man, but there are marked differences in the form of the +jaws and of the innominate bones. The proportion of the facial to +the cranial region of the skull varies with the shape of the head, +of which brief mention has already been made; the greatest +development of the facial portion being in the Baboons. Curiously +enough, some of the lower American Monkeys, and more especially +<i>Chrysothrix</i>, have the greatest relative development of the cranial +part of the skull of all the Apes; this character being, however, +one common to all the smaller representatives of particular groups, +and obviously necessary to provide the requisite amount of brain-space.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_702"></a>[702]</span> +In the convexity of the frontal region of the skull the +American forms, and more especially <i>Pithecia</i>, make the nearest +approximation to man, and the same is true with regard to the +occipital production, which is most developed in <i>Chrysothrix</i>. Most +of the <i>Simiidæ</i> exhibit, however, a distinct convexity of the occiput, +and thereby differ markedly from the <i>Cercopithecidæ</i>, in which this +region is flat. The rotundity of the cranium is obscured in the +larger Apes, such as the Orang (<a href="#figure353">Fig. 353</a>) and Gorilla, by the +development of prominent bony ridges for muscular attachment; +these attaining their maximum in the males of the species last +named, where the sagittal crests and the supraorbital ridges are +very prominent. The mastoid process is always smaller in the +Apes than in Man, and as it diminishes in size the petrosal tends +to assume an inflated or bullate condition. The orbits in shape +are most like that of Man in the Gorilla; and, in accordance with +the size of the eyes, they are of enormous dimensions in <i>Nyctipithecus</i>.</p> + +<p>The angle formed by the plane of the foramen magnum with +that of the basicranial axis is subject to variation according to the +degree of convexity of the occiput, but is generally smaller than in +Man, although larger in <i>Chrysothrix</i>. There is an external bony +meatus auditorius in Man, the <i>Simiidæ</i>, and the <i>Cercopithecidæ</i>, but +none in the <i>Cebidæ</i> and <i>Hapalidæ</i>.</p> + +<p>The premaxillæ of the Apes are always large; and, except in +the Chimpanzee, the premaxillo-maxillary suture persists until after +the permanent dentition has been developed. The nasals are +smaller and flatter than in Man, but are largest in <i>Mycetes</i>. The +two rami of the mandible are invariably completely ankylosed at +the symphysis in the adult. The Siamang (<i>Hylobates syndactylus</i>) is +the only ape in which the mandibular symphysis slows a slight +projection in front corresponding to the human chin. In <i>Mycetes</i> +the angle of the mandible attains an enormous development (<a href="#figure338">Fig. +338</a>) to protect the huge inflated basihyal. The frontal sinuses, +though present, in the <i>Simiidæ</i>, are generally replaced in the +<i>Cercopithecidæ</i> by a coarse diploë, but they are present in the +<i>Cebidæ</i> and <i>Hapalidæ</i>, being especially large in <i>Cebus</i>. In fully +adult individuals the cranial sutures become obliterated, the internasal +suture disappearing at an early age in the <i>Simiidæ</i> and most +of the <i>Cercopithecidæ</i>. As in many Carnivora, the tentorium, or +membrane separating the cerebrum from the cerebellum, may +become ossified in some of the American forms.</p> + +<p>The number of the teeth in the Old World Apes is invariably the +same as in Man, namely <i>i</i> ²⁄₂, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ²⁄₂, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃, total 32; but in the +<i>Cebidæ</i> the cheek-teeth are <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃, and in the <i>Hapalidæ</i> <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ²⁄₂. +It is probable that the two pairs of incisors correspond to the first +and third of the typical series of three. In all Apes the dental +series is interrupted by a diastema, and the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_703"></a>[703]</span> canines of the males +are large. Man alone has an uninterrupted dental series of a +horse-shoe-form, without prominent canines.</p> + +<p>According to recent researches the Chimpanzee and some of the +other <i>Simiidæ</i> exhibit a more or less close approximation to the +sigmoid curvature of the vertebral column which is so characteristic +of Man, and there is also some approach to it in the Baboons. +The number of dorsal vertebræ in the Apes may vary from eleven, +as in some species of <i>Cercopithecus</i> and <i>Macacus</i>, to fourteen in +certain forms of <i>Hylobates</i>, and to fifteen in <i>Nyctipithecus</i>. The +<i>Cebidæ</i> generally have thirteen; and the same number obtains in +the Chimpanzee and Gorilla, while the Orang resembles Man in +having but twelve. The lumbar vertebræ show a range in number +of from four to seven. In the <i>Simiidæ</i> there are four or five of +these vertebræ, the length of the lumbar region being shorter in +this family than in the other Apes, with the exception of <i>Ateles</i>. +The shortness of the lumbar region in the last-named genus is +compensated by the relative length of the dorsal region, as is +shown in <a href="#figure335">Fig. 335</a>.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp93" id="figure335" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure335.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 335.</span>—Skeleton of the Black-handed Spider Monkey (<i>Ateles geoffroyi</i>). From De Blainville.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The sacrum is longest in the <i>Simiidæ</i> and Man, its greatest +absolute length occurring in the Gorilla, and the relative greatest +length being found in <i>Hylobates</i>. The <i>Simiidæ</i> never have less than +five, and may have six sacral vertebræ; while in the lower forms +there are generally only two or three, although occasionally four in +some of the American forms. The Orang and some of the Baboons +make the nearest approximation to Man in the marked angle +formed at the junction of the sacrum with the lumbar vertebræ.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_704"></a>[704]</span> +Except in the <i>Simiidæ</i> and <i>Macacus inuus</i>, the number of caudal +vertebræ in the Apes always exceeds four, but they may be +reduced to five in the Mandrill (<i>Cynocephalus maimon</i>). In <i>Macacus</i> +and <i>Uacaria</i> the shortness of the tail is attained by the small +size of the vertebræ themselves, the number of which may be +from fifteen to seventeen. Other forms usually have from twenty +to thirty-three caudals, the latter number occurring in <i>Ateles</i> +(<a href="#figure335">Fig. 335</a>), where the tail is relatively the longest. The tail is, +however, absolutely longest in <i>Semnopithecus</i>, <i>Colobus</i>, and their +allies, the length being partly due to the size of the component +vertebræ. Chevron bones are present in all forms having a distinct +tail; and, together with other processes for muscular attachment, +attain their greatest development in <i>Ateles</i>.</p> + +<p>The vertebral processes known as metapophyses and anapophyses, +which are generally inconspicuous in Man, and are but small in the +<i>Simiidæ</i>, attain a large development in the lower forms. The +metapophyses generally commence in the eighth or ninth dorsal, +and continue to the anterior caudals, where they gradually merge +in the prezygapophyses. The anapophyses, which are most developed +in the <i>Cebidæ</i>, project outwards and backwards from one +vertebra to embrace the prezygapophyses of the succeeding one. +They occur generally in the same region as the metapophyses, but +usually cease at the penultimate lumbar, although in some cases +they can be traced on to the posterior cervicals and anterior +caudals, in the latter region passing into the transverse processes.</p> + +<p>In most Apes the sternum is narrow, and consists of a more or +less enlarged manubrium, followed by a chain of subequal and +antero-posteriorly elongated bones, from three to six in number. In +the <i>Simiidæ</i> alone is there a broad sternum, or one consisting of a +manubrium, followed by a single bone only, as in <i>Hylobates</i>. The +Orang presents a peculiarity, in that the sternum long remains +made up of ossifications arranged in pairs, side by side, successively. +The true ribs are seven in number on each side in the highest +forms, but in <i>Hylobates</i> there are sometimes eight. In <i>Ateles</i> there +are sometimes nine pairs. In <i>Hapale</i> the number varies from six +to eight, and it is seven or eight in the other genera. The angles +of the ribs are never so marked as in Man; although most marked +in <i>Hylobates</i>. <i>Pithecia</i> is distinguished by the greater relative +breadth of the ribs. In no Ape is the thorax half as broad again +as it is deep from back to breast; but in the <i>Simiidæ</i> its transverse +diameter exceeds its depth by from about one-fourth to a little +under one-third of the latter. In <i>Ateles</i>, and sometimes in <i>Mycetes</i>, +the thorax is wider than deep, but in all the rest it is deeper than +wide.</p> + +<p>In regard to the appendicular skeleton it may be observed that +the Gorilla and Orang make the nearest approach to Man in the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_705"></a>[705]</span> +form of the scapula; and that the supraspinous fossa of this bone is +largest in <i>Gorilla</i> and <i>Mycetes</i>, being remarkably small in <i>Simia</i>. +The <i>Cebidæ</i> have a distinct suprascapular notch which is often +converted by a bar of bone into a foramen; this bar in <i>Mycetes</i> +giving rise to a peculiar flat process. The acromion and coracoid +processes are most developed in the <i>Simiidæ</i> and <i>Ateles</i>.</p> + +<p>The relative length of the fore and hind limbs has been already +briefly touched upon. The humerus closely resembles that of +Man throughout the suborder; the nearest approximation occurring +in the <i>Simiidæ</i>. As in the Lemuroidea, this bone never has an +entepicondylar foramen, but in many of the American forms it has +a supracondylar perforation. The radius and ulna, like the tibia +and fibula, are always perfectly distinct throughout their length; +and the hand can be pronated and supinated upon the forearm. +Man, the Gorilla, and the Chimpanzee differ from other forms in +having no os centrale in the carpus.</p> + +<p>The brain of Apes is always much smaller in absolute dimensions +than in Man. Thus, according to Professor Mivart,<a id="FNanchor_663" href="#Footnote_663" class="fnanchor">[663]</a> “the cranial +capacity is never less than 55 cubic inches in any normal human +subject, while in the Orang and Chimpanzee it is but 26 and 27½ +cubic inches respectively. The relative size of the brain varies +inversely with the size of the whole body, but this is the case in +warm-blooded vertebrates generally. The extreme length of the +cerebrum never exceeds, as it does in Man, two and a quarter times +the length of the basicranial axis. The proportion borne by the +brain to its nerves is less in the Apes than in Man, as also is that +borne by the cerebrum to the cerebellum. In general structure +and form the brain of Apes greatly resembles that of Man. Each +half of the cerebrum contains a triradiate lateral ventricle, and +though in some <i>Cercopithecidæ</i> the posterior cornu is relatively +shorter than in man, it again becomes elongated in the <i>Cebidæ</i>, and +in many of the latter it is actually longer relatively than it is in +man. The posterior lobes of the cerebrum are almost always so +much developed as to cover over the cerebellum, the only exceptions +being the strangely different forms <i>Mycetes</i> and <i>Hylobates syndactylus</i>. +In the latter the cerebellum is slightly uncovered, but it is so considerably +in the former. In <i>Chrysothrix</i> the posterior lobes are much +more largely developed relatively than they are in man. The +cerebrum has almost always a convoluted external surface. In this +group, however, as in mammals generally, a much-convoluted cerebrum +is correlated with a considerable absolute bulk of body. Thus +in <i>Hapale</i> (and there only) we find the cerebrum quite smooth, the +only groove being that which represents the Sylvian fissure. In +<i>Simia</i> and <i>Gorilla</i> and <i>Anthropopithecus</i>, on the contrary, it is very +richly convoluted. A hippocampus minor is present in all Apes,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_706"></a>[706]</span> +and in some of the <i>Cebidæ</i> it is much larger relatively than it is in +Man, and is absolutely larger than the hippocampus major. Of all +Apes, the Orang has a brain which is most like that of Man; +indeed, it may be said to be like Man’s in all respects, save that it +is much inferior in size and weight, and that the cerebrum is more +symmetrically convoluted and less complicated with secondary and +tertiary convolutions. If the brain of <i>Simia</i> be compared with that +of <i>Gorilla</i> and <i>Anthropopithecus</i>, we find the height of the cerebrum +in front greater in proportion in the former than in the latter; also +the bridging convolutions, though small, are still distinguishable, +while they are absent in the Chimpanzee. Nevertheless this +character cannot be of much importance, since it reappears in <i>Ateles</i>, +while two kinds of the genus <i>Cebus</i> (so closely allied as to have been +sometimes treated as one species) differ strangely from each other +in this respect. The corpus callosum, in Apes generally, does not +extend so far back as in Man, and it is very short in <i>Pithecia</i>. In the +Orang and Chimpanzee there are, as in Man, two corpora albicantia, +while in the lower Monkeys there is but one. The vermis of the +cerebellum is larger in the <i>Cebidæ</i> than in the <i>Simiidæ</i> and <i>Cercopithecidæ</i>. +In all Apes below the <i>Simiidæ</i> each lateral lobe of the +cerebellum gives off a small lobule, which is received into a special +fossa of the petrous bone. Certain prominences of the medulla +oblongata, termed corpora trapezoidea, which are found in lower +mammals, begin to make their appearance in the <i>Cebidæ</i>.”</p> + +<p>The organs connected with the functions of alimentation, circulation, +and excretion, as well as the muscles, conform generally to +the type obtaining in Man, of which full description will be found +in works on human anatomy. The tongue is longer in Apes than +in Man; and a uvula is generally present, although rudimentary in +the <i>Cebidæ</i>. The peculiar sacculation of the stomach in the subfamily +<i>Semnopithecinæ</i> has been already mentioned; this sacculation +is most developed at the cardiac extremity, where it somewhat +resembles a colon spirally coiled. In <i>Hylobates</i> the stomach is very +like that of Man, differing only in the more elongated and distinct +pylorus. <i>Pithecia</i> has a more globular stomach, while in <i>Hapale</i> +the cardiac and pyloric apertures are approximated. The intestine +of Apes is devoid of valvulæ conniventes, and it is only in Man and +the <i>Simiidæ</i> that the colon is furnished with a vermiform appendage. +The colon varies from a fully sacculated form in <i>Hylobates</i> to a +smooth one in <i>Cebus</i>.</p> + +<p>The liver of Apes is subject to a considerable amount of variation. +In the <i>Simiidæ</i> it comes more or less close to the human +type; that of the Orangs being usually divided only into two +principal lobes by the umbilical vein, and showing no trace of +lateral fissures. In the Gorilla these fissures are present, so as to +produce right and left lateral and central lobes. <i>Hylobates</i> has a<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_707"></a>[707]</span> +liver (<a href="#figure352">Fig. 352</a>) which perhaps is nearer to the human than that of +any of the other <i>Simiidæ</i>. In the <i>Cercopithecidæ</i> the liver differs +from that of the <i>Simiidæ</i> by the deeply cleft lateral fissures, and +has a comparatively small and pointed caudate lobe. The enormous +size of the stomach in <i>Colobus</i> causes the liver to be very narrow, +and pushed to the left side. The liver of the <i>Cebidæ</i> (<a href="#figure336">Fig. 336</a>) +and <i>Hapalidæ</i>, in addition +to the deeply +cleft lateral fissures, is +characterised by the +great size and quadrangular +form of the +caudate lobe (<i>c</i>), which +attains its maximum +development in <i>Ateles</i>. +The gall-bladder is +always present.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp79" id="figure336" style="max-width: 28.125em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure336.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 336.</span>—Under surface of the liver of the Black-handed +Spider Monkey (<i>Ateles melanochir</i>). <i>u</i>, Umbilical fissure; +<i>vc</i>, vena cava; <i>ll</i>, left lateral lobe; <i>lc</i>, left central lobe; <i>rc</i>, +right central lobe; <i>rl</i>, right lateral lobe; <i>s</i>, Spigelian lobe; +<i>c</i>, caudate lobe; <i>g</i>, gall-bladder.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The larynx is in many +Apes furnished with sac-like +appendages, which +are variable in different +species as regards +number, size, and situation. +They may be +dilatations of the laryngeal +ventricle, as in +<i>Simia</i>, <i>Gorilla</i>, and +<i>Anthropopithecus</i>, or they may open above the false vocal chords +so as to be extensions of the thyro-hyoid membrane, as in <i>Hylobates</i>. +There may be but a single median opening in the front part of +that membrane at the base of the epiglottis, as in the <i>Cercopithecidæ</i>. +There may be a single median opening at the back of the trachea, +just below the cricoid cartage, as in <i>Ateles</i>; there may be but a +single sac, or there may be five, as sometimes in <i>Mycetes</i>. These +may be enormous, meeting in the middle line in front and extending +down to the axillæ, as in the Gorilla and Orang. A sac may +occupy the cavity of the expanded body of the hyoid, as in <i>Mycetes</i>.</p> + +<p>The hyoid has its basilar part generally somewhat more convex +and enlarged than in Man; but in <i>Mycetes</i> it becomes greatly enlarged +and deeply excavated, so as to form a great bony bladder-like structure. +The posterior cornua of the hyoid (thyrohyals) are never entirely +absent, but the anterior or lesser cornua may be so, as in <i>Mycetes</i>. +The anterior cornua never exceed the posterior cornua in length; +but they may be (<i>e.g.</i> in <i>Cercopithecus</i>) more largely developed +relatively than in Man, and may even be jointed, as in <i>Lagothrix</i>.</p> + +<p>The lungs have generally the form of those of man; but the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_708"></a>[708]</span> +right lung may have four lobes, as in <i>Hylobates</i>. The great arterial +trunks in <i>Simia</i>, <i>Gorilla</i>, and <i>Anthropopithecus</i> are arranged as in +Man. In <i>Hylobates</i> and the lower Apes, however, the left carotid +artery may take its origin from the innominate artery.</p> + +<p>In regard to their distribution in time the earliest record that +we as yet have of the occurrence of Apes is in the Middle Miocene +of Europe, where forms are met with apparently so closely allied to +some of the higher existing types that it is evident we must look +much farther back before we can get any clue to the origin of the +suborder. Since all the known fossil Old World Apes are referable +to the <i>Simiidæ</i> or <i>Cercopithecidæ</i>, and no representatives of these +families have been obtained from the Tertiaries of America, it would +appear that the distinction of the Apes of the Old World from +those of the New is of very old standing.</p> + +<p>At the present day Apes are mainly confined to tropical and +subtropical regions. In the Old World <i>Macacus inuus</i> is found as +far north as Gibraltar, <i>M. tibetanus</i> and <i>Semnopithecus roxellanæ</i> +inhabit western Tibet, while in Japan we have <i>M. speciosus</i>. In the +New World one species of <i>Ateles</i> is known to occur as far north as +latitude 19° in Southern Mexico, and may range a few degrees +higher. To the southward species are found near the Cape, in +Timor, and the Malay Archipelago; while in America they range +in Brazil and Paraguay to about latitude 30°. The Tibetan species +are found at a very high elevation; and in the outer Himalaya the +Langurs (<i>Semnopithecus</i>) may be seen in winter and spring leaping +from bough to bough of snow-covered pines.</p> + +<p>Apes are very abundant in the Ethiopian and Oriental regions, +as well as in that part of America which extends from Panama to +Southern Brazil. Ceylon, Borneo, Sumatra, and Java may be +mentioned as islands where Ape-life attains great development; but +they are unknown in Madagascar and the West Indian Islands, and +of course in the Australasian region.</p> + +<p>We have already alluded to the circumstance that while the +<i>Simiidæ</i> and <i>Cercopithecidæ</i> are exclusively confined to the Old World, +the <i>Cebidæ</i> and <i>Hapalidæ</i> are equally restricted to the New, and we +may accordingly proceed to notice a few points in relation to generic +distribution. Of the larger <i>Simiidæ</i> the Gorilla and Chimpanzee +are confined to Equatorial Africa, and the Orang to Malayana; but +there is evidence of the former existence of a species of Chimpanzee +(<i>Anthropopithecus</i>) and not improbably of an Orang (<i>Simia</i>) in Northern +India. The Gibbons (<i>Hylobates</i>) are now exclusively Oriental. +Europe has only <i>Macacus inuus</i> of Gibraltar, also found in Africa +north of the Sahara, and therefore strictly Palæarctic in distribution. +The Ethiopian region includes in the <i>Cercopithecidæ</i> the genus +<i>Colobus</i> (the African analogue of <i>Semnopithecus</i>), <i>Cercopithecus</i>, and +the Baboons (<i>Cynocephalus</i>, etc.) The Baboons range, however, into<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_709"></a>[709]</span> +Arabia and Syria, and also existed during the Pliocene epoch in +Northern India. <i>Semnopithecus</i> and <i>Macacus</i> are very characteristic +of the Oriental region; but, as already mentioned, outlying species +extend into various parts of the Palæarctic region. <i>Macacus</i> has +indeed a very wide distribution, extending from Gibraltar and +North Africa to Japan. The allied <i>Cynopithecus</i>, represented only +by <i>C. niger</i> of Celebes, approximates to the Baboons; while the one +species of <i>Nasalis</i> is peculiar to Borneo. Remains of <i>Semnopithecus</i> +and <i>Macacus</i> occur in the Tertiaries of India and Europe, which also +yield allied extinct types noticed in the sequel.</p> + +<p>In America, north of Panama, the genera known to be represented +are <i>Chrysothrix</i>, <i>Nyctipithecus</i>, <i>Cebus</i>, <i>Ateles</i>, <i>Mycetes</i> and +<i>Hapale</i> in Veragua; <i>Nyctipithecus</i>, <i>Cebus</i>, <i>Ateles</i>, and <i>Mycetes</i> in +Costa Rica and Nicaragua; <i>Ateles</i> and <i>Mycetes</i> in Guatemala; and +<i>Ateles</i> in Southern Mexico. Brazil is the headquarters of the +American Apes; but different portions of that vast region have a +somewhat distinct Ape fauna. Thus the genus <i>Eriodes</i> appears in +South-Eastern Brazil to represent the species of <i>Ateles</i> inhabiting the +more northern and western parts of the empire. Southwards, the +genera <i>Cebus</i>, <i>Mycetes</i>, <i>Chrysothrix</i>, and <i>Callithrix</i> extend farthest; +but they do not probably all extend to the farthest limit yet known, +namely 30° S. The species found farthest south are <i>Mycetes caraya</i>, +<i>Cebus fatuellus</i>, and <i>Callithrix personatus</i>.</p> + +<h4><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Hapalidæ</span>.</h4> + +<p>Dentition: <i>i</i> ²⁄₂, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ²⁄₂; total 32. No bony external +auditory meatus, a broad internarial septum, and no cheek-pouches. +Tail non-prehensile; no ischiatic callosities. Pollex not opposable; +a long, curved, and pointed claw to all the digits except the hallux.</p> + +<p>This family, which includes the smallest representatives of the +suborder, commonly known as Marmosets, is confined to the New +World. In addition to the diagnostic characters given above, it may +be mentioned that the pollex is elongated and the hallux very +small, while the pectoral limbs are not longer than the pelvic pair; +and the tail is long and more or less thickly covered with elongated +hairs.</p> + +<p>The dentition of the Marmosets sufficiently distinguishes them +from all other members of the suborder, although they are evidently +nearly allied to the <i>Cebidæ</i>. The small size of the hallux, and the +total incapacity of the pollex to oppose itself in the least degree to +the other digits, as well as the presence of claws on all the digits of +the manus, are, however, equally characteristic features. These +animals (<a href="#figure337">Fig. 337</a>) are not larger than Squirrels, and are of active +arboreal habits, living in small companies, and adding insects to the +ordinary fruit diet. Frequently, as in the figured species,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_710"></a>[710]</span> the head +is furnished on either side with a long tuft of hair projecting outwards +and backwards. They give birth to as many as three young +ones at a time, and thereby differ from all other members of the +suborder, in which one is the normal number. They are divided +into two genera, according to the proportionate size of the lower +canine to the incisors; but some species present an intermediate +condition, so as to render this distinction of somewhat doubtful +value.</p> + +<p><i>Hapale.</i><a id="FNanchor_664" href="#Footnote_664" class="fnanchor">[664]</a>—Lower canine not longer than the incisors. A number +of species have been described, among which may be mentioned +<i>H. jacchus</i>, <i>H. albicollis</i>, <i>H. aurita</i>, and <i>H. humeralifer</i>. Remains of +species of this genus have been found in the cavern-deposits of +Brazil.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp62" id="figure337" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure337.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 337.</span>—The Golden Marmoset (<i>Midas chrysoleucas</i>). From <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1868, pl. 24.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Midas.</i><a id="FNanchor_665" href="#Footnote_665" class="fnanchor">[665]</a>—Lower canine considerably longer than the incisors. No +less than twenty-four species of this genus have been named, among +which the Silky Marmoset (<i>M. rosalia</i>) of Columbia, the Pinche<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_711"></a>[711]</span> +Monkey (<i>M. œdipus</i>) of South-Eastern Brazil, and the Golden +Marmoset (<i>M. chrysoleucas</i>, <a href="#figure337">Fig. 337</a>) are well-known types.</p> + +<h4><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Cebidæ</span>.</h4> + +<p>Dentition: <i>i</i> ²⁄₂, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 36. Tail frequently +prehensile; digits with nails; other characters as in the <i>Hapalidæ</i>.</p> + +<p>The members of this American family are at once distinguished +by the dental formula, which is numerically higher than in any +other Apes. The various species range over the whole of tropical +America, but are most abundant in the dense forest regions +of Brazil, where they live a completely arboreal life, to which the +prehensile tails of many of them are so specially adapted. They +are in most respects closely +allied to the <i>Hapalidæ</i>, but +the pollex diverges somewhat +from the plane of the +other digits; while the retention +of the third molar +is a very distinctive feature. +None of the species attain +the dimensions of the larger +<i>Cercopithecidæ</i> of the Old +World. The genera are +usually arranged in five +subfamilies.</p> + +<p>Subfamily <b>Mycetinæ</b>.—Lower +incisors vertical; +hyoid bones enormously +inflated; tail long and prehensile, +naked beneath at +the end; pollex well developed.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp46" id="figure338" style="max-width: 23.4375em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure338.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 338.</span>—Side view of skull and hyoid bone of the +Red Howling Monkey (<i>Mycetes seniculus</i>). From De +Blainville.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Mycetes.</i><a id="FNanchor_666" href="#Footnote_666" class="fnanchor">[666]</a>—The sole representatives +of this subfamily +are the well-known +Howling Monkeys, all of +which are included in the +genus <i>Mycetes</i>. They are +of more bulky build, and +have more produced muzzles +than the other members of the family. The truncated occipital +region, and the extraordinary development of the rami of the +mandible, especially of their angular and ascending portions, are +the chief peculiarities by which the skulls (<a href="#figure338">Fig. 338</a>) of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_712"></a>[712]</span> the +members of this genus are characterised. The last named character, +which is more marked in the male than in the female sex, +is related to the enormous size of the vocal organs, which the rami +of the mandible enclose and protect. The inflated hyoid bone, +which forms a deep cup, is shown in the figure. The Howlers are +subject to great individual and sexual variation of colours, so that +the discrimination of species from local races is difficult. In one +species the male is black and the female straw-coloured; and several +of the species have bright red or golden hair on the flanks. In +disposition these creatures are sluggish and stupid, but their chief +characteristic is their prodigious power of voice. Mr. Bates, in his +<i>Naturalist on the Amazons</i>, observes that “when Howlers are seen in +the forest there are generally three or four of them mounted on the +topmost branches of a tree. It does not appear that their harrowing +roar is emitted from sudden alarm; at least it was not so in +captive individuals. It is probable, however, that the noise serves +to intimidate their enemies.”</p> + +<p>Several species have been described, the Red Howler (<i>M. seniculus</i>) +and the Ursine Howler (<i>M. ursinus</i>) being well-known forms. +Remains of this genus probably referable to existing types are found +fossilised in the cavern-deposits of Brazil. An allied fossil form +from the South American Pleistocene has been described as +<i>Protopithecus</i>.</p> + +<p>Subfamily <b>Pitheciinæ</b>.—Lower incisors inclined forward at their +summits; hyoid bone normal; tail long or short, non-prehensile; +pollex well developed. Two genera are included in this subfamily, +readily distinguished by the length of the tail.</p> + +<p><i>Pithecia.</i><a id="FNanchor_667" href="#Footnote_667" class="fnanchor">[667]</a>—The Sakis, as the representatives of this genus are +commonly termed, are readily characterised by the length of the +tail; the angle of the mandible is expanded, although less so than +in <i>Mycetes</i>. A number of species have been described, the Black +Saki (<i>P. satanas</i>) of the Lower Amazons, being one of the best +known. While some species, like <i>P. hirsuta</i>, have long hair covering +the whole of the head, body, and tail, in others only the head, or +the cheeks and chin, are so clothed.</p> + +<p><i>Uacaria.</i><a id="FNanchor_668" href="#Footnote_668" class="fnanchor">[668]</a>—The Uakari Monkeys differ from all the other +<i>Cebidæ</i> by their short Baboon-like tail. The Bald Uakari (<i>U. calva</i>) +of the Rio Negro, and the closely allied <i>U. rubicunda</i> of the Upper +Amazons, are remarkable for their scarlet face, which forms a striking +contrast to the long, silky, whitish hair covering the body. According +to Mr. Bates, the Uakaris live in forests which are inundated +during a great part of the year, and never descend to the ground; +they appear to be rare and of local distribution. The third species,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_713"></a>[713]</span> +<i>U. melanocephala</i>, differs considerably from both the others. The +cæcum of <i>U. calva</i>, according to Mr. F. E. Beddard, measures +upwards of “10 inches along the greater curvature; it is separated +from the colon by a very marked constriction; it is not sacculated, +and when fully distended with air is curved on itself into a little +less than a circle; it is furnished with a well-developed median +frenum carrying blood-vessels.” A similar type of cæcum is also +found in <i>Callithrix</i> and <i>Pithecia</i>.</p> + +<p>Subfamily <b>Nyctipithecinæ</b>.—Lower incisors vertical; hyoid +normal; tail long, non-prehensile; pollex well developed.</p> + +<p>Three genera are included in this subfamily, the species being +partly insectivorous.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp62" id="figure339" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure339.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 339.</span>—The Moloch Teetee (<i>Callithrix moloch</i>). From <i>Archives du Muséum</i>, vol. iv. pt. 3.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Callithrix.</i><a id="FNanchor_669" href="#Footnote_669" class="fnanchor">[669]</a>—Head small, depressed, and not elongated; nares +widely separated; canines small; angle of mandible expanded as in +<i>Pithecia</i>; tail with long hair.</p> + +<p>This genus comprises several small species, mostly from Brazil +and the Amazons, and commonly known as Teetees, one of the +best-known species (<i>C. moloch</i>, <a href="#figure339">Fig. 339</a>) being represented in the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_714"></a>[714]</span> +accompanying woodcut. The smaller eyes and the more widely +separated nostrils distinguish them from <i>Nyctipithecus</i>; while the +small canines and the bushy tail readily mark their distinction from +<i>Chrysothrix</i>. Remains of <i>Callithrix</i> have been found in the Brazilian +caves.</p> + +<p><i>Chrysothrix.</i><a id="FNanchor_670" href="#Footnote_670" class="fnanchor">[670]</a>—Head greatly elongated; orbits large and closely +approximated; canines well developed; tail with comparatively +short hair.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp67" id="figure340" style="max-width: 28.125em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure340.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 340.</span>—The Lemurine Douroucouli (<i>Nyctipithecus lemurinus</i>). From <i>Archives du Muséum</i>, +vol. iv, pl. 2.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The small Squirrel Monkeys, of which four species have been +described, are characterised by the great backward projection of the +occipital region of the skull, and by orbits approximating in size to +those of the next genus.</p> + +<p><i>Nyctipithecus.</i><a id="FNanchor_671" href="#Footnote_671" class="fnanchor">[671]</a>—Head rounded; orbits very large, separated by +a narrow septum; nares somewhat approximated.</p> + +<p>The Douroucoulis (<a href="#figure340">Fig. 340</a>), as the members of this genus are +called, are of nocturnal habits, in association with which the eyes<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_715"></a>[715]</span> +are of enormous dimensions, as in the Lemuroid genus <i>Loris</i>. The +following account, of two species of this genus is taken from Mr. +Bates’s <i>Naturalist on the Amazons</i>: “They sleep all day long in +hollow trees, and come forth to prey on insects and eat fruit only +in the night. They are of small size, the body being about a foot +long, and the tail 14 inches, and are thickly clothed with soft gray +and brown fur, similar in substance to that of the Rabbit. Their +physiognomy reminds one of the Owl or Tiger-Cat; the face is +rounded and encircled by a ruff of whitish fur; the muzzle is not +at all prominent; the mouth and chin are small; the ears are very +short, scarcely appearing above the hair of the head; and the eyes +are large and yellowish in colour, imparting the staring expression +of nocturnal birds of prey. The forehead is whitish, and decorated +with black stripes, which in one of the species (<i>N. trivirgatus</i>) +continue to the crown, and in the other (<i>N. felinus</i>) meet on the +top of the forehead. <i>N. trivirgatus</i> was first described by Humboldt, +who discovered it on the banks of the Cassiquiare, near the headquarters +of the Rio Negro.”</p> + +<p>Subfamily <b>Cebinæ</b>.—Lower incisors vertical; hyoid bone +normal; tail long and prehensile; pollex present or absent.</p> + +<p>This subfamily includes the typical members of the family, +which are arranged in four genera.</p> + +<p><i>Ateles.</i><a id="FNanchor_672" href="#Footnote_672" class="fnanchor">[672]</a>—Form slender; limbs very long; fur not woolly; +pollex absent; tail naked beneath distally; nails not much laterally +compressed and pointed.</p> + +<p>This genus includes the well-known Spider Monkeys (<a href="#figure341">Fig. 341</a>), +which by their long limbs and tail are admirably adapted to a +purely arboreal life, although they lack the active and agile habits +of the Old World Gibbons. The tail with the under surface of its +extremity naked affords the most completely prehensile type of +this organ, and can sustain the weight of the whole body. +Objects are not unfrequently grasped by it and brought within +reach of the hand or mouth. Owing to the absence of the pollex +the power of grasping is very imperfect in the hand. At least +fourteen species of this genus have been described, among the +best-known being <i>A. melanochir</i> (<a href="#figure341">Fig. 341</a>), <i>A. paniscus</i> of Guiana, +<i>A. geoffroyi</i> of Central America, <i>A. ater</i> of Eastern Peru, and +<i>A. hybridus</i> of Colombia.</p> + +<p><i>Eriodes.</i><a id="FNanchor_673" href="#Footnote_673" class="fnanchor">[673]</a>—Form slender; limbs very long; fur woolly; internasal +septum narrower than usual in the family; pollex rudimentary; +tail naked beneath distally; nails exceedingly compressed laterally, +and pointed.</p> + +<p>This genus is represented by three species from South-East +Brazil, which, while closely allied to the true Spider Monkeys,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_716"></a>[716]</span> +differ by their woolly hair, the narrow internasal septum, the +presence of a rudimentary pollex, and the great compression of the +nails. The species are <i>E. arachnoides</i>, <i>E. hemidactylus</i>, and <i>E. +hypoxanthus</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Lagothrix.</i><a id="FNanchor_674" href="#Footnote_674" class="fnanchor">[674]</a>—Form rather robust; limbs moderate; fur woolly; +pollex well developed; tail distally naked beneath.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp60" id="figure341" style="max-width: 25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure341.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 341.</span>—The Black-handed Spider Monkey (<i>Ateles melanochir</i>). +From <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1871, pl. 15.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The Woolly Monkeys differ from the preceding genera by the +presence of a well developed pollex. They resemble <i>Eriodes</i> in +their fur and compressed nails, but differ in the more widely +separated nares. The tail resembles that of the preceding genera. +Speaking of these Monkeys Mr. Bates observes that “the Barrigudos +are very bulky animals, whilst the Spider Monkeys are remarkable +for the slenderness of their bodies and limbs. I obtained specimens +of what have been considered two species, one (<i>L. olivaceus?</i>)<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_717"></a>[717]</span> +having the head clothed with gray, the other (<i>L. humboldti</i>, <a href="#figure342">Fig. +342</a>) with black fur. They both live together in the same places, +and are probably only differently coloured individuals of one and +the same species. I sent home a very large male of one of these +kinds, which measured 27 inches in length of trunk, the tail being +26 inches long; it was the largest monkey I saw in America, with +the exception of a black Howler, whose body was 28 inches in +height. The skin of the face in the Barrigudo is black and +wrinkled, the forehead is low, with the eyebrows projecting.... +In the forests the Barrigudo is not a very active animal; it lives +exclusively on fruits, and is much persecuted by the Indians on +account of the excellence of its flesh as food.” Five species are +usually recognised, viz. <i>L. canus</i>, <i>L. humboldti</i>, <i>L. castelnaui</i>, <i>L. +tschudii</i>, and <i>L. geoffroyi</i>.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp66" id="figure342" style="max-width: 25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure342.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 342.</span>—Humboldt’s Lagothrix (<i>Lagothrix humboldti</i>). From <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1863, pl. 31.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Cebus.</i><a id="FNanchor_675" href="#Footnote_675" class="fnanchor">[675]</a>—Form rather robust; limbs moderate; fur not woolly; +pollex well developed; tail not naked beneath distally.</p> + +<p>This, the typical, genus includes the Sapajous or Capuchins +(<a href="#figure343">Fig. 343</a>), which are so commonly seen in this country in captivity, +being the favourite Monkeys of itinerant musicians. They are +smaller and stouter in build than the Spider Monkeys, from which<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_718"></a>[718]</span> +they are readily distinguished by the well-developed pollex, and +the absence of a naked under surface to the extremity of the tail. +At least twenty species have been described (<i>C. fatuellus</i>, <i>C. lunatus</i>, +<i>C. capucinus</i>, <i>C. albifrons</i>, <i>C. hypoleucus</i>, etc.), but it is probable that +some of these are not entitled to stand, since there is a large +amount of individual variation. Fossil remains of species of <i>Cebus</i> +have been described from the Pleistocene cavern-deposits of Brazil.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="figure343" style="max-width: 25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure343.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 343.</span>—The White-cheeked Sapajou (<i>Cebus lunatus</i>). From <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1865, pl. 45.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<h4><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Cercopithecidæ</span>.</h4> + +<p>Dentition: <i>i</i> ²⁄₂, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ²⁄₂, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 32. Crowns of molars elongated +antero-posteriorly, with the tubercles forming a pair of +imperfect transverse ridges, and the last lower molar usually with +a hind talon. A bony external auditory meatus. A narrow internarial +septum. Tail non-prehensile. Ischiatic callosities present. +Cheek-pouches present or absent. Pollex, when present, opposable. +Pelvic limbs never much longer than pectoral. Sternum narrow. +Cæcum without vermiform appendage.</p> + +<p>This family includes all the Old World Apes, with the exception +of the <i>Simiidæ</i>, and may be divided into the subfamilies <i>Cercopithecinæ</i> +and <i>Semnopithecinæ</i>.</p> + +<p>Subfamily<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_719"></a>[719]</span> <b>Cercopithecinæ</b>.—Pelvic and pectoral limbs approximately +equal; tail variable; cheek-pouches present; stomach +simple.</p> + +<p>This subfamily comprises, the African Baboons, the common +Indian Monkeys constituting the genus <i>Macacus</i>, together with the +African <i>Cercopithecus</i> and <i>Cercocebus</i> and a few allied types.</p> + +<p><i>Cynocephalus.</i><a id="FNanchor_676" href="#Footnote_676" class="fnanchor">[676]</a>—Muzzle much elongated (<a href="#figure344">Fig. 344</a>), with the +nostrils terminal; ischial callosities very large; tail more or less +short; muzzle swollen by enlargement of the maxillæ. Now confined +to Africa and Arabia.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure344" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure344.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 344.</span>—Skeleton of the Chacma Baboon (<i>Cynocephalus porcarius</i>). From De Blainville.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>This genus comprises the typical Baboons, and we may select +the well-known Mandrill (<i>C. maimon</i>), of tropical West Africa, as a +good illustrative example. It may be mentioned in passing that +the name Mandrill appears to have been first introduced into +English literature by William Smith in his <i>New Voyage to Guinea</i>, +published in 1744, wherein he mentions among the animals of +Sierra Leone one “called by the white men in this country Mandrill,” +but adds, “why it is so called I know not.”<a id="FNanchor_677" href="#Footnote_677" class="fnanchor">[677]</a> Smith gives +sufficiently accurate details to show that his animal is not <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_720"></a>[720]</span>that now +called Mandrill, but the Chimpanzee. Buffon, however, while +quoting Smith’s description, transferred the name to the very +different species now under consideration, and to that it has been +attached ever since.</p> + +<p>The Baboons generally are distinguished from most other +Monkeys by the comparative equality of the length of their limbs, +which with the structure of the vertebral column adapts them +rather for quadrupedal progression on the ground than for climbing +among the branches of trees; and some of them, like the South +African Chacma (<i>C. porcarius</i>), of which the skeleton is shown +in <a href="#figure344">Fig. 344</a>, live habitually among rocks, and are much less +completely frugivorous than other Apes. They are also remarkable +for the great size of their face and jaws as compared with +the part of the skull which encloses the brain. The Mandrill, +in addition to these characters, is distinguished by the heaviness +of its body, stoutness and strength of its limbs, and exceeding +shortness of its tail, which is a mere stump, not 2 inches long, +and usually carried erect. It is, moreover, remarkable for the +prominence of its brow ridges, beneath which the small and +closely approximated eyes are deeply sunk; the immense size of +the canine teeth; the great development of a pair of oval bony +prominences on the maxillary bones in front of the orbits, rising on +each side of the median line of the face, and covered by a longitudinally +ribbed naked skin; and more especially for the extraordinarily +vivid colouring of some parts of the skin. The body +generally is covered with a full soft coating of hair of a light olive-brown +above and silvery-gray beneath, and the chin is furnished +underneath with a small pointed yellow beard. The hair of the +forehead and temples is directed upwards so as to meet in a point +on the crown, which gives the head a triangular appearance. The +ears are naked and of a bluish-black colour. The hands and feet +are naked and black. A large space around the greatly developed +ischial callosities, as well as the upper part of the insides of the +thighs, are naked and of a crimson colour, shading off on the sides to +lilac or blue, which, depending not upon pigment but upon injection +of the superficial blood-vessels, varies in intensity according to +the condition of the animal—increasing under excitement, fading +during sickness, and disappearing after death. But it is in the face +that the most remarkable disposition of vivid hues occur, more +resembling those of a brilliantly coloured flower than what might +be expected in the cutaneous covering of a mammal. The cheek-prominences +are of an intense blue, the effect of which is heightened +by deeply sunk longitudinal furrows of a darker tint, while the +central line and termination of the nose are a bright scarlet. Notwithstanding +the beauty of these colours in themselves, the whole +combination, with the form and expression<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_721"></a>[721]</span> of features, quite +justifies Cuvier’s assertion that “il serait difficile de se figurer un +être plus hideux que le Mandrill.”</p> + +<p>It is only to fully adult males that this description applies. +The female is of much smaller size, and of more slender make; +and, though the general tone of the hairy parts of the body is +the same, the prominences, furrows, and colouring of the face are +very much less marked. The young males have black faces. At +the age of three the blue of the cheeks begins to appear, but it is +not until they are about five, when they cut their great canine +teeth, that they acquire the characteristic red of the end of the +nose.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp96" id="figure345" style="max-width: 28.125em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure345.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 345.</span>—The Yellow Baboon (<i>Cynocephalus babuin</i>). From <i>Archives du Muséum</i>, +Vol. ii. pl. 34.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The Mandrills, especially the old males, are remarkable for the +ferocity of their disposition, as well as for other disagreeable qualities, +which are fully described in Cuvier’s account of the animal in +<i>La Ménagerie du Muséum d’Histoire Naturelle</i> (1801), but when +young they can easily be tamed. Like the rest of the Baboons, +they appear to be rather indiscriminate eaters, feeding upon fruit, +roots, reptiles, insects, scorpions, etc., and inhabit open rocky +ground rather than forests. Not much is known of the Mandrill’s +habits in the wild state, nor of the exact limits of its geographical +distribution. The specimens brought to Europe all come from the +west coast of tropical Africa, from Guinea to the Gaboon.</p> + +<p>An allied species, the Drill (<i>C. leucophæus</i>), which resembles the +Mandrill in size, general proportions, and shortness of tail, but +wants the bright colouring of the face which makes that animal so +remarkable, inhabits the same district. Other well-known species +are the Yellow Baboon (<i>C. babuin</i>), of West<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_722"></a>[722]</span> Africa (<a href="#figure345">Fig. 345</a>); the +Arabian Baboon (<i>C. hamadryas</i>), of Arabia and Abyssinia; and the +Anubis Baboon (<i>C. anubis</i>), of West Africa.</p> + +<p>It is very noteworthy from a distributional point of view, as +showing the former intimate connection between the faunas of the +Oriental and Ethiopian regions, that fossil remains of Baboons have +been found in the Pleistocene cavern-deposits of Madras, and also +in the older Pliocene beds of the Siwalik Hills in Northern India; +the two species from the latter deposits having been described as +<i>C. subhimalayanus</i> and <i>C. falconeri</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Theropithecus.</i><a id="FNanchor_678" href="#Footnote_678" class="fnanchor">[678]</a>—Distinguished from <i>Cynocephalus</i> by the nostrils +not being terminal, but situated as in <i>Macacus</i>. This genus is +represented by the Abyssinian Gelada (<i>T. gelada</i>) and the allied +<i>T. obscurus</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Cynopithecus.</i><a id="FNanchor_679" href="#Footnote_679" class="fnanchor">[679]</a>—The Black Ape of Celebes (<i>C. niger</i>) forms a +connecting link between the Baboons and the genus <i>Macacus</i>; the +skull differing from that of the latter in the development of longitudinal +ridges on the sides of the upper surface of the maxillæ, as +in some of the species of <i>Cynocephalus</i>. The muzzle is also more +produced than in <i>Macacus</i>.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp96" id="figure346" style="max-width: 28.125em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure346.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 346.</span>—The Tibetan Macaque (<i>Macacus tibetanus</i>). From Milne-Edwards, <i>Recherches des +Mammifères</i>, pl. 34.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Macacus.</i><a id="FNanchor_680" href="#Footnote_680" class="fnanchor">[680]</a>—Muzzle considerably produced; nostrils not terminal; +cheek-pouches and ischial callosities well developed; tail long, short, +or absent; a distinct talon to the third lower molar.</p> + +<p>With the exception of the Barbary Ape (<i>M. inuus</i>) of Northern<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_723"></a>[723]</span> +Africa and Gibraltar, the Macaques are now exclusively Asiatic, +one species (<a href="#figure346">Fig. 346</a>) occurring in Tibet, and another (<i>M. speciosus</i>) +being found in Japan. All these Monkeys are of stout build, and +it is chiefly by the greater production of the muzzle, the larger +ischiatic callosities, and the frequent shortness of the tail that they +are distinguished from the under-mentioned African genera. The +transition from the longer-tailed to the short-tailed forms is so +complete that the proposed generic separation of the latter as <i>Innus</i> +is impracticable. In <i>M. innus</i> the tail is wanting; in <i>M. tibetanus</i> +(<a href="#figure346">Fig. 346</a>) and <i>M. nemestrinus</i> of Tenasserim it is short; in the +common Bengal Monkey (<i>M. rhesus</i>) it is about one-half the length +of the head and body, while in <i>M. cynomolgus</i> and its allies it is +still longer. In the Indian Lion-tailed Monkey (<i>M. silenus</i>) it is +tufted at the end.</p> + +<p>The following summary of the habits of the Macaques is taken +from Mr. W. T. Blanford’s <i>Mammals of British India</i>: “The species +of the present genus resemble each other in their habits; they are +found in flocks, often of considerable size, and generally composed +of individuals of both sexes and of all ages. They are active +animals, though less rapid in their movements, whether on trees +or on the ground than the <i>Semnopitheci</i>. Their food is varied, +most of the species, if not all, eating insects as well as seeds, fruits, +etc., and one kind feeding partly on crustacea. They have occasionally +been known to devour lizards, and, it is said, frogs also. +All have the habit of cramming food into their cheek-pouches for +mastication at leisure—a practice that must be familiar to any one +who has fed monkeys in confinement. The voice and gestures of +all the species are similar, and differ entirely from those of both +the Gibbons and <i>Semnopitheci</i>.... The majority of the species are +very docile when young. They thrive well, and several of them +have bred in confinement. The period of gestation is almost seven +months, only a single young one, as a rule, being produced at a +birth. They become adult at the age of four or five years, but +breed earlier.”</p> + +<p>The Common Indian <i>M. rhesus</i> is found in the Himalaya at an +elevation of over 8000 feet.</p> + +<p>Fossil remains of <i>Macacus</i> are found in India in the Pleistocene +of Madras and the Pliocene of the Punjab; and they also occur in +the Pliocene of France and Italy, those from the latter deposits +having been incorrectly separated as <i>Aulaxinuus</i>. Part of the jaw +of a Monkey from the Pleistocene of Essex has been described as +<i>Macacus pliocenus</i>, and is very interesting as showing the presence +of Apes in Europe at that late period.</p> + +<p><i>Cercocebus.</i><a id="FNanchor_681" href="#Footnote_681" class="fnanchor">[681]</a>—An African genus agreeing with <i>Macacus</i> in the +presence of a hind talon to the third lower molar, but with<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_724"></a>[724]</span> the +other characters of <i>Cercopithecus</i>. The species of this genus are +known as Mangabeys, or White-eyelid Monkeys, and include +<i>C. collaris</i>, <i>C. fuliginosus</i>, <i>C. æthiops</i>, and <i>C. albigena</i>; all being +from West Africa.</p> + +<p><i>Cercopithecus.</i><a id="FNanchor_682" href="#Footnote_682" class="fnanchor">[682]</a>—Muzzle more or less short; ischial callosities +moderate; tail long; no talon to third lower molar. Build more +slender than in <i>Macacus</i>. Confined to Africa.</p> + +<p>The members of this and the last genus include those Monkeys +which in their comparative slender build and length of tail make +the nearest approach +to the next subfamily. +There are numerous +species, among which +the Green Monkey (<i>C. +cullitrichus</i>), the Grivet +(<i>C. griseo-viridis</i>), the +Vervet (<i>C. lalandi</i>), the +Pluto Monkey (<i>C. pluto</i>, +<a href="#figure347">Fig. 347</a>). The Patas +(<i>C. ruber</i>), the Diana +Monkey (<i>C. diana</i>), and +the Mona Monkey (<i>C. +mona</i>) are well-known +types.</p> + +<p>Subfamily <b>Semnopithecinæ</b>.<a id="FNanchor_683" href="#Footnote_683" class="fnanchor">[683]</a>—Pelvic +limbs longer than the +pectoral, tail very +long; no cheek-pouches; +stomach sacculated. +Build slender.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp52" id="figure347" style="max-width: 21.875em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure347.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 347.</span>—The Pluto Monkey (<i>Cercopithecus pluto</i>). From +Gray, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1848, p. 57.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>This subfamily is represented by three +genera, of which one is +African and two are +Asiatic. Mr. W. T. +Blanford, in his <i>Mammals +of British India</i>, observes that “the members of this subfamily +are readily distinguished by their slender form, and by the absence +of cheek-pouches. They are more purely herbivorous than the +Macaque Monkeys, and a considerable portion of their food consists +of leaves and young shoots. In consequence probably of the nature +of their food, these Monkeys are more delicate than the species of +<i>Macacus</i>, and are thus less easily kept in captivity. They are consequently +far less well represented in European museums, and have<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_725"></a>[725]</span> +been less studied by European naturalists. Very little is known of +their general life-history or of their feeding habits.”</p> + +<p>Their digestive organs are much modified, the stomach attaining +an extraordinary complexity, which may be described as follows. +An ordinary stomach must be supposed to lie immensely elongated, +and gradually tapering from the +cardiac end to a very prolonged, +narrow, pyloric extremity. Then +two longitudinal muscular bands, +corresponding in situation to the +greater and lesser curvatures of +an ordinary stomach—the former +commencing just below the fundus, +and the latter at the cardiac +orifice, and both proceeding +towards the pylorus—are developed, +so as to pucker up the +cavity into a number of pouches, +exactly in the same principle as +the human colon is puckered up +by its three longitudinal bands. +These pouches are largest and +most strongly marked at the +œsophageal end, and becoming +less and less distinct, quite cease +several inches before the pylorus +is reached, the last part of the +organ being a simple smooth-walled +tube. The fundus, or +cardiac end of the stomach, is +formed by a single large sac, +slightly constricted on its under +surface by the prolongation of +the interior longitudinal band, +or that corresponding to the +great curvature. The œsophagus +enters into the upper part of the left, or pyloric end of this sac, or +rather at the point of junction between it and the second (also a +very large) sacculus. Furthermore, the whole of this elongated +sacculated organ is, by the brevity, as it were, of the lesser curvature, +coiled upon itself in an irregularly spiral manner, so that +when <i>in situ</i> the pylorus comes to be placed very near the œsophageal +entrance.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp37" id="figure348" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure348.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 348.</span>—Lateral view of the skull and palatal +aspect of the cranium of <i>Semnopithecus nemæus</i>. +(From De Blainville.)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Nasalis.</i><a id="FNanchor_684" href="#Footnote_684" class="fnanchor">[684]</a>—Skull resembling that of the <i>Cercopithecinæ</i> in that +the lower border of the nasal bones extends considerably below<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_726"></a>[726]</span> the +lower border of the orbits, whereas in the other <i>Semnopithecinæ</i> the +aperture of the nares extends upwards between the orbits. Nose +produced into a large proboscis. Other characters as in <i>Semnopithecus</i>.</p> + +<p>This genus includes only the Proboscis Monkey (<i>N. larratus</i>) of +Borneo, remarkable for the great prolongation of the nose in the +adult. In young animals the nose is relatively much shorter, and +bent upwards after the manner of that of <i>Semnopithecus roxellanæ</i> +(<a href="#figure349">Fig. 349</a>).</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp60" id="figure349" style="max-width: 25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure349.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 349.</span>—<i>Semnopithecus roxellanæ.</i> (From Milne-Edwards, <i>Recherches des +Mammifères</i>, pl. 36.)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Semnopithecus.</i><a id="FNanchor_685" href="#Footnote_685" class="fnanchor">[685]</a>—Pollex small; narial aperture extending upwards +between the orbits. Now confined to Asia.</p> + +<p>This genus is characteristic of South-Eastern Asia from the +Himalaya southwards, the Oriental region being its headquarters. +The development of the muzzle is less than in the Macaques, and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_727"></a>[727]</span> +the facial angle is higher, but it does not appear that this indicates +greater intellectual capacity. The outlying <i>S. roxellanæ</i><a id="FNanchor_686" href="#Footnote_686" class="fnanchor">[686]</a> (<a href="#figure349">Fig. 349</a>), +of the highlands of Eastern Tibet and Kansu, is remarkable for the +peculiar upturned nose, in which respect, as already mentioned, +it recalls the young of <i>Nasalis larvatus</i>. The genus is represented +in India and Burma by no less than fourteen species, of which the +common Indian Langur, or Hanuman Monkey (<i>S. entellus</i>) and +the larger Himalayan Langur (<i>S. schistaceus</i>) are two of the best +known. In the former the length of the head and body is about +24, and that of the tail 38 inches in adult males. This monkey, +owing to the veneration in which it is held by the Hindus, is a +great pest in many parts of India, frequently pilfering grain from +the shops in the native bazaars. According to Mr. Blanford, +it “is usually found in smaller or larger communities, composed +of individuals of both sexes and of all ages, the youngest clinging +to their mothers and being carried by them, especially when +alarmed. An old male is occasionally found solitary, as with so +many other mammals.... Apart from villages, the high trees +on the banks of streams or of tanks, and, in parts of Central +India, rocky hills are the favourite haunts of these monkeys. +Whether on trees, on rocks, or on the ground, they are exceedingly +active.” The closely allied <i>S. schistaceus</i> attains a larger average +size, full grown males attaining a length of 30 inches, the tail +measuring 36 inches. In the spring and winter this species may +be observed in the Kashmir Himalaya leaping among the snow-laden +trees of the forest. In a fossil state <i>Semnopithecus</i> occurs in the +Pleistocene and Pliocene of India, and it has also been recorded +from the Pliocene of France and Italy.</p> + +<p><i>Colobus.</i><a id="FNanchor_687" href="#Footnote_687" class="fnanchor">[687]</a>—This African genus differs from <i>Semnopithecus</i> in that +the pollex is absent or reduced to a small tubercle, which may or may +not carry a nail. About eleven species have been described, some +of which are remarkable for the beautiful mantle of long silky +hair which hangs down from each side of the body, and for their +tufted tails. In <i>C. guereza</i> from Abyssinia these are white, and the +rest of the body and limbs black. Others (as <i>C. satanas</i>) are entirely +black. The skins of the long-haired species are largely imported +into Europe for the manufacture of ladies’ muffs, etc.</p> + +<p><i>Extinct Genera.</i>—Certain types of Apes from the European +Tertiaries indicate genera referable to the <i>Cercopithecidæ</i>, but +distinct from any of those now living. Of these <i>Mesopithecus</i>,<a id="FNanchor_688" href="#Footnote_688" class="fnanchor">[688]</a> from +the Lower Pliocene Pikermi beds of Attica, is known by almost +complete skeletons, and resembles <i>Macacus</i> in the shortness and +stoutness of the limbs, but agrees with <i>Semnopithecus</i> in the characters +of the skull and teeth. An allied Monkey from the Lower Pliocene<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_728"></a>[728]</span> +of Perpignan, in France, differs from <i>Mesopithecus pentelici</i> by its +superior size, proportionately more produced muzzle, and larger +hind talon to the last lower molar; it has been described under +the name of <i>Dolichopithecus</i>.<a id="FNanchor_689" href="#Footnote_689" class="fnanchor">[689]</a></p> + +<p>The genus <i>Oreopithecus</i><a id="FNanchor_690" href="#Footnote_690" class="fnanchor">[690]</a> was founded upon the remains of an +Ape from the Middle Miocene of Monte Bamboli, in Tuscany, of +somewhat larger size than a Gibbon, and apparently presenting +characters connecting the <i>Cercopithecidæ</i> and <i>Simiidæ</i>. According +to Dr. Ristori,<a id="FNanchor_691" href="#Footnote_691" class="fnanchor">[691]</a> it resembles the former, especially <i>Cynocephalus</i> and +<i>Semnopithecus</i>, in the long dental series and the elongation of the +last molars; but in the shortness of the face, rounding of the chin, +and the diagonal arrangement of the molar tubercles, it approximates +to the <i>Simiidæ</i>, of which it may have been an ancestral type.</p> + +<h4><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Simiidæ</span>.</h4> + +<p>Crowns of molars relatively wide, with the angles more or +less rounded off, the tubercles not forming transverse ridges, and +the last lower molar without a hind talon. No tail. No cheek-pouches. +Ischiatic callosities, if present, small. Pectoral limbs +much longer than pelvic. Sternum broad. Cæcum with vermiform +appendage. Centrale of carpus sometimes absent. Other characters +as in <i>Cercopithecidæ</i>.</p> + +<p>This family contains the true Anthropoid Old World Apes, +namely the Gibbons, Orangs, Chimpanzees, and Gorillas, which +are the most highly organised of all the Apes, and thus make the +nearest approach to Man.</p> + +<p><i>Hylobates.</i><a id="FNanchor_692" href="#Footnote_692" class="fnanchor">[692]</a>—Skull not produced at the vertex; body and limbs +slender, the pectoral limbs being so elongated that the hands reach +the ground when walking upright; hallux well developed; a centrale +in the carpus; and small ischiatic callosities. Size smaller than in +the following genera, the height of the largest species (<i>H. syndactylus</i>) +not much exceeding 3 feet. Now confined to Asia.</p> + +<p>The Gibbons, or Long-armed Apes (<a href="#figure350">Figs. 350, 351</a>), are readily +distinguished from the remaining members of the family by the +characters given above, as well as by the circumstance that they +are the only Apes which habitually walk in an upright position. +It is in these animals that we meet with the last traces of the +ischial callosities so largely developed in the <i>Cercopithecidæ</i>. The +species are now restricted to South-Eastern Asia, being especially +abundant in the Malay Archipelago and adjacent regions.</p> + +<p>The largest species is the Sumatran Siamang (<i>H. syndactylus</i>),<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_729"></a>[729]</span> +which attains a height of 3 feet, and has been generically +separated by some writers as <i>Siamanga</i>. It is remarkable as +having a better developed chin and wider sternum than any other +Ape, and differs from the other members of the genus by the +circumstance that the second and third digits of the pes are united +by skin as far as +their last joints. +Exclusive of this +species, the Gibbons +differ but little from +one another in size +and general conformation, +and since +the colour of individuals +undoubtedly +referable to a single +species is remarkably +variable, there is +much uncertainty +about the number of +species, and much +confusion in the +nomenclature. +Among well-marked +species we may +mention the Hoolock +(<i>H. hoolock</i>), ranging +from the South of +Assam through +Sylhet and Cachar to +the Irawadi Valley +near Bhamo, the +White-handed Gibbon +(<i>H. lar</i>, <a href="#figure350">Fig. +350</a>), which is found +in Tenasserim and +throughout Malayana, +the Dun-coloured Gibbon (<i>H. entelloides</i>, <a href="#figure351">Fig. 351</a>) of Malayana, +and the Tufted Gibbon (<i>H. pileatus</i>) of Siam and Cambogia.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp46" id="figure350" style="max-width: 23.4375em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure350.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 350.</span>—The White-handed Gibbon (<i>Hylobates +lar</i>). From Blanford, <i>Mammals of British India</i>, p. 8.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The following account of the habits of the Gibbons is taken +from Mr. W. T. Blanford’s <i>Mammals of British India</i>. “Gibbons +are thoroughly arboreal, and Hoolocks are almost, if not entirely, +confined to hill-forest. They move chiefly by means of their long +arms, by which they swing themselves for prodigious distances from +branch to branch and from tree to tree. They descend hillsides +at a surprising pace, their descent being accomplished by grasping<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_730"></a>[730]</span> +bamboos or branches that bend beneath their weight, and allow +them to drop until they can seize the ends of other bamboos or +branches lower on the slope, and take another mighty swing downwards. +They also ascend with great rapidity, swinging themselves +from tree to tree. When walking on the ground the Hoolock rests +on its hind feet alone, with the sole flat on the ground, and the +great toe widely separated from the other digits. The arms are +usually held upwards, sometimes horizontally, their great length +giving the animal a very peculiar aspect. Gibbons walk rather +quickly, with a waddling gait, and can easily be overtaken by men +when on the ground. The food of these Apes consists of fruit, +leaves, young shoots, spiders (of which they are very fond), insects, +birds’ eggs, and almost certainly of young birds, if not of any birds +they can capture. Anderson found that small birds were killed +and devoured by Hoolocks in confinement with a method and +eagerness that showed this prey to be the natural food of the Apes.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_731"></a>[731]</span> +The Hoolock drinks with its lips, putting its head down to the +water as Monkeys do. All species of <i>Hylobates</i> have a powerful +voice, and the common name of the Hoolock is taken from its +peculiar double call, which is repeated several times. At a distance +the sound much resembles a human voice; it is a peculiar wailing +note, audible from afar, and in the countries inhabited by these +animals is one of the most familiar forest sounds. The calls commence +at daybreak, and are continued till 9 or 10 <span class="allsmcap">A.M.</span>, several of +the flock joining in the cry, like hounds giving tongue. After 9 or +10 o’clock in the morning the animals feed or rest, and remain +silent throughout the middle of the day, but recommence calling +towards evening, though to a less extent than in the earlier part of +the day.”</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp62" id="figure351" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure351.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 351.</span>—The Dun-coloured Gibbon (<i>Hylobates +entelloides</i>). From <i>Archiv. du Muséum</i>, vol. ii. pl. 29.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The skull of the Gibbons, although agreeing with that of other +Apes in its prognathism, presents a somewhat human appearance, +and the molar teeth are also very like diminutive human molars. +In the anterior inward inclination of the two series of cheek-teeth +and the inward +position of the +upper premolars +the Gibbons make +an approach to the +human type unknown +in other +Apes.</p> + +<p>The figure of +the liver of one +species of this +genus is introduced +to show the general +absence of lateral +fissures and the +small size of the caudate lobe (<i>c</i>) characteristic of the liver of all the +<i>Simiidæ</i>, except <i>Gorilla</i> (see <a href="#Page_706">p. 706</a>), as well as that of Man. Another +specimen of the liver of the same species showed scarcely any trace +of a caudate lobe.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure352" style="max-width: 25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure352.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 352.</span>—Under surface of the liver of <i>Hylobates lar.</i> <i>u</i>, Umbilical +fissure; <i>p</i>, portal fissure; <i>vc</i>, vena cava; <i>l</i>, left lobe; <i>r</i>, right +lobe; <i>s</i>, Spigelian lobe; <i>c</i>, caudate lobe; <i>g</i>, gall-bladder.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>A fossil Ape from the Middle Miocene of France, originally +described as <i>Pliopithecus</i>, indicates an extinct Gibbon which does +not appear to be generically separable from <i>Hylobates</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Simia.</i><a id="FNanchor_693" href="#Footnote_693" class="fnanchor">[693]</a>—Skull (<a href="#figure353">Fig. 353</a>) produced at the vertex; body and +limbs massive; the pectoral limbs reaching to the ankle; a centrale +in the carpus; hallux very small; sixteen dorso-lumbar vertebræ, and +twelve pairs of ribs; no ischiatic callosities. Oriental.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp64" id="figure353" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure353.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 353.</span>—Side view of the skull of adult Orang (<i>Simia +satyrus</i>). From <i>Trans. Zool. Soc.</i> vol. i. pl. 53.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>This genus includes the large red-haired Apes from Sumatra<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_732"></a>[732]</span> +and Borneo commonly known as Orangs, or Orang-Utans,<a id="FNanchor_694" href="#Footnote_694" class="fnanchor">[694]</a> of which +there is probably only a single species (<i>S. satyrus</i>). These animals +inhabit the swampy forests near the coasts; and the males attain a +height of about 4 feet 4 inches. The body is very bulky and the +legs exceedingly short, but the arms are very long, reaching in the +erect posture down to the +ankles. The Orang walks +resting on the knuckles of +the hands and the outer +sides of the feet, with the +soles of the latter turned +mainly inwards, as in <a href="#figure354">Fig. +354</a>. Its movements +appear to be slow and +deliberate, and in those +specimens which have been +kept in captivity in this +country the demeanour is +languid and melancholy, +although this is far from +being the case with those +shown in the more congenial +climate of the Zoological +Gardens at Calcutta. The +habits of these animals are +arboreal, and they build a +kind of shelter or nest of boughs and leaves; their food appears +to consist mainly of fruits, and is exclusively of a vegetable nature. +The whole of the body is clothed with long hair of a reddish-brown +colour, and full-grown males have a well developed beard; the +males not unfrequently also develop a large warty protuberance, +formed of fibro-cellular tissue, on either side of the face. The +hands are long, and are characterised by the small size of the +pollex, which does not reach to the end of the metacarpal of +the index finger. The feet have a similar structure, the hallux +only reaching to the middle of the proximal phalange of the +adjacent toe, and being often destitute not only of a nail, but +likewise of the terminal phalange. The presence of a centrale in +the carpus is a feature in which <i>Simia</i> agrees with <i>Hylobates</i> and +the lower Apes, and differs from the two following genera and Man. +With very rare exceptions the number of dorso-lumbar vertebræ is +sixteen, of which twelve carry ribs, and therefore belong to the +dorsal series, while the remaining four are lumbar. The distinction +between the last lumbar and the first sacral vertebræ is clearly +marked in young skeletons by the additional pleurapophysial +ossifications (sacral ribs) in the transverse processes of the latter.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_733"></a>[733]</span> +Thus though <i>Simia</i> presents a closer resemblance to Man than does +<i>Anthropopithecus</i> in the number of ribs, it differs in the more +important characters of that of the whole series of trunk-vertebræ.<a id="FNanchor_695" href="#Footnote_695" class="fnanchor">[695]</a> +The hemispheres of the brain are much convoluted; the whole +brain being more human-like than in any other Ape. The larynx is +remarkable for having a prolongation from each ventricle, which in +the adult become of enormous dimensions, and unite in front of +the trachea to form one large sac extending downwards between +the muscles to the axilla.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp66" id="figure354" style="max-width: 25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure354.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 354.</span>—The Orang-Utan (<i>Simia satyrus</i>). From Mr. Wolf’s sketch at the +Zoological Gardens.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The skull of the Orang (<a href="#figure353">Fig. 353</a>) is characterised by its highly +vaulted cranial portion, which is comparatively short (brachycephalic). +The sagittal crest is well developed on the vertex, and +has a highly convex contour; the superciliary ridges are but +moderately developed, and do not stand out in the prominent +manner so characteristic of the Gorilla. The aperture of the nares +in the skull is more pear-shaped than in the two following<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_734"></a>[734]</span> genera.</p> + +<p>The canines of the male Orang attain a great development; +and the molars are characterised by the complex structure of their +cusps and the numerous rugosities on the crown surface. The +outer border of the upper premolars is placed in the same line as +that of the molars.</p> + +<p>The broken canine tooth of a large Anthropoid Ape from the +Lower Pliocene of the Siwalik Hills +probably indicates the existence at +that period of a species of <i>Simia</i> in +Northern India.</p> + +<p><i>Gorilla.</i><a id="FNanchor_696" href="#Footnote_696" class="fnanchor">[696]</a>—Skull not produced at the +vertex; body and limbs massive, the +pectoral limb not reaching below the +middle of the lower leg (<a href="#figure355">Fig. 355</a>); +no centrale in the carpus: hallux well +developed; seventeen dorso-lumbar +vertebræ, of which thirteen carry ribs; +no ischiatic callosities. Male much +larger than female, and with very +strongly marked cranial ridges, which +are wanting in the latter. Mandibular +symphysis long. Ethiopian.</p> + +<p>The well-known Gorilla (<a href="#figure356">Fig. 356</a>), +of which there seems to be only one +species (<i>G. savagei</i>), is found in Western +Equatorial Africa, chiefly or entirely +in the district enclosed by the +Cameroon and Congo rivers. It is +the largest of all the Apes, its bulk +considerably exceeding that of man, +although from the shortness of the +legs it appears never to attain a greater +height than 5½ feet. The first introduction +of this animal to the notice +of zoologists was made in 1847 by +Dr. Thomas Savage, but it was not fully known till many years later.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp31" id="figure355" style="max-width: 15.625em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure355.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 355.</span>—Skeleton of the Gorilla. +(From De Blainville.)</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The skin of the Gorilla is entirely black, the hair being blackish, +but turning more or less gray in old individuals. The arms reach +down as far as the middle of the lower leg; while the pollex +extends only a short distance beyond the base of the first phalange +of the index finger, and the hallux reaches nearly as far as the +distal extremity of the corresponding digit of the foot. The digits +of both the hand and foot are united together by integument as +far as the distal extremities of the first phalanges. The larynx<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_735"></a>[735]</span> +has very capacious air-sacs, which meet in front of the trachea and +communicate with the ventricles; and in advanced age these sacs +may extend to the axilla. The ears are relatively small. The +skull is of an elongated or dolichocephalic type; that of the adult +male being characterised by the enormous development of the +supraorbital ridges, which form a kind of penthouse over the eyes, +and contribute to the peculiarly ferocious appearance of the animal. +The sagittal crest is also very large. The canine teeth of the male +are very large, and are inclined outwards in both jaws. In the +cheek-teeth the upper premolars are of considerable antero-posterior +extent, with their outer border placed in the same line as that of +the molars; and the third upper molar is larger than either of the +others.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp60" id="figure356" style="max-width: 25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure356.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 356.</span>—The Gorilla (<i>Gorilla savagei</i>). From <i>Trans. Zool. Soc.</i> vol. iv. pl. 43.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The posterior cervical vertebræ are characterised by the great +height of their neural spines, which thus form a strong basis for +the powerful cervical muscles supporting the massive skull. In +some instances the fourth lumbar vertebra becomes ankylosed to +the sacrum, as is occasionally found to be the case in some of the +lower human races.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_736"></a>[736]</span></p> + +<p>In the absence of a centrale to the carpus, and also in the +number of the dorso-lumbar vertebræ, the present and following +genus resemble man; although they both differ in having thirteen +in place of twelve pairs of ribs.</p> + +<p>The brain of the Gorilla, according to Dr. Hartmann, resembles +that of the Orang in the complexity of its convolutions, and is +thereby distinguished from that of the Chimpanzee. In form it is +of the long oval characteristic of Man; the brain of the Chimpanzee +and Orang being more rounded.</p> + +<p>Gorillas live in family parties in the depths of the dense forests +of Western Equatorial Africa, seeking their food during the day, +while at night it is said that the female and young ascend a tree +at the foot of which the male sleeps. They walk with the backs +of their closed hands and the flat soles of the feet placed on the +ground. Although there has been much exaggeration on this +point, it appears certain that the male Gorilla is an extremely +ferocious and dangerous animal when brought to bay, but the +statements as to its making unprovoked assaults on men do not +appear authentic. They utter deep guttural sounds, which on +some occasions may be described as grunts and at others as a +roar.</p> + +<p><i>Anthropopithecus.</i><a id="FNanchor_697" href="#Footnote_697" class="fnanchor">[697]</a>—One of the most important differences of +this genus from the preceding is the absence of any marked +disparity between the two sexes, either in the size or the conformation +of the skull, although the male can always be distinguished +by the larger size of the canine teeth. The mandibular +symphysis is also much shorter. Differences in the characters of +the teeth are described below. The genus is confined at the present +day to the Ethiopian region.</p> + +<p>The Chimpanzees (<a href="#figure357">Fig. 357</a>) inhabit Western and Central +Equatorial Africa; and there has been much discussion whether +they should all be included under one specific name (<i>A. troglodytes</i>), or +whether there are really two or more species. A female specimen +now living in the London Zoological Gardens, characterised among +other distinctive features by the nearly bald head, clearly indicates, +however, a second species, which probably corresponds to the +imperfectly defined <i>A. calvus</i> of Du Chaillu.</p> + +<p>The region inhabited by the Chimpanzees extends from the +Gambia to the Benguela, reaching as far inland as 28° E. long. +The Common Chimpanzee is a smaller animal than the Gorilla, its<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_737"></a>[737]</span> +height not exceeding 5 feet. In colour it is darker than the +latter, and the ears are relatively larger. In the upright position +the arms reach only a short distance below the knee, in which +respect the Chimpanzee is more human-like than any of the other +Apes. The face is furnished with distinct whiskers, eyebrows, and +eyelashes. The pollex reaches nearly or quite to the base of the +first phalange of the index finger, and the hallux to the base of +the second phalange of the corresponding digit of the foot. The +laryngeal sacs are as largely developed as in the Gorilla.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp60" id="figure357" style="max-width: 25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/figure357.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 357.</span>—The Chimpanzee (<i>Anthropopithecus troglodytes</i>). From Mr. Wolf’s drawing of a young +individual in the Zoological Society’s Gardens.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>Although the skull of the Chimpanzee has distinct superciliary +ridges, yet the high bony crests of the calvarium of the male +Gorilla are wanting, and the whole coronal region of the skull is +more rounded and far less rugged.</p> + +<p>The canine teeth of the male Chimpanzee are relatively much +smaller than in the Gorilla and Orang. The upper molars are +characterised by the third one being smaller than either of the +other two, as well as by the presence of an indistinct cingulum on<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_738"></a>[738]</span> +their inner surfaces. The upper premolars differ from those of the +other genera of the family by the shortness of their antero-posterior +diameter, and also by the larger size of their external as compared +with their internal cusps; while the outer border of these teeth is +placed internally to that of the upper molars. In all these respects +the teeth of the Chimpanzee make a decided approximation to the +human type.</p> + +<p>Many young individuals of the Chimpanzee have been brought +to Europe, but they appear to succumb sooner or later to the effects +of an unsuitable climate. All these examples show that the disposition +of this Ape is gentle, lively, and intelligent, and in all +respects markedly opposite to that of the Orang. In a wild state +these Apes are essentially forest-dwellers, and are more arboreal in +their habits than the Gorilla. They live either in families, or in +small parties of several families. Frequently at least they construct +a kind of nest in the trees as a sleeping-place; the male being said +to sleep on a forked branch below the level of this nest. In walking +the Chimpanzee usually supports himself on the backs of his +closed fingers, and either on the soles of the feet or on the closed +toes.</p> + +<p>From a distributional point of view the discovery of a fossil +Ape in the Pliocene of the Punjab, apparently closely allied to the +Chimpanzee, is of great interest. This determination rests upon +the evidence of an imperfect palate originally described under the +name of <i>Palæopithecus</i>, but subsequently referred to the present +genus. The teeth of this jaw present all the essential characters +of those of the Chimpanzee, but the two series of cheek-teeth have +a slight anterior convergence, the premolars are shorter in the +antero-posterior direction than is usually the case in that species, +and the outer incisor is relatively narrower than in the latter. In +these features the extinct <i>A. sivalensis</i> makes a nearer approximation +to the human type than is the case with its living congeners.</p> + +<p><i>Dryopithecus.</i><a id="FNanchor_698" href="#Footnote_698" class="fnanchor">[698]</a>—The extinct <i>Dryopithecus</i> of the Middle Miocene +of France is represented by a single species of the approximate +size of the Chimpanzee, and appears to be the most generalised +member of the family. According to the recent observations of +Professor Gaudry,<a id="FNanchor_699" href="#Footnote_699" class="fnanchor">[699]</a> while it resembles the Gorilla in that the two +series of lower cheek-teeth diverge anteriorly and the penultimate +premolar is larger than the last of that series, it differs in having a +much longer and narrower mandibular symphysis, and thus indicates +a transition to the <i>Cercopithecidæ</i>. A gradual transition in the form +of the mandible may, indeed, be traced from <i>Dryopithecus</i>, through +<i>Gorilla</i>, to <i>Anthropopithecus</i>; the latter having a short and wide +symphysis, with the two series of cheek-teeth slightly converging<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_739"></a>[739]</span> +anteriorly, and the penultimate premolar being not larger than the +last. In all these specialised characters the jaw of the Chimpanzee +approximates to that of Man, in which the symphysis is still further +shortened and widened, and the anterior convergence of the cheek-teeth +so much increased as to produce a horse-shoe-like form in the +whole dental series.</p> + +<h4><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Hominidæ</span>.</h4> + +<p>In the <i>Systema Naturæ</i> of Linnæus Man was separated only +generically from the Apes, but in the next great work which exercised +a widespread influence over the progress of zoological science, +the <i>Règne Animal</i> of Cuvier, he forms a distinct order under the +name of Bimana, the Monkeys and Lemurs being associated together +as Quadrumana. This has been the prevailing arrangement in the +zoological systems of the present century, though in the classification +of Owen his position is still farther removed from that of the +Monkeys, as in it the genus <i>Homo</i> forms one of the four primary +divisions or subclasses of the Mammalia, called Archencephala, the +Quadrumana being united with the Carnivora, Ungulata, and others +in another division called Gyrencephala. On the other hand, the +tendency of most modern systematists, for reasons which have been +fully stated by Professor Huxley,<a id="FNanchor_700" href="#Footnote_700" class="fnanchor">[700]</a> is to revert towards the Linnæan +position.</p> + +<p>Considering solely the facts of Man’s bodily structure, it can be +clearly demonstrated that the points in which he differs from the +Ape most nearly resembling him are not of greater importance than +those by which that Ape differs from other universally acknowledged +members of the group; and therefore, in any natural system, if +Man is to be made a subject of zoological classification upon the +same principles as those applied elsewhere, he must be included in +the order which comprises the Monkeys. We say upon the same +principles as are applied elsewhere, since zoological classification has +never taken into consideration the psychological characteristics +which distinguish the subjects of its investigations, but only their +tangible and physical structure, otherwise endless confusion would +result, at all events with our very imperfect knowledge of animal +psychology. The essential attributes which distinguish Man, and +give him a perfectly isolated position among living creatures, are +not to be found in his bodily structure, and should therefore either +be left entirely out of consideration, or have such weight given to +them as would remove him completely out of the region of zoological +classification. To profess to classify Man as if he were one of <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_740"></a>[740]</span>the +animals (as in all points of the structure and functions of his organs +he undoubtedly is), to place him in the class Mammalia, and then +to allow other considerations to influence the judgment as to the +particular position he should occupy in the class, is most illogical.</p> + +<p>Man, therefore, considered from a zoological point of view, must +be included in the order Primates, even if the Lemurs be removed +from it, since his structural affinities with the Monkeys are far +closer than are those of the so-called “Half-Apes.” We may, without +treading upon debatable ground, go farther, and say that the +differences between Man and the Anthropoid Apes are really not +so marked as those which separate the latter from the American +Monkeys. This being admitted, perhaps the best exposition relating +to the present condition of the order will be to regard Man as +representing a fifth family of the Anthropoidea, which should be +known as the <i>Hominidæ</i>. In thus ranking Man as one of the five +principal families or sections of the suborder it should, however, be +observed that this course does not in the least degree imply that +such families are precisely equivalent to one another, or that the +intervals by which they are separated are of equal importance; all +that we commit ourselves to being that they are five perfectly +distinct groups, all branches from a common stem, and in the +present state of nature not united by any intermediate types.</p> + +<p>The distinctions between the <i>Hominidæ</i> and <i>Simiidæ</i> are chiefly +relative, being greater size of brain and of brain-case as compared +with the facial portion of the skull, smaller development of the +canine teeth of the males, complete adaptation of the structure of the +vertebral column to the vertical position, greater length of the lower +as compared with the upper extremities, and greater length of the +hallux or great toe, with almost complete absence of the power of +bringing it in opposition to the other four toes. The last feature +together with the small size of the canine teeth are perhaps the +most marked and easily defined distinctions that can be drawn +between the two groups.</p> + +<p>Man is universally admitted to form a single genus, <i>Homo</i> of +Linnæus, but a question of considerable importance in treating of +him from a zoological point of view, and one which has been a subject +of much controversy, is whether all men should be considered +as belonging to a single or to several species. This question is +perhaps of less importance now than formerly, when those who +maintained a plurality of species associated with the hypothesis +plurality of origin. One of the strongest arguments against the +view that the various races of Man represent more than one species +is that none of those who have maintained it have been able to +agree as to how many distinct specific modifications can be defined, +almost every number from three to twenty or more having been +advocated by different authors. If the distinguishing characters of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_741"></a>[741]</span> +the so-called species had been so marked, there could not be such a +remarkable diversity of opinion upon them. Again, the two facts—(1) +that, however different the extremes of any two races may +be in appearance (and it must be admitted that, as advocated by +many polygenists, the differences are greater than many which are +considered specific among other animals), every intermediate gradation +can be found through which the one passes into the other, +and (2) that all races are fertile <i>inter se</i>—are quite conclusive in +favour of considering Man as representing a single species in the +ordinary sense in which the word is now used, and of treating of +all his various modifications as varieties or races.</p> + +<p>The great problem at the root of all zoology, the discovery of a +natural classification which shall be an expression of our knowledge +of the real relationship or consanguinity of different forms, is also +applicable to the study of the races of Man. When we can satisfactorily +prove that any two of the known groups of mankind are +descended from the same common stock, a point is gained. The +more such points we have acquired the more nearly shall we be +able to picture to ourselves, not only the present, but also the past +distribution of the races of Man upon the earth, and the mode and +order in which they have been derived from one another. But the +difficulties in the way of applying zoological principles to the classification +of Man are vastly greater than in the case of most animals. +When groups of animals become so far differentiated from each +other as to represent separate species, they remain isolated; they +may break up into further subdivisions—in fact, it is only by +further subdivision that new species can be formed; but it is of +the very essence of species, as now universally understood by +naturalists, that they cannot recombine, and so give rise to new +forms. With the varieties of Man it is otherwise. They have +never so far separated as to answer to the physiological definition +of species. All races, as said above, are fertile with one another, +though perhaps in different degrees. Hence new varieties have +constantly been formed, not only by the segmentation of portions +of one of the old stocks, but also by various combinations of those +already established.</p> + +<p>Without entering into the difficult question of the method of +Man’s first appearance upon the world, we must assume for it vast +antiquity,—at all events as measured by any historical standard. +Of this there is now ample proof. During the long time Man +existed in a savage state—a time compared to which the dawn of +our historical period is as yesterday—he was influenced by the +operation of those natural laws which have produced the variations +seen in other regions of organic nature. The first Men may very +probably have been all alike; but when spread over the face of +the earth and subjected to all kinds of diverse external conditions,—climate,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_742"></a>[742]</span> +food, competition with members of their own species or +with wild animals,—racial differences began slowly to be developed +through the potency of various kinds of selection acting upon the +slight variations which appeared in individuals in obedience to the +tendency planted in all living things. These differences manifested +themselves externally in the colour of the skin, the colour, quality, +and distribution of the hair, the form of the head and features, and +the proportions of the limbs, as well as in the general stature.</p> + +<p>Geographical position must have been one of the main elements +in determining the formation and permanence of races. Groups of +Men isolated from their fellows for long periods, such as those +living on small islands, to which their ancestors may have been +accidentally drifted, would naturally, in course of time, develop a +new type of features, of skull, of complexion, or hair. A slight set +in one direction in any of these characters would constantly tend +to intensify itself, and so new races would be formed. In the same +way different intellectual or moral qualities would be gradually +developed or transmitted in different groups of Men. The longer +a race thus formed remained isolated the more strongly impressed +and the more permanent would its characteristics become, and less +liable to be changed or lost when the surrounding circumstances +were altered or under a moderate amount of intermixture from +other races—the more “true,” in fact, would it be. On the other +hand, on large continental tracts, where no mountain ranges or +other natural barriers form obstacles to free intercourse between +tribe and tribe, there would always be a tendency towards uniformity, +from the amalgamation of races brought into close relation +by war or by commerce. Smaller or feebler races would be +destroyed or absorbed by others impelled by superabundant population +or other causes to spread beyond their original limits; or +sometimes the conquering race would itself disappear by absorption +into the conquered.</p> + +<p>Thus for untold ages the history of Man has presented a shifting +kaleidoscopic scene: new races gradually becoming differentiated +out of the old elements, and, after dwelling a while upon the +earth, becoming either suddenly annihilated or gradually merged +into new combinations; a constant destruction and reconstruction; +a constant tendency to separation and differentiation, and a tendency +to combine again into a common uniformity—the two tendencies +acting against and modifying each other. The history of these +processes in former times, except in so far as they may be inferred +from the present state of things, is a difficult study, owing to the +scarcity of evidence. If we had any approach to a complete +palæontological record, the history of Man could be reconstructed; +but nothing of the kind is forthcoming. Evidence of the anatomical +characters of Man as he lived on the earth during the time<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_743"></a>[743]</span> +when the most striking racial characteristics were being developed, +during the long ante-historic period in which the Negro, the Mongolian, +and the Caucasian were being gradually fashioned into their +respective types, is entirely wanting, or if any exists it is at present +safely buried in the earth, perhaps to be revealed at some unexpected +time and in some unforeseen manner. Even the materials +from which a history of the modifications of the human species as +known to our generation must be constructed are rapidly passing +away, since the age in which we live is an age in which, in a far +greater degree than any previous one, the destruction of races, both +by annihilation and absorption, is going on. Owing to the rapid +extension of maritime discovery and commerce, changes such as +have never been witnessed before are now taking place in the +ethnology of the world—changes especially affecting the island +populations among which, more than elsewhere, the solution of +many of those problems may be looked for. The subject is, however, +attracting the attention of observers of all countries to a +greater degree than it ever has before, and such progress has been +made in perfecting the methods of investigation of racial characteristics +that we are beginning to learn what lines of research are +profitable and what are barren, so that we may hope the time is +not far distant when we may get some clear insight into the knowledge +of the natural classification and relationships of the races of +Man.</p> + +<p>The following is a brief summary of the principal results +which appear to have been attained up to the present time by the +study of this somewhat difficult subject.<a id="FNanchor_701" href="#Footnote_701" class="fnanchor">[701]</a></p> + +<p>The most ordinary observation is sufficient to demonstrate the +fact that certain groups of men are strongly marked from others by +definite characters common to all members of the group, and transmitted +regularly to their descendants by the laws of inheritance. +Thus the Chinaman and the Negro, the native of Patagonia and the +Andaman Islander, are as structurally distinct from each other as +are many of the so-called species of any natural group of animals. +Indeed, it may be said with truth that their differences are even +greater than those which mark the groups called genera by many +naturalists of the present day. Nevertheless the difficulty of +parcelling out all the individuals composing the human species into +certain definite groups, and of saying of each man that he belongs +to one or other of such groups, is insuperable. No such classification +has ever been, or, indeed, can ever be obtained. There is not +one of the most characteristic and most extreme forms, like those +just named, from which transitions cannot be traced by almost<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_744"></a>[744]</span> +imperceptible gradations to any of the other equally characteristic +and equally extreme forms. Indeed, a large proportion of mankind +is made up, not of extreme or typical, but of more or less generalised +or intermediate forms, the relative numbers of which are +continually increasing, as the long-existing isolation of nations and +races breaks down under the ever-extending intercommunication +characteristic of the period in which we live.</p> + +<p>The difficulties of framing a natural classification of Man, or +one really representing the relationship of the various minor groups +to each other, are well exemplified by a study of the numerous +attempts which have been made from the time of Linnæus and +Blumenbach onwards. Even in the first step of establishing certain +primary groups of equivalent rank there has been no accord. Thus +four primitive types were sketched out by Linnæus—the European, +Asiatic, African, and American. These were expanded into five +by Blumenbach by the addition of the Malay,<a id="FNanchor_702" href="#Footnote_702" class="fnanchor">[702]</a> and reduced by +Cuvier to three by the suppression of the last two. Many later +writers have largely increased the number of these so-called primary +divisions, but the conclusion, so often arrived at by various anthropologists, +and so often abandoned for some more complex system, +that the primitive man, whatever he may have been, has in the +course of ages divaricated into three extreme types, represented by +the Caucasian of Europe, the Mongolian of Asia, and the Ethiopian +of Africa, and that all existing individuals of the species can be +ranged around these types, or somewhere or other between them, +seems, on the whole, to give the clearest view of the facts of the +case. Large numbers are doubtless the descendants of direct +crosses in varying proportions between well-established extreme +forms; for, notwithstanding opposite views formerly held by some +authors on this subject, there is now abundant evidence of the +wholesale production of new races in this way. Others may be +the descendants of the primitive stock before the strongly marked +existing distinctions had taken place, and therefore present, though +from a different cause from the last, equally generalised characters. +In these cases it can only be by most carefully examining and +balancing all characters, however minute, and finding out in what +direction the preponderance lies, that a place can be assigned to +them. It cannot be too often insisted on that the various groups +of mankind, owing to their probable unity of origin, the great +variability of individuals, and the possibility of all degrees of +intermixture of races at remote or recent periods of the history of +the species, have so much in common that it is extremely difficult +to find distinctive characters capable of strict definition by which +they may be differentiated. It is more by the preponderance of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_745"></a>[745]</span> +certain characters in a large number of members of a group, than +by the exclusive or even constant possession of these characters +in each of its members, that the group as a whole must be +characterised.</p> + +<p>Bearing these principles in mind, we may endeavour to formulate, +as far as they have as yet been worked out, the distinctive +features of the typical members of each of the three great divisions, +and then show into what subordinate groups each of them seems to +be divided.</p> + +<p>We begin with the Ethiopian, Negroid, or Melanian, or “black” +type. It is characterised by a dark, often nearly black, complexion; +black hair, of a kind called “frizzly” or, incorrectly, “woolly,” <i>i.e.</i> +each hair is closely rolled up on itself, a condition always associated +with a more or less flattened or elliptical transverse section; a +moderate or scanty development of beard, an almost invariably +dolichocephalic skull; small and moderately retreating jugal bones +(mesopic face); a very broad and flat nose, platyrhine in the +skeleton; moderate or low orbits; prominent eyes; thick, everted +lips; prognathous jaws; large teeth (macrodont); a narrow pelvis +(index in the male 90 to 100); a long forearm (humero-radial +index 80); and certain other proportions of the body and limbs +which are being gradually worked out, and reduced to numerical +expression as material for so doing accumulates.</p> + +<p>The most characteristic examples of the second great type, the +Mongolian or Xanthous, or “yellow,” have a yellow or brownish +complexion; black coarse straight hair, without any tendency to curl, +and nearly round in section; on all other parts of the surface except +the scalp scanty and late in appearing; a skull of variable form, +mostly mesocephalic (though extremes both of dolichocephalism and +brachycephalism are found in certain groups of this type); a broad +and flat face, with prominent, anteriorly-projecting jugal bones +(platyopic face); nose small, mesorhine or leptorhine; orbits high +and round, with very little development of glabella or supraciliary +ridges; eyes sunken, and with the aperture between the lids narrow; +in the most typical members of the group with a vertical fold of +skin over the inner canthus, and with the outer angle slightly +elevated; jaws mesognathous; teeth of moderate size (mesodont). +The proportions of the limbs and form of the pelvis have yet to be +worked out, the results at present obtained showing great diversity +among different individuals of what appear to be well-marked races +of the group, but this is perhaps due to the insufficient number of +individuals as yet examined with accuracy.</p> + +<p>The last type, which, for want of a better name, we must still +call by the misleading one that has the priority, Caucasian, or +“white,” has usually a light-complexioned skin (although in some, in +so far aberrant cases, it is as dark as in the Negroes); hair <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_746"></a>[746]</span>fair or +black, soft, straight, or wavy, in section intermediate between the +flattened and cylindrical form; beard fully developed; form of +cranium variable, mostly mesocephalic; jugal bones retreating; face +narrow and projecting in the middle line (pro-opic); orbits moderate; +nose narrow and prominent (leptorhine); jaws orthognathous; teeth +small (microdont); pelvis broad (pelvic index of male 80); forearm +short, relatively to humerus (humero-radial index 74).</p> + +<p>In endeavouring to subdivide into minor groups the numerous +and variously-modified individuals which cluster around one or +other of these great types—a process quite necessary for many +practical or descriptive purposes—the distinctions afforded by the +study of physical characters are often so slight that it becomes +necessary to take other considerations into account, among which +geographical distribution and language hold an important place.</p> + +<p>I. The Ethiopian or Negroid races may be primarily arranged as +follows:—</p> + +<p>A. African or Typical Negroes.—Inhabitants of all the central +portion of the African continent, from the Atlantic on the west to +the Indian Ocean on the east, greatly mixed all along their +northern frontier with Hamitic and Semitic Melanochroi, a mixture +which, taking place in various proportions and under varied conditions, +has given rise to many of the numerous races and tribes +inhabiting the Sudan.</p> + +<p>A branch of the African Negroes are the Bantu—distinguished +chiefly, if not entirely, by the structure of their language. Physically +indistinguishable from the other negroes with whom they come in +contact in the Equatorial regions of Africa, the Southern Bantu, or +Kaffirs, as they are generally called, show a marked modification of +type, being lighter in colour, having a larger cranial capacity, less +marked prognathism, and smaller teeth. Some of these changes +are probably due to crossing with other races.</p> + +<p>B. The Negrillos—diminutive sub-brachycephalic tribes, inhabiting +the dense forests of Central and Western Equatorial Africa—represent +a distinct section of the Negro race. They form the +only exceptions to the general dolichocephaly of the African branch +of the Negroid division, and when found in a pure state are the +smallest of all known human races, averaging scarcely more than +4 feet in height. The colour of their skin is yellowish rather than +black.</p> + +<p>C. The Bushmen (Bosjesmen, men of the woods, of the Dutch +colonists of South Africa) constitute a very distinct modification of +the Negro type. The hair shows the extreme of the frizzly +character; being shorter and less abundant than that of the +ordinary Negro, it has the appearance of growing in separate tufts, +which coil up together into rounded balls compared to “peppercorns.”<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_747"></a>[747]</span> +In their yellow complexion, wide cheek-bones, and +peculiar form of the eyes they so much resemble some of the +Mongolian races that anthropologists have been inclined to trace +affinities to or admixture with them, although the character of the +hair makes such a supposition almost inadmissible. The width of the +cheek-bones and the narrowness of the forehead and chin give +a lozenge shape to the front view of the face. The forehead is +prominent and straight; the nose extremely flat and broad, more +so than in any other race; the lips prominent and thick, although +the jaws are less prognathous than in the true Negro races. The +cranium has many special characters by which it can be easily +distinguished from that of any other race. The average height of +the males is about 4 feet 8 inches. There is every reason to +believe that the Bushmen represent the earliest race of which we +have any knowledge inhabiting the southern part of the African +continent, but that long before the advent of Europeans upon the +scene they had been invaded from the north by Negro tribes, who, +being superior in size, strength, and civilisation, had taken possession +of the greater part of their territories, and, mingling freely +with the aborigines, had produced the mixed race called Hottentots, +who retained the culture and settled pastoral habits of the Negroes, +with many of the physical features of the Bushmen. These in +their turn, encroached upon by the Kaffirs from the north and by +Europeans from the south, are now greatly diminished, and +threatened with the same fate which will surely soon befall the +scanty remnant of the early inhabitants who still retain their +primitive type.</p> + +<p>D. Oceanic Negroes or Melanesians.—These include the Papuans +of New Guinea and the majority of the inhabitants of the islands of +the Western Pacific, and form also a substratum of the population, +greatly mixed with other races, of regions extending far beyond +the present centre of their area of distribution.</p> + +<p>They are represented, in what may be called a hypertypical +form, by the extremely dolichocephalic Kai Colos, or mountaineers +of the interior of the Fiji Islands, although the coast population of +the same group has lost the distinctive characters by crossing. In +many parts of New Guinea and the great chain of islands extending +eastwards and southwards ending with New Caledonia they are +found in a more or less pure condition, especially in the interior and +more inaccessible portions of the islands, almost each of which +shows special modifications of the type recognisable in details of +structure. Taken altogether, their chief physical distinction from +the African Negroes lies in the fact that the glabella and supraorbital +ridges are generally well developed in the males, whereas in +Africans this region is usually smooth and flat. The nose also, +especially in the northern part of their geographical range,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_748"></a>[748]</span> New +Guinea, and the neighbouring islands, is narrower (often mesorhine) +and prominent. The cranium is generally higher and narrower. +It is, however, possible to find African and Melanesian skulls quite +alike in essential characters.</p> + +<p>The now extinct inhabitants of Tasmania were probably pure, +but aberrant, members of the Melanesian group, which had +undergone a modification from the original type, not by mixture +with other races, but in consequence of long isolation, during which +special characters had been gradually developed. Lying completely +out of the track of all civilisation and commerce, even of the most +primitive kind, they were little liable to be subject to the influence +of any other race; and there is in fact nothing among their +characters which could be accounted for in the way above +suggested, as they were intensely, even exaggeratedly, Negroid +in the form of nose, projection of mouth, and size of teeth, +typically so in character of hair, and aberrant chiefly in the width +of the skull in the parietal region. A cross with any of the +Polynesian or Malay races sufficiently strong to produce this +would, in all probability, have also left some traces on other parts +of their organisation.</p> + +<p>On the other hand, in many parts of the Melanesian region +there are distinct evidences of large admixture with Negrito, Malay, +and Polynesian elements in varying proportions, producing numerous +physical modifications. In many of the inhabitants of the great +island of New Guinea itself and of the islands lying around it this +mixture can be traced. In the people of Micronesia in the north +and New Zealand in the south, although the Melanesian element +is present, it is completely overlaid by the Polynesian, but there +are probably few, if any, of the islands of the Pacific in which +it does not form some factor in the composite character of the +natives.</p> + +<p>The inhabitants of the continent of Australia have long been +a puzzle to ethnologists. Of Negroid complexion, features, and +skeletal characters, yet without the characteristic frizzly hair, their +position has been one of great difficulty to determine. They have, +in fact, been a stumbling-block in the way of every system proposed. +The solution, supported by many considerations too lengthy to enter +into here, appears to lie in the supposition that they are not a +distinct race at all, that is, not a homogeneous group formed by the +gradual modification of one of the primitive stocks, but rather a +cross between two already-formed branches of these stocks. According +to this view, Australia was originally peopled with frizzly-haired +Melanesians, such as those who still do, or did before the European +invasion, dwell in the smaller islands which surround the north, +east, and southern portions of the continent, but that a strong +infusion of some other race, probably a low form of Caucasian<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_749"></a>[749]</span> +Melanochroi, such as that which still inhabits the interior of the +southern parts of India, has spread throughout the land from the +north-west, and produced a modification of the physical characters, +especially of the hair. This influence did not extend across Bass’s +Straits into Tasmania, where, as just said, the Melanesian element +remained in its purity. It is more strongly marked in the northern +and central parts of Australia than on many portions of the southern +and western coasts, where the lowness of type and more curly hair, +sometimes closely approaching to frizzly, show a stronger retention +of the Melanesian element. If the evidence should prove sufficiently +strong to establish this view of the origin of the Australian natives, +it will no longer be correct to speak of a primitive Australian, or +even Australoid, race or type, or look for traces of the former +existence of such a race anywhere out of their own land. Absolute +proof of the origin of any race is, however, very difficult, if not +impossible, to obtain, and there is nothing to exclude the possibility +of the Australians being mainly the direct descendants of a very +primitive human type, from which the frizzly-haired Negroes may +be an offset. This character of hair is probably a specialisation, +for it seems very unlikely that it was the attribute of the common +ancestors of the human race.</p> + +<p>E. The fourth branch of the Negroid race consists of the +diminutive round-headed people called Negritos, still found in a +pure or unmixed state in the Andaman Islands, and forming a +substratum of the population, though now greatly mixed with invading +races, especially Malays, in the Philippines, and many of +the islands of the Indo-Malayan Archipelago, and of some parts +of the southern portion of the mainland of Asia. They also contribute +to the varied population of New Guinea, where they appear +to merge into the taller, longer-headed, and longer-nosed Melanesians +proper. They show in a very marked manner some of the most +striking anatomical peculiarities of the Negro race, such as the +frizzly hair, the proportions of the limbs, especially the humero-radial +index, and the form of the pelvis; but they differ in many +cranial and facial characters, both from the African Negroes on the +one hand, and the typical Oceanic Negroes, or Melanesians, on the +other, and thus form a very distinct and well-characterised group. +Wherever they are still found they are obviously holding their +own with difficulty, if not actually disappearing, and there is much +about their condition of civilisation and the situations in which +they occur to induce us to look upon them, as in the case of the +Negrillos of Central and the Bushmen of South Africa, as the +remains of a population which occupied the land before the incoming +of the present dominant races.</p> + +<p>II. The principal groups that can be arranged round the Mongolian +type are as follows:—</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_750"></a>[750]</span></p> + +<p>A. The Eskimo appear to be a branch of the typical North +Asiatic Mongols, who in their wanderings northwards and eastwards +across the American continent, where they have been isolated +almost as perfectly as an island population would be, hemmed +in on one side by the eternal Polar ice, and on the other by hostile +tribes of American Indians, with which they rarely, if ever, mingled, +have gradually developed characters, most of which are strongly-expressed +modifications of those seen in their allies who still remain +on the western side of Behring Strait. It has also been shown +that these special characteristics gradually increase from west to +east, and are seen in their greatest perfection in the inhabitants +of Greenland, at all events in those where no crossing with the +Danes has taken place. A typical Eskimo skull presents a combination +of characters by which it can be at once distinguished +from that of any other of the groups of mankind. Such scanty +remains as have yet been discovered of the earliest inhabitants of +Europe do not present any structural affinities to this type, and +there is therefore no justification for the supposition that they +belonged to the same race, although it is not unlikely that similar +external conditions may have led them to adopt similar modes of life.</p> + +<p>B. The typical Mongolian races constitute the present population +of Northern and Central Asia. They are not very distinctly, +but still conveniently for descriptive purposes, divided into a +Northern and a Southern group.</p> + +<p><i>a.</i> The members of the former, Mongolo-Altaic or Sibiric group, +are united by the affinities of their language. These people, from +the cradle of their race in the great plateau of Central Asia, have +at various times poured out their hordes upon the lands lying to the +west, and thence penetrated almost to the heart of Europe. The +Lapps, Finns, the Magyars, and the Turks are each the descendants +of one of these waves of incursion, but they have for so many generations +intermingled with the peoples through whom they have passed +in their migrations, or whom they have found in the countries in +which they have ultimately settled, that their original physical +characters have been completely modified. Even the Lapps, that +diminutive tribe of nomads inhabiting the most northern parts of +Europe, supposed to be of Mongolian descent, show so little of the +special attributes of that branch that it is difficult to assign them +a place in it in a classification based upon physical characters. +The Japanese are said by their language to be allied rather to the +Northern than to the following branch of the Mongolian stock.</p> + +<p><i>b.</i> The southern Mongolian or Sinitic group, divided from the +former chiefly by language and habits of life, includes the greater +part of the population of China, Tibet, Burma, and Siam.</p> + +<p>C. The next great division of Mongoloid people is the Malay,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_751"></a>[751]</span> +forming the bulk of the population of the Indo-Malayan Archipelago +and (mixed with the Negro) of Madagascar, subtypical it is true, +but to which an easy transition can be traced from the most characteristic +members of the type.</p> + +<p>D. The brown Polynesians, Malayo-Polynesians, Mahoris, +Sawaioris, or Kanakas, as they have been variously called, seen +in their greatest purity in the Samoan, Tongan, and Eastern Polynesian +Islands, are still more modified, and possess less of the +characteristic Mongolian features; but yet it is difficult to place +them anywhere else in the system. The large infusion of the +Melanesian element throughout the Pacific must never be forgotten +in accounting for the characters of the people now inhabiting the +islands—an element in many respects so diametrically opposite to +the Mongolian that it would materially alter the characters, especially +of the hair and beard, which has been with many authors a +stumbling-block to the affiliation of the Polynesian with the Mongolian +stock. This mixture is physically a fine one, and in some proportions +produces a combination, as seen, for instance, in the Maories +of New Zealand, which in all definable characters approaches quite +as near, or nearer, to the Caucasian type than to either of the +stocks from which it may be presumably derived. This resemblance +has led some ethnologists to infer a real extension of the Caucasian +element at some very early period into the Pacific Islands, and to +look upon their inhabitants as the product of a mingling of all the +three great types of men. Though this is a very plausible theory, +it rests on little actual proof, since the combination of Mongolo-Malayan +and Melanesian characters in different degrees, together +with the local variations certain to arise in communities so isolated +from each other and exposed to such varied conditions as the inhabitants +of the Pacific Islands, would probably account for all the +modifications observed among them.</p> + +<p>E. The native population (before the changes wrought by the +European conquest) of the great continent of America, excluding +the Eskimo, present, considering the vast extent of the country +they inhabit and the great differences of climate and other surrounding +conditions, a remarkable similarity of essential characters +with much diversity of detail.</p> + +<p>The construction of the numerous American languages, of which +as many as twelve hundred have been distinguished, is said to point +to unity of origin, as, though widely different in many respects, +they are all, or nearly all, constructed on the same general grammatical +principle—that called <i>polysynthesis</i>—which differs from that +of the languages of any of the Old World nations. The mental +characteristics of all the American tribes have much that is in +common, and the very different stages of culture to which they +had attained at the time of the conquest, as that of the Incas and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_752"></a>[752]</span> +Aztecs and the hunting or fishing tribes of the north and south, +which have been quoted as evidence of diversities of race, were not +greater than those between different nations of Europe, as Gauls and +Germans on the one hand, and Greeks and Romans on the other, in +the time of Julius Cæsar. Yet all these were Aryans, and in treating +the Americans as one race it is not intended to imply that they +are more closely allied than the different Aryan peoples of Europe +and Asia. The best argument that can be used for the unity of +the American race—using the word in a broad sense—is the great +difficulty of forming any natural divisions in it founded upon physical +characters. Thus there is no difference throughout the whole continent +in the important character of the hair, this being always straight +and lank, long and abundant on the scalp, but sparse elsewhere. +The colour of the skin, notwithstanding the enormous differences of +climate under which many members of the group exist, varies but +little. It is true that in the features and cranium certain special +modifications prevail in different districts, but the same forms +reappear at widely separated parts of the continent. Thus skulls +almost undistinguishable from one another may be met with from +Vancouver’s Island, from Peru, and from Patagonia.</p> + +<p>Naturalists who have admitted but three primary types of the +human species have always found a difficulty with the Americans, +hesitating between placing them with the Mongolian or so-called +“yellow” races, or elevating them to the rank of a primary group. +Cuvier, indeed, does not seem to have been able to settle this point +to his own satisfaction, and leaves it an open question. Although +the large majority of Americans have in the special form of the +nasal bones, leading to the characteristic high bridge of the nose of +the living face, in the well-developed superciliary ridge and retreating +forehead, characters which distinguish them from the typical +Asiatic Mongol, yet in many other respects they resemble them so +closely that, while still admitting the difficulties of the case, we are +inclined to include them as aberrant members of the Mongolian +type.<a id="FNanchor_703" href="#Footnote_703" class="fnanchor">[703]</a> It is, however, quite open to any one adopting the Negro, +Mongolian, and Caucasian groups as primary divisions to place the +Americans apart as a fourth.</p> + +<p>Now that the high antiquity of man in America—perhaps as +high as that which he has in Europe—has been discovered, the +puzzling problem, from which part of the Old World the people of +America have sprung, has lost its significance. It is, indeed, quite +as likely that the people of Asia may have been derived from +America as the reverse. However this may be, the population of +America, except at the extreme north, was, before the time of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_753"></a>[753]</span> +Columbus, practically isolated from the rest of the world. Such +visits as those of the early Norsemen to the coasts of Greenland, +Labrador, and Nova Scotia, or the occasional accidental stranding +of a canoe containing survivors of a voyage across the Pacific or +the Atlantic, can have had little appreciable effect upon the characteristics +of the people. It is difficult, therefore, to look upon the +anomalous and special characters of the American people as the +effects of crossing, as was suggested in the case of the Australians—a +consideration which gives more weight to the view of treating +them as a distinct primary division.</p> + +<p>III. The Caucasian, Eurafrican, or white division, includes the +two groups called by Professor Huxley Xanthochroi and Melanochroi, +which, though differing in colour of eyes and hair, agree so +closely in all other anatomical characters, so far, at all events, as has +at present been demonstrated, that it seems preferable to consider +them both as modifications of one great type than as primary divisions +of the species. Whatever their origin may have been, they are now +intimately blended, though in different proportions, throughout the +whole of the region of the earth they inhabit; and it is to the +rapid extension of both branches of this race that the great changes +now taking place in the ethnology of the world are mainly due.</p> + +<p>A. The Xanthochroi, or blonde type, with fair hair, eyes, and +complexion, chiefly inhabit Northern Europe (Scandinavia, Scotland, +and North Germany), but, although much mixed with the next +group, they also extend as far as Northern Africa and Afghanistan. +Their mixture with Mongoloid people has given rise to the Lapps, +Finns, and some of the tribes of Northern Siberia.</p> + +<p>B. Melanochroi, with black hair and eyes, and skin of almost +all shades from white to black. They comprise the great majority +of the inhabitants of Southern Europe, Northern Africa, and South-West +Asia, and consist mainly of the Aryan, Semitic, and Hamitic +families. The Dravidians of India, the Veddahs of Ceylon, and +probably the Ainos of Japan, and the Maoutze of China, also +belong to this race, which may have contributed something to the +mixed character of some tribes of Indo-China and the Polynesian +Islands, and, as before said, have given at least the characters of +the hair to the otherwise Negroid inhabitants of Australia. In +Southern India they are largely mixed with a Negrito element, +and in Africa, where their habitat becomes coterminous with that +of the Negroes, numerous cross-races have sprung up between them +all along the frontier line. The ancient Egyptians were nearly pure +Melanochroi, though often showing in their features traces of their +frequent intermarriages with their Ethiopian neighbours to the +south. The Copts and fellahs of modern Egypt are their little-changed +descendants.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_754"></a>[754]</span></p> + +<p>In offering this scheme of classification of the varieties of the +human species, it is not suggested that it is one universally accepted +by anthropologists, or that it is likely to be final. Whatever care +be bestowed upon the arrangement of already acquired details, or +whatever judgment be shown in their due subordination one to +another, the acquisition of new knowledge may at any time call for +a complete or partial rearrangement of the system. The difficulties +which encompass the subject have, indeed, been already indicated, +and will be found abundantly illustrated in the writings of those +authors who have specially devoted themselves to its elucidation.</p> + +<div class="bibliography"> + +<p><i>Bibliography.</i>—P. Topinard, <i>Éléments d’Anthropologie Générale</i>, 1885; A. de +Quatrefages, <i>Histoire Générale des Races Humaines</i> (1. <i>Questions Générales</i>, 1887; +2. <i>Classification des Races Humaines</i>, 1889); Quatrefages and Hamy, <i>Crania +Ethnica</i> (1873-1879); D. G. Brinton, <i>Races and Peoples</i>, 1890.</p> + +</div> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="footnotes"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="FOOTNOTES">FOOTNOTES</h2> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_1" href="#FNanchor_1" class="label">[1]</a> Galton’s <i>South Africa</i>, p. 187.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_2" href="#FNanchor_2" class="label">[2]</a> L. F. E. Rousseau, <i>Anatomie comparée du Système dentaire chez l’Homme et +chez les principaux Animaux</i>, 2d ed., 1839; F. Cuvier, <i>Des Dents des Mammifères +considérées comme caractères zoologiques</i>, 1822-25; R. Owen, <i>Odontography</i>, +1840-45; C. G. Giebel, <i>Odontographie</i>, 1855; C. S. Tomes, <i>Manual of Dental +Anatomy, Human and Comparative</i>, 3d ed., 1889.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_3" href="#FNanchor_3" class="label">[3]</a> The lower incisors of some species of Shrews are, however, said to become +ankylosed to the jaw in adult age.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_4" href="#FNanchor_4" class="label">[4]</a> The teeth of the extinct Dinosaurian reptile <i>Triceratops</i> have two distinct +roots, placed transversely to the axis of the jaws.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_5" href="#FNanchor_5" class="label">[5]</a> This and other questions concerning the homologies, notation, and succession +of the teeth of mammals are more fully developed in two memoirs by one +of the present writers:—“Remarks on the Homologies and Notation of the Teeth +of the Mammalia,” in the <i>Journal of Anatomy and Physiology</i>, vol. iii. p. 262, +1869; and “Notes on the First or Milk Dentition of the Mammalia,” in the +<i>Trans. Odontological Society of Great Britain</i>, 1871. See also an important +memoir by Oldfield Thomas on the “Homologies and Succession of the teeth +in the Dasyuridæ,” <i>Phil. Trans.</i> 1887, pp. 443-462.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_6" href="#FNanchor_6" class="label">[6]</a> By many writers the letters indicating the different kinds of teeth are +printed in capitals, as <i>I</i>, <i>C</i>, <i>P</i>, and <i>M</i>; while very frequently the symbol <i>Pm</i> is +employed in place of <i>p</i>.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_7" href="#FNanchor_7" class="label">[7]</a> According to Mr. G. E. Dobson there are four upper incisors in some of +the <i>Soricidæ</i>.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_8" href="#FNanchor_8" class="label">[8]</a> See for the principal modifications of the skeleton of the class, the large +and beautifully illustrated <i>Ostéographie</i> of De Blainville, 1835-54; the section +devoted to the subject in Bronn’s <i>Klassen und Ordnungen des Thier-Reichs</i>, by +Giebel, 1874-79; and <i>An Introduction to the Osteology of the Mammalia</i>, by +W. H. Flower, 3d ed., 1885.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_9" href="#FNanchor_9" class="label">[9]</a> This and many of the following figures in this chapter are taken from Flower’s +<i>Osteology of the Mammalia</i>.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_10" href="#FNanchor_10" class="label">[10]</a> For the sake of uniformity, in all the following descriptions of the vertebral +column, the long axis of the body is supposed to be in the horizontal position.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_11" href="#FNanchor_11" class="label">[11]</a> The opinion has recently been expressed by Baur that bone termed +radiale in <a href="#figure017">Fig. 17</a> is really a second centrale, and that the radiale is represented +by a minute bone generally known as the radial sesamoid. The mammalian +scaphoid is accordingly also regarded as a second centrale. In the same communication, +Dr. Baur expresses his disbelief in the existence of remnants of a +prepollex and of a seventh digit in mammals and other vertebrates. (See <i>Anat. +Anzeiger</i>, vol. iv. pp. 49-52, 1889.)</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_12" href="#FNanchor_12" class="label">[12]</a> On the Præpollex and Præhallux, etc., <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1889, pp. 259-262.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_13" href="#FNanchor_13" class="label">[13]</a> Cope and Baur consider that the astragalus corresponds only with the intermedium, +and that the tibiale may exist as a distinct element.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_14" href="#FNanchor_14" class="label">[14]</a> For further details of these modifications, see Flower’s “Lectures on the +Comparative Anatomy of the Organs of Digestion of the Mammalia,” <i>Medical +Times and Gazette</i>, Feb.-Dec. 1872.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_15" href="#FNanchor_15" class="label">[15]</a> G. Gulliver, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i>, 1862, p. 91.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_16" href="#FNanchor_16" class="label">[16]</a> The modifications of these bones are fully described by A. Doran, “Morphology +of the Mammalian <i>Ossicula auditus</i>,” <i>Trans. Linn. Soc.</i> ser. 2, vol. i. pp. +371-497, pl. lviii.-lxiv. (1878).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_17" href="#FNanchor_17" class="label">[17]</a> See B. H. Caldwell—“The Embryology of Monotremata and Marsupialia,” +<i>Phil. Trans.</i> for 1887, p. 463.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_18" href="#FNanchor_18" class="label">[18]</a> <i>Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia</i>, 1881, p. 468.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_19" href="#FNanchor_19" class="label">[19]</a> “<i>Studien ueber Entwickelungeschichte der Thiere</i>,” pt. 4, Wiesbaden, 1886.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_20" href="#FNanchor_20" class="label">[20]</a> <i>Journal of Morphology</i>, vol. i. p. 373 (1887).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_21" href="#FNanchor_21" class="label">[21]</a> For a full exposition of the present state of knowledge on this subject, see +the various memoirs of Sir William Turner, also F. M. Balfour’s <i>Treatise on +Comparative Embryology</i>, vol. ii. (1881), and J. A. Ryder in <i>American Naturalist</i>, +vol. xxi. p. 780 (1887).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_22" href="#FNanchor_22" class="label">[22]</a> <i>Proceedings of the Royal Society of London</i>, vol. xxviii. p. 395 (1879).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_23" href="#FNanchor_23" class="label">[23]</a> “The Relations between the Theromorphous Reptiles and the Monotreme +Mammalia,” <i>Proceedings of the American Association for the Advancement of +Science</i>, vol. xxxiii. p. 471 (1885).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_24" href="#FNanchor_24" class="label">[24]</a> “On the Phylogenetic Arrangement of the Sauropsida,” <i>Journal of +Morphology</i>, vol. i. pp. 93-104 (1887).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_25" href="#FNanchor_25" class="label">[25]</a> The names of the groups containing only extinct forms are printed in heavier +type than those which contain species still existing.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_26" href="#FNanchor_26" class="label">[26]</a> On this subject see A. Murray, <i>Geographical Distribution of Mammals</i>, 1866; +and especially A. R. Wallace, <i>The Geographical Distribution of Animals</i>, 2 vols., +1876, and <i>Island Life</i>, 1881; also A. Heilprin, <i>The Geographical and Geological +Distribution of Animals</i>, 1887.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_27" href="#FNanchor_27" class="label">[27]</a> <i>Distribution of Animals.</i></p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_28" href="#FNanchor_28" class="label">[28]</a> Generally known, as <i>Hyomoschus</i>, but first described as an extinct form +under the above name.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_29" href="#FNanchor_29" class="label">[29]</a> The fore limb from S. Africa described as <i>Theriodesmus</i>, which appears to +be mammalian, and may belong to <i>Tritylodon</i>.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_30" href="#FNanchor_30" class="label">[30]</a> The subjects referred to under this heading are mostly described and figured +in detail in Owen’s “Monograph of the Fossil Mammalia of the Mesozoic Formations,” +<i>Palæontographical Society’s Publications</i>, 1871; and in various papers by +Marsh, in the <i>American Journal of Science and Arts</i>, 1878-89. Important contributions +to our knowledge of these forms have also been made by Professors Cope +and Osborn, and the reader should especially consult the memoir by the latter +writer on the “Structure and Affinities of the Mesozoic Mammals,” published in +the <i>Journal of the Philadelphia Academy</i> (1888), vol. ix.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_31" href="#FNanchor_31" class="label">[31]</a> The whole discussion is contained in the following memoirs: (1) H. +Falconer, “Description of Two Species of the Fossil Mammalian genus +<i>Plagiaulax</i>, from Purbeck,” <i>Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.</i> vol. xiv. 1857; (2) R. Owen, +art. “Palæontology,” <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>, 8th ed., 1859; (3) H. Falconer, +“On the Disputed affinity of the Mammalian genus <i>Plagiaulax</i>,” <i>Quart. Journ. +Geol. Soc.</i> vol. xviii. 1862; (4) R. Owen, “Monograph of the Fossil Mammalia +of the Mesozoic Formation,” <i>Palæontographical Society</i>, 1871.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_32" href="#FNanchor_32" class="label">[32]</a> Blumenbach, <i>Voigts Magazin</i>, vol. ii. p. 205 (1800).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_33" href="#FNanchor_33" class="label">[33]</a> <i>Proceedings of the Royal Society of London</i>, vol. xliii. p. 353 (1888).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_34" href="#FNanchor_34" class="label">[34]</a> <i>Ibid.</i> vol. xlvi. p. 126 (1889).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_35" href="#FNanchor_35" class="label">[35]</a> Cuvier, <i>Tableau Élémentaire d’Hist. Nat.</i> p. 143 (1798).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_36" href="#FNanchor_36" class="label">[36]</a> Gervais, <i>Ostéographie des Monotremes</i>, p. 43 (1877).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_37" href="#FNanchor_37" class="label">[37]</a> For the detailed characters of all the genera and species of Marsupials the +reader should consult the British Museum <i>Catalogue of Marsupialia and Monotremata</i>, +by Oldfield Thomas, 1888.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_38" href="#FNanchor_38" class="label">[38]</a> Except in <i>Petaurus (Belideus) breviceps</i> (Forbes, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1881, +p. 188).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_39" href="#FNanchor_39" class="label">[39]</a> Including the transitional Austro-Malayan region.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_40" href="#FNanchor_40" class="label">[40]</a> Illiger, <i>Prod. Syst. Mamm. et Aves</i>, p. 76 (1811).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_41" href="#FNanchor_41" class="label">[41]</a> Linn. <i>Syst. Nat.</i> Ed. 12, vol. i. p. 71 (1766).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_42" href="#FNanchor_42" class="label">[42]</a> Temminck, <i>Monographies de Mammalogie</i>, vol. i. p. 60 (1827).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_43" href="#FNanchor_43" class="label">[43]</a> F. Cuvier, <i>Hist. Nat. des Mammifères</i>, iv. (1837).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_44" href="#FNanchor_44" class="label">[44]</a> Geoffroy, <i>Bull. Soc. Philom.</i> vol. i. p. 106 (1796).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_45" href="#FNanchor_45" class="label">[45]</a> Temminck, <i>Monographies de Mammalogie</i>, vol. i. p. 56 (1827).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_46" href="#FNanchor_46" class="label">[46]</a> Thomas, <i>Ann. Mus. Genov.</i> sér. 2, vol. iv. p. 503 (1887).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_47" href="#FNanchor_47" class="label">[47]</a> Krefft, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1866, p. 434.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_48" href="#FNanchor_48" class="label">[48]</a> Waterhouse, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1836, p. 69.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_49" href="#FNanchor_49" class="label">[49]</a> Geoffroy, <i>Bull. Soc. Philom.</i> vol. iii. p. 249 (1803).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_50" href="#FNanchor_50" class="label">[50]</a> Grey, in <i>Grey’s Australia</i>, vol. ii, p. 401 (1841).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_51" href="#FNanchor_51" class="label">[51]</a> Ogilby, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1838, p. 25.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_52" href="#FNanchor_52" class="label">[52]</a> Geoffroy, <i>Ann. du Muséum</i>, vol. ii. p. 365 (1803).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_53" href="#FNanchor_53" class="label">[53]</a> Owen, <i>Phil. Trans.</i> 1872, p. 257.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_54" href="#FNanchor_54" class="label">[54]</a> Gervais and Verraux, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1842, p. 1.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_55" href="#FNanchor_55" class="label">[55]</a> Storr, <i>Prodromus Meth. Mamm.</i> p. 33 (1780). Syn. <i>Phalangista</i>, Geoffroy, +<i>Bull. Soc. Philom.</i> vol i. p. 106 (1796).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_56" href="#FNanchor_56" class="label">[56]</a> Lesson, <i>Dict. Class. d’Hist. Nat.</i> vol. xiii. p. 333 (1828).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_57" href="#FNanchor_57" class="label">[57]</a> Ogilby, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1836, p. 26.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_58" href="#FNanchor_58" class="label">[58]</a> Thomas, <i>Cat. Marsupials Brit. Mus.</i> p. 163 (1888).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_59" href="#FNanchor_59" class="label">[59]</a> Gray, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1858, p. 109.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_60" href="#FNanchor_60" class="label">[60]</a> Shaw, <i>Naturalist’s Miscellany</i>, vol. ii. pl. lx. (1791).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_61" href="#FNanchor_61" class="label">[61]</a> M’Coy, <i>Ann. Mag. N. H.</i> (3) xx. p. 287 (1867).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_62" href="#FNanchor_62" class="label">[62]</a> Grey, in <i>Grey’s Australia</i>, appendix, vol. ii. p. 407 (1841).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_63" href="#FNanchor_63" class="label">[63]</a> Peters, <i>Ann. Mus. Genov.</i> vol. vi. p. 303 (1874).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_64" href="#FNanchor_64" class="label">[64]</a> Desmarest, <i>Nouv. Dict. d’Hist. Nat.</i> sér. 2, vol. xxv. p. 405 (1817).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_65" href="#FNanchor_65" class="label">[65]</a> <i>Cf.</i> W. A. Forbes, “Anatomy of the Koala,” <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1881, p. 180.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_66" href="#FNanchor_66" class="label">[66]</a> Blainville, <i>Bull. Soc. Philom.</i> 1816, p. 116.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_67" href="#FNanchor_67" class="label">[67]</a> Owen, in <i>Gervais’s Zool. et Pal. françaises</i>, 1st ed. pt. i. p. 192 (1849-52).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_68" href="#FNanchor_68" class="label">[68]</a> Ramsay, <i>Proc. Linn. Soc. N. S. Wales</i>, vol. i. p. 33 (1876).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_69" href="#FNanchor_69" class="label">[69]</a> De Vis, <i>Proc. Roy. Soc. Queensland</i>, ser. 2, vol. iii. p. 8 (1888).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_70" href="#FNanchor_70" class="label">[70]</a> Desmarest, <i>Nouv. Dict. d’Hist. Nat.</i> sér. 1, vol. xxiv. <i>Table Méth.</i> p. 20 +(1804). Syn. <i>Hypsiprymnus</i>, Illiger, <i>Prodromus Syst. Mamm.</i> p. 79 (1811).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_71" href="#FNanchor_71" class="label">[71]</a> Gray, <i>Charlesworth’s Mag. Nat. Hist.</i> vol. i. p. 584 (1837).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_72" href="#FNanchor_72" class="label">[72]</a> Thomas, <i>Cat. Marsup. Brit. Mus.</i> p. 114 (1888).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_73" href="#FNanchor_73" class="label">[73]</a> Garrod, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1875, p. 59.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_74" href="#FNanchor_74" class="label">[74]</a> Thomas, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1886, p. 544.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_75" href="#FNanchor_75" class="label">[75]</a> Schlegel and Müller, <i>Verh. Nat. Ges. Nederland</i>, p. 138 (1839-44).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_76" href="#FNanchor_76" class="label">[76]</a> Schlegel and Müller, <i>Verh. Nat. Ges. Nederland</i>, p. 130 (1839-44).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_77" href="#FNanchor_77" class="label">[77]</a> Gould, <i>Monograph of Macropodidæ</i>, pl. xiii. (1841).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_78" href="#FNanchor_78" class="label">[78]</a> Grey, in <i>Grey’s Australia</i>, vol. ii. appendix, p. 402 (1841).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_79" href="#FNanchor_79" class="label">[79]</a> Gray, <i>Charlesworth’s Mag. Nat. Hist.</i> vol. i. p. 583 (1837).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_80" href="#FNanchor_80" class="label">[80]</a> Shaw, <i>Naturalist’s Miscellany</i>, vol. i. pl. xxxiii. (1790).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_81" href="#FNanchor_81" class="label">[81]</a> For the characters of these species and the under-mentioned distinct genera, +see Owen’s <i>Extinct Mammals of Australia</i> (1877), and Lydekker’s <i>Catalogue of +Fossil Mammalia in the British Museum</i>, pt. v. (1887).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_82" href="#FNanchor_82" class="label">[82]</a> Owen, <i>Phil. Trans.</i> 1874, p. 264.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_83" href="#FNanchor_83" class="label">[83]</a> Owen, <i>op. cit.</i> p. 788.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_84" href="#FNanchor_84" class="label">[84]</a> Owen, <i>op. cit.</i> p. 797.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_85" href="#FNanchor_85" class="label">[85]</a> Owen, in <i>Mitchell’s Eastern Australia</i>, 2d ed. vol. ii. p. 362 (1838).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_86" href="#FNanchor_86" class="label">[86]</a> Owen, <i>Cat. Mamm. and Aves, Mus. R. Coll. Surgeons</i>, p. 314 (1845).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_87" href="#FNanchor_87" class="label">[87]</a> The characters of the chief groups of the Eutheria here given are, in some +measure, a fuller recapitulation of those already detailed in Chapter III., <a href="#Page_83">pp. +83-88</a>.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_88" href="#FNanchor_88" class="label">[88]</a> The name Paratheria has been suggested for this proposed subclass.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_89" href="#FNanchor_89" class="label">[89]</a> In some few Armadillos the suture between the premaxilla and maxilla +passes behind the first upper tooth; but in all other known members of the order +all the teeth are implanted in the maxilla.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_90" href="#FNanchor_90" class="label">[90]</a> See Flower, “On the Mutual Affinities of the Animals composing the +Order Edentata,” <i>Proceedings of the Zoological Society</i>, 1882, p. 358.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_91" href="#FNanchor_91" class="label">[91]</a> An attempt has been made to represent these views by the following +classification:</p> + +<ul> +<li>Order EDENTATA. + <ul> + <li>Suborder <span class="smcap">Pilosa</span>. + <ul> + <li><i>Bradypodidæ.</i></li> + <li><i>Megatheriidæ.</i></li> + <li><i>Myrmecophagidæ.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + <li>Suborder <span class="smcap">Loricata</span>. + <ul> + <li><i>Dasypodidæ.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + <li>Suborder <span class="smcap">Squamata</span>. + <ul> + <li><i>Manidæ.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + <li>Suborder <span class="smcap">Tubulidentata</span>. + <ul> + <li><i>Orycteropodidæ.</i></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> +</li> +</ul> + +<p>It may be objected to this arrangement that the <i>present</i> divergence between +the Sloths and Anteaters is hardly sufficiently indicated by their association in +one suborder.—Flower, “On the Arrangement of the Orders and Families of +Mammals,” <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1883, p. 178.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_92" href="#FNanchor_92" class="label">[92]</a> Linn. <i>Syst. Nat.</i> 12th ed. vol. i. p. 50 (1766).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_93" href="#FNanchor_93" class="label">[93]</a> Illiger, <i>Prodromus Syst. Mamm. et Avium</i>, p. 108 (1811).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_94" href="#FNanchor_94" class="label">[94]</a> Burmeister, <i>Sitzb. Ak. Berlin</i>, vol. xxviii. p. 613 (1882).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_95" href="#FNanchor_95" class="label">[95]</a> Lydekker, in Nicholson and Lydekker’s <i>Manual of Palæontology</i>, vol. ii. +p. 1299 (1889). Originally described under the preoccupied name <i>Cœlodon</i>.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_96" href="#FNanchor_96" class="label">[96]</a> Cuvier, <i>Tableau Élém. d’Hist. Nat. des Animaux</i>, p. 146 (1798).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_97" href="#FNanchor_97" class="label">[97]</a> An excellent figure of this skeleton, which unfortunately was incorrectly +articulated, and wanted the greater part of the tail, was published by Pander +and D’Alton in 1821, and has been frequently reproduced in subsequent +works.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_98" href="#FNanchor_98" class="label">[98]</a> See E. D. Cape, <i>Amer. Naturalist</i>, vol. xxiii. p. 152 (1889).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_99" href="#FNanchor_99" class="label">[99]</a> Linn. <i>Syst. Nat.</i> 12th ed. vol. i. p. 51 (1766).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_100" href="#FNanchor_100" class="label">[100]</a> Professor Cope has recently come to the conclusion that there are three +species; but further evidence is required in support of this view.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_101" href="#FNanchor_101" class="label">[101]</a> Gray, <i>Annals of Philosophy</i>, new series, vol. x. p. 343 (1825).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_102" href="#FNanchor_102" class="label">[102]</a> Gray, <i>Annals of Philosophy</i>, new series, vol. x. p. 343 (1825).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_103" href="#FNanchor_103" class="label">[103]</a> Harlan, <i>Ann. New York Lyceum Nat. Hist.</i> vol. i. p. 237 (1824).—Amended +from <i>Chiamyphorus</i>.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_104" href="#FNanchor_104" class="label">[104]</a> Linn. <i>Syst. Nat.</i>, 12th ed. vol. i. p. 54 (1766).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_105" href="#FNanchor_105" class="label">[105]</a> Wagler, <i>Syst. Amphibien</i>, etc., p. 36 (1830).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_106" href="#FNanchor_106" class="label">[106]</a> F. Cuvier, <i>Hist. Nat. des Mammifères</i> (1822).—<i>Priodontes.</i></p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_107" href="#FNanchor_107" class="label">[107]</a> Illiger, <i>Prodromus Syst. Mamm. et Avium</i>, p. 111 (1811).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_108" href="#FNanchor_108" class="label">[108]</a> Lesson, <i>Man. de Mammalogie</i>, p. 309 (1827); <i>ex.</i> F. Cuvier, <i>Tatusie</i>.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_109" href="#FNanchor_109" class="label">[109]</a> A single imperfect skin, brought from the province of Ceara in Brazil, indicates +a very remarkable form of Armadillo, named by A. Milne-Edwards <i>Scleropleura +brunetti</i> (<i>Ann. Sc. Nat.</i> xvi. p. 8, 1872). The dermal scutes are said to +be much less developed than in other members of the family, and confined to the +sides, all the median portion of the back being clothed with a flexible hairy skin. +The head is broad and short, the ears small and far apart. The tail is long, and +almost entirely devoid of scutes. The feet are unknown.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_110" href="#FNanchor_110" class="label">[110]</a> Linn. <i>Syst. Nat.</i> 12th ed. vol. i. p. 52 (1766).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_111" href="#FNanchor_111" class="label">[111]</a> <i>Mammalian Descent</i>, p. 95.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_112" href="#FNanchor_112" class="label">[112]</a> <i>Mammalian Descent</i>, p. 99.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_113" href="#FNanchor_113" class="label">[113]</a> Forsyth-Major, <i>Comptes Rendus</i>, vol. cvii. p. 1180 (1888).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_114" href="#FNanchor_114" class="label">[114]</a> Geoffroy, <i>Décade Philosophique</i>, 1795 (<i>teste</i> Agassiz).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_115" href="#FNanchor_115" class="label">[115]</a> <i>Proceedings of the Royal Society</i>; vol. xlvii. p. 246 (1890).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_116" href="#FNanchor_116" class="label">[116]</a> Storr, <i>Prodromus Meth. Mamm.</i> p. 41 (1780).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_117" href="#FNanchor_117" class="label">[117]</a> <i>Zool. Jahrbuch</i>, vol. i. p. 1 (1886).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_118" href="#FNanchor_118" class="label">[118]</a> Illiger, <i>Prodromus Syst. Mamm. et Avium</i>, p. 140 (1811).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_119" href="#FNanchor_119" class="label">[119]</a> Illiger, <i>Prodromus Syst. Mamm. et Avium</i>, p. 141 (1811).—Amended from +<i>Rytina</i>.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_120" href="#FNanchor_120" class="label">[120]</a> Nordenskiöld, during his voyage in the <i>Vega</i>, obtained some information +from the natives of Behring Island which led him to believe that a few individuals +may have survived to a much later date, even to 1854; but this conclusion +is disputed by later writers.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_121" href="#FNanchor_121" class="label">[121]</a> Kaup, <i>Neues Jahrbuch</i>, 1838, pp. 319 and 536.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_122" href="#FNanchor_122" class="label">[122]</a> This is an important distinction from the Sirenia, but a character common +to nearly all other mammals. It is doubtful whether there is any foundation +for the statement that these epiphyses remain ununited for an exceptionally long +period in the Cetacea.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_123" href="#FNanchor_123" class="label">[123]</a> A character repeated in some of the Seals.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_124" href="#FNanchor_124" class="label">[124]</a> These have been described in detail by Professor Struthers in the <i>Journal of +Anatomy and Physiology</i>, 1881.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_125" href="#FNanchor_125" class="label">[125]</a> The ankylosed mass of cervical vertebræ, on which the genus <i>Palæocetus</i> was +established, was regarded by its describer as having probably come from the +Kimeridge Clay, but the mineral condition of the specimen points to the Red +Crag as the place of origin.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_126" href="#FNanchor_126" class="label">[126]</a> There is much resemblance in the larynx of the Hippopotamus, but none +in that of the Seal, to the same organ in the Cetacea.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_127" href="#FNanchor_127" class="label">[127]</a> German <i>Meerschwein</i>, whence the French <i>Marsouin</i>. “Porpoise” is said +to be derived from “<i>Porc-poisson</i>.”</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_128" href="#FNanchor_128" class="label">[128]</a> Icel. <i>hvalr</i>; Dan. and Swed. <i>hval</i>; Anglo-Saxon <i>hwæl</i>; Germ. <i>wal</i>, +<i>walfisch</i>. The meaning apparently is “roller,” the word being closely allied to +“wheel” (Skeat).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_129" href="#FNanchor_129" class="label">[129]</a> These were discovered in the Greenland Whale by Geoffroy St. Hilaire, +whose observations were confirmed and extended to other genera by Eschricht. +They have been very fully described in <i>Balænoptera rostrata</i> by Julin (<i>Archives +de Biologie</i>, i. 1880).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_130" href="#FNanchor_130" class="label">[130]</a> For the structure of whalebone see Hunter, “Observations on the Structure +and Economy of Whales,” <i>Phil. Trans.</i> 1787; Eschricht and Reinhardt, <i>On the +Greenland Right Whale</i>, English translation by the Ray Society, 1866, pp. 67-78; +and Sir W. Turner, in <i>Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin.</i> 1870.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_131" href="#FNanchor_131" class="label">[131]</a> Linn. <i>Syst. Nat.</i> 12th ed. vol. i. p. 105 (1766).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_132" href="#FNanchor_132" class="label">[132]</a> Gray, <i>Suppl. Cat. Seals and Whales in Brit. Mus.</i> p. 39 (1871).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_133" href="#FNanchor_133" class="label">[133]</a> Cope, <i>Proc. Ac. Nat. Sci. Philad.</i> 1869, p. 15.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_134" href="#FNanchor_134" class="label">[134]</a> Gray, <i>Zoology of Erebus and Terror</i>, p. 16 (1846).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_135" href="#FNanchor_135" class="label">[135]</a> See J. Struthers, “On the Anatomy of <i>Megaptera +longimana</i>,” <i>Journ. Anatomy and Physiology</i>, 1887-89.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_136" href="#FNanchor_136" class="label">[136]</a> Lacépède, “Table des Ordres,” <i>Hist. Nat. des Cétacés</i>, +p. xxxvi. (1804).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_137" href="#FNanchor_137" class="label">[137]</a> See P. J. Van Beneden, “Histoire Naturelles des Balénoptères,” <i>Mém. Acad. +Belgique</i>, xli. 1887.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_138" href="#FNanchor_138" class="label">[138]</a> In a recent memoir Professor D’Arcy Thompson has brought forward some +arguments to show that the Zeuglodonts have no direct affinities with the Cetacea, +but have on the other hand the strongest possible relation with the Pinnipede +Carnivora. “On the Systematic position of Zeuglodon,” <i>Studies from the Museum +of Zoology, Dundee</i>, vol. i. No. 9, 1890.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_139" href="#FNanchor_139" class="label">[139]</a> An appearance in one specimen has been described by C. G. Carus as indicating +a vertical succession of the teeth, but the evidence upon which this rests +is by no means satisfactory, and appears to admit of another explanation.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_140" href="#FNanchor_140" class="label">[140]</a> A mutilated humerus of <i>Zeuglodon cetoides</i> has given rise to many conjectures, +appearing to some anatomists to indicate seal-like freedom of motion +at the elbow-joint, while to others its characters appear to be truly Cetacean.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_141" href="#FNanchor_141" class="label">[141]</a> See <i>Trans. Geol. Soc.</i> ser. 2, vol. vi. p. 67.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_142" href="#FNanchor_142" class="label">[142]</a> Linn. <i>Syst. Nat.</i> 12th ed. vol. i. p. 107 (1766).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_143" href="#FNanchor_143" class="label">[143]</a> Gray, <i>Zoology of Erebus and Terror</i>, p. 22 (1846). Usually spelt <i>Kogia</i>.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_144" href="#FNanchor_144" class="label">[144]</a> Lacépède, “Table des Ordres,” <i>Hist. Nat. des Cétacés</i>, p. xliv. (1804).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_145" href="#FNanchor_145" class="label">[145]</a> See the figures in the <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1882, pp. 728, 729.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_146" href="#FNanchor_146" class="label">[146]</a> Cuvier, <i>Ossemens Fossiles</i>, 2d ed. vol. v. p. 352 (1823).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_147" href="#FNanchor_147" class="label">[147]</a> Gervais, <i>Ann. Sci. Nat.</i> ser. 3, vol. xiv. p. 16 (1850). For the very complicated +synonymy of this genus, see <i>Trans. Zool. Soc.</i> vol. viii. p. 208.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_148" href="#FNanchor_148" class="label">[148]</a> Duvernoy, <i>Ann. Sci. Nat.-Zoologie</i>, sér. 3, vol. xv. p. 41 (1851).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_149" href="#FNanchor_149" class="label">[149]</a> Duvernoy, <i>op. cit.</i> p. 61.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_150" href="#FNanchor_150" class="label">[150]</a> Grateloup, <i>Act. Ac. R. Sci. Bordeaux</i>, 1840, p. 208.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_151" href="#FNanchor_151" class="label">[151]</a> Wagler, <i>Syst. Amphib.</i> etc., p. 35 (1830).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_152" href="#FNanchor_152" class="label">[152]</a> The anatomy of <i>Platanista</i> is fully described by J. Anderson, <i>Zoological +Results of Two Expeditions to Western Yunnan</i>, 1878.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_153" href="#FNanchor_153" class="label">[153]</a> D’Orbigny, <i>Nouv. Ann. Mus. Paris</i>, vol. iii. p. 31 (1834).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_154" href="#FNanchor_154" class="label">[154]</a> Gray, <i>Zoology of Erebus and Terror</i>, p. 46 (1846).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_155" href="#FNanchor_155" class="label">[155]</a> Linn. <i>Syst. Nat.</i> 12th ed. vol. i. p. 105 (1766).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_156" href="#FNanchor_156" class="label">[156]</a> Lacépède, <i>Hist. Nat. des Cétacés</i>, p. xli. (1804).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_157" href="#FNanchor_157" class="label">[157]</a> Cuvier, <i>Règne Animal</i>, vol. i. p. 279 (1817).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_158" href="#FNanchor_158" class="label">[158]</a> <i>Zoology of Erebus and Terror</i>, p. 30 (1846). The name is preoccupied by +Lamarck for a genus of Polyzoa (1816).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_159" href="#FNanchor_159" class="label">[159]</a> Gray, <i>Cat. Cetacea Brit. Mus.</i> p. 106 (1850).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_160" href="#FNanchor_160" class="label">[160]</a> Gray, <i>Cat. Seals and Whales in Brit. Mus.</i> p. 285 (1866).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_161" href="#FNanchor_161" class="label">[161]</a> <i>Anatomical and Zoological Researches, comprising an Account of the Zoological +Results of the two Expeditions to Western Yunnan, in 1868 and 1875</i> (1878).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_162" href="#FNanchor_162" class="label">[162]</a> Gray, <i>Zoology of Erebus and Terror</i>, p. 33 (1846).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_163" href="#FNanchor_163" class="label">[163]</a> Reinhardt, <i>Overs. Dan. Sezsk. Forh.</i> 1862, p. 151.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_164" href="#FNanchor_164" class="label">[164]</a> Lesson, <i>N. Tab. d. Règne Animal—Mamm.</i> p. 200 (1842).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_165" href="#FNanchor_165" class="label">[165]</a> Gray, <i>Zoology of Erebus and Terror</i>, p. 30 (1846).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_166" href="#FNanchor_166" class="label">[166]</a> Gray, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1870, p. 77.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_167" href="#FNanchor_167" class="label">[167]</a> Gray, <i>Zoology of Erebus and Terror</i>, p. 35 (1846).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_168" href="#FNanchor_168" class="label">[168]</a> Linn. <i>Syst. Nat.</i> 12th ed. vol. i. p. 108 (1766).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_169" href="#FNanchor_169" class="label">[169]</a> Gervais, <i>Hist. Nat. des Mammifères</i>, vol. ii. p. 323 (1855).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_170" href="#FNanchor_170" class="label">[170]</a> Gervais, <i>Ostéographie des Cétacés</i>, p. 604 (1880).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_171" href="#FNanchor_171" class="label">[171]</a> Gray, <i>Zoology of Erebus and Terror</i>, p. 43 (1846).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_172" href="#FNanchor_172" class="label">[172]</a> Gray, <i>Cat. Seals and Whales Brit. Mus.</i> 2d ed. p. 393 (1866).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_173" href="#FNanchor_173" class="label">[173]</a> Since this was in type the discovery of transient rudimentary clavicles in +the embryo of the Sheep has been announced by Wineza (<i>Morpholog. Jahrb.</i> xvi. +p. 647).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_174" href="#FNanchor_174" class="label">[174]</a> Also known as Diplarthra.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_175" href="#FNanchor_175" class="label">[175]</a> The pollex is present in the manus of the extinct <i>Cotylops</i>.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_176" href="#FNanchor_176" class="label">[176]</a> In the table on p. 89 the Peccaries are included in the <i>Suidæ</i>.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_177" href="#FNanchor_177" class="label">[177]</a> Linn. <i>Syst. Nat.</i> 12th ed. vol. i. p. 101 (1766).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_178" href="#FNanchor_178" class="label">[178]</a> Linn. <i>Syst. Nat.</i> 12th ed. vol. i. p. 102 (1766).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_179" href="#FNanchor_179" class="label">[179]</a> If from any accidental circumstances these teeth are not constantly worn +down by friction, they grow into a complete circle, the point penetrating the +bone of the jaw close to the root of the tooth. The natives of the Fiji Islands +avail themselves of this circumstance to produce one of their most valued ornaments—a +circular boar’s tusk: the upper canines being extracted, the lower ones +are allowed to grow to the desired form.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_180" href="#FNanchor_180" class="label">[180]</a> See Garson, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond.</i> 1883, p. 413.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_181" href="#FNanchor_181" class="label">[181]</a> Lesson, <i>Man. d. Mamm.</i>, p. 337 (1827), “Babirusa.”</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_182" href="#FNanchor_182" class="label">[182]</a> Cuvier, <i>Règne-Animal</i>, vol. i. p. 236 (1817).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_183" href="#FNanchor_183" class="label">[183]</a> Cuvier, <i>Règne Animal</i>, vol. i. p. 237 (1817).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_184" href="#FNanchor_184" class="label">[184]</a> Professor Cope considers that there is a third species, for which he has proposed +the name <i>D. angularis</i>.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_185" href="#FNanchor_185" class="label">[185]</a> This name (Leidy, 1851) is preoccupied by <i>Orodus</i> (Agassiz, 1838).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_186" href="#FNanchor_186" class="label">[186]</a> The stomach of the Camel inhabiting the Arabian desert is commonly +looked upon as a striking example of specialised structure, adapted or modified +in direct accordance with a highly specialised mode of life; it is therefore very +remarkable to find an organ exactly similar, except in some unessential details, +in the Llamas of the Peruvian Andes and the Guanacos of the Pampas. No +hypothesis except that of a common origin will satisfactorily account for this, +and, granting that this view is correct, it becomes extremely interesting to +find for how long a time two genera may be isolated and yet retain such close +similarities in parts which in other groups appear readily subject to adaptive +modifications.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_187" href="#FNanchor_187" class="label">[187]</a> Linn. <i>Syst. Nat.</i> 12th ed. vol. i. p. 90 (1766).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_188" href="#FNanchor_188" class="label">[188]</a> There is much confusion as to the proper use of the names Camel and +Dromedary. It is now generally accepted that the former is the common term +for all the members of the genus, and that Dromedary should be confined to the +lighter and swifter breeds of the one-humped species. One of the oldest pictures of +the two-humped Camel extant, painted on the wall of the Chapter House of +Westminster Abbey, has, however, “Dromedary” inscribed under it.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_189" href="#FNanchor_189" class="label">[189]</a> Illiger, <i>Prodromus Syst. Mamm.</i> p. 103 (1811).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_190" href="#FNanchor_190" class="label">[190]</a> <i>Natural History of the Strait of Magellan</i>, 1871.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_191" href="#FNanchor_191" class="label">[191]</a> Pallas, <i>Spicilegia Zoologica</i>, vol. xiii. p. 27 (1779).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_192" href="#FNanchor_192" class="label">[192]</a> Kaup, <i>Ossemens Fossiles de Darmstadt</i>, pt. 5, p. 92 (1836). This name, +which was proposed for a fossil species, antedates <i>Hyomoschus</i>, Gray, applied to +the living form.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_193" href="#FNanchor_193" class="label">[193]</a> For the anatomy of this group see A. H. Garrod, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1877, p. 2.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_194" href="#FNanchor_194" class="label">[194]</a> Linn. <i>Syst. Nat.</i> 12th ed. vol. i. p. 91 (1766).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_195" href="#FNanchor_195" class="label">[195]</a> For the anatomy of <i>Moschus</i> see Flower, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1875, p. 159; +and Garrod, <i>ibid.</i> 1877, p. 287.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_196" href="#FNanchor_196" class="label">[196]</a> <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1878, p. 889.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_197" href="#FNanchor_197" class="label">[197]</a> De Blainville, <i>Bull. Soc. Philom.</i> 1816, p. 74.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_198" href="#FNanchor_198" class="label">[198]</a> Milne-Edwards, <i>Nouv. Arch. du Muséum</i>, vol. vii. Bull. p. 93 (1872).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_199" href="#FNanchor_199" class="label">[199]</a> Linn. <i>Syst. Nat.</i> 12th ed. vol. i. p. 92 (1766).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_200" href="#FNanchor_200" class="label">[200]</a> Hamilton-Smith, in <i>Griffith’s Animal Kingdom</i>, vol. v. p. 304 (1827).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_201" href="#FNanchor_201" class="label">[201]</a> Hamilton-Smith, in <i>Griffith’s Animal Kingdom</i>, vol. v. p. 303 (1827).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_202" href="#FNanchor_202" class="label">[202]</a> Scott, <i>Proc. Ac. Nat. Sci. Philad.</i> 1885, p. 181.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_203" href="#FNanchor_203" class="label">[203]</a> Hamilton-Smith, in <i>Griffith’s Animal Kingdom</i>, vol. v. p. 313 (1827).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_204" href="#FNanchor_204" class="label">[204]</a> Swinhoe, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1870, p. 90.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_205" href="#FNanchor_205" class="label">[205]</a> Gray, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1850, p. 237.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_206" href="#FNanchor_206" class="label">[206]</a> Gray, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1850, p. 242.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_207" href="#FNanchor_207" class="label">[207]</a> This accessory column is shown in the figure of the molar of <i>Boselaphus</i> on +<a href="#figure123">p. 311</a>.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_208" href="#FNanchor_208" class="label">[208]</a> Zimmermann, <i>Geograph. Geschichte</i>, vol. ii. p. 125 (1780).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_209" href="#FNanchor_209" class="label">[209]</a> Ord. <i>Journ. de Physique</i>, vol. lxxxvii. p. 149 (1818).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_210" href="#FNanchor_210" class="label">[210]</a> Blainville, <i>Bull. Soc. Philom.</i> 1816, p. 75.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_211" href="#FNanchor_211" class="label">[211]</a> Lichtenstein, <i>Berlin Ges. Natuforsch. Freunde Magazin</i>, vol. vi. pp. 152, 165 +(1814).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_212" href="#FNanchor_212" class="label">[212]</a> F. E. Blaauw, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1889, p. 2.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_213" href="#FNanchor_213" class="label">[213]</a> Hamilton-Smith, in <i>Griffith’s Animal Kingdom</i>, vol. iv. p. 258 (1827). +Taken to include <i>Grimmia</i>, <i>Terphone</i>, etc., of Gray.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_214" href="#FNanchor_214" class="label">[214]</a> Leach, <i>Trans. Linn. Soc.</i> vol. xiv. p. 524 (1823).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_215" href="#FNanchor_215" class="label">[215]</a> Hamilton-Smith, in <i>Griffith’s Animal Kingdom</i>, vol. iv. p. 269 (1827).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_216" href="#FNanchor_216" class="label">[216]</a> <i>Geology and Zoology of Abyssinia</i>, p. 268.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_217" href="#FNanchor_217" class="label">[217]</a> Sundevall, <i>Kongl. Vetensk. Akad. Handl.</i> for 1844, p. 191. Taken to +include <i>Calotragus</i>, <i>Scopophorus</i>, <i>Nesotragus</i>, <i>Pediotragus</i>, and <i>Oreotragus</i> of Gray.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_218" href="#FNanchor_218" class="label">[218]</a> See V. Brooke, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1872, pp. 642 and 875.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_219" href="#FNanchor_219" class="label">[219]</a> Gray, <i>Cat. Ungulate Mamm. Brit. Mus.</i> p. 90 (1852).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_220" href="#FNanchor_220" class="label">[220]</a> Andrew Smith, <i>Illustrations of Zoology of South Africa</i>, No. 12 (1840), +“Kobus.” Is taken to include <i>Adenota</i> and <i>Onotragus</i> of Gray.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_221" href="#FNanchor_221" class="label">[221]</a> De Blainville, <i>Bull. Soc. Philom.</i> 1816, p. 75. Syn. <i>Eleotragus</i>.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_222" href="#FNanchor_222" class="label">[222]</a> Pallas, <i>Spicilegia Zoologica</i>, vol. i. p. 3 (1767).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_223" href="#FNanchor_223" class="label">[223]</a> Sundevall, <i>Kongl. Vetensk. Akad. Handl.</i> for 1845, p. 271.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_224" href="#FNanchor_224" class="label">[224]</a> Gray, <i>List Mamm. Brit. Mus.</i> p. 160 (1843).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_225" href="#FNanchor_225" class="label">[225]</a> Hodgson, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1834, p. 81.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_226" href="#FNanchor_226" class="label">[226]</a> De Blainville, <i>Bull. Soc. Philom.</i> 1816, p. 75. Is taken to include <i>Procapra</i> +and <i>Tragops</i>.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_227" href="#FNanchor_227" class="label">[227]</a> <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1873, p. 537. Three species subsequently described are +here added to the list.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_228" href="#FNanchor_228" class="label">[228]</a> Sundevall, <i>Kongl. Vetensk. Akad. Handl.</i> for 1844, p. 196.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_229" href="#FNanchor_229" class="label">[229]</a> De Blainville, <i>Bull. Soc. Philom.</i> 1816, p. 75.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_230" href="#FNanchor_230" class="label">[230]</a> Rafinesque, <i>Anal. Nat.</i> 1815, p. 56.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_231" href="#FNanchor_231" class="label">[231]</a> De Blainville, <i>Bull. Soc. Philom.</i> 1816, p. 75. Syn. <i>Portax</i>, Hamilton-Smith.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_232" href="#FNanchor_232" class="label">[232]</a> De Blainville, <i>Bull. Soc. Philom.</i> 1816, p. 75. Includes <i>Euryceros</i>, Gray.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_233" href="#FNanchor_233" class="label">[233]</a> Gray, <i>List. Mamm. Brit. Mus.</i> p. 155 (1843).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_234" href="#FNanchor_234" class="label">[234]</a> Desmarest, <i>Mammalogie</i>, p. 471 (1822).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_235" href="#FNanchor_235" class="label">[235]</a> De Blainville, <i>Bull. Soc. Philom.</i> 1816, p. 75.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_236" href="#FNanchor_236" class="label">[236]</a> Hamilton-Smith, in <i>Griffith’s Animal Kingdom</i>, vol. v. p. 352 (1827).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_237" href="#FNanchor_237" class="label">[237]</a> Hamilton-Smith, in <i>Griffith’s Animal Kingdom</i>, vol. v. p. 354 (1827). +Amended from “Aplocerus.”</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_238" href="#FNanchor_238" class="label">[238]</a> Hodgson, <i>Journ. As. Soc. Bengal</i>, vol. xix. p. 65 (1850).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_239" href="#FNanchor_239" class="label">[239]</a> See A. O. Hume, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1887, pp. 483-486.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_240" href="#FNanchor_240" class="label">[240]</a> Linn. <i>Syst. Nat.</i> 12th ed. vol. i. p. 94 (1766).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_241" href="#FNanchor_241" class="label">[241]</a> <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1886, p. 314; and 1887, p. 552.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_242" href="#FNanchor_242" class="label">[242]</a> Specimens referred by Dinnik to <i>C. caucasica</i> have been made the types of +another species—<i>C. severtzovi</i>.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_243" href="#FNanchor_243" class="label">[243]</a> Linn. <i>Syst. Nat.</i> 12th ed. vol. i. p. 97 (1766).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_244" href="#FNanchor_244" class="label">[244]</a> There may be a beard on the throat, as in <i>O. cycloceros</i>.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_245" href="#FNanchor_245" class="label">[245]</a> <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1884, p. 326.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_246" href="#FNanchor_246" class="label">[246]</a> De Blainville, <i>Bull. Soc. Philom.</i> 1816, p. 76.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_247" href="#FNanchor_247" class="label">[247]</a> <i>Zoologist</i>, September 1877.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_248" href="#FNanchor_248" class="label">[248]</a> Linn. <i>Syst. Nat.</i> 12th ed. vol. i. p. 98 (1766).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_249" href="#FNanchor_249" class="label">[249]</a> <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1873, p. 474.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_250" href="#FNanchor_250" class="label">[250]</a> Sir V. Brooke states that this species is distinguished from <i>B. pumilus</i> by +the absence of a fringe to the ears, but specimens in the British Museum show +that this is not the case.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_251" href="#FNanchor_251" class="label">[251]</a> <i>The Extirpation of the American Bison</i>, 1889.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_252" href="#FNanchor_252" class="label">[252]</a> The late Mr. Alston, <i>Fauna of Scotland</i>, “Mammalia” (Glasgow, 1880), p. 25, +considers that the Chillingham cattle are descendants of a race which had escaped +from domestication.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_253" href="#FNanchor_253" class="label">[253]</a> Wanting in the aberrant <i>Chalicotherium</i>.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_254" href="#FNanchor_254" class="label">[254]</a> See W. N. Parker, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1882, p. 775.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_255" href="#FNanchor_255" class="label">[255]</a> Cuvier, <i>Tableau Élément. de l’Hist. Nat.</i> p. 152 (1798); <i>ex</i> Brisson.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_256" href="#FNanchor_256" class="label">[256]</a> See J. Murie, <i>Journ. Anat. and Physiol.</i> vol. vi. p. 131, 1871; W. N. Parker. +<i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1882, p. 768; and F. E. Beddard, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1889, p. 252.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_257" href="#FNanchor_257" class="label">[257]</a> The Swiss <i>P. siderolithicus</i> has only one cusp in the last upper premolar.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_258" href="#FNanchor_258" class="label">[258]</a> Leidy, <i>Proc. Ac. Nat. Sci. Philad.</i> 1858, p. 26.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_259" href="#FNanchor_259" class="label">[259]</a> Christol, <i>Ann. Sci. Indust. Mid. France</i>, vol. i. p. 180 (1832).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_260" href="#FNanchor_260" class="label">[260]</a> Linn. <i>Syst. Nat.</i> 12th ed. vol. i. p. 100 (1766).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_261" href="#FNanchor_261" class="label">[261]</a> Darwin, <i>Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication</i>, 1868, vol. +i. chap. ii.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_262" href="#FNanchor_262" class="label">[262]</a> See <i>Nature</i>, 21st August 1884, and <i>Zool. Garten.</i> vol. xxviii. p. 453.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_263" href="#FNanchor_263" class="label">[263]</a> See Sclater, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1884, p. 542.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_264" href="#FNanchor_264" class="label">[264]</a> See Blanford, <i>Zoology and Geology of Eastern Persia</i> (<i>Journeys of the Persian +Boundary Commission</i>), p. 84.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_265" href="#FNanchor_265" class="label">[265]</a> This must not be confounded with the navicular of the tarsus.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_266" href="#FNanchor_266" class="label">[266]</a> Want of space and of the necessary illustrations rendered it impossible to +give an account of mammalian myology in the earlier chapters of this work.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_267" href="#FNanchor_267" class="label">[267]</a> Linn. <i>Syst. Nat.</i> 12th ed. vol. i. p. 104 (1766).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_268" href="#FNanchor_268" class="label">[268]</a> Many authors use Cuvier’s name, <i>R. indicus</i>, in preference to this, on the +ground that there are more than one species with one horn, forgetting that the +name substituted is equally inconvenient, as more than one species live in India. +The fact of a specific name being applicable to several members of a genus is no +objection to its restriction to the first to which it was applied; otherwise +changes in old and well-received names would constantly have to be made in +consequence of new discoveries.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_269" href="#FNanchor_269" class="label">[269]</a> <i>Trans. Zool. Soc.</i> vol. xii.; see also <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1889, p. 9.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_270" href="#FNanchor_270" class="label">[270]</a> See Beddard and Treves, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1889, p. 9.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_271" href="#FNanchor_271" class="label">[271]</a> For the internal anatomy of <i>R. sumatrensis</i> see Garrod, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> +1873, p. 92; and Beddard and Treves, <i>loc. cit.</i></p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_272" href="#FNanchor_272" class="label">[272]</a> Those external points of distinction from <i>R. simus</i> are taken from a paper +by Sclater in the <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1886, p. 143.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_273" href="#FNanchor_273" class="label">[273]</a> <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1881, p. 726.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_274" href="#FNanchor_274" class="label">[274]</a> This name is the earliest, but is preoccupied.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_275" href="#FNanchor_275" class="label">[275]</a> Hermann, <i>Tab. Affinit. Anim.</i> p. 115 (1783). It has recently been proposed +to substitute the earlier name <i>Procavia</i> in lieu of <i>Hyrax</i>. The anatomy of +Hyrax was first described by Pallas (<i>Spicilegia Zoologica</i>). Besides minor +memoirs, two detailed accounts of its structure have appeared—one by Brandt, +in <i>Mém. Acad. Nat. Scien. St. Pétersbourg</i>, 7ⁱᵉᵐᵉ sér. vol. xiv. No. 2, 1869; and +another by George, in <i>Annales des Sciences Naturelles</i>, 6ⁱᵉᵐᵉ sér. tom. i. 1874, in +which references to all the previous literature will be found. The mechanism +by which the sole of the foot is enabled to adhere to smooth surfaces is fully +described by G. E. Dobson, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1876, p. 526.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_276" href="#FNanchor_276" class="label">[276]</a> Gray, <i>Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.</i> ser. 4. vol. i. p. 48 (1868).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_277" href="#FNanchor_277" class="label">[277]</a> See a paper by J. V. Barboza du Bocage, in the <i>Jorn. Sci. Phys. Nat. Lisboa</i> +(2), vol. i. p. 186 (1889), where a list of all the known species will be found.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_278" href="#FNanchor_278" class="label">[278]</a> These teeth are by some writers classed as canines, as their roots are implanted +in the maxillæ; but, as in Rodents, they are originally developed in the +gum covering the premaxillæ, in which bones their primitive alveoli are sunk. +As growth proceeds, however, firm support for such massive and weighty bodies +can only be obtained by their roots gradually sinking through the premaxillæ +into the great and specially modified alveolar processes of the maxillæ, but this +does not vitiate their homology with the incisors of other mammals.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_279" href="#FNanchor_279" class="label">[279]</a> Linn. <i>Syst. Nat.</i> 12th ed. vol. i. p. 48 (1766).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_280" href="#FNanchor_280" class="label">[280]</a> In the Gulf of Cambay,—not the island of the same name in the Red Sea.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_281" href="#FNanchor_281" class="label">[281]</a> The word Mammoth was introduced into the languages of Western Europe +about two centuries ago from the Russian, and is thought by Pallas and Nordenskiöld +to be of Tartar origin, but others, as Witzen, Strahlenburg, and Howorth, +have endeavored to prove that it is a corruption of the Arabic word <i>Behemoth</i>, +or great beast.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_282" href="#FNanchor_282" class="label">[282]</a> The best known of these is the etching upon a portion of tusk found in the +cave of La Madelaine in the Dordogne, figured in Lartet and Christy’s <i>Reliquiæ +Aquitanicæ</i>, and in many other works bearing on the subject of the antiquity of +man.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_283" href="#FNanchor_283" class="label">[283]</a> Cuvier, <i>Ann. du Muséum</i>, vol. viii. p. 270 (1806).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_284" href="#FNanchor_284" class="label">[284]</a> This, and the larger number of ridges in the latter, are the only absolute +distinctions which Falconer could find between <i>Mastodon</i> and <i>Elephas</i> (<i>Palæont. +Memoirs</i>, ii. p. 9), and it is clear that they are somewhat arbitrary. The line +between the two genera is drawn at this point more as a matter of convenience +for descriptive purposes than as indicating any great natural break in the +sequence of modifications of the same type.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_285" href="#FNanchor_285" class="label">[285]</a> Also found beyond the extreme north-western frontier of India.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_286" href="#FNanchor_286" class="label">[286]</a> Kaup, <i>Isis</i>, vol. xxii. p. 401 (1829).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_287" href="#FNanchor_287" class="label">[287]</a> Leidy, <i>Proc. Ac. Nat. Sci. Philad.</i> 1872, p 169.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_288" href="#FNanchor_288" class="label">[288]</a> For detailed descriptions and figures of this group, see Marsh, “Monograph +of the Dinocerata,” <i>Rep. U.S. Geol. Surv.</i> vol. x. (1884).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_289" href="#FNanchor_289" class="label">[289]</a> Owen, <i>Brit. Foss. Mamm. and Birds</i>, p. 299 (1846).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_290" href="#FNanchor_290" class="label">[290]</a> See G. E. Dobson, <i>Journ. Anat. Phys.</i> vol. xvii.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_291" href="#FNanchor_291" class="label">[291]</a> Waterhouse, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1842, p. 124.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_292" href="#FNanchor_292" class="label">[292]</a> <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1882, p. 8.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_293" href="#FNanchor_293" class="label">[293]</a> Linn. <i>Syst. Nat.</i> 12th ed. vol. i. p. 86 (1766).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_294" href="#FNanchor_294" class="label">[294]</a> Gray, <i>Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.</i> ser. 3, vol. xx. p. 272 (1867).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_295" href="#FNanchor_295" class="label">[295]</a> Hemprich and Ehrenberg, <i>Symbol. Phys. Mamm.</i> vol. i. (1832).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_296" href="#FNanchor_296" class="label">[296]</a> Illiger, <i>Prodromus Syst. Mamm.</i> p. 83 (1811).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_297" href="#FNanchor_297" class="label">[297]</a> Some American zoologists have recently proposed to raise a large number of +the forms usually regarded as local races to the rank of species.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_298" href="#FNanchor_298" class="label">[298]</a> Cuvier, <i>Leçons d’Anatomie Comp.</i> (1800).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_299" href="#FNanchor_299" class="label">[299]</a> Cuvier, <i>Ann. du Muséum</i>, vol. x. p. 126 (1825).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_300" href="#FNanchor_300" class="label">[300]</a> O. Thomas, <i>Journ. As. Soc. Bengal</i>, vol. lvii. p. 256 (1888).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_301" href="#FNanchor_301" class="label">[301]</a> Schreber, <i>Säugethiere</i>, vol. iv. p. 721 (1792).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_302" href="#FNanchor_302" class="label">[302]</a> Rafinesque, <i>Amer. Monthly Mag.</i> vol. ii. p. 45 (1817).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_303" href="#FNanchor_303" class="label">[303]</a> F. Cuvier, <i>Mém. du Muséum</i>, vol. vi. p. 293 (1822).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_304" href="#FNanchor_304" class="label">[304]</a> Richardson, <i>Zool. Journ.</i> vol. iv. p. 334 (1829). Amended.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_305" href="#FNanchor_305" class="label">[305]</a> Linn. <i>Syst. Nat.</i> 12th ed. vol. i. p. 78 (1766).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_306" href="#FNanchor_306" class="label">[306]</a> For a monograph of the <i>Myoxidæ</i>, see C. L. Reuvens, <i>Die Myoxidæ</i>, etc., +4to, Leyden, 1890.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_307" href="#FNanchor_307" class="label">[307]</a> Schreber, <i>Säugethiere</i>, vol. iv. p. 824 (1792).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_308" href="#FNanchor_308" class="label">[308]</a> Wagner, <i>Abh. baier. Akad.</i> vol. iii. p. 179 (1843).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_309" href="#FNanchor_309" class="label">[309]</a> F. Cuvier, <i>Mammifères</i>, 60ᵐᵉ livr. (1845).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_310" href="#FNanchor_310" class="label">[310]</a> Jentink, <i>Notes Leyd. Mus.</i> vol. x. p. 41 (1888).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_311" href="#FNanchor_311" class="label">[311]</a> Kaup, <i>Entwickl. Europ. Thierwelt</i>, p. 139 (1829).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_312" href="#FNanchor_312" class="label">[312]</a> A. Milne-Edwards, <i>L’Institut</i>, vol. xxxv. p. 46 (1867).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_313" href="#FNanchor_313" class="label">[313]</a> <i>Sminthus</i> is referred to the <i>Dipodidæ</i>.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_314" href="#FNanchor_314" class="label">[314]</a> Geoffrey, <i>Ann. du Muséum</i>, vol. vi. p. 81 (1805).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_315" href="#FNanchor_315" class="label">[315]</a> For the anatomy of this animal see B. C. A. Windle, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1887, +p. 53.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_316" href="#FNanchor_316" class="label">[316]</a> O. Thomas, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1889, p. 247.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_317" href="#FNanchor_317" class="label">[317]</a> Blyth, <i>Proc. As. Soc. Bengal</i>, vol. xxviii. p. 289 (1859).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_318" href="#FNanchor_318" class="label">[318]</a> Desmarest, <i>Nouv. Dict. d’Hist. Nat.</i> vol. xxiv. p. 22 (1804).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_319" href="#FNanchor_319" class="label">[319]</a> Lataste, <i>Le Nat.</i> vol. i. p. 314 (1880).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_320" href="#FNanchor_320" class="label">[320]</a> Wagner, <i>Wiegmann’s Archiv</i>, 1841, p. 132.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_321" href="#FNanchor_321" class="label">[321]</a> F. Cuvier, <i>Dents des Mammifères</i>, p. 168 (1825).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_322" href="#FNanchor_322" class="label">[322]</a> Peters, <i>Monatsber. Ak. Berlin</i>, 1875, p. 12.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_323" href="#FNanchor_323" class="label">[323]</a> A. Milne-Edwards, <i>Bull. Soc. Philom.</i> sér. 6, vol. xi. p. 9 (1877).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_324" href="#FNanchor_324" class="label">[324]</a> <i>Nesocia</i> was included by Alston in this subfamily.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_325" href="#FNanchor_325" class="label">[325]</a> Waterhouse, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1839, p. 108.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_326" href="#FNanchor_326" class="label">[326]</a> Andrew Smith, <i>S. African Quart. Journ.</i> vol. ii. p. 158 (1834).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_327" href="#FNanchor_327" class="label">[327]</a> Peters, <i>Reise n. Mossambique</i>, vol. i. p. 162 (1852).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_328" href="#FNanchor_328" class="label">[328]</a> Peters, <i>Monatsber. Ak. Berlin</i>, 1874, p. 234.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_329" href="#FNanchor_329" class="label">[329]</a> Cuvier, <i>Règne Animal</i>, vol. i. p. 198 (1817).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_330" href="#FNanchor_330" class="label">[330]</a> <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1888, p. 133.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_331" href="#FNanchor_331" class="label">[331]</a> <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1884, p. 451.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_332" href="#FNanchor_332" class="label">[332]</a> Brandt, <i>Mém. Acad. Imp. St. Pétersbourg</i>, sér. 3, iii. p. 428 (1835).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_333" href="#FNanchor_333" class="label">[333]</a> Say and Ord, <i>Journ. Acad. Philad.</i> vol. iv. p. 352 (1825).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_334" href="#FNanchor_334" class="label">[334]</a> Waterhouse, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1837, p. 29.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_335" href="#FNanchor_335" class="label">[335]</a> Coues, <i>Proc. Acad. Philad.</i> 1874, p. 184.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_336" href="#FNanchor_336" class="label">[336]</a> Say and Ord, <i>Journ. Acad. Philad.</i> vol. iv. p. 346 (1825).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_337" href="#FNanchor_337" class="label">[337]</a> Grandidier, <i>Rev. and Mag. Zool.</i> 1869, p. 388.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_338" href="#FNanchor_338" class="label">[338]</a> Peters, <i>Sitzber. Ges. Nat. Freunde</i>, 1870, p. 54 (1871).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_339" href="#FNanchor_339" class="label">[339]</a> Günther, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1875, p. 79.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_340" href="#FNanchor_340" class="label">[340]</a> Jentink, <i>Notes Leyd. Mus.</i> vol. i. p. 107, note 27 (1879).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_341" href="#FNanchor_341" class="label">[341]</a> Milne-Edwards, <i>Ann. Sci. Nat.</i> sér. 6, vol. xx. art. 1, <i>bis</i>, p. 1 (1886).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_342" href="#FNanchor_342" class="label">[342]</a> Merriam, <i>Fauna of North America</i>, No. 2, p. 28 (1889).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_343" href="#FNanchor_343" class="label">[343]</a> Lacépède, <i>Mém. de l’Institut</i>, vol. iii. p. 495 (1801). Many writers employ +the earlier name <i>Microtus</i> for the true Voles.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_344" href="#FNanchor_344" class="label">[344]</a> Baird, <i>Mamm. North America</i>, pp. xliv. 558 (1857).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_345" href="#FNanchor_345" class="label">[345]</a> Pallas, <i>Zoogr. Rosso-Asiat.</i> vol. i. p. 173 (1811).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_346" href="#FNanchor_346" class="label">[346]</a> Wagler, <i>Isis</i>, 1832, p. 1220.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_347" href="#FNanchor_347" class="label">[347]</a> Cuvier, <i>Leçons d’Anatomie Compar.</i> tab. 1 (1800).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_348" href="#FNanchor_348" class="label">[348]</a> True, <i>Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus.</i> vol. vii. p. 170 (1884).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_349" href="#FNanchor_349" class="label">[349]</a> Fischer, <i>Zoognosia</i>, vol. iii. p. 72 (1814).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_350" href="#FNanchor_350" class="label">[350]</a> Brants, <i>Het. Geslact der Muizen</i>, p. 20 (1827).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_351" href="#FNanchor_351" class="label">[351]</a> O. Thomas. <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1888, p. 130.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_352" href="#FNanchor_352" class="label">[352]</a> Linn. <i>Syst. Nat.</i> 12th ed. vol. i. p. 79 (1766).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_353" href="#FNanchor_353" class="label">[353]</a> Gray, <i>Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.</i> vol. x. p. 264 (1842). Amended from <i>Nesokia</i>.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_354" href="#FNanchor_354" class="label">[354]</a> Gray, Charlesworth’s, <i>Mag. Nat. Hist.</i> vol. i. p. 586 (1837). Syn. <i>Pelomys</i>, +Peters (1852).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_355" href="#FNanchor_355" class="label">[355]</a> Peters, <i>Monatsber. Ak. Berlin</i>, 1867, p. 343.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_356" href="#FNanchor_356" class="label">[356]</a> O. Thomas, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1888, p. 237.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_357" href="#FNanchor_357" class="label">[357]</a> Lichtenstein, <i>Darst. neu. Säugethiere</i>, pt. iv. pl. 29 (1829).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_358" href="#FNanchor_358" class="label">[358]</a> O. Thomas, <i>Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.</i> ser. 5, vol. ix. p. 413 (1882).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_359" href="#FNanchor_359" class="label">[359]</a> Geoffroy, <i>Ann. Sci. Nat.</i> sér. 2, vol. x. p. 126 (1840). <i>Acomys.</i></p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_360" href="#FNanchor_360" class="label">[360]</a> Gray, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1867, p. 599. Amended from <i>Echimys</i>.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_361" href="#FNanchor_361" class="label">[361]</a> Milne-Edwards, <i>Bull. Soc. Philom.</i> sér. 6, vol. xi. p. 9 (1877).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_362" href="#FNanchor_362" class="label">[362]</a> Waterhouse, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1840, p. 2.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_363" href="#FNanchor_363" class="label">[363]</a> Peters, <i>Monatsber. Ak. Berlin</i>, 1846, p. 258.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_364" href="#FNanchor_364" class="label">[364]</a> Güldenstädt, <i>Nov. Comment. Petrop.</i> vol. xiv. art. i. p. 409 (1770).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_365" href="#FNanchor_365" class="label">[365]</a> Gray, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1830, p. 95.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_366" href="#FNanchor_366" class="label">[366]</a> Illiger, <i>Prodromus Syst. Mamm.</i> p. 86 (1811).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_367" href="#FNanchor_367" class="label">[367]</a> Illiger, <i>loc. cit.</i> p. 87.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_368" href="#FNanchor_368" class="label">[368]</a> O. Thomas, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1890, p. 448 = <i>Heliophobius</i>; Peters, <i>Monatsber. +Ak. Berlin</i>, 1846, p. 243.—Preoccupied.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_369" href="#FNanchor_369" class="label">[369]</a> Rüppel, <i>Mus. Senkenb.</i> vol. i. Säugeth. p. 99 (1834).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_370" href="#FNanchor_370" class="label">[370]</a> Including the <i>Saccomyidæ</i> of Coues.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_371" href="#FNanchor_371" class="label">[371]</a> Rafinesque, <i>Amer. Monthly Mag.</i> vol. ii. p. 45 (1817).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_372" href="#FNanchor_372" class="label">[372]</a> Wied, <i>Nova Acta Ac. Cæs. Leop.-Car.</i> vol. xix. pt. i. p. 383 (1839).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_373" href="#FNanchor_373" class="label">[373]</a> Gray, <i>Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.</i> vol. vii. p. 521 (1840).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_374" href="#FNanchor_374" class="label">[374]</a> Wied, <i>Nova Acta Ac. Cæs. Leop.-Car.</i> vol. xix. pt. i. p. 369 (1839).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_375" href="#FNanchor_375" class="label">[375]</a> Desmarest, <i>Mammalogie</i>, p. 313 (1820).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_376" href="#FNanchor_376" class="label">[376]</a> Keyserling und Blasius, <i>Wirbelthiere Europ.</i> p. 38 (1840).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_377" href="#FNanchor_377" class="label">[377]</a> Coues, <i>Bull. U.S. Geol. Surv. Terrs.</i> ser. 2, No. 5, p. 253 (1873). Syn. +<i>Jaculus</i>, Wagler.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_378" href="#FNanchor_378" class="label">[378]</a> Gmelin, <i>Syst. Nat.</i>, vol. i. p. 157 (1788).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_379" href="#FNanchor_379" class="label">[379]</a> F. Cuvier, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1836, p. 141.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_380" href="#FNanchor_380" class="label">[380]</a> Brandt, <i>Bull. Ac. St. Pétersbourg</i>, 1844, p. 209.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_381" href="#FNanchor_381" class="label">[381]</a> = <i>A. jaculus</i>, Auct.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_382" href="#FNanchor_382" class="label">[382]</a> Illiger, <i>Prodromus Syst. Mamm.</i> p. 81 (1811).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_383" href="#FNanchor_383" class="label">[383]</a> Gray, <i>Spicilegia Zoologica</i>, p. 10 (1830).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_384" href="#FNanchor_384" class="label">[384]</a> Blyth, <i>Journ. As. Soc. Bengal</i>, vol. xxxiv. p. 294 (1855).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_385" href="#FNanchor_385" class="label">[385]</a> Bennett, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1832, p. 46.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_386" href="#FNanchor_386" class="label">[386]</a> Waterhouse, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1837, p. 30. Amended from <i>Abrocoma</i>.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_387" href="#FNanchor_387" class="label">[387]</a> Waterhouse, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1841, p. 91.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_388" href="#FNanchor_388" class="label">[388]</a> De Blainville, <i>Bull. Soc. Philom.</i> 1826, p. 62.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_389" href="#FNanchor_389" class="label">[389]</a> Wagler, <i>ibid.</i> p. 1219.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_390" href="#FNanchor_390" class="label">[390]</a> Andrew Smith, <i>S. African Quart. Journ.</i> vol. ii. p. 2 (1831).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_391" href="#FNanchor_391" class="label">[391]</a> Geoffroy, <i>Ann. du Muséum</i>, vol. vi. p. 81 (1805).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_392" href="#FNanchor_392" class="label">[392]</a> Desmarest, <i>Mém. Soc. d’Hist. Nat.</i> vol. i. p. 44 (1822).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_393" href="#FNanchor_393" class="label">[393]</a> For description and anatomy of this species see Dobson, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> +1884, p. 233.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_394" href="#FNanchor_394" class="label">[394]</a> Temminck, <i>Monographies des Mammifères</i>, vol. i. p. 245 (1827).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_395" href="#FNanchor_395" class="label">[395]</a> Cuvier, <i>Ann. Sci. Nat.</i> sér. 2, vol. vi. p. 347 (1836). Amended.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_396" href="#FNanchor_396" class="label">[396]</a> Illiger, <i>Prodromus Syst. Mamm.</i> p. 90 (1811).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_397" href="#FNanchor_397" class="label">[397]</a> Desmarest, <i>Nouv. Dict. d’Hist. Nat.</i> vol. x. p. 45 (1817). Amended from +<i>Echimys</i>.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_398" href="#FNanchor_398" class="label">[398]</a> Wagner, <i>Wiegmann’s Archiv</i>, 1845, pt. 2, p. 145.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_399" href="#FNanchor_399" class="label">[399]</a> Geoffroy, <i>Ann. Sci. Nat.</i> sér. 2, vol. x. p. 126 (1838).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_400" href="#FNanchor_400" class="label">[400]</a> F. Cuvier, <i>Mammifères</i>, 6ᵐᵉ livr. (1829).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_401" href="#FNanchor_401" class="label">[401]</a> Waterhouse, <i>Nat. Hist. of Mamm.</i> vol. ii. p. 351 (1848).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_402" href="#FNanchor_402" class="label">[402]</a> F. Cuvier, <i>Dents des Mammifères</i>, p. 256 (1825).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_403" href="#FNanchor_403" class="label">[403]</a> F. Cuvier, <i>Mém. du Muséum</i>, vol. ix. p. 413 (1822). “Sinéthère.”</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_404" href="#FNanchor_404" class="label">[404]</a> Gray, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1843, p. 21.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_405" href="#FNanchor_405" class="label">[405]</a> Linn. <i>Syst. Nat.</i> 12th ed. vol. i. p. 76 (1766).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_406" href="#FNanchor_406" class="label">[406]</a> Cuvier, <i>Règne-Animal</i>, 2d ed. vol. i. p. 215 (1829). “Atherure.”</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_407" href="#FNanchor_407" class="label">[407]</a> Günther, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1876, p. 739.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_408" href="#FNanchor_408" class="label">[408]</a> Bennett, <i>Gardens, etc. Zool. Soc.</i> pt. i. p. i. (1829).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_409" href="#FNanchor_409" class="label">[409]</a> Meyer, <i>Nova Acta Ac. Cæs. Leop.-Car.</i> vol. xvi. p. 576 (1833).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_410" href="#FNanchor_410" class="label">[410]</a> Brooks, <i>Trans. Linn. Soc.</i> vol. xvi. p. 102 (1828).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_411" href="#FNanchor_411" class="label">[411]</a> Foster, <i>Second Rep. Geol. of Ohio</i>, p. 81 (1838).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_412" href="#FNanchor_412" class="label">[412]</a> Illiger, <i>Prodromus Syst. Mamm.</i> p. 93 (1811).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_413" href="#FNanchor_413" class="label">[413]</a> F. Cuvier, <i>Ann. du Muséum</i>, vol. x. p. 203 (1807).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_414" href="#FNanchor_414" class="label">[414]</a> Peters, <i>Monatsber. Ak. Berlin</i>, 1873, p. 551.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_415" href="#FNanchor_415" class="label">[415]</a> Pallas, <i>Misc. Zool.</i> p. 30 (1766); <i>ex</i> Klein.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_416" href="#FNanchor_416" class="label">[416]</a> Desmarest, <i>Mammalogie</i>, p. 360 (1822).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_417" href="#FNanchor_417" class="label">[417]</a> Erxleben, <i>Syst. Règ. Animal</i>, p. 191 (1777); <i>ex</i> Brisson.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_418" href="#FNanchor_418" class="label">[418]</a> Cuvier, <i>Tabl. Élément. de l’Hist. Nat.</i> p. 132 (1798).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_419" href="#FNanchor_419" class="label">[419]</a> Linn. <i>Syst. Nat.</i> 12th ed. vol. i. p. 77 (1766).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_420" href="#FNanchor_420" class="label">[420]</a> From the absence of the Common Hare in Scandinavia it is considered +probable that the name <i>L. timidus</i> was really applied to the Mountain Hare, +and some writers accordingly use the name <i>L. europæus</i> for the former.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_421" href="#FNanchor_421" class="label">[421]</a> <i>Variations of Animals and Plants</i>, 2d ed. vol. i. p. 119.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_422" href="#FNanchor_422" class="label">[422]</a> The Feræ of Linnæus included all the then known species of the modern +orders Carnivora, Insectivora, and Marsupialia.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_423" href="#FNanchor_423" class="label">[423]</a> The tusks of the Walrus, altogether so aberrant in its dentition, are partial +exceptions to this statement, but in old individuals the pulp-cavity fills up, and +they cease to grow.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_424" href="#FNanchor_424" class="label">[424]</a> See Flower, “On the Value of the Characters of the Base of the Cranium +in the Classification of the Order <i>Carnivora</i>,” <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1869, p. 4; Mivart, +“On the Classification and Distribution of the <i>Æluroidea</i>,” <i>ibid.</i> 1882, pp. 135 +and 459; see also <i>The Cat, an Introduction to the Study of Backboned Animals, +especially Mammals</i>, by the same author, 1881.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_425" href="#FNanchor_425" class="label">[425]</a> Linn. <i>Syst. Nat.</i> 12th ed. vol. i. p. 60 (1766).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_426" href="#FNanchor_426" class="label">[426]</a> <i>The Cat</i>, pp. 392-426 (1881).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_427" href="#FNanchor_427" class="label">[427]</a> <i>Fauna of British India</i>, “Mammalia,” pp. 56-90 (1888).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_428" href="#FNanchor_428" class="label">[428]</a> <i>Zoology and Geology of Eastern Persia</i> (1876).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_429" href="#FNanchor_429" class="label">[429]</a> See Blanford, <i>Fauna of British India</i>, “Mammalia,” p. 57 (1883).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_430" href="#FNanchor_430" class="label">[430]</a> <i>Transactions of the Zoological Society</i>, vol. i. p. 165 (1835).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_431" href="#FNanchor_431" class="label">[431]</a> <i>A Hunter’s Wanderings in Africa</i>, 1881, p. 258.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_432" href="#FNanchor_432" class="label">[432]</a> Mr. Selous, whose opportunities for obtaining evidence upon this subject +were very large, says that in the region of South Africa, between the Zambesi +and the Limpopo rivers, he never saw a lion with any long hair under the body, +and that the manes of the wild lions of that district are far inferior in development +to those commonly seen in menageries in Europe.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_433" href="#FNanchor_433" class="label">[433]</a> <i>The Lion and the Elephant</i>, 1873, p. 19.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_434" href="#FNanchor_434" class="label">[434]</a> Hon. W. H. Drummond, <i>The Large Game and Natural History of South +and South-East Africa</i>, 1875, p. 278.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_435" href="#FNanchor_435" class="label">[435]</a> <i>Fauna of British India</i>, “Mammalia,” p. 59 (1888).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_436" href="#FNanchor_436" class="label">[436]</a> See W. T. Blanford, <i>Fauna of British India</i>, “Mammalia,” p. 69 (1888).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_437" href="#FNanchor_437" class="label">[437]</a> <i>Monographs of the Palæontographical Society</i>, 1872.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_438" href="#FNanchor_438" class="label">[438]</a> Syn. <i>F. macrocelis</i>.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_439" href="#FNanchor_439" class="label">[439]</a> Syn. <i>F. maniculata</i> and <i>caligata</i>.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_440" href="#FNanchor_440" class="label">[440]</a> Wagler, <i>Syst. Amphib.</i> etc. p. 30 (1830).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_441" href="#FNanchor_441" class="label">[441]</a> Bennett, <i>Trans. Zool. Soc.</i> vol. i. p. 137 (1833).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_442" href="#FNanchor_442" class="label">[442]</a> Linn. <i>Syst. Nat.</i> 12th ed. vol. i. p. 63 (1766).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_443" href="#FNanchor_443" class="label">[443]</a> Gray, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1864, p. 518.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_444" href="#FNanchor_444" class="label">[444]</a> Cuvier, <i>Règne-Animal</i>, vol. i. p. 156 (1817).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_445" href="#FNanchor_445" class="label">[445]</a> Horsfield, <i>Zool. Research. Java</i> (1824).—<i>Prionodontidæ.</i></p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_446" href="#FNanchor_446" class="label">[446]</a> Gray, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1864, p. 520.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_447" href="#FNanchor_447" class="label">[447]</a> F. Cuvier, <i>Hist. Nat. des Mammifères</i>, No. 186 (1821).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_448" href="#FNanchor_448" class="label">[448]</a> See W. T. Blanford, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1885, p. 780.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_449" href="#FNanchor_449" class="label">[449]</a> <i>Fauna of British India</i>, “Mammalia,” p. 108 (1888).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_450" href="#FNanchor_450" class="label">[450]</a> Gray, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1864, p. 542, <i>ex</i> Petero.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_451" href="#FNanchor_451" class="label">[451]</a> Jourdan, <i>Comptes Rendus</i>, vol. v. p. 442 (1837). Amended.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_452" href="#FNanchor_452" class="label">[452]</a> Temminck, <i>Prospectus de Monographies des Mammifères</i>, March 1824; +<i>Monographies</i>, vol. i. p. xxi. (1827).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_453" href="#FNanchor_453" class="label">[453]</a> Gray, <i>List of Mamm. Brit. Mus.</i> p. 54 (1843).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_454" href="#FNanchor_454" class="label">[454]</a> Gray, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1836, p. 88.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_455" href="#FNanchor_455" class="label">[455]</a> Illiger, <i>Prodromus Syst. Mamm.</i> p. 135 (1811).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_456" href="#FNanchor_456" class="label">[456]</a> Gray, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1861, p. 308.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_457" href="#FNanchor_457" class="label">[457]</a> Peters, <i>Mith. Ges. Nat. Freunde Berlin</i>, 19th November 1850.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_458" href="#FNanchor_458" class="label">[458]</a> Ogilby, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1833, p. 48.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_459" href="#FNanchor_459" class="label">[459]</a> Gray, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1864, p. 573.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_460" href="#FNanchor_460" class="label">[460]</a> F. Cuvier, <i>Hist. Nat. des Mammifères</i>, No. 199 (1825).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_461" href="#FNanchor_461" class="label">[461]</a> Desmarest, “Tabl. Méth. Mamm.” in <i>Nouv. Dict. d’Hist. Nat.</i> vol. xxiv. +(1804).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_462" href="#FNanchor_462" class="label">[462]</a> Geoffroy, <i>Comptes Rendus</i>, 1837, p. 578.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_463" href="#FNanchor_463" class="label">[463]</a> Geoffroy, <i>Mag. de Zool.</i> 1839, pp. 27, 37.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_464" href="#FNanchor_464" class="label">[464]</a> Doyère, <i>Ann. Sci. Nat.</i> vol. iv. p. 281 (1835).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_465" href="#FNanchor_465" class="label">[465]</a> Jourdan, <i>Comptes Rendus</i>, 1837, p. 422. Amended.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_466" href="#FNanchor_466" class="label">[466]</a> Geoffroy, <i>Mém. du Muséum</i>, vol. xi. p. 354 (1824).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_467" href="#FNanchor_467" class="label">[467]</a> For Anatomy of <i>Proteles</i> see Flower, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1869, p. 474.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_468" href="#FNanchor_468" class="label">[468]</a> Zimmermann, <i>Specimen Zoologiæ Geographicæ</i>, p. 365 (1777).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_469" href="#FNanchor_469" class="label">[469]</a> <i>Fauna of British India</i>, “Mammalia,” p. 133 (1888).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_470" href="#FNanchor_470" class="label">[470]</a> The anatomical peculiarities of <i>Hyæna crocuta</i> have been fully elucidated in +a series of papers by Morrison Watson in the <i>Proceedings of the Zoological Society</i> +for 1877, 1878, 1879, and 1881, in which references to previous authors on the +subject will be found.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_471" href="#FNanchor_471" class="label">[471]</a> Linn. <i>Syst. Nat.</i> 12th ed. vol. i. p. 56 (1766).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_472" href="#FNanchor_472" class="label">[472]</a> In Domestic Dogs a hallux is frequently developed, though often in a rudimentary +condition, the phalanges and claw being suspended loosely in the skin, +without direct connection with the other bones of the foot; it is called by dog-fanciers +the “dew claw.”</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_473" href="#FNanchor_473" class="label">[473]</a> <i>Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond.</i>, 1880, p. 238. See also Mivart, <i>Dogs, Jackals, Wolves, +and Foxes; a Monograph of the Canidæ</i> (1890).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_474" href="#FNanchor_474" class="label">[474]</a> <i>Fauna of British India</i>, “Mammalia,” pp. 153, 154 (1888).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_475" href="#FNanchor_475" class="label">[475]</a> Brookes, <i>Griffith’s Animal Kingdom</i>, vol. v. p. 151 (1827).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_476" href="#FNanchor_476" class="label">[476]</a> Lund, <i>K. Danks. Vid. Selsk. Afhand.</i> vol. xi. p. 62 (1845).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_477" href="#FNanchor_477" class="label">[477]</a> Lichtenstein, <i>Wiegmann’s Archiv.</i> 1838, vol. i. p. 290.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_478" href="#FNanchor_478" class="label">[478]</a> <i>Arch. Mus. Lyon.</i> vol. iii. art. 1, p. 85 (1881).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_479" href="#FNanchor_479" class="label">[479]</a> <i>Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc.</i> vol. xviii. p. 452 (1880).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_480" href="#FNanchor_480" class="label">[480]</a> For full details of the Arctoidea see Mivart, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1885, p. 340.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_481" href="#FNanchor_481" class="label">[481]</a> Linn. <i>Syst. Nat.</i> 12th ed. vol. i. p. 69 (1766).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_482" href="#FNanchor_482" class="label">[482]</a> Meyer, <i>Uebersicht d. neu. Zool. Entdeckungen</i>, etc. p. 155 (1793).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_483" href="#FNanchor_483" class="label">[483]</a> A. Milne-Edwards, <i>Nouv. Arch. du Muséum</i>, vol. vii. <i>Bull.</i> p. 88 (1871). +Amended from “Ailuropus.”</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_484" href="#FNanchor_484" class="label">[484]</a> F. Cuvier, <i>Hist. Nat. des Mammifères</i> (1825). Amended from “Ailurus.” +For anatomy, see Flower, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i>, 1870, p. 752.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_485" href="#FNanchor_485" class="label">[485]</a> <i>Fauna of British India</i>, “Mammalia,” p. 189 (1888).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_486" href="#FNanchor_486" class="label">[486]</a> Storr, <i>Prodromus Meth. Mamm.</i> p. 35 (1780).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_487" href="#FNanchor_487" class="label">[487]</a> A corruption of the North American Indian “arrathkune” or “arathcone.” +The French <i>raton</i> or <i>raton laveur</i>, German <i>Waschbär</i>, and other European names +are derived from a curious habit the Raccoon has of dipping or washing its food in +water before eating it.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_488" href="#FNanchor_488" class="label">[488]</a> Lichtenstein, <i>Isis</i>, 1831, p. 512.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_489" href="#FNanchor_489" class="label">[489]</a> Allen, <i>Proc. Ac. Nat. Sci. Philad.</i> 1876, p. 20.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_490" href="#FNanchor_490" class="label">[490]</a> Storr, <i>Prodromus Meth. Mamm.</i> p. 35 (1780).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_491" href="#FNanchor_491" class="label">[491]</a> Illiger, <i>Prodromus Syst. Mamm. et Avium</i>, p. 127 (1811).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_492" href="#FNanchor_492" class="label">[492]</a> Also in two other species noticed below. One extinct Otter has two upper +molars.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_493" href="#FNanchor_493" class="label">[493]</a> Erxleben, <i>Syst. Règn. Animal</i>, p. 445 (1777).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_494" href="#FNanchor_494" class="label">[494]</a> See Thomas, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1889, p. 190.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_495" href="#FNanchor_495" class="label">[495]</a> The synonymy of this species is not settled, and the adoption of the name +given here only preliminary.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_496" href="#FNanchor_496" class="label">[496]</a> Gloger, <i>Nova Acta Ac. Cæs. Leop.-Car.</i> vol. xiii. pt. 2, p. 511 (1827): Syn. +<i>Enhydra</i>; Fleming, <i>Philosophy of Zoology</i>, vol. ii. p. 187 (1822). Preoccupied by +<i>Enhydris</i>, Merrem, <i>Tent. Syst. Amphib.</i> p. 140 (1820).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_497" href="#FNanchor_497" class="label">[497]</a> Cuvier, “Tabl. de Classif.” in <i>Leçons d’Anat. Compar.</i> vol. i. (1800).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_498" href="#FNanchor_498" class="label">[498]</a> Gray, <i>Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.</i> ser. 2, vol. i. p. 581 (1837).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_499" href="#FNanchor_499" class="label">[499]</a> F. Cuvier, <i>Hist. Nat. des Mammifères</i> (1825).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_500" href="#FNanchor_500" class="label">[500]</a> Possibly the name should be Bálu-soor (Sand-pig).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_501" href="#FNanchor_501" class="label">[501]</a> F. Cuvier, <i>Hist. Nat. des Mammifères</i> (1825).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_502" href="#FNanchor_502" class="label">[502]</a> Storr, <i>Prodromus Meth. Mamm.</i> p. 34 (1780).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_503" href="#FNanchor_503" class="label">[503]</a> Waterhouse, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1838, p. 154.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_504" href="#FNanchor_504" class="label">[504]</a> Storr, <i>Prodromus Meth. Mamm.</i> p. 34 (1780).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_505" href="#FNanchor_505" class="label">[505]</a> Gray, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1831, p. 94.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_506" href="#FNanchor_506" class="label">[506]</a> Garrod, <i>ibid.</i> 1879, pl. xxix.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_507" href="#FNanchor_507" class="label">[507]</a> Kaup, <i>Thierreich</i>, vol. i. p. 352 (1835).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_508" href="#FNanchor_508" class="label">[508]</a> Bell, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1837, p. 45.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_509" href="#FNanchor_509" class="label">[509]</a> Linn. <i>Syst. Nat.</i> 12th ed. vol. i. p. 66 (1766).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_510" href="#FNanchor_510" class="label">[510]</a> By all old authors of authority, as Ray, Pennant, Shaw, and Fleming, the +word is written “Martin,” but this form of spelling is now generally reserved by +way of distinction for the bird. The term “Marten-Cat,” often used, is a +misnomer.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_511" href="#FNanchor_511" class="label">[511]</a> See Rolleston, “On the Domestic Cats, <i>Felis domesticus</i> and <i>Mustela foina</i>, +of Ancient and Modern Times,” <i>Journal of Anatomy and Physiology</i>, vol. ii. p. +47, 1868.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_512" href="#FNanchor_512" class="label">[512]</a> O. Thomas, <i>Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.</i> ser. 5, vol. xi. p. 370 (1883).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_513" href="#FNanchor_513" class="label">[513]</a> Gervais, <i>Dict. Univ. d’Hist. Nat.</i> t. iv. p. 685 (1849).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_514" href="#FNanchor_514" class="label">[514]</a> Storr, <i>Prodromus Meth. Mamm.</i> p. 34 (1780).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_515" href="#FNanchor_515" class="label">[515]</a> <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1885, p. 497.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_516" href="#FNanchor_516" class="label">[516]</a> Péron, <i>Voyage aux Terres Australes</i>, vol. ii. p. 37 note (1816).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_517" href="#FNanchor_517" class="label">[517]</a> “On the structure of Hooker’s Sea-Lion (<i>Arctocephalus hookeri</i>),” <i>Trans. +Zool. Soc.</i> vol. xii. p. 369 (1890).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_518" href="#FNanchor_518" class="label">[518]</a> Linn, <i>Syst. Nat.</i> 12th ed. vol. i. p. 49 (1766).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_519" href="#FNanchor_519" class="label">[519]</a> The former word is a modification of the Scandinavian <i>vallross</i> or <i>hvalros</i> +(“whale-horse”), the latter an adaptation of the Russian name for the animal.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_520" href="#FNanchor_520" class="label">[520]</a> Nilsson, <i>Faun. Scandinav.</i> vol. i. p. 377 (1820).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_521" href="#FNanchor_521" class="label">[521]</a> Linn. <i>Syst. Nat.</i> 12th ed. vol. i. p. 55 (1766).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_522" href="#FNanchor_522" class="label">[522]</a> Fleming, <i>Philosophy of Zoology</i>, vol. ii. p. 187 (1822).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_523" href="#FNanchor_523" class="label">[523]</a> For details of these and the other genera see Mivart, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1885, +p. 486, <i>et seq.</i></p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_524" href="#FNanchor_524" class="label">[524]</a> Peters, <i>Monatsb. K. P. Akad. Wissensch. zu Berlin</i>, p. 393 (1875), substituted +for <i>Stenorhynchus</i>, F. Cuvier; preoccupied for a genus of Crustacea.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_525" href="#FNanchor_525" class="label">[525]</a> Gray, <i>Zoology of Erebus and Terror</i>, vol. i. p. 5 (1844).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_526" href="#FNanchor_526" class="label">[526]</a> New name, <i>Syn. Leptonyx</i>, Gray, <i>Charlesworth’s Mag. Nat. Hist.</i> vol. i. p. +582 (1837); preoccupied by Swainson, 1821.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_527" href="#FNanchor_527" class="label">[527]</a> Gray, <i>Zoology of Erebus and Terror</i>, vol. i. p. 7 (1844).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_528" href="#FNanchor_528" class="label">[528]</a> Nilsson, <i>Faun. Scandinav.</i> vol. i. p. 382 (1820).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_529" href="#FNanchor_529" class="label">[529]</a> F. Cuvier, <i>Mém. du Muséum</i>, vol. xi. p. 200 (1824), “Macrorhine.”</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_530" href="#FNanchor_530" class="label">[530]</a> Pallas, <i>Acta Acad. Sci. Imp. Petropolis</i>, vol. iv. pt. 1, p. 208 (1780).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_531" href="#FNanchor_531" class="label">[531]</a> <i>Ueber die Säugethiergattung Galeopithecus.</i> <i>Sv. Ak. Handl.</i> vol. xxi. pt. xi. +(1886).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_532" href="#FNanchor_532" class="label">[532]</a> Raffles, <i>Trans. Linn. Soc.</i> vol. xiii. p. 256 (1822).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_533" href="#FNanchor_533" class="label">[533]</a> Gray, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1848, p. 23.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_534" href="#FNanchor_534" class="label">[534]</a> Andrew Smith, <i>S. African Quart. +Journ.</i> vol. ii. No. 1, p. 64 (1833).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_535" href="#FNanchor_535" class="label">[535]</a> The above correct formula of the dentition of this family has been recently +worked out by O. Thomas, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1890, pp. 445, 446.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_536" href="#FNanchor_536" class="label">[536]</a> Peters, <i>Bericht k. preuss. Ak. Wiss.</i> 1847, p. 36.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_537" href="#FNanchor_537" class="label">[537]</a> Horsfield and Vigors, <i>Zool. Journ.</i> vol. iii. p. 246 (1828).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_538" href="#FNanchor_538" class="label">[538]</a> Linn. <i>Syst. Nat.</i> 12th ed. vol. i. p. 75 (1766).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_539" href="#FNanchor_539" class="label">[539]</a> Originally given incorrectly as <i>Neurogymnurus</i>.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_540" href="#FNanchor_540" class="label">[540]</a> <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1890, p. 49.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_541" href="#FNanchor_541" class="label">[541]</a> Linn. <i>Syst. Nat.</i> 12th ed. vol. i. p. 73 (1766).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_542" href="#FNanchor_542" class="label">[542]</a> Syn. <i>S. minutus</i>.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_543" href="#FNanchor_543" class="label">[543]</a> Blyth, <i>Journ. As. Soc. Bengal</i>, vol. xxiv. p. 36 (1855).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_544" href="#FNanchor_544" class="label">[544]</a> Coues, <i>Bull. +U.S. Geol. Surv. Terrs.</i> vol. iii. p. 646 (1877).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_545" href="#FNanchor_545" class="label">[545]</a> Gray, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> +1837, p. 124.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_546" href="#FNanchor_546" class="label">[546]</a> Wagler, <i>Isis</i>, 1832, p. 275.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_547" href="#FNanchor_547" class="label">[547]</a> Gray, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1837, p. 124.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_548" href="#FNanchor_548" class="label">[548]</a> Wagler, <i>Isis</i>, 1832, p. 275.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_549" href="#FNanchor_549" class="label">[549]</a> Brandt, in <i>Lehmann’s Reise.-Zool. Anh.</i> +p. 299 (1852).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_550" href="#FNanchor_550" class="label">[550]</a> Milne-Edwards, <i>Comptes Rendus</i>, vol lxx. p. 341 (1870).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_551" href="#FNanchor_551" class="label">[551]</a> Anderson, <i>Journ. As. Soc. Bengal</i>, vol. xlvi. p. 262 (1877).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_552" href="#FNanchor_552" class="label">[552]</a> Milne-Edwards, <i>Comptes Rendus</i>, vol. lxx. p. 341 (1870).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_553" href="#FNanchor_553" class="label">[553]</a> Cuvier, “Tabl. de Classif.” in <i>Leçons d’Anat. Compar.</i> vol. i. (1800).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_554" href="#FNanchor_554" class="label">[554]</a> Temminck, <i>Fauna Japonica</i>, vol. i. p. 22 (1842).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_555" href="#FNanchor_555" class="label">[555]</a> Milne-Edwards, +<i>Arch. du Muséum</i>, vol. vii. Bull. p. 92 (1872).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_556" href="#FNanchor_556" class="label">[556]</a> Cuvier, “Tabl. de Classif.” in <i>Leçon d’Anat. Comp.</i> vol. i. (1800).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_557" href="#FNanchor_557" class="label">[557]</a> Pomel, <i>Arch. Sci. Phys. Nat.</i> vol. ix. p. 247 (1848).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_558" href="#FNanchor_558" class="label">[558]</a> Illiger, <i>Prodromus Syst. Mamm. et Avium</i>. p. 125 (1811).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_559" href="#FNanchor_559" class="label">[559]</a> Milne-Edwards, <i>N. Arch. du Muséum</i>, vol. vii. +Bull. p. 92 (1872).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_560" href="#FNanchor_560" class="label">[560]</a> Linn, <i>Syst. Nat.</i> 12th ed. p. 73 (1766).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_561" href="#FNanchor_561" class="label">[561]</a> The following +account is taken almost entirely from Dr. Dobson.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_562" href="#FNanchor_562" class="label">[562]</a> Du Chaillu, <i>Proc. Boston Soc. Hist. Nat.</i> vol. vii. p. 363 (1860).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_563" href="#FNanchor_563" class="label">[563]</a> Milne-Edwards, <i>Ann. Sci. Nat.</i> vol. xv. p. 5 (1872).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_564" href="#FNanchor_564" class="label">[564]</a> Brandt, <i>Mém. Ac. Imp. St. Pétersbourg</i>, 1833, vol. ii. p. 459.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_565" href="#FNanchor_565" class="label">[565]</a> Illiger, <i>Prodromus Syst. Mamm. et Avium</i>, p. 124 (1811).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_566" href="#FNanchor_566" class="label">[566]</a> Mivart, +<i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1871, p. 72.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_567" href="#FNanchor_567" class="label">[567]</a> I. Geoffroy, <i>Ann. Sci. Nat.</i> sér. 2, vol. viii. p. 60 (1837).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_568" href="#FNanchor_568" class="label">[568]</a> Thomas, +<i>Journ. Linn. Soc.—Zool.</i> vol. xvi. p. 319 (1882).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_569" href="#FNanchor_569" class="label">[569]</a> Grandidier, <i>Rev. and +Mag. Zool.</i> 1870, p. 50.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_570" href="#FNanchor_570" class="label">[570]</a> Lacépède, <i>Mém. de l’Institut</i>, vol. iii. p. 493 (1801—read 1799).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_571" href="#FNanchor_571" class="label">[571]</a> <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1888, p. 473.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_572" href="#FNanchor_572" class="label">[572]</a> Bennett, <i>Trans. Zool. Soc.</i> vol. ii. p. 38 (1835).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_573" href="#FNanchor_573" class="label">[573]</a> Geoffroy, <i>Ann. du Muséum</i>, vol. xv. p. 90 (1810).—<i>Ex.</i> Brisson.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_574" href="#FNanchor_574" class="label">[574]</a> Gray, <i>List. Spec. Mamm. Brit. Mus.</i> pp. 37, 38 (1843): Syn. <i>Cynonycteris</i>.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_575" href="#FNanchor_575" class="label">[575]</a> Jentink, <i>Notes Leyd. Mus.</i> vol. i. p. 117 (1879).—Amended.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_576" href="#FNanchor_576" class="label">[576]</a> F. Cuvier, +<i>Dents des Mammifères</i>, p. 39 (1825).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_577" href="#FNanchor_577" class="label">[577]</a> Illiger, <i>Prodromus Syst. Mamm. et +Avium</i>, p. 118 (1811).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_578" href="#FNanchor_578" class="label">[578]</a> Geoffroy, <i>Ann. du Muséum</i>, vol. xvi. p. 99 (1810).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_579" href="#FNanchor_579" class="label">[579]</a> O. Thomas, <i>Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.</i> ser. 6, vol. i. p. 155 (1888).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_580" href="#FNanchor_580" class="label">[580]</a> Gray, +<i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1859, p. 36.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_581" href="#FNanchor_581" class="label">[581]</a> Dobson, <i>Journ. As. Soc. Bengal</i>, vol. xlii. +p. 204 (1873).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_582" href="#FNanchor_582" class="label">[582]</a> New name: Syn. <i>Macroglossus</i>, F. Cuvier, <i>Dents des +Mammifères</i>, p. 40 (1825). Preoccupied by <i>Macroglossum</i>, Scopoli, 1777.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_583" href="#FNanchor_583" class="label">[583]</a> Dobson, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1877, p. 119.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_584" href="#FNanchor_584" class="label">[584]</a> O. Thomas, <i>Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.</i> ser. 5, vol. xix. p. 417 (1887).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_585" href="#FNanchor_585" class="label">[585]</a> Jentink, <i>Notes Leyd. Mus.</i> vol. xi. p. 209 (1889).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_586" href="#FNanchor_586" class="label">[586]</a> New name: Syn. <i>Megaloglossus</i>; Pagenstecher, <i>J. B. Mus. Hamburg</i>, vol. +ii. p. 125 (1885). Preoccupied by <i>Megaglossa</i>, Rond., 1865.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_587" href="#FNanchor_587" class="label">[587]</a> Geoffroy, <i>Nouv. Dict. d’Hist. Nat.</i> vol. xix. p. 383 (1803).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_588" href="#FNanchor_588" class="label">[588]</a> Gray, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1834, p. 53. The Bats of this genus are usually +described as <i>Phyllorhina</i>, but this use has been shown to be incorrect; see Blanford, +<i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1887, p. 637.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_589" href="#FNanchor_589" class="label">[589]</a> O. Thomas, <i>Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.</i> ser. 6, vol. i. p. 156 (1888).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_590" href="#FNanchor_590" class="label">[590]</a> Gray, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1847, p. 16.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_591" href="#FNanchor_591" class="label">[591]</a> Dobson, <i>Journ. As. Soc. Bengal</i>, +vol. xl. p. 455 (1871).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_592" href="#FNanchor_592" class="label">[592]</a> Blyth, <i>Journ. As. Soc. Bengal</i>, vol. xvii. p. 251 (1848).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_593" href="#FNanchor_593" class="label">[593]</a> Geoffroy, <i>Ann. du Muséum</i>, vol. xv. p. 197 (1810).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_594" href="#FNanchor_594" class="label">[594]</a> Geoffroy, <i>Nouv. Dict. d’Hist. Nat.</i> vol. xv. p. 501 (1803).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_595" href="#FNanchor_595" class="label">[595]</a> Geoffroy, <i>Descript. de l’Egypte</i>, vol. ii. p. 112 (1812).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_596" href="#FNanchor_596" class="label">[596]</a> Keyserling and Blasius, <i>Wirbelthiere Europ.</i> p. 55 (1840).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_597" href="#FNanchor_597" class="label">[597]</a> Peters, +<i>Monatsber. Ak. Berlin</i>, 1859, p. 222.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_598" href="#FNanchor_598" class="label">[598]</a> Leach, <i>Trans. Linn. Soc.</i> vol. xiii. +p. 78 (1822).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_599" href="#FNanchor_599" class="label">[599]</a> Allen, <i>Proc. Ac. Nat. Sci. Philad.</i> 1862, p. 247.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_600" href="#FNanchor_600" class="label">[600]</a> Keyserling and Blasius, <i>Wiegmann’s Archiv</i>, 1839, p. 312.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_601" href="#FNanchor_601" class="label">[601]</a> Peters, <i>Monatsber. Ak. Berlin</i>, 1866, p. 672.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_602" href="#FNanchor_602" class="label">[602]</a> Leach, <i>Trans. Linn. Soc.</i> vol. xiii. p. 71 (1822).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_603" href="#FNanchor_603" class="label">[603]</a> See O. Thomas, <i>Ann. Mus. Genova</i> (2), vol. ix. pp. 84-88 (1890).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_604" href="#FNanchor_604" class="label">[604]</a> Rafinesque, <i>Journ. de Physique</i>, vol. lxxxviii. p. 417 (1819).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_605" href="#FNanchor_605" class="label">[605]</a> Rafinesque, +<i>Précis des Decouvértes et Trav. Somiol.</i> p. 12 (1814).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_606" href="#FNanchor_606" class="label">[606]</a> Gray, <i>Ann. Mag. Nat. +Hist.</i> vol. x. p. 259 (1842).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_607" href="#FNanchor_607" class="label">[607]</a> Linn. <i>Syst. Nat.</i> 12th ed. vol. i. p. 46 (1766).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_608" href="#FNanchor_608" class="label">[608]</a> Gray, <i>Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.</i> vol. x. p. 258 (1842), <i>Kerivoula</i>.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_609" href="#FNanchor_609" class="label">[609]</a> Gray, <i>Mag. Zool. Bot.</i> vol. ii. p. 496 (1838).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_610" href="#FNanchor_610" class="label">[610]</a> Bonaparte, <i>Fauna Italica</i>, fasc. xxi. (1837).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_611" href="#FNanchor_611" class="label">[611]</a> Spix, <i>Sim. and Vesp. Bresil</i>, p. 61 (1823).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_612" href="#FNanchor_612" class="label">[612]</a> A. Milne-Edwards, <i>Bull. Soc. Philom.</i> sér. 7, vol. ii. p. 1 (1878).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_613" href="#FNanchor_613" class="label">[613]</a> Bonaparte, <i>Faun. Ital.</i> vol. i. (1832-41): Syn. <i>Furia</i>, F. Cuvier, <i>Mém. du +Muséum</i>, vol. xvi. p. 150 (1828). Preoccupied by Linn. 1766.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_614" href="#FNanchor_614" class="label">[614]</a> Peters, <i>Monatsber. Ak. Berlin</i>, 1877, p. 185.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_615" href="#FNanchor_615" class="label">[615]</a> Temminck (Van der Hoeven), <i>Tijdsch. Nat. Ges.</i> 1839, p. 22.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_616" href="#FNanchor_616" class="label">[616]</a> Peters, <i>Monatsber. Ak. Berlin</i>, 1867, p. 479.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_617" href="#FNanchor_617" class="label">[617]</a> Peters, <i>loc. cit.</i> p. 477.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_618" href="#FNanchor_618" class="label">[618]</a> Illiger, <i>Prodromus Syst. Mamm. et Avium</i>, p. 121 (1811).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_619" href="#FNanchor_619" class="label">[619]</a> Geoffroy, <i>Descript. de l’Egypte</i>, vol. ii. p. 126 (1812).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_620" href="#FNanchor_620" class="label">[620]</a> Wied, <i>Isis</i>, 1819, p. 1629.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_621" href="#FNanchor_621" class="label">[621]</a> Linn. <i>Syst. Nat.</i> 12th ed. vol. i. p. 88 (1766).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_622" href="#FNanchor_622" class="label">[622]</a> Geoffroy, <i>Descript. de l’Egypte</i>, vol. ii. p. 123 (1812).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_623" href="#FNanchor_623" class="label">[623]</a> Horsfield, <i>Zool. Research Java</i> (1824).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_624" href="#FNanchor_624" class="label">[624]</a> Geoffroy, <i>Ann. du Muséum</i>, vol. vi. p. 154 (1805).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_625" href="#FNanchor_625" class="label">[625]</a> Geoffroy, <i>Descript. de l’Egypte</i>, vol. ii. p. 114 (1812).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_626" href="#FNanchor_626" class="label">[626]</a> New name: Syn. <i>Mystacina</i>; Gray, <i>Voyage of the “Sulphur,”</i> “Mamm.” +p. 23 (1843). Preoccupied by <i>Mystacina</i>, Boie, 1822.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_627" href="#FNanchor_627" class="label">[627]</a> Gray, <i>Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.</i> vol. iv. p. 4 (1839).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_628" href="#FNanchor_628" class="label">[628]</a> Leach, <i>Trans. Linn. Soc.</i> vol. xiii. p. 76 (1820-22).—Amended.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_629" href="#FNanchor_629" class="label">[629]</a> Tomes, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1863, p. 81.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_630" href="#FNanchor_630" class="label">[630]</a> New name: Syn. <i>Macrotus</i>; +Gray, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1843, p. 21. Preoccupied by <i>Macrotis</i>, Dej. 1833.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_631" href="#FNanchor_631" class="label">[631]</a> New name: Syn. <i>Macrophyllum</i>; Gray, <i>Mag. Zool. Bot.</i> vol. ii. p. 489 (1838). +Preoccupied by <i>Macrophylla</i>, Hope, 1837.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_632" href="#FNanchor_632" class="label">[632]</a> Leach, <i>Trans. Linn. Soc.</i> vol. +xiii. pp. 74, 75 (1822). For the references to the other genera see Dobson, <i>Cat. +Chiropt. Brit. Mus.</i></p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_633" href="#FNanchor_633" class="label">[633]</a> Gray, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1866, p. 113. Syn. <i>Schizostoma</i>; +Gervais, 1855. Preoccupied by Broun, 1835.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_634" href="#FNanchor_634" class="label">[634]</a> New name: Syn. <i>Tylostoma</i>; Gervais, 1855. Preoccupied by Sharpe, 1849.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_635" href="#FNanchor_635" class="label">[635]</a> Gervais, Castlenau’s <i>Exped.-Zool.</i> p. 43 (1855): Syn. <i>Carollia</i>, Gray, 1838. +Preoccupied by <i>Carolia</i>, Cantraine, 1837.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_636" href="#FNanchor_636" class="label">[636]</a> The references to the genera of +this and the following division will be found in Dobson’s <i>Catalogue</i>.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_637" href="#FNanchor_637" class="label">[637]</a> New +name: Syn. <i>Ischnoglossa</i>, Saussure, 1860. Preoccupied by Kraatz, 1856.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_638" href="#FNanchor_638" class="label">[638]</a> Wied, <i>Beitr. Natgesch. Brasil</i>, vol. ii. p. 231 (1826).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_639" href="#FNanchor_639" class="label">[639]</a> Spix, <i>Sim. et Vesp. Brasil</i>, p. 68 (1823).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_640" href="#FNanchor_640" class="label">[640]</a> For the arguments in favour of placing the Lemurs in a separate order +see Milne-Edwards, “Observations sur quelques points de l’embryologie des +Lemuriens et sur les affinités zoologiques de ces animaux,” in the <i>Ann. des +Sciences Nat.</i> October 1871; and P. Gervais, “Encephale des Lemures,” in +<i>Journ. de Zoologie</i>, tom. i. p. 7. For those for retaining them among the +Primates, see Mivart, “On <i>Lepilemur</i> and <i>Chirogaleus</i>, and on the Zoological +Rank of the Lemuroidea,” in <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1873, p. 484.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_641" href="#FNanchor_641" class="label">[641]</a> Geoffroy, <i>Mag. Encyclop.</i> 2d ann. vol. i. p. 46 (1796), “Indri.”</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_642" href="#FNanchor_642" class="label">[642]</a> Bennett, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1832, p. 20.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_643" href="#FNanchor_643" class="label">[643]</a> Jourdan, <i>Mém. de l’Institut</i>, vol. ii. p. 231 (1834).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_644" href="#FNanchor_644" class="label">[644]</a> Linn. <i>Syst. Nat.</i> 12th ed. vol. i. p. 44 (1766).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_645" href="#FNanchor_645" class="label">[645]</a> <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1879, p. 132.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_646" href="#FNanchor_646" class="label">[646]</a> Gray, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1870, p. 829.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_647" href="#FNanchor_647" class="label">[647]</a> I. Geoffroy, <i>Cat. Mus. Hist. Nat. Paris</i>, p. 75 (1851). Amended from +<i>Lepilemur</i>.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_648" href="#FNanchor_648" class="label">[648]</a> <i>Monatsb. Ak. Berlin</i>, 1874, p. 690.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_649" href="#FNanchor_649" class="label">[649]</a> Geoffroy, <i>Ann. du Muséum</i>, vol. xix. p. 171 (1812).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_650" href="#FNanchor_650" class="label">[650]</a> Geoffroy, <i>Mag. Encyclop.</i> 2d ann. vol. i. p. 49 (1796).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_651" href="#FNanchor_651" class="label">[651]</a> Geoffroy, <i>Ann. du Muséum</i>, vol. xix. pp. 162, 163 (1812).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_652" href="#FNanchor_652" class="label">[652]</a> For the anatomy of this genus, see J. L. C. Shroeder van der Kolk and +W. Vrolik, “Recherches d’Anatomie comparée sur le genre <i>Stenops</i> d’Illiger,” in +<i>Bijdragen tot de Dierkunde</i>, Part 1, Amsterdam, 1848-54.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_653" href="#FNanchor_653" class="label">[653]</a> Geoffroy, <i>Mag. Encyclop.</i> 2d ann. vol. i. p. 48 (1796).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_654" href="#FNanchor_654" class="label">[654]</a> <i>Mammalia of British India</i>, p. 48 (1888).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_655" href="#FNanchor_655" class="label">[655]</a> Bennett, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1839, p. 109.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_656" href="#FNanchor_656" class="label">[656]</a> For the anatomy of <i>P. potto</i>, see Van der Hoeven and Van Campen (<i>Ontleedkundige +Onderzoek van den Potto van Bosman</i>, 1859) for <i>P. calabarensis</i>, Huxley, +<i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1864, p. 314.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_657" href="#FNanchor_657" class="label">[657]</a> Storr, <i>Prodromus Meth. Mamm.</i> (1780).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_658" href="#FNanchor_658" class="label">[658]</a> H. Burmeister, <i>Beiträge zur nähreren Kenntniss der gattung Tarsius</i>, 1846.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_659" href="#FNanchor_659" class="label">[659]</a> Cuvier, “Table de Class.” in <i>Leçons d’Anat. Comp.</i> vol. i. (1800).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_660" href="#FNanchor_660" class="label">[660]</a> It was first named <i>Daubentonia</i> by Geoffroy; but this name was withdrawn +by its author in favour of <i>Chiromys</i>, as it had been previously given to a genus +in the vegetable kingdom. This would not, however, constitute preoccupation +according to the modern rules of nomenclature.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_661" href="#FNanchor_661" class="label">[661]</a> R. Owen, “On the Aye-aye,” in <i>Trans. Zool. Soc.</i> 1862, vol. v. p. 33; +W. Peters, “Ueber die Säugethiergattung <i>Chiromys</i>,” in <i>Abhand. Königl. +Akad. der Wissenschaften</i>, Berlin, 1865, p. 79.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_662" href="#FNanchor_662" class="label">[662]</a> One specimen has been seen with only three lower premolars.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_663" href="#FNanchor_663" class="label">[663]</a> Article Ape, <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>, ninth edition.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_664" href="#FNanchor_664" class="label">[664]</a> Illiger, <i>Prodromus Syst. Mamm. et Avium</i>, p. 71 (1811).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_665" href="#FNanchor_665" class="label">[665]</a> Geoffroy, <i>Ann. du Muséum</i>, vol. xix. p. 120 (1812).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_666" href="#FNanchor_666" class="label">[666]</a> Illiger, <i>Prodromus Syst. Mamm. et Avium</i>, p. 70 (1811).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_667" href="#FNanchor_667" class="label">[667]</a> Geoffroy, <i>Ann. du Muséum</i>, vol. xix. p. 115 (1812).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_668" href="#FNanchor_668" class="label">[668]</a> Gray, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1849, p. 9. Amended from <i>Ouakaria</i>: Syn. <i>Brachyurus</i>; +Spix, <i>Sim. et Vesp. Brasil</i>, p. 11 (1823). Preoccupied by Fischer, 1814.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_669" href="#FNanchor_669" class="label">[669]</a> Geoffroy, <i>Ann. du Muséum</i>, vol. xix. p. 112 (1812).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_670" href="#FNanchor_670" class="label">[670]</a> Kaup, <i>Thierreich</i>, vol i. p. 51 (1835).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_671" href="#FNanchor_671" class="label">[671]</a> Spix, <i>Sim. et Vesp. Brasil</i>, p. 25 (1823).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_672" href="#FNanchor_672" class="label">[672]</a> Geoffroy, <i>Ann. du Muséum</i>, vol. vii. p. 260 (1806).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_673" href="#FNanchor_673" class="label">[673]</a> I. Geoffroy, <i>Dict. Class.</i> vol. xv. p. 443 (1829).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_674" href="#FNanchor_674" class="label">[674]</a> Geoffrey, <i>Ann. du Muséum</i>, vol. xix. p. 106 (1812).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_675" href="#FNanchor_675" class="label">[675]</a> Erxleben, <i>Syst. Règne Animal</i>, p. 44 (1777).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_676" href="#FNanchor_676" class="label">[676]</a> Lacépède, “Nouv. tabl. méth.” (1799) in <i>Mém. de l’Institut</i>, vol. iii. p. 490 +1801.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_677" href="#FNanchor_677" class="label">[677]</a> “‘Mandrill’ seems to signify a ‘man-like Ape,’ the word ‘Drill’ or ‘Dril’ +having been anciently employed in England to denote an Ape or Baboon. Thus +in the fifth edition of Blount’s ‘<i>Glossographia</i>, or a dictionary interpreting the +hard words of whatsoever language now used in our refined English tongue ... +very useful for all such as desire to understand what they read,’ published in +1681, I find ‘Dril, a stonecutter’s tool wherewith he bores little holes in marble, +etc. Also a large overgrown Ape and Baboon, so called.’ ‘Drill’ is used in the +same sense in Charlton’s <i>Onomasticon Zoicon</i>, 1668. The singular etymology +of the word given by Buffon seems hardly a probable one.”—Huxley’s <i>Man’s +Place in Nature</i>, p. 10, 1863.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_678" href="#FNanchor_678" class="label">[678]</a> I. Geoffroy, <i>Arch. du Muséum</i>, vol. ii. p. 576 (1841).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_679" href="#FNanchor_679" class="label">[679]</a> I. Geoffroy, <i>Voyage de Belanger</i>, p. 66 (1834).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_680" href="#FNanchor_680" class="label">[680]</a> Lacépède, <i>Mém. de l’Institut</i>, vol. iii. p. 450 (1801). Amended.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_681" href="#FNanchor_681" class="label">[681]</a> Geoffroy, <i>Ann. du Muséum</i>, vol. xix. p. 97 (1812).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_682" href="#FNanchor_682" class="label">[682]</a> Erxleben, <i>Syst. Règne. Animal</i>, p. 22 (1777).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_683" href="#FNanchor_683" class="label">[683]</a> Or <i>Colobinæ</i>.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_684" href="#FNanchor_684" class="label">[684]</a> Geoffroy, <i>Ann. du Muséum</i>, vol. xix. p. 90 (1812).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_685" href="#FNanchor_685" class="label">[685]</a> F. Cuvier, <i>Hist. Nat. des Mammifères</i> (1821), “Semno-pithèque.”</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_686" href="#FNanchor_686" class="label">[686]</a> Separated generically by some writers as <i>Rhinopithecus</i>.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_687" href="#FNanchor_687" class="label">[687]</a> Illiger, <i>Prodromus Syst. Mamm. et Avium</i>, p. 69 (1811).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_688" href="#FNanchor_688" class="label">[688]</a> Wagner, <i>Gelehrte Anzeigen</i>, vol. viii. No. 38, p. 310 (1839).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_689" href="#FNanchor_689" class="label">[689]</a> Depéret, <i>Comptes Rendus</i>, vol. cix. p. 982 (1889); see also <i>Mém. Soc. Géol. +France</i>, “Palæontologie,” vol. i. (1890).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_690" href="#FNanchor_690" class="label">[690]</a> Gervais, <i>Comptes Rendus</i>, vol. +lxxiv. p. 1217 (1872).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_691" href="#FNanchor_691" class="label">[691]</a> Scimmie Fossili Italiane, <i>Boll. Comm. Geol.</i> 1890.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_692" href="#FNanchor_692" class="label">[692]</a> Illiger, <i>Prodromus Syst. Mamm. et Avium</i>, p. 67 (1811).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_693" href="#FNanchor_693" class="label">[693]</a> Linn. <i>Syst. Nat.</i> 12th ed. vol. i. p. 34 (1766).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_694" href="#FNanchor_694" class="label">[694]</a> A Malay word, signifying “Man of the Woods.”</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_695" href="#FNanchor_695" class="label">[695]</a> One skeleton in the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons has five +lumbar vertebræ, and has thus given rise to the statement that the number of +vertebræ in the Orang is the same as in Man.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_696" href="#FNanchor_696" class="label">[696]</a> I. Geoffroy, <i>Comptes Rendus</i>, vol. xxxiv. p. 84 (1852).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_697" href="#FNanchor_697" class="label">[697]</a> De Blainville, <i>Leçons Orales</i> (1839). The Chimpanzees have been very +generally described under the name of <i>Troglodytes</i>, but since this name is +preoccupied for a genus of birds, it is incumbent to follow the strict rule, and +adopt the name <i>Anthropopithecus</i>, although both the present writers have +elsewhere expressed the opposite opinion.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_698" href="#FNanchor_698" class="label">[698]</a> Lartet, <i>Comptes Rendus</i>, vol. xliii. p. 219 (1856).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_699" href="#FNanchor_699" class="label">[699]</a> <i>Mém. Soc. Géol. France</i>, “Palæontologie,” vol. i. Mém. No. 1 (1890).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_700" href="#FNanchor_700" class="label">[700]</a> <i>Man’s Place in Nature</i>, 1863, and <i>Anatomy of Vertebrated Animals</i>, 1871. +See also the more recent investigations of Broca into the comparative structure +of Man and the higher Apes, published mostly in the <i>Revue d’Anthropologie</i>.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_701" href="#FNanchor_701" class="label">[701]</a> “On the Classification of the Varieties of the Human Species,” by W. H. +Flower, <i>Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland</i>, +May 1885.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_702" href="#FNanchor_702" class="label">[702]</a> The Malay of Blumenbach was a strange conglomeration of the then little +known Australian, Papuan, and true Malay types.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_703" href="#FNanchor_703" class="label">[703]</a> No<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_755"></a>[755]</span> one can have seen a group of Botocudos from Brazil or of natives of +Tierra del Fuego without being struck by their markedly Mongolian external +characteristics.</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="INDEX">INDEX</h2> + +</div> + +<ul> + +<li class="ifrst">Aard-Wolf, <a href="#Page_540">540</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Aard-Vark, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Absorbent system, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Acanthoglossus</i>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Acanthomys</i>, <a href="#Page_476">476</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Aceratherium</i>, <a href="#Page_411">411</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Achænodon</i>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Achyrodon</i>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Acrobates</i>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Acrotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_440">440</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Adapis</i>, <a href="#Page_697">697</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Adapisorex</i>, <a href="#Page_634">634</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Adapisoricidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_634">634</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Adapisoriculus</i>, <a href="#Page_634">634</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Addax</i>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Adenota</i>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Adinotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_440">440</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Ælurictis</i>, <a href="#Page_524">524</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Ælurodon</i>, <a href="#Page_562">562</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Æluroidea</i>, <a href="#Page_501">501</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Æluropus</i>, <a href="#Page_560">560</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Ælurus</i>, <a href="#Page_562">562</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Æpyceros</i>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Æpyprymnus</i>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Agabelus</i>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Agouti, <a href="#Page_488">488</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Agriochœrus</i>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Ai, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Air-sacs, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Alactaga</i>, <a href="#Page_480">480</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Albinism, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Alcelaphus</i>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Alces</i>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Allantois, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Allodon</i>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Allops</i>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Allotheria, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Alpaca, <a href="#Page_303">303</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Amblotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Amblypoda, <a href="#Page_436">436</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Amorphochilus</i>, <a href="#Page_666">666</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Amphictis</i>, <a href="#Page_539">539</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Amphicyon</i>, <a href="#Page_555">555</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Amphidozotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_634">634</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Amphilestes</i>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Amphiperatherium</i>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Amphisorex</i>, <a href="#Page_628">628</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Amphitherium</i>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Amphitragulus</i>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Amynodon</i>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Anaptomorphus</i>, <a href="#Page_697">697</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Anchilophus</i>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Anchippodus</i>, <a href="#Page_441">441</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Anchitherium</i>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Ancylopoda, <a href="#Page_413">413</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Ancylotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Anoa</i>, <a href="#Page_361">361</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Anomaluridæ</i>, <a href="#Page_449">449</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Anomalurus</i>, <a href="#Page_449">449</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Anoplotheriidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Anoplotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Anteater, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></li> +<li class="isub1">Scaly, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Antebrachium, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Antechinomys</i>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Antelopes, <a href="#Page_334">334</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Anthops</i>, <a href="#Page_657">657</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Anthorhina</i>, <a href="#Page_674">674</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Anthracotheriidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Anthropoidea, <a href="#Page_699">699</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Anthropopithecus</i>, <a href="#Page_736">736</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Antilocapra</i>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Antilocapridæ</i>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Antilope</i>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Antlers, <a href="#Page_308">308</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Antrozous</i>, <a href="#Page_661">661</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Anurosorex</i>, <a href="#Page_626">626</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Aoudad, <a href="#Page_356">356</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Apar, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Ape, <a href="#Page_699">699</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Aphelops</i>, <a href="#Page_411">411</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Aphelotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_697">697</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Archælurus</i>, <a href="#Page_524">524</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Archæoceti, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Archæomys</i>, <a href="#Page_484">484</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Archizonurus</i>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Arctictis</i>, <a href="#Page_534">534</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Arctocebus</i>, <a href="#Page_693">693</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Arctocephalus</i>, <a href="#Page_595">595</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Arctocyon</i>, <a href="#Page_609">609</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Arctocyonidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_609">609</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Arctogale</i>, <a href="#Page_533">533</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Arctoidea, <a href="#Page_556">556</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Arctomyinæ, <a href="#Page_454">454</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Arctomys</i>, <a href="#Page_454">454</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Arctonyx</i>, <a href="#Page_574">574</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Arctotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_561">561</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Argali, <a href="#Page_355">355</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Armadillo, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Artibeus</i>, <a href="#Page_676">676</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Artiodactyla, <a href="#Page_275">275</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Arvicola</i>, <a href="#Page_466">466</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Arvicolinæ, <a href="#Page_465">465</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Ass, <a href="#Page_383">383</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Atalapha</i>, <a href="#Page_663">663</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Ateles</i>, <a href="#Page_715">715</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Atherura</i>, <a href="#Page_487">487</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Auchenia</i>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Aulacodus</i>, <a href="#Page_483">483</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Aulaxinuus</i>, <a href="#Page_723">723</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Aurochs, <a href="#Page_367">367</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Australasian region, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Avahis</i>, <a href="#Page_686">686</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Axis, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Aye-aye, <a href="#Page_695">695</a></li> + +<li class="ifrst"><i>Babirusa</i>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Baboon, <a href="#Page_719">719</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Bachitherium</i>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Badger, <a href="#Page_575">575</a></li> +<li class="isub1">American, <a href="#Page_576">576</a></li> +<li class="isub1">Sand, <a href="#Page_575">575</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Balæna</i>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Balænidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Balænodon</i>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Balænoidea, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_756"></a>[756]</span><i>Balænoptera</i>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Balænotus</i>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Bandicoot, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Banteng, <a href="#Page_365">365</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Bassaricyon</i>, <a href="#Page_566">566</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Bassaris</i>, <a href="#Page_566">566</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Bats, <a href="#Page_641">641</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Bathyergus</i>, <a href="#Page_478">478</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Bdeogale</i>, <a href="#Page_537">537</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Bear, <a href="#Page_558">558</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Beaver, <a href="#Page_458">458</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Beisa, <a href="#Page_343">343</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Beluga, <a href="#Page_262">262</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Berardius</i>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Bettongia</i>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Bharal, <a href="#Page_356">356</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Bibos</i>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Bighorn, <a href="#Page_355">355</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Binturong, <a href="#Page_534">534</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Bison, <a href="#Page_362">362</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Black-Fish, <a href="#Page_269">269</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Bladder, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Blarina</i>, <a href="#Page_624">624</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Blastomeryx</i>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Blaubok, <a href="#Page_343">343</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Blessbok, <a href="#Page_335">335</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Blood, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Bolodon</i>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Boncia</i>, <a href="#Page_653">653</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Bontebok, <a href="#Page_334">334</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Bosch-Vark, <a href="#Page_286">286</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Boselaphus</i>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Bothriolabis</i>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Bottlenose, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Bovidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Brachium, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Brachyphylla</i>, <a href="#Page_675">675</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Brachytarsomys</i>, <a href="#Page_465">465</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Brachyurus</i>, <a href="#Page_712">712</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Bradypodidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Bradypus</i>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Brain, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Bramatherium</i>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Brocket, <a href="#Page_330">330</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Brontotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Bruta, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Bubalus</i>, <a href="#Page_361">361</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Budorcas</i>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Buffalo, <a href="#Page_361">361</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Bush-dog, <a href="#Page_553">553</a></li> + +<li class="ifrst">Cachalot, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Cadurcotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Cæcum, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Cælogenys</i>, <a href="#Page_489">489</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Cænopithecus</i>, <a href="#Page_696">696</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Cænotheriidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Cænotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Callinycteris</i>, <a href="#Page_655">655</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Callithrix</i>, <a href="#Page_713">713</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Callophoca</i>, <a href="#Page_606">606</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Calomys</i>, <a href="#Page_463">463</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Caloprymnus</i>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Calotragus</i>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Camel, <a href="#Page_296">296</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Camelidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Camelus</i>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Canidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_544">544</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Canis</i>, <a href="#Page_546">546</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Capra</i>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Capreolus</i>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Capromys</i>, <a href="#Page_482">482</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Capybara, <a href="#Page_491">491</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Caracal, <a href="#Page_518">518</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Cardiatherium</i>, <a href="#Page_491">491</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Cardiomys</i>, <a href="#Page_491">491</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Cariacus</i>, <a href="#Page_329">329</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Caribou, <a href="#Page_324">324</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Carnivora, <a href="#Page_496">496</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Carollia</i>, <a href="#Page_674">674</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Carponycteris</i>, <a href="#Page_654">654</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Carpus, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Carterodon</i>, <a href="#Page_484">484</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Castor</i>, <a href="#Page_457">457</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Castoridæ</i>, <a href="#Page_457">457</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Castoroididæ</i>, <a href="#Page_488">488</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Castoroides</i>, <a href="#Page_488">488</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Cat, <a href="#Page_517">517</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Cavia</i>, <a href="#Page_489">489</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Caviidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_489">489</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Cavy, <a href="#Page_490">490</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Cayluxotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_621">621</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Cebidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_711">711</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Cebochœrus</i>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Cebus</i>, <a href="#Page_717">717</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Cement, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Centetes</i>, <a href="#Page_637">637</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Centetidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_637">637</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Centurio</i>, <a href="#Page_676">676</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Cephalogale</i>, <a href="#Page_562">562</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Cephalophus</i>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Cephalorhynchus</i>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Cephalotes</i>, <a href="#Page_653">653</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Cercocebus</i>, <a href="#Page_723">723</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Cercoleptes</i>, <a href="#Page_567">567</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Cercomys</i>, <a href="#Page_483">483</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Cercopithecidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_718">718</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Cercopithecus</i>, <a href="#Page_724">724</a></li> + +<li class="indx" id="Cerivoula"><i>Cerivoula</i>, <a href="#Page_664">664</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Cervalces</i>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Cervicapra</i>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Cervidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Cervinæ</i>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Cervulus</i>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Cervus</i>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Cetacea</i>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Cetotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Chænohyus</i>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Chætomys</i>, <a href="#Page_486">486</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Chalcochloris</i>, <a href="#Page_639">639</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Chalicomys</i>, <a href="#Page_458">458</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Chalicotheriidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Chalicotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Chalinolobus</i>, <a href="#Page_662">662</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Chamois, <a href="#Page_349">349</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Champsodelphis</i>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Cheeta, <a href="#Page_523">523</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Chevrotain, <a href="#Page_305">305</a></li> +<li class="isub1">Water, <a href="#Page_306">306</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Chilonycteris</i>, <a href="#Page_672">672</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Chimarrogale</i>, <a href="#Page_626">626</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Chimpanzee, <a href="#Page_736">736</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Chinchilla</i>, <a href="#Page_487">487</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Chinchillidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_487">487</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Chirogaleus</i>, <a href="#Page_689">689</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Chiromeles</i>, <a href="#Page_669">669</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Chiromyidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_694">694</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Chiromys</i>, <a href="#Page_695">695</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Chironectes</i>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Chiroptera, <a href="#Page_641">641</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Chiru, <a href="#Page_341">341</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Chiruromys</i>, <a href="#Page_476">476</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Chlamydophorinæ</i>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Chlamydophorus</i>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Chlamydotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Chœronycteris</i>, <a href="#Page_674">674</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Chœropotamidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Chœropotamus</i>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Chœropsis</i>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Chœropus</i>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Cholœpus</i>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Chorion, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Chrysochloridæ</i>, <a href="#Page_638">638</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Chrysochloris</i>, <a href="#Page_639">639</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Chrysothrix</i>, <a href="#Page_714">714</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Cimoliomys</i>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Circulation, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Civet, <a href="#Page_526">526</a></li> +<li class="isub1">Palm, <a href="#Page_532">532</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Classification, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Claviglis</i>, <a href="#Page_460">460</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Claws, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Coati, <a href="#Page_566">566</a></li> + +<li class="indx" id="Cobus"><i>Cobus</i>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Cœlodon</i>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Cœlops</i>, <a href="#Page_658">658</a></li> + +<li class="indx" id="Cogia"><i>Cogia</i>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Coleüra</i>, <a href="#Page_667">667</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Colobus</i>, <a href="#Page_727">727</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Colour, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Comphotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_621">621</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Condylarthra, <a href="#Page_438">438</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Condylura</i>, <a href="#Page_630">630</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Conepatus</i>, <a href="#Page_574">574</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Connochætes</i>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Contracavia</i>, <a href="#Page_491">491</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Coryphodon</i>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Coryphodontidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_438">438</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Cotylophora, <a href="#Page_307">307</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Cotylopidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Cotylops</i>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Coypu, <a href="#Page_482">482</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Cranium, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_757"></a>[757]</span><i>Crassitherium</i>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Creodonta, <a href="#Page_606">606</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Cricetodipus</i>, <a href="#Page_479">479</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Cricetodon</i>, <a href="#Page_464">464</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Cricetomys</i>, <a href="#Page_477">477</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Cricetus</i>, <a href="#Page_463">463</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Criotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Crocidura</i>, <a href="#Page_626">626</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Crossarchus</i>, <a href="#Page_537">537</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Crossopus</i>, <a href="#Page_625">625</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Crusta Petrosa, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Cryptophractus</i>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Cryptopithecus</i>, <a href="#Page_699">699</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Cryptoprocta</i>, <a href="#Page_525">525</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Ctenacodon</i>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Ctenodactylus</i>, <a href="#Page_481">481</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Ctenomys</i>, <a href="#Page_482">482</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Cuniculus</i>, <a href="#Page_470">470</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Cuscus</i>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Cyclopidius</i>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Cycloturus</i>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Cynælurus</i>, <a href="#Page_523">523</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Cynictis</i>, <a href="#Page_537">537</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Cynocephalus</i>, <a href="#Page_719">719</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Cynodictis</i>, <a href="#Page_555">555</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Cynogale</i>, <a href="#Page_534">534</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Cynohyænodon</i>, <a href="#Page_608">608</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Cynoidea, <a href="#Page_544">544</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Cynomys</i>, <a href="#Page_455">455</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Cynonycteris</i>, <a href="#Page_652">652</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Cynopithecus</i>, <a href="#Page_722">722</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Cynopterus</i>, <a href="#Page_653">653</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Cyon</i>, <a href="#Page_551">551</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Cystophora</i>, <a href="#Page_605">605</a></li> + +<li class="ifrst"><i>Dacrytherium</i>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Dactylomys</i>, <a href="#Page_483">483</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Dactylopsila</i>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Damalis</i>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Daphœnus</i>, <a href="#Page_555">555</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Dasymys</i>, <a href="#Page_462">462</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Dasypodidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Dasypodinæ</i>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Dasypotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Dasyprocta</i>, <a href="#Page_488">488</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Dasyproctidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_488">488</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Dasypus</i>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Dasyuridæ</i>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Dasyurus</i>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Daubentonia</i>, <a href="#Page_695">695</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Deer, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Delphinapterus</i>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Delphinidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Delphinoidea, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Delphinus</i>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Dendrohyrax</i>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Dendrolagus</i>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Dendromys</i>, <a href="#Page_463">463</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Dental system, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Dentine, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Deomys</i>, <a href="#Page_473">473</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Dermoptera, <a href="#Page_614">614</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Desman, <a href="#Page_629">629</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Desmodus</i>, <a href="#Page_677">677</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Desmotylus</i>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Diaphragm, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Diceratherium</i>, <a href="#Page_411">411</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Dichobunus</i>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Dichodon</i>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Dichodontidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Diclidurus</i>, <a href="#Page_668">668</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Dicolpomys</i>, <a href="#Page_484">484</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Dicotyles</i>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Dicotylidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Didelphia, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Didelphyidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Didelphys</i>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Didymictis</i>, <a href="#Page_539">539</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Digestive system, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Dinictis</i>, <a href="#Page_523">523</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Dinoceras</i>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Dinocyon</i>, <a href="#Page_556">556</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Dinomyidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_489">489</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Dinomys</i>, <a href="#Page_489">489</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Dinotheriidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_435">435</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Dinotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_435">435</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Dinoziphius</i>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Diobroticus</i>, <a href="#Page_458">458</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Dioplotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Diphylla</i>, <a href="#Page_678">678</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Diphyodont, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Diplarthra, <a href="#Page_275">275</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Diplomesodon</i>, <a href="#Page_626">626</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Dipodidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_479">479</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Dipodomys</i>, <a href="#Page_479">479</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Dipodops</i>, <a href="#Page_479">479</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Diprotodon</i>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Diprotodontia, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Diprotodontidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Dipus</i>, <a href="#Page_480">480</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Distœchurus</i>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Dœdicurus</i>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Dog, <a href="#Page_551">551</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Dolichophyllum</i>, <a href="#Page_673">673</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Dolichopithecus</i>, <a href="#Page_728">728</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Dolichotis</i>, <a href="#Page_490">490</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Dolphin, <a href="#Page_270">270</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Dorcatherium</i>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Dorcopsis</i>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Dormouse, <a href="#Page_459">459</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Douroucouli, <a href="#Page_714">714</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Dremotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Dromatherium</i>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Dromicia</i>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Dryolestes</i>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Dryopithecus</i>, <a href="#Page_738">738</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Duck-bill, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Ductless glands, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Dugong, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Duikerbok, <a href="#Page_338">338</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Duplicidentata, <a href="#Page_491">491</a></li> + +<li class="ifrst"><i>Echidna</i>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Echidnidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Echinogale</i>, <a href="#Page_634">634</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Echinomys</i>, <a href="#Page_483">483</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Echinothrix</i>, <a href="#Page_477">477</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Edentata, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Effodientia, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Eland, <a href="#Page_348">348</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Elaphodus</i>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Elasmognathus</i>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Elasmotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_411">411</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Eleotragus</i>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Elephant, <a href="#Page_424">424</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Elephantidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_423">423</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Elephas</i>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Eleutherocercus</i>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Eliomys</i>, <a href="#Page_459">459</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Eliurus</i>, <a href="#Page_465">465</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Elk, <a href="#Page_326">326</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Ellobius</i>, <a href="#Page_472">472</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Elotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Emballonura</i>, <a href="#Page_667">667</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Emballonuridæ</i>, <a href="#Page_666">666</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Enamel, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Enhydra</i>, <a href="#Page_570">570</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Enhydriodon</i>, <a href="#Page_570">570</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Enhydrocyon</i>, <a href="#Page_562">562</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Entomophaga, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Eohippus</i>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Eomys</i>, <a href="#Page_464">464</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Eonycteris</i>, <a href="#Page_654">654</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Eotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Epiblema</i>, <a href="#Page_488">488</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Epiglottis, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Epihippus</i>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Epomophorus</i>, <a href="#Page_650">650</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Eporeodon</i>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Equidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Equus</i>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Erethizon</i>, <a href="#Page_484">484</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Ericulus</i>, <a href="#Page_638">638</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Erinaceidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_619">619</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Erinaceus</i>, <a href="#Page_620">620</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Eriodes</i>, <a href="#Page_715">715</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Ermine, <a href="#Page_590">590</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Eschatius</i>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Ethiopian region, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Eucastor</i>, <a href="#Page_458">458</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Eucetus</i>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Eupetaurus</i>, <a href="#Page_454">454</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Eupleres</i>, <a href="#Page_538">538</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Euryceros</i>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Euryurus</i>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Eusmilus</i>, <a href="#Page_524">524</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Eutatus</i>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Eutheria, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Evotomys</i>, <a href="#Page_467">467</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Eye, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> + +<li class="ifrst">Fallow Deer, <a href="#Page_323">323</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Felidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_502">502</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_758"></a>[758]</span><i>Felis</i>, <a href="#Page_502">502</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Felsinotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Fennec, <a href="#Page_553">553</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Fennecus</i>, <a href="#Page_553">553</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Feresia</i>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Fiber</i>, <a href="#Page_470">470</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Flying Fox, <a href="#Page_651">651</a></li> +<li class="isub1">Lemur, <a href="#Page_615">615</a></li> +<li class="isub1">Squirrel, <a href="#Page_453">453</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Foot, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Fossa</i>, <a href="#Page_527">527</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Foussa, <a href="#Page_525">525</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Fox, <a href="#Page_552">552</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Fox-Bat, <a href="#Page_651">651</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Furia</i>, <a href="#Page_666">666</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Furipterus</i>, <a href="#Page_666">666</a></li> + +<li class="ifrst"><i>Galago</i>, <a href="#Page_690">690</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Galeopithecidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_614">614</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Galeopithecus</i>, <a href="#Page_614">614</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Galera</i>, <a href="#Page_579">579</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Galictis</i>, <a href="#Page_579">579</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Galidea</i>, <a href="#Page_538">538</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Galidictis</i>, <a href="#Page_538">538</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Gaur, <a href="#Page_365">365</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Gayal, <a href="#Page_365">365</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Gazella</i>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Gelocus</i>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Gemsbok, <a href="#Page_343">343</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Genet, <a href="#Page_528">528</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Genetta</i>, <a href="#Page_528">528</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Geogale</i>, <a href="#Page_635">635</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Geographical distribution, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Geological distribution, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Geomyidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_478">478</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Geomys</i>, <a href="#Page_478">478</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Georychus</i>, <a href="#Page_478">478</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Gerbillinæ, <a href="#Page_462">462</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Gerbillus</i>, <a href="#Page_462">462</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Gibbon, <a href="#Page_728">728</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Giraffa</i>, <a href="#Page_331">331</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Giraffidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Glands, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Glauconycteris</i>, <a href="#Page_662">662</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Globicephalus</i>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Glossonycteris</i>, <a href="#Page_674">674</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Glossophaga, <a href="#Page_674">674</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Glutton, <a href="#Page_591">591</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Glyptodon</i>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Glyptodontidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Gnu, <a href="#Page_336">336</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Golunda</i>, <a href="#Page_476">476</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Goat, <a href="#Page_352">352</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Gopher, <a href="#Page_478">478</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Goral, <a href="#Page_351">351</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Gorilla</i>, <a href="#Page_734">734</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Grampus, <a href="#Page_267">267</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Grampus</i>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Graphiurus</i>, <a href="#Page_459">459</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Greenland Whale, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Grimmia</i>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Grisonia</i>, <a href="#Page_579">579</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Ground Sloth, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Gryphoca</i>, <a href="#Page_606">606</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Grypotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Guanaco, <a href="#Page_301">301</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Guib, <a href="#Page_347">347</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Guinea-Pig, <a href="#Page_490">490</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Gulo</i>, <a href="#Page_591">591</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Gymnobelideus</i>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Gymnoptychus</i>, <a href="#Page_454">454</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Gymnura</i>, <a href="#Page_619">619</a></li> + +<li class="ifrst"><i>Habrocoma</i>, <a href="#Page_482">482</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Habrothrix</i>, <a href="#Page_464">464</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Hair, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Halichœrus</i>, <a href="#Page_601">601</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Halicore</i>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Halicoridæ</i>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Halitheriidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Halitherium</i>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Hallomys</i>, <a href="#Page_465">465</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Hamster, <a href="#Page_463">463</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Hapale</i>, <a href="#Page_710">710</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Hapalemur</i>, <a href="#Page_689">689</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Hapalidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_709">709</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Hapalotis</i>, <a href="#Page_476">476</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Haploceros</i>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Haplodon</i>, <a href="#Page_457">457</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Haplodontidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_457">457</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Hare, <a href="#Page_492">492</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Harpyia</i>, <a href="#Page_653">653</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Harpyiocephalus</i>, <a href="#Page_663">663</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Harte-beest, <a href="#Page_335">335</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Hearing, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Heart, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Hedgehog, <a href="#Page_620">620</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Helicophora</i>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Helictis</i>, <a href="#Page_578">578</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Heliophobius</i>, <a href="#Page_478">478</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Helladotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Helogale</i>, <a href="#Page_537">537</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Hemiauchenia</i>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Hemicentetes</i>, <a href="#Page_637">637</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Hemiderma</i>, <a href="#Page_674">674</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Hemigale</i>, <a href="#Page_533">533</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Hemigalidea</i>, <a href="#Page_538">538</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Hemitragus</i>, <a href="#Page_354">354</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Herpestes</i>, <a href="#Page_535">535</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Herpetocetus</i>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Herpetotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Heterocephalus</i>, <a href="#Page_478">478</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Heterocetus</i>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Heterodont, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Heterohyrax</i>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Heteromys</i>, <a href="#Page_479">479</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Hipparion</i>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Hippodactylus</i>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Hippohyus</i>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Hippopotamidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Hippopotamus</i>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Hipposiderus</i>, <a href="#Page_657">657</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Hippotigris</i>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Hippotragus</i>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Holochilus</i>, <a href="#Page_464">464</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Holomeniscus</i>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Homalodontotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>, <a href="#Page_414">414</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Hominidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_740">740</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Homo</i>, <a href="#Page_739">739</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Homodont, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Hoofs, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Hoolock, <a href="#Page_729">729</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Hoplocetus</i>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Hoplophoneus</i>, <a href="#Page_524">524</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Hoplophorus</i>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Horns, <a href="#Page_310">310</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Horse, <a href="#Page_382">382</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Hunting dog, <a href="#Page_553">553</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Hyæna</i>, <a href="#Page_540">540</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Hyænarctus</i>, <a href="#Page_561">561</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Hyænidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_540">540</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Hyænocyon</i>, <a href="#Page_562">562</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Hyænodon</i>, <a href="#Page_608">608</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Hyænodontidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_608">608</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Hydaspitherium</i>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Hydrochœrus</i>, <a href="#Page_490">490</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Hydromyinæ, <a href="#Page_461">461</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Hydromys</i>, <a href="#Page_461">461</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Hydropotes</i>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Hylobates</i>, <a href="#Page_728">728</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Hylomys</i>, <a href="#Page_619">619</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Hyoid, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Hyomoschus</i>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Hyopotamus</i>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Hyopsodus</i>, <a href="#Page_698">698</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Hyotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Hypertragulus</i>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Hypogeomys</i>, <a href="#Page_465">465</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Hypsiprymnodon</i>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Hypsiprymnodontinæ</i>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Hypsiprymnopsis</i>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Hypsiprymnus</i>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Hyrachyus</i>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Hyracidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Hyracodon</i>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Hyracodontotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_439">439</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Hyracoidea, <a href="#Page_415">415</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Hyracotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Hyrax</i>, <a href="#Page_417">417</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Hystricidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_484">484</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Hystricomorpha, <a href="#Page_480">480</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Hystrix</i>, <a href="#Page_486">486</a></li> + +<li class="ifrst">Ibex, <a href="#Page_353">353</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Ichneumon, <a href="#Page_535">535</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Icticyon</i>, <a href="#Page_553">553</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Ictitherium</i>, <a href="#Page_539">539</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Ictonyx</i>, <a href="#Page_579">579</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Ictops</i>, <a href="#Page_640">640</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Indris</i>, <a href="#Page_684">684</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_759"></a>[759]</span><i>Indrodon</i>, <a href="#Page_699">699</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Inia</i>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Insectivora, <a href="#Page_610">610</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Intestine, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Inuus</i>, <a href="#Page_723">723</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Ischnoglossa</i>, <a href="#Page_674">674</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Isectolophus</i>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Issiodoromys</i>, <a href="#Page_491">491</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Ivory, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Ixacanthus</i>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li> + +<li class="ifrst">Jackal, <a href="#Page_550">550</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Jaguar, <a href="#Page_521">521</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Jerboa, <a href="#Page_480">480</a></li> + +<li class="ifrst">Kangaroo, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Kerivoula</i> = <a href="#Cerivoula"><i>Cerivoula</i></a></li> + +<li class="indx">Kidney, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Killer, <a href="#Page_267">267</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Kinkajou, <a href="#Page_567">567</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Koala, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Koalemus</i>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Kobus</i> = <a href="#Cobus"><i>Cobus</i></a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Kogia</i> = <a href="#Cogia"><i>Cogia</i></a></li> + +<li class="indx">Kudu, <a href="#Page_348">348</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Kusimanse, <a href="#Page_538">538</a></li> + +<li class="ifrst"><i>Lagenorhynchus</i>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Lagidium</i>, <a href="#Page_488">488</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Lagomyidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_491">491</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Lagomys</i>, <a href="#Page_491">491</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Lagorchestes</i>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Lagostomus</i>, <a href="#Page_488">488</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Lagostrophus</i>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Lagothrix</i>, <a href="#Page_716">716</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Lambdotheriidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Lambdotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Langur, <a href="#Page_727">727</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Lantanotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_618">618</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Larynx, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Lasionycteris</i>, <a href="#Page_661">661</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Latax</i>, <a href="#Page_570">570</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Leg, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Lemming, <a href="#Page_467">467</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Lemur</i>, <a href="#Page_687">687</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Lemuridæ</i>, <a href="#Page_683">683</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Lemuroidea, <a href="#Page_682">682</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Leopard, <a href="#Page_514">514</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Lepidolemur</i>, <a href="#Page_689">689</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Leporidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_492">492</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Leptictidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_640">640</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Leptictis</i>, <a href="#Page_640">640</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Leptobos</i>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Leptomeryx</i>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Leptonycteris</i>, <a href="#Page_674">674</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Leptonyx</i>, <a href="#Page_605">605</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Leptotragulus</i>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Lepus</i>, <a href="#Page_492">492</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Lestodon</i>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Leucocyon</i>, <a href="#Page_553">553</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Limnosyops</i>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Linsang, <a href="#Page_530">530</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Lion, <a href="#Page_504">504</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Liotomus</i>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Listriodon</i>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Liver, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Llama, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Lobodon</i>, <a href="#Page_605">605</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Loncheres</i>, <a href="#Page_483">483</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Lonchoglossa</i>, <a href="#Page_674">674</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Lonchorhina</i>, <a href="#Page_673">673</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Lophiodon</i>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Lophiodontidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Lophiomeryx</i>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Lophiomyidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_460">460</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Lophiomys</i>, <a href="#Page_460">460</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Lophiotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Lophocetus</i>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Lophostoma</i>, <a href="#Page_673">673</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Loricata, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Loris</i>, <a href="#Page_692">692</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Loxolophodon</i>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Lungs, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Lutra</i>, <a href="#Page_567">567</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Lycalopex</i>, <a href="#Page_552">552</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Lycaon</i>, <a href="#Page_553">553</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Lymphatics, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Lyncodon</i>, <a href="#Page_590">590</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Lynx, <a href="#Page_518">518</a></li> + +<li class="ifrst"><i>Macacus</i>, <a href="#Page_722">722</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Machærodus</i>, <a href="#Page_524">524</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Macrauchenia</i>, <a href="#Page_414">414</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Macraucheniidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_414">414</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Macroglossus</i>, <a href="#Page_654">654</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Macrophyllum</i>, <a href="#Page_673">673</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Macropodidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Macropodinæ</i>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Macropus</i>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Macrorhinus</i>, <a href="#Page_606">606</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Macroscelides</i>, <a href="#Page_618">618</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Macroscelididæ</i>, <a href="#Page_618">618</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Macrotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Macrotus</i>, <a href="#Page_673">673</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Malacomys</i>, <a href="#Page_462">462</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Mammary glands, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Mammoth, <a href="#Page_428">428</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Man, <a href="#Page_739">739</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Manatee, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Manatidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Manatus</i>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Mandrill, <a href="#Page_719">719</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Manidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Manis</i>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Manus, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Maral, <a href="#Page_322">322</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Markhoor, <a href="#Page_354">354</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Marmoset, <a href="#Page_709">709</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Marmot, <a href="#Page_454">454</a></li> +<li class="isub1">Prairie, <a href="#Page_456">456</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Marsupialia, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Marten, <a href="#Page_580">580</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Martes</i>, <a href="#Page_580">580</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Mastacomys</i>, <a href="#Page_476">476</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Mastodon</i>, <a href="#Page_431">431</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Megachiroptera, <a href="#Page_650">650</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Megaderma</i>, <a href="#Page_658">658</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Megaloglossus</i>, <a href="#Page_655">655</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Megamys</i>, <a href="#Page_488">488</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Megaptera</i>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Megatheriidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Megatherium</i>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Melanism, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Meles</i>, <a href="#Page_575">575</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Mellivora</i>, <a href="#Page_576">576</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Melonycteris</i>, <a href="#Page_654">654</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Melursus</i>, <a href="#Page_560">560</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Menacodon</i>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Meniscoëssus</i>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Meniscomys</i>, <a href="#Page_454">454</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Meniscotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_439">439</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Menodus</i>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Mephitis</i>, <a href="#Page_572">572</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Merychippus</i>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Merycochœrus</i>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Mesodectes</i>, <a href="#Page_640">640</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Mesohippus</i>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Mesomys</i>, <a href="#Page_483">483</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Mesonychidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_609">609</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Mesonyx</i>, <a href="#Page_609">609</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Mesopithecus</i>, <a href="#Page_727">727</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Mesoplodon</i>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Mesotaria</i>, <a href="#Page_606">606</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Mesotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_440">440</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Mesozoic mammals, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Metacarpus, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Metamynodon</i>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Metatheria, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Metriotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Miacidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_539">539</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Miacis</i>, <a href="#Page_539">539</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Microcavia</i>, <a href="#Page_491">491</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Microcebus</i>, <a href="#Page_690">690</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Microchœrus</i>, <a href="#Page_696">696</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Microchiroptera</i>, <a href="#Page_655">655</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Microconodon, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Microgale</i>, <a href="#Page_638">638</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Microlestes</i>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Micromeryx</i>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Micronycteris</i>, <a href="#Page_673">673</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Microsorex</i>, <a href="#Page_624">624</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Microsyops</i>, <a href="#Page_698">698</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Microtus</i>, <a href="#Page_466">466</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Midas</i>, <a href="#Page_710">710</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Milk-teeth, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Mimon</i>, <a href="#Page_674">674</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Miniopterus</i>, <a href="#Page_664">664</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Mink, <a href="#Page_586">586</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Miohippus</i>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Miosiren</i>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Mixodectes</i>, <a href="#Page_699">699</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Mole, <a href="#Page_630">630</a></li> +<li class="isub1">Golden, <a href="#Page_639">639</a></li> +<li class="isub1"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_760"></a>[760]</span>Star-nosed, <a href="#Page_630">630</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Mole-Rat, <a href="#Page_477">477</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Molossus</i>, <a href="#Page_670">670</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Monachus</i>, <a href="#Page_604">604</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Monatherium</i>, <a href="#Page_606">606</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Monkey, <a href="#Page_699">699</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Monodelphia, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Monodon</i>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Monophylla</i>, <a href="#Page_674">674</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Monophyodont, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Moose, <a href="#Page_326">326</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Morenia</i>, <a href="#Page_484">484</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Mormops</i>, <a href="#Page_672">672</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Moropus</i>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Morotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Morse, <a href="#Page_597">597</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Moschinæ</i>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Moschus</i>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Moufflon, <a href="#Page_356">356</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Mouse, <a href="#Page_475">475</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Mouth, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Mulita, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Multituberculata, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Mungoose, <a href="#Page_535">535</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Muntjac, <a href="#Page_316">316</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Muridæ</i>, <a href="#Page_461">461</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Mus</i>, <a href="#Page_473">473</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Muscardinus</i>, <a href="#Page_460">460</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Musk Deer, <a href="#Page_314">314</a></li> +<li class="isub1">Ox, <a href="#Page_358">358</a></li> +<li class="isub1">Rat, <a href="#Page_470">470</a>, <a href="#Page_626">626</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Musquash, <a href="#Page_470">470</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Mustela</i>, <a href="#Page_579">579</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Mustelidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_567">567</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Mycetes</i>, <a href="#Page_711">711</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Mydaus</i>, <a href="#Page_575">575</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Mylodon</i>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Myodes</i>, <a href="#Page_467">467</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Myogale</i>, <a href="#Page_628">628</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Myolagus</i>, <a href="#Page_492">492</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Myomorpha, <a href="#Page_459">459</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Myopotamus</i>, <a href="#Page_482">482</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Myoscalops</i>, <a href="#Page_478">478</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Myosorex</i>, <a href="#Page_625">625</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Myoxidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_459">459</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Myoxus</i>, <a href="#Page_459">459</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Myrmecobiinæ</i>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Myrmecobius</i>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Myrmecophaga</i>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Myrmecophagidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Mysarachne</i>, <a href="#Page_634">634</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Mystacina</i>, <a href="#Page_671">671</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Mystacoceti, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Mystacops</i>, <a href="#Page_671">671</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Mystromys</i>, <a href="#Page_462">462</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Myxocebus</i>, <a href="#Page_689">689</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Myxopoda</i>, <a href="#Page_665">665</a></li> + +<li class="ifrst">Nails, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Nakong, <a href="#Page_346">346</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Nandinia</i>, <a href="#Page_534">534</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Nanotragus</i>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Nares, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Narwhal, <a href="#Page_261">261</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Nasalis</i>, <a href="#Page_725">725</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Nasua</i>, <a href="#Page_566">566</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Natalus</i>, <a href="#Page_664">664</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Nearctic region, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Necrogymnurus</i>, <a href="#Page_621">621</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Necrolemur</i>, <a href="#Page_696">696</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Necromantis</i>, <a href="#Page_679">679</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Nectogale</i>, <a href="#Page_627">627</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Nectomys</i>, <a href="#Page_464">464</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Nemorhædus</i>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Neobalæna</i>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Neofiber</i>, <a href="#Page_472">472</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Neomeris</i>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Neoplagiaulax</i>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Neosorex</i>, <a href="#Page_624">624</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Neotoma</i>, <a href="#Page_464">464</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Neotragus</i>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Neotropical region, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Nerves, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Nesocerodon</i>, <a href="#Page_491">491</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Nesocia</i>, <a href="#Page_475">475</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Nesodon</i>, <a href="#Page_439">439</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Nesomys</i>, <a href="#Page_465">465</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Nesonycteris</i>, <a href="#Page_655">655</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Nesotragus</i>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Neurotrichus</i>, <a href="#Page_629">629</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Nilghai, <a href="#Page_345">345</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Nimravus</i>, <a href="#Page_524">524</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Noctilio</i>, <a href="#Page_668">668</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Nostrils, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Notharctus</i>, <a href="#Page_698">698</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Nothropus</i>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Nothrotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Notiosorex</i>, <a href="#Page_624">624</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Notopteris</i>, <a href="#Page_654">654</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Nototheriidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Nototherium</i>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Nyctereutes</i>, <a href="#Page_552">552</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Nycteridæ</i>, <a href="#Page_658">658</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Nycteris</i>, <a href="#Page_659">659</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Nycticebus</i>, <a href="#Page_691">691</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Nycticejus</i>, <a href="#Page_662">662</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Nyctilestes</i>, <a href="#Page_665">665</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Nyctinomus</i>, <a href="#Page_670">670</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Nyctipithecus</i>, <a href="#Page_714">714</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Nyctitherium</i>, <a href="#Page_665">665</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Nyctophilus</i>, <a href="#Page_661">661</a></li> + +<li class="ifrst">Ocelot, <a href="#Page_521">521</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Ochetodon</i>, <a href="#Page_464">464</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Octodon</i>, <a href="#Page_481">481</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Octodontidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_480">480</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Odobænus</i>, <a href="#Page_597">597</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Odontoceti, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Ogmorhinus</i>, <a href="#Page_605">605</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Ommatophoca</i>, <a href="#Page_605">605</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Onotragus</i>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Onychogale</i>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Onychomys</i>, <a href="#Page_463">463</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Opossum, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Orang, <a href="#Page_731">731</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Orca</i>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Orcella</i>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Oreas</i>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Oreodon</i>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Oreopithecus</i>, <a href="#Page_728">728</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Oreotragus</i>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Oriental region, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Ornithodelphia, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Ornithorhynchidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Ornithorhynchus</i>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Orohippus</i>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Orotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Orthaspidotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_634">634</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Orthomys</i>, <a href="#Page_484">484</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Orycteropodidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Orycteropus</i>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Oryx</i>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Oryzomys</i>, <a href="#Page_463">463</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Oryzorictes</i>, <a href="#Page_638">638</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Otaria</i>, <a href="#Page_593">593</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Otariidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_593">593</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Otocyon</i>, <a href="#Page_554">554</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Otomys</i>, <a href="#Page_462">462</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Otonycteris</i>, <a href="#Page_661">661</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Otopterus</i>, <a href="#Page_673">673</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Otter, <a href="#Page_568">568</a></li> +<li class="isub1">Sea, <a href="#Page_571">571</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Ounce, <a href="#Page_517">517</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Ovaries, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Ovibos</i>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Oviduct, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Ovis</i>, <a href="#Page_354">354</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Oxen, <a href="#Page_360">360</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Oxhyæna</i>, <a href="#Page_608">608</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Oxymycterus</i>, <a href="#Page_464">464</a></li> + +<li class="ifrst">Paca, <a href="#Page_489">489</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Pachyacanthus</i>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Pachydermata, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Pachynolophus</i>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Pachyuromys</i>, <a href="#Page_462">462</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Paciculus</i>, <a href="#Page_465">465</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Palæarctic region, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Palæocastor</i>, <a href="#Page_458">458</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Palæocetus</i>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Palæoerinaceus</i>, <a href="#Page_621">621</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Palæolemur</i>, <a href="#Page_697">697</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Palæomanis</i>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Palæomeryx</i>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Palæonycteris</i>, <a href="#Page_657">657</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Palæophoca</i>, <a href="#Page_606">606</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Palæopontoporia</i>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Palæoprionodon</i>, <a href="#Page_539">539</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Palæoreas</i>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Palæoryx</i>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Palæospalax</i>, <a href="#Page_629">629</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Palæosyops</i>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Palæotapirus</i>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_761"></a>[761]</span><i>Palæotheriidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Palæotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Palæotragoceros</i>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Palauchenia</i>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Palhyæna</i>, <a href="#Page_544">544</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Palla, <a href="#Page_341">341</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Palm-Civet, <a href="#Page_532">532</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Paloplotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Palorchestes</i>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Panda, <a href="#Page_562">562</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Pangolin, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Panochthus</i>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Panther, <a href="#Page_514">514</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Pantholops</i>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Paradoxurus</i>, <a href="#Page_532">532</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Paramys</i>, <a href="#Page_457">457</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Parasorex</i>, <a href="#Page_618">618</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Peccary, <a href="#Page_289">289</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Pecora, <a href="#Page_307">307</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Pectinator</i>, <a href="#Page_481">481</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Pedetes</i>, <a href="#Page_480">480</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Pediotragus</i>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Pelea</i>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Pellegrinia</i>, <a href="#Page_484">484</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Pelvis, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Pelycodus</i>, <a href="#Page_699">699</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Peragale</i>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Peralestes</i>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Peramelidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Perameles</i>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Peratherium</i>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Periptychus</i>, <a href="#Page_439">439</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Perissodactyla, <a href="#Page_368">368</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Perodicticus</i>, <a href="#Page_693">693</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Perognathus</i>, <a href="#Page_479">479</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Pes, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Petauroides</i>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Petaurus</i>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Petrodromus</i>, <a href="#Page_618">618</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Petrogale</i>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Petromys</i>, <a href="#Page_482">482</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Phacochœrus</i>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Phalanger</i>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Phalangeridæ</i>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Phalangerinæ</i>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Phalanges, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Phalangista</i>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Phascolarctinæ</i>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Phascolarctus</i>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Phascologale</i>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Phascolomyidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Phascolomys</i>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Phascolonus</i>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Phascolotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Phenacodus</i>, <a href="#Page_439">439</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Phenacomys</i>, <a href="#Page_466">466</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Phlœomyinæ, <a href="#Page_462">462</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Phlœomys</i>, <a href="#Page_462">462</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Phloramys</i>, <a href="#Page_484">484</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Phoca</i>, <a href="#Page_601">601</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Phocæna</i>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Phocanella</i>, <a href="#Page_606">606</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Phocidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_600">600</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Phylloderma</i>, <a href="#Page_674">674</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Phyllonycteris</i>, <a href="#Page_674">674</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Phyllophaga, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Phyllorhina</i>, <a href="#Page_657">657</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Phyllostoma</i>, <a href="#Page_674">674</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Phyllostomatidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_672">672</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Physeter</i>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Physeteridæ</i>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Physeterinæ</i>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Physeterula</i>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Physetodon</i>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Physodon</i>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Pica, <a href="#Page_492">492</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Pichiciago, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Pig, <a href="#Page_282">282</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Pilosa, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Pinnipedia, <a href="#Page_592">592</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Pithanotomys</i>, <a href="#Page_484">484</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Pithechirus</i>, <a href="#Page_477">477</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Pithecia</i>, <a href="#Page_712">712</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Placenta, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Plagiaulacidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Plagiaulax</i>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Plagiodon</i>, <a href="#Page_483">483</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Platacanthomyinæ</i>, <a href="#Page_461">461</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Platacanthomys</i>, <a href="#Page_462">462</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Platanista</i>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Platanistidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Platycercomys</i>, <a href="#Page_480">480</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Platygonus</i>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Platyonyx</i>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Platyphoca</i>, <a href="#Page_606">606</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Platypus</i>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Plecotus</i>, <a href="#Page_660">660</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Plesiadapis</i>, <a href="#Page_698">698</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Plesiarctomys</i>, <a href="#Page_457">457</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Plesictis</i>, <a href="#Page_590">590</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Plesiocetus</i>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Plesiometacarpalia, <a href="#Page_316">316</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Plesiosorex</i>, <a href="#Page_634">634</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Plesispermophilus</i>, <a href="#Page_457">457</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Pleuraspidotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_634">634</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Pleurolichus</i>, <a href="#Page_479">479</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Plexochœrus</i>, <a href="#Page_491">491</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Pliauchenia</i>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Pliolagostomus</i>, <a href="#Page_488">488</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Pliolophus</i>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Pliopithecus</i>, <a href="#Page_731">731</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Poëbrotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Pœcilogale</i>, <a href="#Page_590">590</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Pœcilophoca</i>, <a href="#Page_605">605</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Poëphagus</i>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Pogonodon</i>, <a href="#Page_524">524</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Poiana</i>, <a href="#Page_531">531</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Polecat, <a href="#Page_587">587</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Polymastodon</i>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Polyprotodontia, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Pontistes</i>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Pontoporia</i>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Porcupine, <a href="#Page_486">486</a></li> +<li class="isub1">Tree, <a href="#Page_485">485</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Porpoise, <a href="#Page_263">263</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Potamarchus</i>, <a href="#Page_488">488</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Potamochœrus</i>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Potamogale</i>, <a href="#Page_635">635</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Potamogalidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_634">634</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Potamophilus</i>, <a href="#Page_534">534</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Potamotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_570">570</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Potoroinæ</i>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Potoroo, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Potorous</i>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Pouched-Rat, <a href="#Page_478">478</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Praopus</i>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Prehallux, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Prepollex, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Primates, <a href="#Page_680">680</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Priodon</i>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Prionodon</i>, <a href="#Page_530">530</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Priscodelphinus</i>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Proælurus</i>, <a href="#Page_523">523</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Proboscidea, <a href="#Page_418">418</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Probubalus</i>, <a href="#Page_361">361</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Procamelus</i>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Procapra</i>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Procavia</i>, <a href="#Page_417">417</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Procoptodon</i>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Procyon</i>, <a href="#Page_564">564</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Procyonidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_562">562</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Prodelphinus</i>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Prodremotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Proechidna</i>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Prohalicore</i>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Prohyæna</i>, <a href="#Page_562">562</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Prolagostomus</i>, <a href="#Page_488">488</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Promegatherium</i>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Promylodon</i>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Prong-buck, <a href="#Page_333">333</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Prophoca</i>, <a href="#Page_606">606</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Propithecus</i>, <a href="#Page_684">684</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Prorastomatidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Prorastomus</i>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Protechinomys</i>, <a href="#Page_484">484</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Proteleidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_539">539</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Proteles</i>, <a href="#Page_539">539</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Proterotheriidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_414">414</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Proterotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_414">414</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Protoadapis</i>, <a href="#Page_698">698</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Protohippus</i>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Protolabis</i>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Protoreodon</i>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Prototheria, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Protoxodon</i>, <a href="#Page_440">440</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Protragelaphus</i>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Protragoceros</i>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Proviverra</i>, <a href="#Page_608">608</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Proviverridæ</i>, <a href="#Page_608">608</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Prox</i>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Pseudælurus</i>, <a href="#Page_523">523</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Pseudalopex</i>, <a href="#Page_552">552</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Pseudochirus</i>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_762"></a>[762]</span><i>Pseudois</i>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Pseudorca</i>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Pseudorhinolophus</i>, <a href="#Page_657">657</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Pseudosciurus</i>, <a href="#Page_454">454</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Psittacotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_442">442</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Pteralopex</i>, <a href="#Page_654">654</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Pterodon</i>, <a href="#Page_608">608</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Pteromys</i>, <a href="#Page_453">453</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Pteropodidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_650">650</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Pteropus</i>, <a href="#Page_651">651</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Ptilocercus</i>, <a href="#Page_618">618</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Ptilodus</i>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Pudua</i>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Puma, <a href="#Page_520">520</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Putorius</i>, <a href="#Page_585">585</a></li> + +<li class="ifrst">Quagga, <a href="#Page_384">384</a></li> + +<li class="ifrst">Rabbit, <a href="#Page_494">494</a></li> +<li class="isub1">Bandicoot, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Raccoon, <a href="#Page_565">565</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Rangifer</i>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Rasse, <a href="#Page_527">527</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Rat, <a href="#Page_474">474</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Ratel, <a href="#Page_576">576</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Rat-Kangaroo, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Red Deer, <a href="#Page_322">322</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Rehbok, <a href="#Page_339">339</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Reitbok, <a href="#Page_349">349</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Reproductive organs, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Respiratory system, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Rhabdosteus</i>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Rhachianectes</i>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Rhinoceros</i>, <a href="#Page_402">402</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Rhinocerotidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_402">402</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Rhinogale</i>, <a href="#Page_537">537</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Rhinolophidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_656">656</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Rhinolophus</i>, <a href="#Page_656">656</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Rhinonycteris</i>, <a href="#Page_658">658</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Rhinophylla</i>, <a href="#Page_674">674</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Rhinopithecus</i>, <a href="#Page_726">726</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Rhinopoma</i>, <a href="#Page_669">669</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Rhipidomys</i>, <a href="#Page_463">463</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Rhithrodon</i>, <a href="#Page_464">464</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Rhithrosciurus</i>, <a href="#Page_452">452</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Rhizomys</i>, <a href="#Page_477">477</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Rhizoprion</i>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Rhogeëssa</i>, <a href="#Page_661">661</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Rhynchocyon</i>, <a href="#Page_618">618</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Rhynchonycteris</i>, <a href="#Page_667">667</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Rhytina</i>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Rhytinidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Ribs, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li> + +<li class="indx">River-Hog, <a href="#Page_286">286</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Rock-Wallaby, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Rodentia, <a href="#Page_443">443</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Roe, <a href="#Page_327">327</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Rorqual, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Rosmarus</i>, <a href="#Page_597">597</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Ruminants, <a href="#Page_307">307</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Rupicapra</i>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Rytiodus</i>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li> + +<li class="ifrst">Sable, <a href="#Page_584">584</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Saccomys</i>, <a href="#Page_479">479</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Saccopteryx</i>, <a href="#Page_667">667</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Saccostomus</i>, <a href="#Page_477">477</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Sacrum, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Saiga</i>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Saki, <a href="#Page_712">712</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Salivary glands, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Sambur, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Samotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Sapajou, <a href="#Page_717">717</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Sarcophilus</i>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Scaldicetus</i>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Scales, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Scalops</i>, <a href="#Page_630">630</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Scapanus</i>, <a href="#Page_630">630</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Scapteromys</i>, <a href="#Page_464">464</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Scaptochirus</i>, <a href="#Page_633">633</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Scaptonyx</i>, <a href="#Page_630">630</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Scelidotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Schizodelphis</i>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Schizodon</i>, <a href="#Page_482">482</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Schizostoma</i>, <a href="#Page_673">673</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Sciuravus</i>, <a href="#Page_457">457</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Sciuridæ</i>, <a href="#Page_450">450</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Sciurodon</i>, <a href="#Page_454">454</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Sciuroides</i>, <a href="#Page_454">454</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Sciuromorpha, <a href="#Page_448">448</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Sciuropterus</i>, <a href="#Page_453">453</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Sciurus</i>, <a href="#Page_450">450</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Scopophorus</i>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Scotophilus</i>, <a href="#Page_662">662</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Scotozous</i>, <a href="#Page_661">661</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Sea-Leopard, <a href="#Page_605">605</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Sea-otter, <a href="#Page_571">571</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Seal, <a href="#Page_600">600</a></li> +<li class="isub1">Eared, <a href="#Page_594">594</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Selenacodon</i>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Semnopithecus</i>, <a href="#Page_726">726</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Sense organs, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Serow, <a href="#Page_351">351</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Sheep, <a href="#Page_354">354</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Shoulder-girdle, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Shrew, <a href="#Page_622">622</a></li> +<li class="isub1">Tree, <a href="#Page_617">617</a></li> +<li class="isub1">Water, <a href="#Page_625">625</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Siamang, <a href="#Page_728">728</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Siamanga</i>, <a href="#Page_728">728</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Sight, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Sigmodon</i>, <a href="#Page_464">464</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Simia</i>, <a href="#Page_731">731</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Simiidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_728">728</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Simocyon</i>, <a href="#Page_562">562</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Simplicidentata, <a href="#Page_448">448</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Siphneus</i>, <a href="#Page_472">472</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Sirenia, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Sivatherium</i>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Skeleton, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Skull, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Skunk, <a href="#Page_572">572</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Sloth, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Sloth, Ground, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Smell, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Sminthopsis</i>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Sminthus</i>, <a href="#Page_479">479</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Solenodon</i>, <a href="#Page_636">636</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Solenodontidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_635">635</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Sorex</i>, <a href="#Page_622">622</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Soricidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_621">621</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Soriculus</i>, <a href="#Page_624">624</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Sotalia</i>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Souslik, <a href="#Page_456">456</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Spalacidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_477">477</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Spalacopus</i>, <a href="#Page_482">482</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Spalacotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Spalax</i>, <a href="#Page_477">477</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Spaniotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Spermophilus</i>, <a href="#Page_456">456</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Sperm Whale, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Spider Monkey, <a href="#Page_715">715</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Spilogale</i>, <a href="#Page_574">574</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Spiny Anteater, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Spleen, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Squalodon</i>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Squalodontidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Squamata, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Squirrel, <a href="#Page_451">451</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Stegodon</i>, <a href="#Page_427">427</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Steneofiber</i>, <a href="#Page_458">458</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Steno</i>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Stenoderma</i>, <a href="#Page_676">676</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Stenoplesictis</i>, <a href="#Page_539">539</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Stenops</i>, <a href="#Page_691">691</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Stenorhynchus</i>, <a href="#Page_605">605</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Stereognathus</i>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Sternum, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Sthenurus</i>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Stoat, <a href="#Page_590">590</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Stomach, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Strepsiceros</i>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Sturnira</i>, <a href="#Page_676">676</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Stylacodon</i>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Stylinodon</i>, <a href="#Page_442">442</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Styloceros</i>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Stylodon</i>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Stypolophus</i>, <a href="#Page_608">608</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Subungulata, <a href="#Page_414">414</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Suidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Suina, <a href="#Page_278">278</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Suricata</i>, <a href="#Page_538">538</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Sus</i>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Syllophodus</i>, <a href="#Page_484">484</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Symborodon</i>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Synaptomys</i>, <a href="#Page_467">467</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Synetheres</i>, <a href="#Page_485">485</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Synotus</i>, <a href="#Page_661">661</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Systemodon</i>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a></li> + +<li class="ifrst">Takin, <a href="#Page_351">351</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Talpa</i>, <a href="#Page_630">630</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_763"></a>[763]</span><i>Talpidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_628">628</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Tamandua</i>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Tamias</i>, <a href="#Page_452">452</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Taphozous</i>, <a href="#Page_667">667</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Tapir, <a href="#Page_371">371</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Tapiridæ</i>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Tapirulus</i>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Tapirus</i>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Tardigrada, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Tarsiidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_694">694</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Tarsipedinæ</i>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Tarsipes</i>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Tarsius</i>, <a href="#Page_694">694</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Taste, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Tatouay, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Tatusia</i>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Tatusiinæ</i>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Taxidea</i>, <a href="#Page_576">576</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Tayra, <a href="#Page_579">579</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Teetee, <a href="#Page_713">713</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Teeth, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Tegument, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Teledu, <a href="#Page_575">575</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Telemetacarpalia, <a href="#Page_323">323</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Temnocyon</i>, <a href="#Page_555">555</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Tenrec, <a href="#Page_637">637</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Terphone</i>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Tertiary mammals, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Tetraceros</i>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Tetraconodon</i>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Tetracus</i>, <a href="#Page_634">634</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Tetrastylus</i>, <a href="#Page_488">488</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Theridomyidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_484">484</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Theridomys</i>, <a href="#Page_484">484</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Theropithecus</i>, <a href="#Page_722">722</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Thigh, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Thomomys</i>, <a href="#Page_478">478</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Thoracophorus</i>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Thylacine, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Thylacinus</i>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Thylacoleo</i>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Thymus gland, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Thyroid body, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Thyroptera</i>, <a href="#Page_665">665</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Tiger, <a href="#Page_511">511</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Tillodontia, <a href="#Page_441">441</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Tillotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_441">441</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Tinoceras</i>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Titanomys</i>, <a href="#Page_492">492</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Titanotheriidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Titanotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Tolypeutes</i>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Tomitherium</i>, <a href="#Page_698">698</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Toxodon</i>, <a href="#Page_439">439</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Toxodontia, <a href="#Page_439">439</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Touch, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Trachea, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Trachyops</i>, <a href="#Page_674">674</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Trachytherium</i>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Tragelaphus</i>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Tragoceros</i>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Tragops</i>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Tragulidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Tragulina, <a href="#Page_305">305</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Tragulus</i>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Trechomys</i>, <a href="#Page_484">484</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Triacanthodon</i>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Triænops</i>, <a href="#Page_658">658</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Trichechidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_596">596</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Trichechus</i>, <a href="#Page_597">597</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Trichosurus</i>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Trichys</i>, <a href="#Page_487">487</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Triclis</i>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Triconodon</i>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Trilodon</i>, <a href="#Page_484">484</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Trituberculism, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Tritylodon</i>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Trochictis</i>, <a href="#Page_570">570</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Troglodytes</i>, <a href="#Page_736">736</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Trogontherium</i>, <a href="#Page_458">458</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Trygenycteris</i>, <a href="#Page_655">655</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Tubulidentata, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Tupaia</i>, <a href="#Page_617">617</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Tupaiidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_617">617</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Tursiops</i>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Tylopoda, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Tylostoma</i>, <a href="#Page_674">674</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Typhlomys</i>, <a href="#Page_477">477</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Typotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_440">440</a></li> + +<li class="ifrst"><i>Uacaria</i>, <a href="#Page_712">712</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Uakari, <a href="#Page_712">712</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Uintatheriidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Uintatherium</i>, <a href="#Page_436">436</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Umbilical vesicle, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Unau, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Ungulata, <a href="#Page_273">273</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Urinary organs, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Urocyon</i>, <a href="#Page_553">553</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Uromys</i>, <a href="#Page_476">476</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Uropsilus</i>, <a href="#Page_629">629</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Urotrichus</i>, <a href="#Page_629">629</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Ursidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_557">557</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Ursus</i>, <a href="#Page_557">557</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Urus, <a href="#Page_367">367</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Uses of mammals, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Uterus, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> + +<li class="ifrst">Vampyre, <a href="#Page_676">676</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Vampyrus</i>, <a href="#Page_673">673</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Vertebræ, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Vesperimus</i>, <a href="#Page_463">463</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Vespertiliavus</i>, <a href="#Page_666">666</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Vespertilio</i>, <a href="#Page_663">663</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Vespertilionidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_660">660</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Vesperugo</i>, <a href="#Page_661">661</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Vicugna, <a href="#Page_300">300</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Viscacha, <a href="#Page_488">488</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Vishnutherium</i>, <a href="#Page_332">332</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Viverra</i>, <a href="#Page_526">526</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Viverricula</i>, <a href="#Page_527">527</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Viverridæ</i>, <a href="#Page_525">525</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Vole, <a href="#Page_465">465</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Vulpes</i>, <a href="#Page_552">552</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Vulpine Phalanger, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li> + +<li class="ifrst">Wallaby, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Walrus, <a href="#Page_597">597</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Wapiti, <a href="#Page_322">322</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Wart-Hog, <a href="#Page_288">288</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Weasel, <a href="#Page_589">589</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Whale, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></li> + +<li class="indx">White Whale, <a href="#Page_262">262</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Wolf, <a href="#Page_548">548</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Wolverene, <a href="#Page_591">591</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Wombat, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></li> + +<li class="ifrst"><i>Xantharpyia</i>, <a href="#Page_652">652</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Xenurus</i>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Xeromys</i>, <a href="#Page_461">461</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Xerus</i>, <a href="#Page_452">452</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Xiphodon</i>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li> + +<li class="ifrst">Yak, <a href="#Page_364">364</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Yapock, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Yolk-sac, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li> + +<li class="ifrst"><i>Zapus</i>, <a href="#Page_480">480</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Zebra, <a href="#Page_385">385</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Zeuglodon</i>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Zeuglodontidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Ziphiinæ</i>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Ziphius</i>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Zoological regions, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li> + +</ul> + +<p class="titlepage">THE END</p> + +<p class="center smaller"><i>Printed by <span class="smcap">R. & R. Clark</span>, Edinburgh</i></p> + +<div style='text-align:center'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 75947 ***</div> +</body> +</html> + |